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Home , Islam in Europe, Mohammed Bouyeri, Muslims (ethnic group)

US – ANALYSIS SERIES September 2008

Muslims in Europe: A short introduction Justin Vaisse

This paper aims to briefly present the basic Eastern Europeans moving west", even though facts and issues concerning in Europe, a) not all of the migrants from this region are from a political and sociological perspective, Muslims, b) "Eastern Europeans" would never be and to offer elements of comparison with the labeled "Orthodox" or "Catholics", and c) that is US.1 There will be a slight emphasis on , not the issue anyway, since the article is about due to author's area of specialty – and to the . For a couple of weeks in fact that France is home to the largest Muslim November 2005, the media used the term population in Europe. "Muslims riots in France" to describe the wave of urban violence that resulted in burnt cars and

property damage. But these riots had nothing ABOUT THE AUTHOR: Justin Vaisse is a to do with , and everything to do with the Senior Fellow in the Center on the social and economic conditions of largely United States and Europe at the immigrant communities. Muslim groups, who Brookings Institution. tried to play a mediating role, discovered themselves to be irrelevant and powerless.

A few popular myths about Myth #2: Muslims in Europe are, in one way or should first be dispelled, in order to grasp the the other, inherently foreign, the equivalent of real issues and challenges: visiting Middle-Easterners who are alien to the "native" culture. Myth #1: Being Muslim constitutes a fixed identity, sufficient to fully characterize a person. European culture, however, has always th included Muslim elements, as early as the 8 When it comes to Muslims, people wrongly century. Moreover, the approximately 15 to assume that religion – rather than nationality, 17 million persons of Muslim background gender, social class, etc. – necessarily trumps currently in the EU-27 countries (population: 500 other identities. To take just a few examples, million) include both citizens and non-citizens of the Washington Post, in an article on migration European member states, but a majority of to the EU (June 2008), writes about "Muslims them hold French, British, German, etc. arriving from the Middle East and Africa, and nationality. Many of them are proud of this fact and would never think of themselves as anything else than Europeans (even while 1 This paper was presented at the Aspen Institute honoring their heritage). Indeed, there is more Congressional Program’s conference on "Islam: difference in political culture and social codes Governance and Ideology and US Policy", , between a French Muslim and a German August 17-23, 2008.

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Muslim than there is between a French Muslim rates are comparable to that observed in the and a French of other religious orientation. US, around 2 children per woman. Last but not least, immigration to the EU is more and more Myth #3: Muslims in Europe form a "distinct, tightly controlled. It is doubtful that from about cohesive and bitter group," in the words of a 15-17 million in the 500 million EU-27 today (3 to 2005 Foreign Affairs article. 4 %), potential Muslims could number more than 6 % in the coming decades. In reality, they are anything but a cohesive group. Not only is there no unity to be found at The European Patchwork the European level, but when one looks at the national level, what predominates is the Although European Muslims share many profound divisions, either between countries of common issues and challenges, a pan- reference and their specific culture and brand European view is largely misleading. In , the of Islam (e.g., Belgians of Turkish origin vs. "immigrant character" of Islam has been Belgians of Moroccan origin), between visions stressed in the Consulta Islamica (the dialogue of religion and affiliation (e.g., German Turks of the State with Muslims which started in 2005), associated with Milli Görüş vs. those affiliated and has faced specific problems with with Diyanet), or between social status, political a very recent settlement of Muslims. Countries views, ethnicity, etc. In other words, to speak of like , by contrast, where the Comisión "a Muslim community" is simply misleading. Islamica de España defines Islam as one of the spiritual faiths rooted in Spanish history, or Myth #4: Muslims are demographically gaining France – where the colonial past led to early on the "native" population. exchanges and the construction of a grand mosque in central Paris as early as 1926 – see The implicit assumption behind this very Islam as part of their history. widespread myth is that Muslims form a distinct demographic bloc defined by religion, a bloc The main differences between EU countries, by which will never blend into the rest of society decreasing order of importance, have to do (another possible assumption is based on with: ethnicity, "Muslims" being surrogate for "people of color" vs. white people). This assumption is 1) The institutions and political philosophy contradicted by the significant rates of of each country, especially as they intermarriage and conversions (in both relate to religion, the proper role of directions) and, more importantly, by the reality minorities, and multiculturalism; of integration in many countries, where Muslims are simply patriotic, law-abiding citizens – in this 2) The country of origin, or country of case, worries about demography have no reference (for the children and grand- basis, why would one count them apart? But children of immigrants), of Muslims; even accepting the assumption they are a demographic bloc, "Muslims" are not actually 3) The history of Muslim presence, and its significantly gaining on "natives." True, modalities ("guest workers", refugees, European birthrates are generally low, and immigrants, converts, etc.), as well as birthrates among immigrant groups are often the links of each country with the past high. But in the latter group, they actually fall (colonial tradition or not); rapidly after their arrival and among subsequent generations, as they tend to 4) The number of Muslims relative to the conform to the national norm. And in some general population, and their countries like France or , general fertility geographical concentration.

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Before offering a brief snapshot of major Turkish citizens. The proximity of , the European countries, it should be noted that the "guest worker program" of the 1960's and early EU () level is not relevant to deal with 1970's which intended to provide a temporary this issue, as the status of religions remains one surge of workers for German industry, and the of national competence. However, the ethno-cultural vision of German citizenship, regional or local level often plays a key role, have combined to create a blocked situation with some German Länder, for example, being up until the 1990's, as well as a dominance of very active in their integration policies (like Turkish religious authorities (the Diyanet, Rhineland-Westphalia, where more than a third through the German DITIB) on German Islam. of all Muslims in live), or some The reform of 2000, granting citizenship to most municipalities of the same country taking of those born in Germany, and the launching opposing approaches (Rotterdam is financing of a consultation process, the Deutsche Islam Islamic education in its public schools, while Konferenz (DIK) in 2006, have eased things Utrecht opposes it). somewhat. But there is persistent debate over German identity. This finds expression within the France, with 5 million potential Muslims (8 % of programs of the CDU and CSU parties, and also the population), originating from Algeria, in the DIK process itself, which often blurs the , and to a lesser extent Turkey, Tunisia distinctions between religious, social and and sub-Saharan Africa, is home to a third of security issues. While Islam is still not an officially EU Muslims. A strict separation of church and established church (corporation) like others, it state (laïcité) began in 1905 after very painful does enjoy some public privileges – such as tensions, many of which have been religious education in public schools – in some reactivated in the recent decades about of the Länder. Islam. The debates surrounding the headscarf issue and the 2004 law banning religious signs in The is home to 1.5 to 2 million public schools are a good example. The Muslims (around 3 % of the population), most of government heavy-handedly helped set up a them originating in South Asia, particularly French Council for the Muslim religion (CFCM in . After 9/11, and especially after 7/7 French) in 2003, which represents Muslims for (the homegrown Islamist bombings of July 7, exclusively religious matters – as the French 2005), the UK has tended, along with the republican vision of citizenship bans the , to veer away from a permissive recognition of separate (minority) identities in multicultural environment, where even the public sphere. Given the challenges, extremist preachers enjoyed extensive France has been mostly successful at religious freedoms – "Londonistan" – to a set of policies and cultural integration, as well as monitoring stressing a common British identity and the and preventing radicalization (it has the need for the government to become more strongest anti- apparatus), but it has intrusive in Muslim education, the monitoring of largely failed at social and economic mosques, etc. One of the results of the integration of migrants (and their children and interventionist "Preventing Extremism Together" grand-children), whatever their faith, as the (PET) process launched after 7/7 has been the urban violence of November 2005 and more establishment of the MINAB (Mosques and recent flare-ups, attest. Imams National Advisory Board), which aims to standardize guidelines for mosques around the Germany is in a very different situation. It is country on subjects like the hiring of imams, home to 3.3 million Muslims (4 % of the and the fight against extremism. population), of which an overwhelming majority, at least 2.3 million, trace their origin to Italy is home to approximately 1 million Muslims Turkey, including a large proportion who are still (1.5 % of the population), and this presence is

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fairly new, coming mostly from Morocco and Spain is home to approximately 800,000 – there is also a significant population Muslims (close to 2 % of the population), most of converts. After all, Italy was until the 1970's a of whom trace their recent or ancient roots to country of emigration, not immigration. . While Muslims were expelled or Italy came under the influence of outside forced to convert in 1492, governments (e.g., Saudi Arabia, Morocco and was granted under Franco in 1968, and Libya) until 2005, when the Berlusconi extended in 1980. Starting in 1992, the Comisión government launched the Consulta Islamica. Islamica de España negotiated with the There are still tensions within this consultative government on many issues, like religious process that mixes an administrative agenda training in schools and the social status of with social and political issues, and many, imams, but progress has been slow, and there especially the Lega Nord (part of the current are lingering tensions with immigrant Berlusconi coalition) criticize the inclusion of communities in Andalucía. "11/3", the bombing certain individuals. Moreover, only a limited of a Madrid commuter train (11 March 2004), number of Consulta participants have been was carried out by homegrown terrorists of invited to form a new Federation that would Moroccan origin. apply for an Intesa – a framework agreement between the Italian state and a given religion Muslims in Europe: Common challenges that grants the full rights of a recognized religious community. While problems and bad news naturally tend to dominate the news media, and while some The Netherlands is home to approximately processes in some countries are worrying, this 950,000 Muslims (almost 6 % of the population), should obscure neither the good news – such for which two countries of origin or reference as the underreported growth of a middle class emerge, Turkey and Morocco. Holland is a of Muslim background, quite an achievement country which, by virtue of its turbulent religious given the very poor origins of most of them – history, had established a far-reaching nor the limits of some of the news-grabbing multicultural model of tolerance for difference problems. and relative autonomy among religious communities. The brutal Islamist of Theo If one considers the reaction to the caricatures van Gogh in 2004 by , a of Prophet published by the 26-year-old second-generation migrant born in Danish newspaper Jyllands-Posten in 2005-2006, and holding both Moroccan and for example, it is easy to forget – among the Dutch citizenship, came as a huge shock. This violent demonstrations in countries like Syria, event intensified reconsideration of the virtues Libya, Iran or Nigeria, resulting in more than 100 of the Dutch model and fostered a hostile deaths, that in EU countries, no violence attitude against Muslims among parts of the happened. Some individuals and Muslim population. Starting in 2005, the government organizations (like UCOII in Italy or UOIF in launched a plan to prevent radicalization, France) reacted through legal channels, such improve social and economic integration and as peaceful demonstrations – in very limited promote "Dutch values". It has also numbers – or lawsuits, based on the purported encouraged the training of imams in racism inherent to some cartoons (like the Amsterdam and Leiden universities. One bright "bomb in Muhammad turban" one). In France, spot is the significant number of elected once again, the origin of occasional urban officials of Muslim background in national violence is never to be found in cultural– government and the lower Chamber of religious issues like the headscarf ban in public Parliament. schools or the caricatures of Muhammad, but always in the death of one or more youngsters

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in an encounter with police forces in a few inmates are Muslims; the setting up of Muslim specific neighborhoods. private schools; the creation of Muslim sections in cemeteries; the regulation of the Hajj Five types of issues and challenges can be pilgrimage to Mecca, where many European distinguished: Muslims (as well as others) are the victims of consumer fraud. On these issues that are 1. Some have nothing to do with Islam, crucial to demonstrate that Islam is not a starting with the social conditions of foreign entity, progress has been slow, in spite immigrants, their children and grandchildren, of the new state-Islam consultative bodies some of whom happen to be Muslim. It is not established in almost every country. that they are necessarily poor – and solid European welfare states make absolute 3. Some have partly to do with Islam, like poverty virtually impossible – but many are incidents concerning social values, whether a often relegated to far-away outskirts and bleak request by a local Muslim association to housing projects, and are offered fewer arrange for women-only hours at the municipal opportunities than populations of older swimming pool, the refusal by some students to European origin. In spite of governmental follow biology classes, the refusal to remove a efforts in almost every country, discrimination headscarf in the situations where it is forbidden against Blacks, , South Asians, etc. in some countries (like for civil servants in direct (whatever their religion) extract a very heavy contact with the public in France), an toll on both social and economic integration unwillingness by female patients to be treated and sense of belonging to the national by male physicians in public hospitals, or honor community. In France, unemployment (which crimes and domestic violence, forced averages 7.2% nationally) can reach 40% marriages, etc. Some of these situations, among young men in some housing projects. In especially among the latter, have more to do Germany, very few Turks receive higher with the specific regional cultures and education – fewer than 25,000 of 236,000 traditions (from places like rural Anatolia or rural Turkish 18 to 25 years old living in Germany Morocco) of recent immigrants than with Islam, were enrolled in German universities in 2004- but there is still a clash with accepted social 2005. Discrimination is also noticeable in codes and, sometimes, the law of the land. political representation, where very few non- Another issue partly related to Islam is the sense whites are elected officials. of belonging to the national community. While strong in some countries like France, in spite of 2. Others have everything to do with Islam, discrimination, it is dangerously low in others like as they pertain to the exercise of religion. With the UK, where more Muslims tend to emphasize varying degrees of success (generally not the religious aspects of their identity. This much), EU governments have tried to facilitate estrangement is of course conducive, in some the local training of imams, including in the cases, to a more radical break-up with their national language; the construction of country. mosques, with both an interdiction on the use of public funds, the refusal of seeing outside 4. Terrorism is in a category of its own governments intervene too much, and the because of its dire challenge to public order. It urge to get Islam out of the "basements" where does exist in relation with Islam, but it was often practiced in the 1980's and 1990's ; radicalization concerns a tiny fraction of the regulation of ritual slaughtering of lambs for European Muslims, and it always occurs at the the Aid festivity, with accompanying hygiene fringes of Muslim networks and mosques issues; the hiring of imams as chaplains for the (except in the UK until recently), and not as an armed forces or for prisons, where many isolated outgrowth of some sort – which is

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precisely what makes it hard to monitor and A Quick Comparison with America fight. Indeed, there is as much in common between everyday Muslims and terrorists as The difference with America is easy to grasp. there is between, say, a German social While most of the 2 to 3 million Muslims of democrat (SPD) MP and a terrorist from the America (close to 1% of the population), of Baader-Meinhof Red Army faction – both have which 77% are citizens, are first-generation socialism as a reference, but that is all there is. immigrants, they enjoy much better social Contrary to a popular notion, European conditions than European Muslims, as they Muslims frequently and firmly condemn violent generally mirror the U.S. public in education actions perpetrated in the name of Islam. EU and income, including at the highest end of countries have suffered a number of the income scale. They are not concentrated homegrown terrorist attacks of radical Islamist in pockets of poverty and disaffection. They origins, and have been obliged to upgrade benefit from a powerful integration process, their anti-terrorism apparatus rapidly. Europe including a dynamic job market and a also, generally speaking, has a different multicultural environment – even after reading of terrorism than America has – one expressions of racism and should remember that there are more following 9/11. There has been little "regional" terrorists (from the Basque country, radicalization, and the few cells and plots Corsica, etc. – but also far-left groups) in EU which were uncovered demonstrated a lack of prisons than Islamist terrorists. seriousness. One common point with European Muslims, however, is that they do not form a 5. Finally, some challenges have to do with coherent group. While Black Muslims make up non-Muslim populations and their perceptions 20 to 30% of the total, almost 25% originate of Islam. On top of racial discrimination, there is from the Arab world, about 20% from South the specific targeting of Islam (Islamophobia), Asia, and the rest from all parts of the world, which manifests itself in attacks on mosques including Europe. and the desecration of Muslim graves. But apart from these extreme cases, there is a constant schizophrenia in Europe between ABOUT CUSE: excessive requests of conformity and Europe is currently undergoing a profound misplaced demonstrations of "tolerance" or transformation in terms of its leadership, the "multiculturalism" when it comes to Islam – composition of its population, the expansion many of which border on condescension. In of memberships in the and the former category, some Länder have NATO, changing relations with key countries requested citizenship tests for naturalization like France, Turkey, and , and a regained willingness to address global that include adopting a list of ill-defined challenges. In April 2004, Brookings launched German "values" (about homosexuality, the Center on the United States and Europe abortion, etc.) with which not even all (CUSE) to understand these challenges and Germans would agree. In the latter category, a their relevance to U.S. foreign policy. The German judge has cited the Qur’an in Center offers an ongoing forum for research, high-level dialogue, and public debate on rejecting a German Muslim woman’s request issues affecting U.S.-Europe relations. for a fast-track divorce on the ground that her husband beat her – and the Archbishop of Canterbury recently suggested law The Brookings Institution Center on the United States and Europe might have some relevance to the British legal 1775 Massachusetts Avenue, NW system. Needless to say, such excesses make Washington, DC 20036 European Muslims cringe – they just want to be www.brookings.edu/cuse treated as any other citizen.

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