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Imagery and Memory : the Bizarreness Issue Reexamined

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Imagery and Memory : the Bizarreness Issue Reexamined RICE UNIVERSITY IMAGERY AND MEMORY: THE BIZARRENESS ISSUE REEXAMINED by PAMELA ANN KENNEDY A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE MASTER OF ARTS APPROVED, THESIS COMMITTEE: Assistant Professor of Psychology Chairperson William C. Howell Professor of Psychology HOUSTON, TEXAS MAY, 1979 Abstract IMAGERY AND MEMORY: THE BIZARRENESS ISSUE REEXAMINED by PAMELA ANN KENNEDY This research examined the effects of the bizarreness attribute of imagery on memory. While previous research has not generally sup¬ ported the facilitory effects of bizarreness on recall performance, there are a number of conceptual and methodological problems with this body of research. The present research attempted to overcome these problems by developing a more rigorous conceptualization and operation¬ alization of the construct of bizarreness, and utilizing a design which controls for past methodological contaminants. Half of the 64 subjects were instructed to form images while the other half rehearsed phrases in rote fashion. Within each of these conditions, half of the subjects were tested by free recall and half by frequency estimation. For all subjects, half of the phrases were bizarre and half were common, as defined by pre-ratings made by independent subjects. Frequency level of phrase presentation was varied, with frequency levels 1, 2, 4 and 6 being represented. Finally, subjects were tested immediately after list presentation and again after one week. The results indicated that for cued recall, bizarre phrases were superior to common phrases. In addition, the superiority of bizarre over common imagery increased between the immediate and delayed tests. For frequency estimation, the data did not reveal any readily inter¬ pretable differences between common and bizarre phrases. The results were discussed as they relate to previous research on bizarreness. It was concluded that bizarreness does have a facilitory effect in imagery mediation. Suggestions for future research to further clarify the effects of bizarreness were presented. ii Acknowledgments I would like to express appreciation to the members of my thesis committee: Sarah A. Burnett, who served as Chairperson, and William C. Howell. I am indebted to both of these for their guidance and assistance on all stages of my work. I would also like to express sincere gratitude to Robert D. Pritchard, who was a constant source of moral support and encouragement during my hours of writing. Table of Contents Title page Abstract .... i Acknowledgments iii Table of Contents iv Introduction . 1 Method .... 25 Results .... 30 Discussion . 37 References . 42 Appendix A . 45 Imagery has been recognized as a useful memory aid for centuries. Indeed the practical mnemonic application of imagery has existed in professional mnémotechniques since its formal inception in ancient Greece. According to several treatises (see Yates, 1966), a Greek poet named Simonodes was the first to develop and formally describe a method for using imagery to improve memory. This method, commonly known as the "method of loci," combined the use of images with rules for their orderly mental arrangement, which enabled the user to retain long speeches, lists, etc. (Yates, 1966). There are several steps involved in using this method. First, one would visualize a familiar, highly imageable set of locations (loci) and memorize them in order. After the set of loci are committed to memory, the items or passages to be learned are represented as images and stored sequentially in these locations. When recall of this material is desired one would progress mentally from one location to the next. By visualizing each location and its contents, the information stored there would be avail able for recall. Many of the systems used by professional mnemonists employ the same principles outlined in the method of loci. For example, the peg word system is a commonly used mnemonic technique (see Pavio, 1971) which is based on imagery and rules to preserve order. In this system peg words which rhyme with the numbers one through ten (1 - bun, 2 - shoe, 3 - tree, etc.) are used in place of visual locations. 1 2 Specifically, a to-be-remembered word is associated with each peg word by forming an image between the two. Order is preserved by the numbers associated with each peg word. When retrieval is desired the peg word is used to elicit the image and the to-be-remembered word should be available for recall. Although many such ideas and schemes for improving memory have been suggested by stage mnemonists down through the years, only in the last twenty years or so have these techniques been tested in a systematic fashion by psychologists. According to psychologists during the behavioristic era, imagery could not be observed and was thus not a suitable subject for study. Thus the functional role of imagery in memory, the value of imagery mediation relative to other memory systems, and specific attributes of the image responsible for its effects had not been adequately understood. Recently however, by incorporating many of the practices and assumptions derived from mnemonic strategies into testable hypotheses, considerable research effort has been directed toward these issues. As a result, fairly consistent findings and generalizations have emerged supporting imagery mediation as a memory system and specifying qualities of the image which enhance its effective¬ ness as a mediational device. If findings from imagery studies are examined, it is clear that the use of imagery has been shown to result in impressive memory performance in many situations. Although many early studies were conducted in the absence of control or comparison groups, the results have shown that by simply instructing subjects to form images using techniques such as the method of loci and peg word system, surprisingly excellent recall is produced (Bugelski, 1968; Pavio, 1970). 3 Furthermore, the use of imagery in traditional learning paradigms, (with control groups) has yielded additional evidence supporting its value in the memory system. Take for example paired-associated learning, which is the paradigm most frequently employed to assess imagery effects. Several different instructional sets have been used in P-A paradigms. In these instructional sets subjects have been 1) instructed to form images connecting the stimulus and response terms of a paired-associate list, 2) told to use variations of the peg word system, 3) given pictures, sentences, or phrases and asked to generate the specified images. In all of these variations of the P-A task, memory facilitation has been demonstrated consistently (Pavio, 1971; Reese, 1977). A third line of support for imagery comes from studies which have tested the value of imagery mediation relative to other memory systems (e.g. Delin, 1969). In general, instructing subjects to use imagery produces better memory performance than instructing them to rehearse in a rote fashion or giving them no instructions at all (Pavio, 1971; Bower, 1972; Reese, 1977; Kieras, 1978). From this line of research a number of factors critical to the effect of imagery on memory performance have begun to be studied and identified. These factors include individual difference variables, the nature of the material to be learned, how it is coded, etc. From these studies, generalizations have emerged regarding the specific qualities of the image which increase its effectiveness as a mediational device. Two such well documented generalizations have to do with con¬ creteness of the image and whether or not the image represents inter¬ action between the members of the noun pair. The conclusion that 4 images formed from concrete nouns are easier to form and recall than those from abstract nouns is now widely accepted (Pavio, 1971; Bower, 1972). Furthermore, in a paired-associate task recall is facilitated if the image connecting the stimulus and response terms is one that depicts the referents of the two terms in interaction rather than in isolation (Wollen, Weber, and Lowry, 1972; Bower, 1972). Another quality of the image which has received considerable research attention but has not produced clear results is bizarreness. The idea that bizarre images are remembered better than common images is found in recent mnemonic applications (Lorayneand Lucas, 1974; Bower, 1973), as well as in ancient treatises (Yates, 1966). In modern day theory the assumption that bizarreness produces superior retention seems to be based on the belief that making an image bizarre increases its distinctiveness and thereby reduces interference (see Pavio, 1971). Research on this particular attribute of images has been plagued with difficulties and consequently results have been inconclusive. The purpose of this paper is to explore the contributions of bizarreness in the influence of imagery on cued recall. That is, while it is clear that imagery aids recall, it is less clear what role bizarreness plays in the facilitory effects of imagery. In the section that follows, the conclusions of the existing research dealing with this issue will first be summarized briefly. Next, the major problems with this body of research will be discussed. These problems involve: 1) the conceptualization of bizarreness, 2) the operational definition of bizarreness, and 3) a variety of methodological/design issues. In a second section, the ways the present study attempts to overcome the problems described in these three areas will be presented. 5 Evaluation and Review of Existing Research The conclusions of the existing research on the relationship between bizarreness of the image and recall have been mixed. The majority of studies have concluded that bizarreness is not critical (Briggs, Hawkins, and Crovitz, 1970; Johnson, 1972; Nappe and Wollen, 1973; Hauck, Walsh, and Kroll, 1976; Wood, 1967; Collyer, Jonldes, and Bevan, 1972; Wollen, Weber, and Lowry, 1972; Senter and Hoffman, 1976). Other studies have shown support for bizarreness (Crovitz, 1969; Del in, 1968; Perensky and Senter, 1970; Andreoff and Yarmey, 1976). Careful examination of these studies, however, suggests a variety of problems that make it impossible to draw any firm conclusions about the effects of bizzareness.
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