AUTHOR Guide to Film and Videotape for Research and Michigan

Home , First Graders, Frederick Wiseman, The Bad Old Days, Wide Angle (TV program)

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 230 189 IR 010 711

AUTHOR Erickson, Frederick; Wilson, Jan TITLE Sights and Sounds of Life in Schools: A Resource Guide to Film and Videotape for Research and Education. Research Series No. 125. INSTITUTION Michigan State Univ., East Lansing. Inst. for Research on Teaching. SPONS AGENCY Ford Foundation, New York, N.Y.; National Inst. of Education (ED), Washington, DC. Teaching and Learning Program. PUB DATE 82 CONTRACT 400-81-0014 NOTE 84p. PUB TYPE Guides - Non-Classroom Use (055) Reference Materials Bibliographies (131) EDRS PRICE MF01/PC04 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS Annotated Bibliographies; *Documentaries; Elementary Secondary Education; Guides; *Instructional Films; Production Techniques; Projection Equipment; *Protocol Materials; *Research Methodology; School Activities; Teacher Education; *Videotape Recordings IDENTIFIERS United States ABSTRACT This 2-section guide covers both pfofessionally-produced documentaries for a general viewing audience and footage produced by researchers for their own viewing in data collection and analysis. The first section, .which focuses on edited documentaries, includes information on how documentaries are produced and on usefulness and realism, a catalog of edited documentaries about schools, and advice on showing and discussing the documentary with an audience. The second section discusses the production and use of research documents, approaches and purposes, and how to present research footage to audiences. An annotated bibliography and a short list of research projects are included. Five main topics are interspersed throughout the guide: (1) issues in making and showing footage for effective teaching in research and staff development; (2) viewers' perspectives and expectations; (3) points of access to networks of documentary film products, distributors, and researchers who use audiovisual documents: (4) an introduction to basic intellectual sources, especially in the research literature; and (5) consumer protection information about unintentional and intentional distortion and about ethical problems in the production and use of commercial and research footage. (LMM)

*********************************************************************** Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made from the original document. *********************************************************************** U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF EDUCATION EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC) Thts document has been reproduced as For: received from the person or organization onginatmg it Teachers Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality Administrators Points of view or opinions stated in this docu mem do not necessarily represent offictal NIE Policy Makers position or policy Reseachers In-Service Trainers

SIGHTS AND SOUNDS OF LIFE IN SCHOOLS: A Resource Guide to Film and Videotape for Research and Education

By Frederick Erickson and Jan Wilson

"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY Trederick Erickson

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."

This is a publication of the Institute for Research on Teaching of the College of Education at Michigan State University, 1982, Research Series No. 125. The chief financial support for the Institute is provided by the Teaching and Learning Division of the National Institute of Education. Major funding for this handbook was provided by the Organization Studies Group at NIE 80-0007). Additional financial support for this publication was provided by the Ford Foundation (795-0528). The opinions expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of either of the funding agencies. TABLE OF CONTENTS

0.1 INTRODUCTION(2) 2.12 ContTasts Between Research Footage and 0.11 Purposes of the Handbook(2) Documentary Films(41) 0.12 The Authors(4) 2.13 Shooting Research Footage-Human 0.13 Acknowledgements(4) Issues(44) 2.131 Negotiating Entry(44) SECTION I - EDITED DOCUMEN- 2.132 Confidentiality(4) TARIES(5 ) 2.133 Obtrusiveness of Recording(45) 1.1 TRICKS OF THE TRADE: HOW EDITED 2.134 Trial Run(46) DOCUMENTARIES ARE PRODUCED (5) 2.135 Initial Entry With Equipment(46) 1.11 Basic Concepts(5) 2.136 Unobtrusiveness in Shooting(46) 1.12 Shooting Techniques(5) 2.137 A Final Caution(47) 1.13 Editing Techniques (5) 2.14 Participant Observation(47) 1.14 Edited Film or Tape as Interpretive 2.15 Equipment and Shooting: StTategies for Accounts(6) Selectivity in Data Collection(47) 1.15 Comparing Edited Documents with 2.16 Indexing Note-taking and Labelling(49)' Unedited or Research Footage(6) 2.17 Analyzing Audiovisual Records(49) 2.18 References for Section 2.1(50) 1.2 USEFULNESS AND REALISM OF EDITED DOCUMENTARIES: SOME FINDINGS AND 2.2 FRAMING: HOW TO PRESENT RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS FROM APILOT FOOTAGE TO AUDIENCES(51) STUDY(7) 2.21 General Discussion(51) 1.21 Description of the Study(7) 2.22 Specific Strategies for Interpretitve 122 Some Results(8) Framing(51) 2.221 Choosing a Place to Start and 1.3 A SHORT CATALOGUE OF EDITED DOCU- Stop(51) MENTARIES ABOUT SCHOOLS(11) 2.222 Describing Contexts Outside the 1.31 Basic Criterion of Selection for the Tape(51) Catalogue(11) 2.223 Orienting to Important Features in 1.32 The Catalogue(12) the Segment(51) 1.33 Topical Index to the Catalogue(31) 2.224 Showing the Complete Segment (52) 2.225 Moving on to the Next Segment (52) 1.4 ADVICE ON THE MECHANICS OF SHOW- 2.226 Discussion after Showing(52) ING AN EDITED DOCUMENTARY TO AN AUDIENCE (36) 2.3 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY(52) 1.41 Projecting 16mm Film(36) 2.31 Foundations in Anthropological and Socio- 1.411 Equipment(36) logical Approaches to Studying Everyday 1.412 Emergency Supplies(36) Life(53) 1.413 Setting Up and Checking Out Film 2.32 Issues in Ethnographic Filmmaking and in and the Equipment(36) The Analysis of Visual Data(55) 1.414 Beginning the Screening(37) 2.33 Perspectives From Ecological Psychology 1.415 Films With More than One Reel (37) and From Classroom Observation Using 1.416 Emergency Situations(37) Predetermined Coding Categories(57) 1.42 Videotape Playback(38) 2.34 Methods of Educational Ethnography and 1.421 Video Disks(38) Documentation(58) 1.43 Some Final Things to Remember(38) 2.35 Examples of Studies of Everyday Lifein SECTION II - MAKING AND USING RE- Schools(59) SEARCH DOCUMENTS OF EVERYDAY 2.4 A SHORT LIST OF RESEARCH LIFE IN SCHOOLS (39 ) PROJECTS(62) 2.1 AN OVERVIEW OF APPROACHES AND PUR- 2.41 Introduction to the List(62) POSES(39) 2.42 List of Projects(63) 2.11 Purposes of Audiovisual Documentation in 2.43 Questionnaire for Future Project Research(39) Listings(81)

1 0.1 INTRODUCTION single volume that would give readers an introduction to basic issues and would point readers to further 0.11 Purposes of the Handbook information sources and to networks of institutions and This handbook is a consumer's guide to various people. These would be resources the reader could uses of films and videotapes about everyday life in use to gain more complete knowledge of issues that American schools. It is also scmething of a producer's necessarily could only be sketched in broad strokes in guide, in that as we discuss how audiovisual docu- an introductory discussion. There was also a need for ments are made, advertised, shown, arid learned from, an overview of matters to be considered in planning we make some suggestions for changes in current and writing proposals for projects of research or staff ways of (1) making films and tapes, (2) describing development. them in writing, and (3) showing and discussing them These needs were first identified by Fritz Mul- with audiences. The aim of these changes is to help hauser and his colleagues in the School Management make documents of everyday life in schools more use- and Organization Studies Group at the National In- ful to teachers, administrators, inservice training staff, stitute of Education. They began to wonder why policy-makers, and researchers in education. documentary films and videotapes were not used more Today nationally and internationally, there is in- by school administrators and policy makers in plan- creasing interest in documents of everyday life in ning. As they started to search for materials for view- schools; in written case studies and in audiovisual ing at working conferences, an immediately apparent ones. Practitioners and researchers alike are coming reason emerged that explained (at least partially) why to realize that the multilayered complexity of every- audiovisual documents of naturally occurring life in day life in schools presents teachers and administrators schools were being under-used. The reason was sim- with very complex contexts of decision in which they pleit was very difficult to locate these materials. must and do take action and solve problems. The con- During the search one of the handbook's co-authors (Erickson ) was asked to loan research footage for the texts are continually shifting from moment to moment. Their dynamic quality and their particularitythe conference. The idea for a handbook of resources developed through subsequent conversations with specific circumstances of everyday life in which school people must act in the "real time" of the school day, Mulhauser. Then the work began, in collaboration week, and yearare not adequately captured in the with the other co-author, Wilson. Five main topics experimental and quasi-experimental approaches to emerged as we developed the handbook to emphasize educational research and evaluation that have been issues involved in the usefulness of audiovisual mate- the classic methods employed in educational research rials. and development efforts in the United States. 1.Discussion of logistical, ethical, and substantive issues in making and showing footage for Case studies, perhaps especially audiovisual docu- effective teaching in staff development and for mentary ones, can help us get closer to the action of research. life in schools. But being close, in and of itself, may not help us develop new insights. Audiovisual docu- 2.Perspectives and expectations that viewers bring ments are not automatically useful, either to practi- to viewing films and videotapes. tioners or to researchers.Viewers approach these 3.Points of access to networks of documentary documents with purposes and points of view, with film products, distributors, and researchers who customary ways of viewing and interpreting media. use audiovisual documents. The documents themselves are typically made and 4. An introduction to basic intellectual sources, typically shown in certain ways. We need to be less especially in research literature. romantically naive about using audiovisual documents 5. "Consumer protection" information about un- to get "closer" to "reality." We need to understand intentional and intentional distortion and about more, to develop a more critical awareness, in order ethical problems in the production and ti;e of to know how to make more effective use of profes- commercial footage and research footage. sionally produced audiovisual documents, or how to These main topics are interspersed through the produce home-made documents for ourselves as prac- handbook's two major sections; the first section on titioners and researchers who seek to inquire about professionally produced documentaries directed to- and learn from everyday life in educational settings. ward a general viewing audience and the second The handbook was originally conceived as a "Whole section on footage produced by researchers for their Earth Catalogue" for those interested in using and own viewing in the collection and analysis of data. making audiovisual documents for staff development In addition, there was a need to discuss all these and for research in schools. There was necd for a topics, in a single place, in relatively plain English.

2 4 Little has been written on these issues.What has everyday life in schools. Both for the research com- been written is found in a variety of places, and re- munity and for those who fund documentary films on quires knowledge of a variety of technical vocabu- schools, the classroom seems to be the intuitively laries that the beginner is not likely to possess. natural focal scene, or unit of analysis. We deliberately avoided two topics; the specific Clearly there is a need to use audiovisual docu- equipment used in producing audiovisual materials, mentation to look more broadly at everyday life in and the specific research procedures used in analyzing schools and school communities; to trace relationships them. The topic of equipment was addressed only of influence and constraint across system levels in edu- generically. Specific brands, models, and systems were cational institutions and between educational institu- not mentioned, for the most part, because of the tions and the various networks and interest groups rapidity with which media equipment is being de- with which they interact. We hope that readers of veloped. The reader is advised to consult producers this handbook will be stimulated toward new visions or researchers listed in the handbook for information of more comprehensive kinds of audiovisual docu- on the current state of the art in equipment. The topic mentation and analysis that can be done and made of research data analysis procedures was also avoided; use of in the future. these are specific to the particular kind of research issue being addressed. Indeed, substantive issues of Frederick Erickson research received relatively slight attention in the handbook. This was consistent with our aim only Institute for Research on Teaching to open up discussion of only the most generic issues, so that the handbook would be useful to the broadest possible range of researchers and practitioners.For consultationonrelationships between substantive research questions and specific procedures of data analysis, the reader is advised to contact researchers from the projects listed in the handbook and to contact authors of items in the annotated bibliography. If you are currently doing research using audiovisual documents and would like to be listed in a subsequent edition of this handbook, please (1) fill out the form on the last page of the handbook, (2) attach a description of your project in the standard format used for our project listings, and (3) mail both to the address on the form. Finally, a note of irony and exhortation. This work was inspired by those interested in school management, considering schoolsas wholes and looking broadly at school-system relationships across various governmental levels, from the local school building to the state and federal government. Given that initial interest, it may seem odd that most of the documentary films and most of the research footage discussed was shot in a single classroom, with a single teacher, and only rarely with a school administrator or parent involved.For the research discussed, this may be because the authors' own professional network focuses most centrally on research on classroom teaching. But it also seems that most funded educational research using film or tape has focused on the school classroom. This is certainly true for the professionally produced film documentaries. Our search through networks of distributors was broad enough to determine that films about classroom events are the most typical kind of documentary that shows naturally occurring

3 0.12 The Authors Students at the Harvard Graduate School of Edu- cation and classroom teachers from the Boston area FREDERICK ERICKSON is Professor of Educa- participated in the piljt research study reported here, tion and Medicine, and Adjunct Professor of Anthro- and to them thanksis given ancnymously. The pology at Michigan State University, where he is also Education Development Center (EDC) in Newton, a Senior Researcher in the Institute for Research on Massachusetts generously made available to us at Teaching. He is a member of a network of researchers no charge partially edited footage and finished films who have developed many of the methods of audio- for use in our study. We also interviewed members visual documentation and analysis for research pur- of the EDC film production staff. poses that are discussed in this handbook. He has Thanks are also due, for editorial suggestions, to taught at the University of Illinois and at Harvard Janet Eaton, Associate Editor of the Institute for University, and in1976 was the President of the Research on Teaching.Finally, we are grateful to Council on Anthropology and Education, a member Mary Mowry for careful final typing of a complicated organization of the American Anthropological Associa- manuscript. tion. He is the co-author, with Jeffrey Shultz, of The Counselor as Gatekeeper: Social Interaction in Inter- views( Academie Press, 1982); a microanalytic film study of inter-ethnic and inter-racial relations in junior college academic advisory interviews. Erickson was primarily resjxmsible for the second section of this handbook, which deals with research uses of audiovisual documentation including the annotated bibliography.

JAN WILSON graduated magna cum laude from Radcliffe College. As an undergraduate anthropology major she began study with Frederick Erickson and continued on to receive an Ed.M. from the Harvard Graduate School of Education in 1978. She has participated inavariety of videotape documentary projects, both on.a free-lance basis and as an employee of WGBII, the Boston area publiC television station. She has also been a media specialist in the education division of the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, and has been a licensed projectionist :Of commercial films. Wilson was primarily responsible for the first section of the handbook, which deals with documentary filmmaking. including the short catalogue of films.

0.13 Acknowledgements Support for preparing and printing this handbook was provided by Fritz Mulhauser, of the School Man- agement and Organization Studies Group atthe National Institute of Education, and by Marjorie Martus of the Ford Foundation. Their assistance is gratefully acknowledged. Preparation of this handbook was supported in part by the Institute for Research on Teaching, Col- lege of Education, Michigan State University and The Ford Foundation. The Institute for Research on Teaching is funded primarily by the Program for Teaching and Instruction of the National Institute of Education, United States Department of Education (Contract No. 400-SI-0014).

4 4) I EDITED DOCUMENTARIES

1.1 TRICKS OF THE TRADE: IIOW EDITED framed shot would provide a record of greater claritY, DOCUMENTARIES ARE PRODUCED albeit within a narrow visual field. The dilemma presented by these alternatives can 1.11 Basic Concepts be minimized (but not eliminated) by using multiple stationary cameras and/or roving cameras that are The process of producing or creating a docu- carried by hand. Sound recording presents similar mentary is based on the possibility of preserving a problems. record of actual happenings by means of the tech- In edited documentaries the decision of what to nology of film and videotape.What happens in shoot (camera shots) is based on several factors: everyday social life can be described as a behavior stream in space and across time.Filming involves 1. What the film is about. samplingchoosing to record only some eventsand 2. What's boring and what's interesting. in so doing, reducing the complexity and diversity of 3. What's aesthetically pleasing. the naturally occurring behavior stream, in which 4. What's possible to shoot. many different things happen at each moment. 5.Political concerns(e.g.,including shotsof To describe the filmmaking process we will use token minority children to show that a class- the following terms: room is integrated). 1. Camera shotThe camera shot or "take" is a Camera shots vary in width (wide-medium-closeup), continuous strip of film operationally defined in whether the framing and focus changes during the as the film exposed between the time the show or not (still, zoom in or out, dolly in or out, camera is started and stopped. move the whole camera backward or forward), pan 2. Editing shotThe editing shot is a piece of (sweep horizontally from left to right or vice versa), the camera shot with unwanted pieces cut ortilt(change vertical angle).In documentary- style shooting, it is important for the camera-person out. to get a variety of these shots. 3.Editing is the process of selecting and sequenc- From the originalfootagecontainingallthe ing editing shots. camera shots, the editor selects editing shots that (s)he can splice together in sequence to create the final 1.12 Shooting Techniques film or tape. The selection criteria are essentially the The most minimal filmmaking procedure is the same as those used in shooting, with the additional productionof continuous camera shotsthatare criterion of (1) selecting shots that are technically limited in time only by the length of the reel of film as good as possible, and (2) selecting shots that "cut" or videotape. There are three ways in which a record (edit) well together. of the complete behavior stream is inherently incom- pletemodified or distorted by the recording pro- 1.13 Editing Techniques cedure.First, there is the limitatim: of time sam- The simplest type of edit that one can use to plingthe recording device must be turned on and produce a film or tape is to select a stip of film off at discrete points. Once on, the device can only resulting from a single camera shot and then cut off record as long as the reel of tape or film lasts. Second, the parts before the beginning and after the end of there is a limitation of sensory modalityfilm and the action you want to show in the final product. A tape media are only capable of preserving an audio more complicated edit might consist of splicing two and a visual recordnot olfactory or kinesthetic ex- or more strips of film together from the same camera periences, as in firsthand observation.Third, the shot while preserving their original sequence in time. camera lens limits the angle of view that is possible This is a way of cutting out undesirable footage in in any location.There is a trade-off between the between the strips you want to keep in the film. In amount of the spatial area that is included in the a still more complicated edit, the editor will arrange angle of view, clarity of focus, and detail.It is im- the editing shots so that their sequence in film time possible for any camera to record an entire area. is different from their original sequence in real time. While a wide-angle shot would record what was This process can be refined ad infinitum until what happening across a wide visual field, a more tightly appears in the edited film or tape will bear little or

5 no resemblance to the sequence and duration of ences between research documents and edited docu- action in the original behavior stream. Furthermore, mentaries:(1) the purposes of the producers arid many films and tapes are composed of strips of foot- (2) the type and amount of editing that takes place. age that are derived from camera shots taken of many The usual goal of the researcher is to preserve a behavior streams, in many settings, at many different segment of everyday life, of a behavior stream, so times.Also, the sound that accompanies an edited that (s)he may view and review the record in order film or tape can be either synchronous (recorded at todiscover what was goingon.The researcher the same time as the picture) or non-sync. It is com- assumes that( s)he does not fully understand what mon to create the appearance of continuous action, was taking place in front of the camera. In contrast, by using real time sound (traffic noise, school play- the purpose of the producer is to present or describe ground noise) with pictures that were not recorded something, someone, or someplace to an audience. at the same time. The assumption is that the maker of the documentary 1.14 Edited Film or Tape as Interpretive Accounts fully understands what has occurred, and that the problem is to describe it clearly for someone else. You can easily see from this brief overview of the production process that thereisa vast difference The goal of the edited-documentary filmmaker is between the original behavior stream and a film or essentially that of the audiovisual journalist.The videotape that is produced from recordings of small producer has selected a subject about which (s)he segments of what actually was happening. wishes to inform an audience, as well as to con- It is important to keep in mind that any kind of vey an opinion about that subject. As with other documentary is essentially a case study. No docu- commercial media, however, there is a hidden pur- mentary case study, whether reported through the pose: to sell the resulting film or tape. This does not necessarily mean that the only reason for producing medium of print or through an audiovisual medium, documentaries is to make money. In fact, documen- is a full account of what actually happened in every- taries as opposed to fiction("feature")films and day life.All case studies are highly selective ac- videotapes (on broadcast television) are notorious counts, and any selection from life reduces its com- for financial failure. Unfortunately, the reality of the plexity and involves an interpretive point of view. business of media production is that it costs a great Selection of what is to be included in the account deal of money (more than $1000/foot of finished focuses the attention of the viewer or reader on film) to produce edited films and tapes. One way of what the film editor or writer considers to be the key gaining a return on the investment in production costs aspects of the happenings portrayed. The key aspects is to sell or rent the finished product to consumers are foregrounded, while otheraspectsare back- (audiences). This means that at each stage of the grounded.In the written case study, this is done production process the producer must be conscious through variation in descriptive scope, detail, and of what will or will not sell and must make some of emphasis. It is done in the audiovisual document by his or her decisions accordingly. The bulk of the variation in camera angles, framing, pointing of the audiovisual media production revolve microphone, and in the cutting and sequencing of decisions in around what is to be selected to appear in the finally the shots. What is judged salient and given empha- edited version of the film or tape. sis in the document depends on the editor's descriptive theory of the events being described. In edited Research documents and edited documenhries documentaries editorial selection points the viewer also differ in the type and amount of editing inyclved directly to the main message of the film or tape and in their production. Research footage often con rists to interpretive patterns for viewing and for reflecting of a continuous camera shot over the time periosl of on what is there to be seen and heard: Having one's an entire reel of film or tape, which can vary froiei visual and auditory attention directed one way or three minutes for Super 8 filmto one hour for another is an intrinsic part of the experience of view- videotape.To maximize the amount of material ing edited documents. gathered from a behavior stream many researchers employ multiple camera and microphone techniques 1.15 Comparing Edited Documents with Unedited to provide two or three audiovisual records of what or Research Footage occurred during the same time period.Even in As this handbook includes both edited documen- research footage, however, some editing or selection taries and research documents, we thought thatit takes place. The camera is turned on and off at par- might be useful to offer a comparison of the two ways ticular times, and the camera and microphone, at of using film and tape media to record everyday life any given moment, are pointed in one direction in educational settings. There are two basic differ- rather than another.In edited documentaries, as

6 we have already noted, the process is far more com- may serve to make the film more interesting or more plicated and is a great deal more radical in its elimi- entertaining to the audience. That may be crucial nation of segments of the original behavior stream to a film that is trying to make a point because it from the finished film. keeps the audience's attention, and if the filmis There are distinct advantages and disadvantages entertaining, then the audience is left with a favor- of both edited documentaries and unedited research able impression of the experience of having watched footage. The basic advantage of research footage is the film, which may in turn make the audience more that it provides the viewer with a minimally distorted inclined to agree with the point expressed in the film. document of the reality or behavior stream from Another important feature of edited films and which it was derived. It allows the viewer to examine tapes is the juxtaposition of pieces taken from many the document and to decide or discover in retrospect different behavior streamsfrom social situations oc- what was salient and what was meaningful. curring at different times and places in the setting. The greatest disadvantage of research footage is Given the complexity of educational settingsthis that itis a record of everything that occurred in can be very useful to an audience. For example, a front of the camera and it can be very tedious to film that seeks to describe a community school can watch. There may be a great deal of material that include shots from classrooms, the principal's office, istotally irrelevant to the particular inquiry of a parents' meetings, school committee meetings, and researcher. Furthermore, it is often necessary to view students' homes. this type of footage repeatedly before one can begin The disadvantage of juxtaposing shots or of in- to get a sense of what was happening. cluding shots from many situations is that one can- Another disadvantage of research footage is that not hope to include very much material from any one once one has decided what is important, it may be of the situations.Because ofthislimitationthe very difficult actually to see these things on the film particular shots taken from each behavior stream or tape.It is quite common for researchers to dis- tend to become symbolic as metaphors for what hap- cover that what they were really interested in was pened. As metaphors, they tend to derive meaning happening farthest away from the camera, or at the from preconceived notions that are shared both by side, half in and half out of the shot. the filmmakers and the audience.This gives the A similar problem of ten occurs with sound quality. viewers a biased, if not thoroughly manipulated view Typically, live classroom or office sound is very loud, of the various behavior streams. The problem here confusing, and distorted. In this case advanced tech- is that the line between the edited shot as metaphor It is nology (wireless microphones) can produce nearly and the edited shot as stereotype is a fine one. perfect sound; however, many researchers cannot important to remember when viewing a highly edited afford these systems.Further difficulty is that the film or tape that one is not deciding for one's self technological sophistication of research footageis what is important. That has already been decided often far below what the average television watcher by the editor. is used to. In research footage the bad shot, the shot A style of documentary film that became popular without sound, or the five minutes that the shot went in the 1960's is cinema verité. This purports to be a out of focus, are not edited away. They are in full spontaneous, "true" account of what actually hap- view, and may contain crucial information in garbled pens. But in this style, while the action photographed form. is unrehearsed, there is often a great deal of camera In contrast, one of the major advantages of highly editing. Close-ups and other changes of framing are Consequently, cinema verite needs to be edited, highly produced documentariesisthat for frequent. the viewer the technological problems are almost viewed as reflectively and critically as does any other nonexistent. The editor immediately discards shots form of audiovisual documentary. with poor sound, or with pictures out of focus, or shots that are for some other reason unintelligible. 1.2 USEFULNESS AND REALISM OF EDITED While this makes it easier for the audience to under- DOCUMENTARIES: SOME FINDINGS stand a film, it may also make it necessary to elimi- AND RECOMMENDATIONS FROM nate a key occurrence because it was out of focus. A PILOT STUDY Thus, the audience's access to seeing the record of 1.21 Description of the Study the original behavior stream may be limited by tech- nicalconsiderations. Moreover,shotsareoften We have provided an overview of the procedures chosen or discarded because of aesthetic considera- by which edited films and tapes are made. The tions. This aspect of the editing selection, however, discussion emphasized the selectivity that is inherent

7 in the production process. What are the effects of as possible without making the film seem too general this selectivity on viewers' perceptions of the finished in scope. What the producers say is included in the film? What other factors, in addition to the content film or tape is a function of both what is actually in of what can be seen and heard in the film itself, seem the film and what the producers' notion is of what to influence viewers' opinions of the realism and use- audiences want in the fihn.(These two are not fulness of a documentary film that portrays everyday necessarily the same, as will become apparent later life in schools? These were questions we asked in a in our discussion.) small study in which we showed finished films to After the viewers had completed their responses panels of school teachers and administrators, to the questions about the synopsis, we showed the In the study we discovered some obvious things film. At the end of the screening, we asked them to so obvious that they may have been overlooked by respond in writing to a series of questions about producers of documentary films and by those who (1) the match between their expectations and the use these films in preservice and continuing education film, (2) what they actually "got" from the film, for school professionals. Attention to some of these (3) how they thought they might be able to use the obvious points by those whose make and use edited film, and (4) whether the film seemed "real" or not. documentaries might make these films more effective After they had finished the questionnaires, a discus- as aids to education. sion was conducted by a facilitator whose profes- Our most obvious finding is that for a film to be sional background was similar to the viewers'. perceived as realistic and useful by educational prac- 1.22 Some Results titioners it should meet the expectations that viewers The results of the pilot study are by no means bring to the viewing of the film. Given a particular conclusive, but we did discover some of the factors level of experience or familiarity with a subject, and that may have affected the viewers' experiences with a particular set of goals or purposes, we have notions the films.In one case we found that a primary about what should be incladed in a set of data in problem for the viewers was the interpretation of order for these data to be useful to us. Therefore, if certain words used in the description of the film. In an edited film or tape is to be useful to a set of the context oftheirprofession(teaching)those viewers, the viewers and producers should share words have very specific meanings. Those same words matching notions of what should be included in the seemed to have had a different meaning to the writer film or tape.Similarly, depending on familiarity or of the synopsis. This difference in interpretation of experience with the subject and familiarity with the key words in the synopsis seem to have caused conventions of portrayal in edited films and tapes, a mismatch between the viewers' expectations of we all have notions of what constitutes a "realistic" what they might see in the films and what they portrayal of the subject of a documentary film or actually found. This mismatch in turn may have in- videotape. fluenced the teachers to doubt the validity of the In our study we were interested in identifying classroom events portrayed, since the film did not some of the specific factors that influenced viewers' meet their expectations of what a filmed description definitions of usefulness and realism. The study con- of that classroom setting should contain. The editing sisted of four viewing sessions in which we showed style of the film (minimal editing) also seemed to films or tapes about teaching or administration to be totally inappropriate, given the teachers' expecta- small audiences of teachers and administrators with tions.Essentially the film contained everything that at least three years of experience. The editing style was irrelevant to the teachers, and nothing that was of the film that we selected ranged from highly to important to them. minimally edited. The film synopsis claimed that the film was about Before each film we passed out the producers' children in a preschool classroom engaged in an written description of the film, asked the viewers impromptu game. The problems that the teachers to read this synopsis and then asked them to write thought might be addressed by the film were as clown a problem or problems they thought the film follows: how to teach turn-taking, how to teach rules, might address.It seemed important to consider the and how to turn impromptu activity into a learn- effect of the synopsis because that is the information ing experience. One can readily see that the teachers supplied to the catalogues upon which the consumers had very specific problems in mind. The film actually of the films base their decisions to rent or purchase showed a group of children playing with a game the products. The synopsis functions as advertising board. There was no teacher in the film and the chil- tor the film. It is in the producers' interest to make the dren were not playing the game according toits description of the film appeal to as wide an audience rules. The result of the viewing from the teachers'

8 perspective was that it seemed to be the worst film school day, including a teacher conference. Again, they had ever seen. The onlyuse they could imagine before viewing of the fihn, the teachers identified for it was to be used as an example of what not to do. relatively specific classroom management problems Clearly, from a teacher's perspective,a film about a that they hoped the film would help them to address: "classroom" should include a teacher (oneperson how to deal with parents who were there to pick up wrote, "I kept on expecting a teacher to come"). their children, how to deal with parents coming Similarly, a film about a "game" should show rules into the classroom before the class had been com- and turn-taking.Finally, a film about a game in a pleted, and how to get children on to buses with classroom should show a teacher either teaching minimal confusion. Some teachers also mentioned games to the children, or using the game to teach the problem of how to have a productive teacher something else. When we asked the teachers how conference. they would have described the film, they responded, Unfortunately, the film did not include the actual a group of children conversing." departure of the children from the classroom. Rather, A further consequence of the film's total violation it described a period of the day that the teachers of their expectations was that the teachers beganto called "clean-up" and then skipped to the teachers' doubt the validity and realism of the setting. One conference after the children had left the room. Here teacher pointed out that except for the background again the synopsis of the film had mislabeled the noise, the film could have been shot in anybody's events that actually occurred in the film. Our viewers living room. Another said that "in a real classroom, who had been interested in departure problems were a teacher would not have missed the opportunity" unable to get any help from this film. (to teach the children about colors since theywere The teachers who were interested in the teacher so obviously interested in colors). A third teacher conference were faced with different viewing prob- said that, given meager budgets for classroom mate- lems. The conference began with two teachers arriv- rials, she found it hard to believe that any teacher ing at a table and sitting down and waiting for some- would "let children play unsupervised with a game thing before they began their conference.It was with parts that could be lost." The generalconsensus never clear what they were waiting for, so everyone was that the film had been a "set-up" from beginning assumed that they were waiting to be told to begin to end, and was therefore not "real."Interestingly, by the filmmaker.This made all of the viewers this was the only film we showed to these teachers anxious and acutely aware of hoW uncomfortable it that was minimally edited; it was one continuous is to be filmed. The teachers were disappointed by camera shot.This, however, did not seem to make the content of the conference as well. They con- the teachers think of the filmas a realistic portrayal. cluded that the conference had probably been staged In fact, the editing style made the teachers more for the purpose of the film and, therefore, was not a negative toward the film than they might otherwise "real" conference. have been. From their point of view, the film seemed much too long and much too boring. As one teacher Overall, the teachers liked the second film better said, "it might have been all right if it had lasted than the first film about the board game. They were only thirty seconds." interested in the filmed teacher's teaching style and thought that it might be useful for new teachers to In sum, the teachers' evaluation of this film seems watch. They felt, however, that they would have to have been based on two factors: (1) their expecta- liked to have seen more. In particular, they were tion about what should have been in the film (based interestedinthetransitionsbetween classroom on their previous experience with that setting), and periods. They all found it odd that the film had not (2) their expectations of what they would have liked showed the announcement of the clean-up time. To to have been included in the film in order for it to them, clean-up begins with the announcement, and have been useful to them. The lack of "fit" between includes the transition as well as the subsequent the teachers' expectations and the content of the film activity of cleaning up. The omissions in this film, caused the teachers (1) to find the film to beuse- however, were not attributed to the "unreality" of less to them, (2) to doubt the validity of the filmor the classroom setting.Rather, the teachers blamed the reality of the setting, and (3) to see all of the the filmmakers for poor editing, and for "setting-up" negative aspects of the minimal editing style while the conference. not benefitting from the positive aspects of this style. In contrast to the information that emerged from A second film shown to the same teachers had these two sessions with teachers was information that some of the same problems. The film was described came from one of the viewing sessions we held for in the synopsis as being about the finishing of a pre- administrators. One of the films we showed in that

9 session was highly edited.Its synopsis described it responses written by administratorswho watched as portraying the ways one school systemworked at a film about a school pthicipal, wefound that viewers changing its administrative philosophy. The synopsis who had themselves been a principal tended to be listed ten different ways in which the film could be more critical of the film, morelikely to say that the used to stimulate discussion. In this case, the written film didn't show "what it's really like," People who material accompanying the film was so detailed that disagreed with the point of view of the film would it was confusing to all the viewers, and they were also say, "But that's not what it's really like."What- unable to answer our first question (How might this ever the meaning of "not real" was tothe viewers, film be useful to you?). they were accusing the filmmakers of deliberately concealing valuable information in the interest of After the viewing, the three administrators had convincing naive audiences of the validity ofthe three very different reactions to the film. One person point of view portrayed by the film. said that she disagreed totally with the philosophy presented in the film and would not be able to use In general, filmmaking decisionsare decisions it. She said, first of all, that many of the actual prob- about what shots to get and what .shots to include does lems of administration were left out of the film, and in the final product or case study. If the viewer (s)he will so "it wasn't real." Second, since she generallyused not agree with the filmmaker's decisiOns films (or other materials) to help her teach people say that the film "is not real." However,"not real" specific skills she could not use this film, even as a seemed to mean ci number of different things: resource for teaching by negative example.Another 1.not an actual real-life setting, viewer said that the film had sufficient scope and was 2.actual setting that had been changed by film- sufficiently realistic to be able to be used with almost maker's directions, any audience to stimulate discussion and criticism. 3.actual setting, but not all aspects of it shown This viewer agreed with the first in thinking that a in the film. great deal had been left out of the film, but thought In general, we found the following to be aspects of that the omissions were as useful as the inclusions. potentail disagreement between viewers and film- The third viewer happened, by coincidence, to have makers about what should be included in a film or tape: the film, come from the school system depicted in 1.Producers of commercial films and tapes have and to have participated in the changes described in an interest in makingdescriptions of their the film. She found the film to be totally "realistic," products appeal to as wide an audience as as it captured exactly what it hadfelt like to be in possible, to the detriment of the accuracy of that system at that time. She also said that she could the description. use the film with any group todiscuss the issues 2. Producers as outsiders to the settiggs they presented in the film. depict on film may not be familiar vOith the What we learned in this session reinforced for us way an insider would describethe setting and the importance of the goals or needs the viewer has, may through ignorance write aninaccurate as well as the importance ofthe acti -.1content of description of their film or tape, or produce an the film.In the viewing sessions with teachers, all inaccurate film or tape portrayal of the setting. of the viewers had very specific how-to questions in 3. Viewers who are familiar with the settings mind. This seems to have led to relatively specific shown in the films or tapes tend to have very expectations of content. In the viewing sessions with specific notions of what constitutes an accurate administrators, however, only one person had a need film description of the setting.If the match to see how-to. The others were interested inbroader between the viewers' expectations and the con- issues, and were generally interested in using the tent of the film is very bad, viewers may con- film to stimulate a discussion. They assumed that the clude that the setting was not "real" to begin content of the film would be heavily supplemented with. by their own input as well as that of the groups to 4. Viewers who are both familiar with a setting which they might show it. They were much less dis- and disagree with the point of view expressed turbed by what had been omitted.In fact, they in a film tend to demand more from a film believed that the omissions could be as useful to description than sympathetic viewers do.In them as the inclusions. this case, if the discrepancy is too great be- Another source of influence on viewers' definitions tween viewer expectations and what is in the of what should be in a film seems to be the amount film, the viewers may conclude that the film- of firsthand experience that a viewer has had with maker purposely omitted certain aspects of the the subject of a film: For example, in reading the scene in order to convince naive viewers.

10 1 2 5. Aside from entertainment, viewers seem to 1.3 A SHORT CATALOGUE OF EDITED DOCU- have two classes of uses for films and tapes: MENTARIES ABOUT SCHOOLS a.to learn or to teach how to do something 1.31 Basic Criterion of Selection for the Catalogue b.to stimulate a discussion. This catalogue contains films and videotapes that ( Viewers with the former type of purpose tend are edited documentaries shot in real schools, with to need a much more detailed and complete real people. As far as we know, none of the films and film than do the latter, who can use, to their tapes was staged, acted, or "faked" in any way. advantage, both inclusions in and omissions from the film.) The major purpose of the catalogue is to try to provide a centralized resource to these materials. We One last influence on an audience is the social, have tried to sift the films and tapes actually shot in spatial, and temporal context of the situation in which real schools and school related settings from the thou- the screening ,takes placePeople do not view films sands of films about "education." Thus, films or tapes in a vacuum. A normal screening includes a purpose that contain panel discussions about or interviews on for the audience, or an interpretive frame through or simulations of education will not be found in which they can understand the meaning of the film. this catalogue. While our listingis by no means For example, an audience at a feature film is there exhaustive we have tried to provide a wide variety of with the purpose of being entertained. An audience at materials. a showing of a classroom film is (presumably)there to learn from the film. At our viewing sessions, as in Although the lists are not eAlaustive they are most interview situations, the purposes were less broadly representative. The wide range of materials presented represents the diversity we found in con- clearly focused than they might have been in a natu- tacting researchers and filmmakers throughout the ralistic screening. Because of this, we felt that some country. This handbook is unusual in that it lists of the reactions to the films might have been a bit together commercial and research films and video- artificial. Any of these fiIms, if properly framed in a Unfortunately, because ofthe confidential "real" situation, might have been regarded as perfectly tapes. nature of research footage, some of it is unavailable acceptable and useful by the viewers in our study. to the public. Still it is important that educators begin To conclude, viewers' perceptions of the usefulness to get e_n idea of the vast amount of school documenta- and realism of edited documentaries seem to be tion that has been collected by reseratehers. strongly affected by viewer expectations, which are in Although we have tried to include films and tapes turn influenced by (1) the film's title and written about a wide variety of school settings, some types of synopsis, (2) the viewer's professional experience, schools and particular aspects of school settings have (3) the viewer's professional philosophy, and (4) the received more documenta,y attention from producers social situation in which the film is viewed. The per- and researchers than others. We located a large quan- son ordering a film has a great deal of control indefin- tity of materials on preschools and elementary schools, ing the social situation in which it will be seen. This classrooms, "poverty programs," and alternative pro- should be done keeping viewer expectations in mind grams. We found very little material on other grade (see further discussion in Section 2.2 Framing: How levels, non-classroom schoolsettings, and school- to Present Research Footage to Audiences, pp. 51-52). community settings. The availability of funding or the prospect of commercial success may have been The producer of the documentary film controls the content of the film and the way the film is determining factors in this emphasis on classrooms, and on a fairly narrow range of types of classrooms. described in the published synopsis. Our pilot study suggests that for edited films and tapes to be more The edited documentary films and tapes were useful to educational practitioners, producers need to located through distributor catalogues and filin- and consider (much more carefully than they currently tape-maker networks. As noted in our earlier discus- do) the expectations various types of viewers have. sion, there are several problems with locating films/ Then the producer needs to write the title and the tapes through catalogues: (1) the descriptions (adver- synopsis that identifies the film's contents, keeping in tisements) may be inaccurate, and (2) we only listed mind practitioners' expectations and commitments. films or tapes that were described as taking place in Time spent in viewing and critiqueing finished films a real school, with real children and school staff.It with educational practitioners would help documen- is possible that we missed some materials that are tary film producers develop a more accurate sense documentaries of real settings, but did not include of the perspectives of various types of practitioner that information in the description. This is somewhat audiences. unlikely, however, because authenticity is an im-

11 portant selling point. A more serious problem is the issues which may or may not have been salient for the fact that many times the production ofan edited original producer of the film. film or tape severely interferes with the normality of Because the only criterion for inclusion in this everyday life in a "real" setting and renders that life catalogue was that the documentary had to have been "unreal." shot in an actual school setting, there is great varia- Another constraint on the comprehensiveness of tion in the quality of the materials. We think, how- this set of listings is that it was compiledover a brief ever, that practically any film or tape, no matter how span of time at a particular point in time-1978-79. "bad," can be used effectively bya facilitator who uses Catalogues from the major commercial and not-for- it to teach (see Section 1.2 Pilot Study,pp. 7-11, and profit distributors were reviewed, however. Wewere Section 2.2, Framing: How to Present Research Foot- unable to view all the films listed, althoughwe did age to Audiences, pp. 51-52.Furthermore, a film view a number of the more recent ones. The annota- or tape that is regarded as terrible by one audience tions in our listings sometimes paraphrase the synopsis may be regarded as wonderful by another audience found in the distributor catalogues. Our paraphrased whose members bring a different set of expectations synopsis highlights issues addressed in this handbook; and prior experiences to the viewing. 1.32 The Catalogue' ALICEA HIGH SCHOOL JUNIOR are seen going about their science ac- 16 mm., b & w, 22 min. tivities with great independence and re- ACTING IS THE ART 1967 sponsibility. The teacher is a strong, un- 16 mm., color, 23 min. Part of the Four Students Series. This obtrusive support throughout. 1970 film presents a series of candid views of EDC one student in a number of school situa- Distribution Center This film shows the progress of fourth tions. The focus is on the student and 39 Chapel Street and fifth graders in a nine week drama the purpose is to provide individual be- Ncwtua, Mass. 02160 program. The program was sponsored by havior data for observation and analysis. the Urban Gateways Drama Workshop, The record of a typical day provides raw a Chicago Model Cities Leisure Time data rather than a series of exceptional APPROACHES TO EARLY CHILD- project. The children who participated events.It is not intended to illustrate HOOD CURRICULUM were Black residents of Chicago's west teaching methods or techniques. 16 mm., b & w, 25 min. side. Penn. State University 1968 Urban Gateways Drama Workshop Audio Visual Aids Library This film shows methods of teaching Chicago Model Cities Leisure University Park, Penn. 16802 abstract ideas to pre-kindergarten chil- Time Project dren. Uses three segments from a ghetto Chicago, Illinois 60690 ALL KINDS OF WEATHER FRIENDS pre-kindergartentodemonstrate these 16 mm,, color methods.Produced by the New York 1975 University Institutefor Developmental ADULT LEARNING LABORATORIES Studies. 16 mm,, 11 min. A documentary account of a project in 1969 the Portsmouth, New Hampshire public Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith schools where parents and grandparents 6505 Wilshire Blvd., Suite 814 This film is about the use of media and were brought into the classrooms as para- Los Angeles, Calif. 90048 other techniques in an "individualized in- professional counselors. struction" program for uneducated adults. University of Nevy Hampshire AS OUR BOYHOOD IS Itincludessome documentary scenes Audio Visual Dept. from seven New York State Adult Basic Durham, New Hampshire 03824 An accurate account of the best in edu- Education Laboratories. cation that is available for rural blacks. The film shows that there is a great deal Penn. State University AND A TIME TO DANCE yet to be done. Audio Visual Aide Library 16 mm., b & w, 10 min. University Park, Penn. 16802 A documentary about Norma Conners, A/V Services a dancer, who uses dancing to teach Reynold's Bldg. University of Kentucky AIRBORN TELEVISION: PROFILE retarded children. The film was shot in OF A SCHOOL two classrooms: one an institutional set- Lexington, Kentucky 40504 16 mm., 17- min. ting, the other a community nursery. 1962 Commonwealth Mental Health Reaearch AS THE TWIG IS BENT Foundations 16 mm., b & w, 27 min. This film tries to show how the Midwest Henry Ave. & Abbotsford Road 1964 Program on Airborn Television Instruc- Philadelphia, Penn. 19129 tion The purpose of this film is to show the hasinfluenced educationinthe contrast between a traditional teacher- Dublin Ohio Elementary School.The ANOTHER WAY TO LEARN film presents the relationship between centered curriculum and a curriculum 16 mm., b & w, 12 min. that emphasizes the learning process and the classroom teacher and the televised 1967 instruction as a "teaching team." It in- self discovery. The film was shot in cludes a survey of the use of T.V. in- This film documents an early attempt to Greenwich, Connecticut, in two upper- struction programs in the school. introduce the English "integrated day" class kindergartensone public, the other approach in an American primary class- private. Penn. State University room.It was photographed in a first Penn. State University Audio Visual Aids Library grade class in Wellesley, Massachusetts Audio Visual Aids Library University Park, Penn. 16802 that was studying science. The children University Park, Penn. 16802 11,1 the annotations, the length of running time for a whole film (10:23); five minutes = (5:00). or for its major segments is indicatedas follows: ten minutes, twenty-three seconds = 12 . AS WE SEE ITA SERIES fornia.It shows the problems encoun- Program No. 111 3/4", color, 28 min. each tered byearlyAsian-American immi- Segment 1:The School Desegregation 1976 grants to this country. Most parents re- Missed( 24:10) isthe story of an all AS 'WE SEE IT is a series of twenty-six member theirdifficulties,and do not black high school in Memphis, Tennes- half hour programs on school desegrega- want their children to leave Chinatown, see, which was not desegrated by court tion, not even for desegregated schools. The order.BookerT.Washington High J researched and written by high school students in cities and towns across young Asian-Americans, however, have School is located in an area surrounded the U.S. The series was produced by decided that they must leave in order to by housing projects. Many of the parents WTTW/Chicago. Currently, WTTW is achieve fuller lives. of the students are on welfare. The main producing another similar series to be Segment 3:Pat and Evy (4:08)is , emphasis at Booker T. is on vocational broadcast this year (1976). A program a fantasy from Portland, Oregon.Pat\ training, and the number of graduates guide is available with the series.Since discovers that she can eliminate people A,vho attend college is below the Mem- all of these programs were co-produced shedoesn't like just by snapping her phis city average. Students who attend by students and are from their own point fingers. She has so many prejudices that Booker T. are trapped. Their opportuni- ofiew, we have included fiction as well she "snaps away" everyone she knows, ties for a better life are limited.This as documentary productions. The format and finds herself alone. segment should be compared to others of each program is that of highly pro- Program No. 104 that show the positive gains made by duced television. students in desegregated schools. Segment 1: From Memphis, Tennessee, Program No. 101 comes IRD (Interracial Dating) ( 23:05). Program No. 113 Segment 1: GraduationFlashbacks Students look at social relations between Segment 1:In Where Do I Belong? (20:17) comes from Pontiac, Michigan. the races as well as between the sexes. (7:00) w e journey with e Chicago stu- In 1975 thefirst Pontiac studentsto Adult concerns frequently focus on sus- dent back to Mexico, the land of his graduate from high school after four pected romantic entanglements, but teen- roots, to explore his feelings of alienation years of school busing received their agers' own ideas about dating between toward both his present and his past diplomas. AS WE SEE IT asked some races can also vary. cultures. of them to remember the bad old days Segment 2: In Anybody Can Stereotype Segment 2: From Miami, Florida, comes of bus bu-ningand what happened to Anybody ( 254), we see how changes Cuban Dropout (19:44).It is a film theirself-perceptionsandtheirideas and differences can also mislead students. about the special problems of high school about others since then. In this segment, one Portland student students who must juggletheideas, Segment2: FromPortland, Oregon, stereotypes others, ignorant of the many values and languages of two different cul- Charlie Brown (5:00) shows in fantasy strange and distorted images they may tures. Coming from a single large com- how school desegregation can bring with have of her. munity of Spanish-speaking immigrants, it brand new ways of acting, of talking Program No. 105 virtually all of whom arrived in America and dressing.Faced with unexpected Scgment 1: Boston Story, Part 1 (26:00). after 1960,they facesingular school changes in such classroom styles, even In1965, Massachusetts passed a law problems and this film shows why. experienced teachers can be trapped into making racial balance in schools manda- Program No. 114 making foolish stereotypes. tory.But the Boston School Committee Segment 1:The Football League That Program No. 102 ( the School Board of Boston) did not move until after a group of Black parents Died (25:05) tells the story of a Harris- Segment 1: In Memphis, Tennessee, stu- went to Federal Court in 1973. Judge burg, Pennsylvania, high school which dents at Hillcrest High helped produce W. Arthur Garrity gave his decision in has a student bodymore than 50 per Trials of Richard (14:44), a film about 1974: Boston schools were illegally seg- cent black.Following a football game what happened to one black student at regated. A plan, known as Phase I, was with a white suburban school some years theirpreviouslyall-whiteschool.His begun for desegregating many schools ago, there was a fight.The Harrisburg hardest problem was learning how to beginning in September, 1974. The prob- school was put on probation and not al- cope with the stream of conflicting ideas, lems experience& at one school in South lowed to play other schools in the league. advice, and demands bombarding him Boston are highlighted in Boston Story, Football is"big" in Pennsylvania. Re- froni friends, counselors, and teachers. Part One. Concentration is on the his- actions of current students to the proba- Segment 2:Ability Grouping (10:40) torical development ofneighborhoods, tion (in Harrisburg and in the suburbs) from Evanston, Illinois, shows how the which some feel is largely responsible for are examined in this segment. assignment of students to different classes recent problems. Program No. 115 on the basis of tcst-determined academic ability can interfere with effective de- Program No. 106 Segment 1:Rights and Responsibilities sf gregation in the high school. Student Segment 1: Re-cap Boston Story, Part 1 (23:30) was made in Hickory, North co-producers explore how such tracking ( 3:00). Carolina. It is a true story, told through can result in an unhappy and unneces- Segment 2: Boston Story, Part 2 (23:00). the eyes of students, both black and sarycategorizing of high-schoolersin In September, 1975, a more thorough white. In it we see how Hickory High Evanston and elsewhere. plan for desegregation was implemented has been struggling to define and coordi- by Judge Garrity. An appraisal of many nate the roles of students, faculty and ad- Program No. 103 programs ordered by Judge Garrity, and ministrators by attempting to set up and Segment 1:Chicago students in Preju- a summary of conflicting attitudes about run a system of school governance that is dice in Humor ( 7:27) study the early use his decision, are shown.Resistance by fair to all. of ethnic humor in comic strips, films and the Boston School Committee and some parents is examined. Program No. 116 radio.The success of televisionpro- Segment 1:Students in Austin, Texas, grams featuring ethnic humor and racial Program No. 110 contributed Anderson (25:30). The film stereotypes since 1971 is explored. The Segment 1:Austin, Texas, students cc- shows us what happened when a boycott students decide that, despite the large produced Retreat (24:00). It shows how by some white parents against busing audiences who view these programs, such unpressured, healthy competition and the their children into a black neighborhood humor is hurtful and perpetuates bad challenges of rugged outdoor living can forced Anderson High to close. Looking feelings and misunderstanding. encourage understandingand honesty back, the loss of Anderson to whites as Segment 2:Locked in These ROOM about school and about group relation- well as to blacks, wes a serious and per- (13:08) comes from San Francisco, Cali- ships outside of school. haps an irretrievable one.

13 Program No. 117 vve see how it can be especially oppres- BEYOND THE NIGHT Segment 1:Chicago students discuss in sive for Hispanic teenagers. 16 inm., 29 min. Bigotry (4:45) how their lives are affect- 1964 ed by prejudice. We find out that people ASPIRA A documentary about the education and with similar cultural backgrounds have 16 mm. life of blind children at the Washington prejudices against each other, as well as Latino youth produced this film to say State School for the Blind. The film fol- against'those with widely different back- to their parents that despite the anglo lows one child over a period of three grounds. . school systemthe kids aren't dumb. ye.rs. Segment 2:Six Students From Mem- Ethnicity in Chicago Project Washington State School for the Blind phis( 20:30 )takes us to the South.In OIRD Filmmaking P.O. Box 1679 some parts of this region, more students 304 Douglas Hall Vancouver, Wash. 98668 have been attending private schools and University of IllinoisChicago Circle academies than go topublicschools. Box 4348 Chicago, Ill. 60680 BIENVENIDOSLEARNING The program examinesand compares ENGLISH AS A SECOND what lifeislikefor students at both LANGUAGE types of schools in Memphis, Tennessee. BALANCING 12 min., silent, color 16 mm., b & w, 40 min. Program No. 120 BONES 1962 Segment1: Hickory, North Carolina, 14 min., silent, coler This film follows the efforts of a teacher, students peeform a stage production in Dorothy Welch, a scienceteacherin a non-English-speaking coordinator and Hickory High Island( 25:30 )depicting Hollis, New Hampshire, made these two a Spanish-speaking auxiliary teacher to the problems faced by their school when films showing fifth and sixth grade stu- teach English to a group of non-English it was desegregated. Isolation of races is dents engaged in activities based on ESS speaking Puerto Ricans in New York still the norm in this small southern city, units Balancing and Bones. In Balancing City. but the students work together at the some students make mobiles, while others New York City Board of Education performance to improve conditions. work with homemade equal-arm and pan New York, New York 10007 balances and an array of improvised Attention: Film Distribution Office Program No. 121 equipment. In the film Bones, the chil- Segment 1:From Stockton, California, dren assemble skeletons of a chicken, rac- BLACK AND WHITE TOGETHER? conies What Happens When It Works? coons, and a horse. They also make a 16 mm., b & w, 58 min. (14:30).The film documents another replica of a human skeleton out of classroom supplies. In both films, the children Thisfilmdocuments an experimental true story of a group of high schoolers project called WILL. For 6 weeks black who spearheaded a successful city-wide are absorbed and self-sufficient as they go and white students from Atlantic City, effort to prepare for school desegregation, about their work. New Jersey, try to come to terms with and then made it work for everybody. Educational Development Center the meaning of racism by living together. We seehoweffectiveplanning and 39 Chapel Street The film ends with the students challeng- smooth teamwork prevent major prob- Newton, Mass. 02160 ing the premise of the experience. lems and solve lesser "hassles." Indiana University Segment 2:Wichita, Kansas, students THE BEGINNING OF A TOTAL GROUP Audio-Visual Center in No More Lunchsacks For Me (11:34) Bloomington, Indiana 47401 show how a free school lunch program 16 mm., 1/2" video, 3/4" cassettes, for low income families affects desegre- color, 16 mM. gation. A problem develops as the father 1974 A BLIND TEACHER IN A PUBLIC refuws to allow his daughter to accept This film illustrates the educational phi- SCHOOL the free lunch, not wanting to be identi- losophy of Lenore Wilson. She believes 16 mm., color, 23 min. fied with "welfare" poor blacks who re- that children want to play out adult life. 1/2" and " video ceive the same lunch. The film shows her teaching a classroom This film shows how David Ticchi, blind of five year olds at the Nueva Day School since birth, carries out his activities as Program No. 123 andLearningCenter,analternative a full time teacher of seventh-grade Eng- Segment 1:Rumors (14:20) from Port- school in Hillsborough, Ca.It includes lish.The film/tape was produced by land, Oregon, shows a class of students candid scenes and children working on Henry Felt and David Ticchi as a part playing the old game of "telephone." a building project. of Ticchi's dissertation at Harvard Uni- Periodicallythe camera cuts away to ( See also: PLAY IS THE WORK OF versity. graphically illustrate the realities of de- CHILDREN: AN ALTERNATIVE) International Film Bureau segregated Jefferson High, as contrasted Extension Media Center 332 South Michigan Avenue with the false rumors of fights, mistrust University of California Chicago, Ill. 60604 and violence at the school. Berkeley, Calif. 94720 Segment 2:In Black History (3:00), BEING ME THE BRITISH INFANT SCHOOL student co-producers fromHarrisburg, SOUTHERN STYLE Pennsylvania, consider whether their high 16 mm., 13 mM. schools should give special emphasis to 1969 16 mm., color, 30 min. the contributions made by blacks and A film that documents a creative dance This film shows open education at work otherminoritiestoAmericanhistory. class for nine black and white girls aged in two schools:the East Harper School Some say yes, while others favor includ- 8 to 13 at the Pasadena Art Museum. No in Lenoir, North Carolina, and the Kid- ing such information in the regular cur- formal instruction is given and there is dlington County Infant's School in Ox- riculum. no attempt to elicit stylized movements. fordshire, England. The film is a kaleide- Segment 3:Set in Chicago, Sex Dis- The teacher, Ililda Mulen, believes that scope of action, sound and color, pre- crimination ( 8:25) focuses on the prob- movement forms the matrix from which senting a candid, close-up look at these lems of Latino high school girls in Amer- the child organizes and experiences her- open classroom programs.It is straight- ica, particularlywithfirst-generation self. forward and unstaged. parents and with young male peers.If Extension Media Center Prometheus Films South sexism is a newly-understood problem for University of California P.O. Box 26363 Birmingham, Alabama 35226 girls and women everywhere, in this film Berkeley, Calif. 94720 1 6 14 BUSING: A ROUGH RIDE IN the development of an American open project to identify and change sex stereo- SOUTHIE classroom and the adaptation of British types. 16 mm., color, 28 min. practices. Extension Media Center A behind the scenes report on the people Educational Devlopment Center University of CaliforniaBerkeley who were affected by court-ordered bus- Distribution Center Berkeley, Calif. 94720 ing in the desegregation of the public 39 Chapel Street schools in Boston, Mass. The film focuses Newton, Mass. 02160 CHILDREN AS PEOPLE on the busing of black children to an all whiteneighborhoodcalled"Southie" THE CHALLENGE OF CHANGE 16 mm., b & w, 28 mM. or 85 mM. where residents were vehemently and 16 mm., color, 30 mM. 1971 violently opposed to the busing order. 1962 Thisfilmisabout theFayerweather Kaufman & Boyce Productions This film is about a training program at Street School, an alternative primary to P.O. Box 283 the Teacher's College of Columbia Uni- 8th school in Cambridge, Mass. Shot in Allston, Mass. 02134 versity in New York City. The film shows a "cinema verite" style, the film tries to the effect that teachers, principals, coun- convey what going to this type of school selors and other specialists can have in is like for children. Shows many class- CALIFORNIA PROJECT TALENT room activities and includes interviews A SERIES revealing the potential of individual students. with the principal and a parent. 16 mm., b & w, 29 min. 28 min. version: 1966 Columbia University Teacher's College Library Polymorph. Films, Inc. This series is about the Los Angeles City Columbia University 331 Newbury Street Schools' Enrichment Demonstration Cen- New York, New York 10027 Boston, Mass. 02115 ter.Each of the 14 films shows a class session based on a courseoutlinein 35 min. version: Enrichment Programs for Intellectually A CHANCE AT THE BEGINNING United Church of Christ Gifted Student. The series consists of 16 mm., color, 29 mM. Office of A/V the following: This film is about a pre-school for "dis- United Church Press 1.Knowledge advantaged" black children in Harlem. 1505 Race Street The schoolis supervised by the New Philadelphia, Penn. 19105 2. Comprehension York 3.Application University Institute for Develop- 4.Analysis mental Studies. All aspects of the pre- CHILDREN DISCOVER THE 5.Synthesis school program are shown in the film. WORLD: CHILDHOOD, THE 6.Evaluation Modern Talking Picture Service TIME OF DISCOVERY 7. Cognition 1212 Avenue of the Americas 16 mm., color, 21 min. New York, New York 10020 8. Memory This film is about the Idyllwild School 9.Convergent Thinking A CHANCE FOR A CHANGE of Music and the Arts. It shows children 10. Divergent Thinking from age 3 to age 12 using various art 11.Evaluation 16 mm., b & w, 39 mM. 1965 forms to gain and express understanding 12.Acquisition about themselves and the world. 13. Transformation This film follows the everyday activities 14.Evaluation inacommunity controlledHeadstart Idyllwild Arts Foundation Center in poor, black, rural Mississippi. Box 38 Acme Film Labs, Inc. Idyllwild, Calif. 92349 1101 N. Highland Ave. Thefilmincludesclassroomevents, Hollywood, Calif. 90038 teachers' meetings, outdoor activities and one parent-school meeting. CHILDREN OF SYNANON THE CARING CENTER McGraw-Hill Textfilms 16 mm., b &w 16 mm. or 1/2", 7 hours 1221 Avenue of the Americas This is a cinema verite documentary that New York, New York 16020 1976 explores the lives of children who live at Synanon while their parents are under- The Caring Center shows a day in the A CHANCE TO LEARN going alcohol and drug rehabilitation. life of a child whose neurological dis- 1965 ability Film includes scenes from the educational alienates him from hisschool- programs provided for the children. mates in elementary school.It shows his Shows a variety of learning situations in change in an environment that reinforces which very poor children must try to S-L Film Productions hisabilities.The Caring Center is an learn. The film was shot in Appalachia, P.O. Box 41108 after-schoolcenterforchildrenwith Chicago, Baltimore slums, oil-fields and Los Angeles, Calif. 90041 learningdisabilitiesandneurological ranges in Oklahoma and a Louisiana handicaps, bayou. Kids are shown in trailers, church locatedinBerkeley,Calif. basements, CIHLDREN OF TIIE SILENT NIGHT The tape was made to play back to chil- armories, warehouses,one- 16 mm., color, 27 mM. dren and parents of the school.( See room schools, etc. Made by the National 1961 Education Association. also: THE CIRCLE in this section.) This film documents the blind-deaf de- Manuel Gonzales National Education Association partment of the Perkins Institute for the 1707 North Maple Division of Press, Radio & Television Blind located in Watertown, Mass. Fresno, Calif. 9:3701 Relations 1201 16th Street, N.W. Campbell Films Washington, D. C. 20036 Academy Avenue CENTER SCHOOL Saxtons River, Vermont 05154 16 mm., b & w, 22 min. CHANGING IMAGES: This film was made over a period of CONFRONTING CAREER CHILDREN WITHOUT three years in an experimental classroom STEREOTYPES 16 mm., b & w, 29 min. in Bedford, Mass. The film concentrates 16 mm., 16 min. 1964 on the third year, while scenes from the This film shows a skillful and sensitive This film documents.the efforts of com- first year are shown for comparison. This teacher leading her racially mixed class munity leaders and teachers to do some- filmis unique inits documentation of of third and fourth graders through a thing about the emotional, psychological,

15 1 7 social and physical needs of children liv- A COMMUNITY NURSERY SCHOOL THE CREATIVE KINDERGARTEN ing in a slum area of Detroit, Michigan. 16 mm., b & w, 40 min. A PILOT STUDY OF THE PRE- It also includes a dramatized experience 1966 VENTION OF FAILURE IN EARLY EDUCATION of oot little girl who attends the school. This film is about the Yorktown Com- National Education Association munity Nursery School It describes the 16 mm., color, 40 min. Division of Press, Radio & establishment and operation of the school 1970 Television Relations as well as the experiences of the children This is a film showing the execution of 1201 Sixteenth St., N.W. at the school and the relationships they an individualized program for children Washington, D. C. 20036 form with teachers and participating in which the teacher works with each parents. child at his or her own pace. The teachers CHOOSING TO LEARN also try to suit the particular learning New York University Film Library tasks to the child so that the lessons will 16 mm., color, 26 min. 26 University Place be personally meaningful and interest- 1970 New York, New York 10003 ing. The film was shot in the Mt. Diablo This filmis about the World Inquiry Unified School District in Concord, Cali- School in Rochester, New York, which is fornia. a public integrated Title III alternative COMMUNITY SCHOOLS CAN'T school. The film shows children from a STAND STILL S-I Film Productions variety of backgrounds going about their 16 mm., b & w, 40 min. P.O. Box 41108 normal classroom routines: they make 1966 Los Angeles, Calif. 90041 their own learning decisions, they work This film is about the efforts of two rural on an informal basis with teachers, and Wisconsin Conununitiestoreorganize CURRICULUM DESIGNED SCHOOLS they share work and help one another. their school districts. It shows the educa- Penn. State University tional changes that resulted from their A documentary about three open high Audio Visual Aids Library reorganization. schools in Montgomery County, Tennes- University Park, Penn. 16802 Mass Media Ministries see. 2116 North Charles Street Educational Planning Services Baltimore, Maryland 21218 The School of Education CINDER CITY PLUS 6 2084 Haley Center 16 mm., color, 14 min. Auburn University 1966 CONCHO Auburn, Alabama 36830 A film about kids making films. It shows 16 mm., color, 28 min. children ages 6 to 16 planning and pro- 1970 ducing seven short animated films at the A DAY AT NEW MOON SCHOOL This film is about the Concho School, a 1/2", b & w, 27 min. Yellow Ball Workshop. boarding schoolforNative American Yellow Ball Workshop children, operated by the U.S. govern- 1977 62 Tarbell Avenue ment in Concho, Oklahoma. The film In this tape video artist Parry Teasdale Lexington, Mass. 02173 tries to portray the problems that the traces a day at New Moon School in Cheyenne-Arapaho students encounter at chronological order. New Moon isa THE CIRCLE the school. small, privateschoolintheCatskill University of Oklahoma Mountains of New York State.It wu 16 mm. or 1/2" tape, b & w founded and is now run by two sisters. 1976 Audio Visual Services 650 Farrington Oval 109 The school has an enrollment of about This film /tape was shot at the Caring Norman, Oklahoma 73089 30 pre- and primary school children, half Center in Berkeley, Calif. The Caring of whom stay all day. The tape reveals Center is an after-school center for chil- the way the school works by observing dren with learning disabilities and neuro- COUNTRY SCHOOL the children and the teachers.It also logical handicaps. The Circle shows how 16 mm., b & w, 14 min. allows the women who operate it to ex- a child with learning disabilities learns 1960 plain a little of their educational philoso- how to describe a circle and then moves phy. The tape is a close-up view of what proudly on to writing an "A." The film/ This film depicts life in a one-room, one- school alternative education can ( and probably tape is 15 minutes of live footage with a teacher,independent,country should) be.( Outtakes available) narrationinSpanish andinEnglish The film shows the responsibilities of the which expands on the school's concept teacher,the curriculum,the physical Parry D. Teasdale of teaching. facilities,and the"typical" youngster % Media Bus who attends this type of school. Box 418 Manuel Gonzalez Lanesville, New York 12450 1707 North Maple Western Illinois University Fresno, Calif. 93703 Office of Instructional Technology Muconis, Illinois 61455 THE DAY THEY HAD TO CLOSE CLOUD 9 THE SCHOOLS CREATIVE IMAGINATION 16 mm., b & w, 24 min. 16 mm., color, 29 min. ENGLISH 1971 Filmed at the Cardozo Model School Dis- 16 mm., 44 min. This film depicts the dilemma of Ross trict in Washington, D. C. in 1968, the 1962 film shows scenes of teachers and fifth- High School in Fremont, Ohio, as it is grade students as they respond to the This film shows an unrehearsed complete caught in the squeeze between growing assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King, class session in which the teacher leads voter resentment toward the educational jr., using materials developed by the stu- his students to think creatively about a bureaucracy, their resistance to higher dents themselves. problem that is important to thema property taxes and the fact of the rising definition of the democratic man. costs of public education. Educational Development Center Distribution Center Penn. State University BFA Educational Media 39 Chapel Street Audio Visual Aids Library 2211 Michigan Avenue Newton, Mass. 01260 University Park, Penn. 16802 Santa Monica, Calif. 90404

18 DESK FOR BILLIE a confrontation between two groups of Planning for change 16 mm. fourth graders.The groups are given 16 mm., b & w, 22 min. This film is the true story of a migrant conflicting sets of background material so This is the story of one school's at- worker's child who struggles to get an that they might discover that controver- tempt todifferentiatetheroles of education at the public schools. sial issues often have no clear or immedi- teachers in order to improve instruc- National Education Association ate answers. tion. Filmed in an elementary school Division of Press, Radio and Penn. State University in the ethnically and racially mixed Television Relations Audio Visual Aids Library Lower East Side of Manhattan, it 1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W. University Park, Penn. 16802 documents the way in which teachers Washington, D. C. 20036 attempted to gain support from their DIVERSITY IN THE CLASROOM colleagues and from parents in the DIARY OF A STUDENT A SERIES community for their program. REVOLUTION 16 mm., 60 min. BEING DUMB ... ITS NO GOOD Role expectations for teachen 1969 FIVF OPINIONS ON EDUCATION 16 mm., b & w, 5 min. Shows the confrontation between student S BEEN A COMPROMISE This film illustrates the range of expectations for teachers and schools that radicals and administration at the Uni- PLANNING FOR CHANGE versityofConnecticut.Simultaneous existsinanycommunity.Parents, filming of both sides shows opposing phi- ROLE EXPECTATIONS FOR teachers,students, other community losophies and strategies. The film ques- TEACHERS members, and a curriculum devloper tions whether repressive action justified WHO SHOULD DECIDE? PHOENIX comment on what and how teachers demonstration. WHO SHOULD DECIDE? NEW should teach. Indiana University YORK CITY Who should decide? Phoenix Audio Visual Center Thesefilmswere produced by EDC 16 mm., b & w, 4 min. Bloomington, Indiana 47401 School and Society Programs. They explore the range of values and opinions Who should decide? New York City DICKA 5TH GRADER that exists among members of any school 16 mm., b & w, 8 min. 16 mm., b & w, 21 min. community concerning what should be These films illustrate the diversity of 1967 taught, how it should be taught, and who positions concerning who has a legiti- ( Part of the Four Students Series ) should decide the curriculum. Designed mate right to influence decisions about The filmpresents a seriesof candid for use in service and preservice teacher education. views of one student in a number of education, these films are also of use to school situations.The focus is on the administrators and parent groups. A DREAM TO LEARN student and the purpose isto provide Educational Development Center 16 mm., 28 min. individual behavior data for observation Distribution Center and analysis. The record of a typical day This film is about a cultural enrich- 39 Chapel Street ment programforblackchildrenin provides raw data rather than a series of Newton, Maine 02160 exceptional events. It is not intended to grades 1-6 in the Roxbury District of Boston, Mass. illustrate teaching methods or techniques. Being dumb ... it's no good Penn State University 16 mm., b & w, 20 min. Columbia University Press Center for Mass Communication Audio Visual Aids Library Tony, an eighth-grade student, is the University Park, Penn. 16802 1125 Amsterdam Avenue subject of this film portrait. The film New York, New York 12120 DIGGING FOR BLACK PRIDE depicts the views held by Tony's par- 16 mm., color, 19 min. enb, his teachers, school principal, and THE EASTVILLE EXPERIENCE peers about a "good student," as well 16 mm., color, 28 min. This film is about a project to teach poor as their expectations for Tony, both in black children about the artifacts of their school and in the future. The develop- This film is designed to try to help own cultural roots. Shot in the Bedford- ment of a composite of their images of teachersand administrators who are Stuyvesant area of Brooklyn, the film Tony is contrasted with Tony's own thinking of implementing an individual portrays the children finding an artifact. perspectives on his present role as a izted instruction program in their schools. Indiana University student and his future in the adult If attempb to show the experience of the Audio Visual Center world. Eastville School, a K-6 elementary school Bloomington, Indiana 47401 in Greenville, Tennessee. Five opinions on education Educational Planning Services DISCOVERY 16 mm., b & w, 7 min. The School of Education 16 mm., color, 21 min. Several parents, teachers, and students 2084 Haley Center 1967 in a public elementary school in the Auburn University This is a film about elementary school ethnically varied Lower East Side of Auburn, Alabama 36830 pupils and their teachers going to live Manhattan discuss education. The film and learn at the Tennessee Valley Au- highlights the diversity of views about EDUCATION BY CHOICE thority's Conservation Education Center. purposes and methods of education 16 mm., color, 29 min. Tennessee Valley Authority that exist in this school community. This documentary traces the develop- Film Services ment of the Education by Choice Pro- P.O. Box 1050 It's been a compromise gram in a Quincy, Illinois high school. 500 Union Avenue 16 mm., b & w, 15 min. In this program pioneered by the Quincy Knoxville, Tennessee 37902 Dianne is a beginning teacher in an II 'high school, studenb were offered internship program. This film, showing seven separate schools within the school. DISCUSSING A CONTROVERSIAL the diverse expectations of her college The film probes the relations of partici- ISSUE instructor,students,an experienced pants and gives dozens of ideas on edu- 16 mm., 19 min. teacher, and the principals of two cational pluralism. 1968 schools in which she works, reveals the Media 5 This film made by the School Research dilemma and ambiguities that face a 3211 Cahuenga Blvd. West Unit of Penn. State University, is about teacher attempting to define her role. Hollywood, Calif. 90068

17 1 9 THE END OF A MORNING THE FONTANA STORY identities.It was filmed in a "typical" 16 mm., b & w, 16 min. 16 mm., color, 20 min. Southern California public school. Taken at Hilltop Head Start Center in This film documents the efforts of two Judith Pacht Roxbury, Massachusetts, this film shows elementary schools in Fontana, Calif., to 10218 Chrysanthemum Lane a classroom of four-year-olds completing join forces with a publisher to tryto Los Angeles, Calif. 90024 their morning's activities.A finalseg- teach their children to read. ment shows teachers talking about how International Communication Co. FROM DREAM TO REALITY the day went. 244 Thorn Street Educational Development Center Sewickly, Penn. 15143 16 mm., color, 17 min. 39 Chapel Street 1970 Newton, Mass. 02160 FOR ALL MY STUDENTS This film documents how Southern Illi- nois University at Edwardsville expanded 16 mm., 36 min. EXCEPTIONAL CHILD EDUCATION itseducational programsfor minority The film shows the particular problems 16 mm., color, 40 min. groups beyond the confines of the cam- and rewards of teaching black high school pus. The film explains the effects of the This film tells the story of a special pro- students.It contrasts poor and effective new programs on participants.It is in- gram developed by the College of Edu- teaching methods in integrated situations tended for university administrators and cation of Florida Atlantic University. The in the classroom. It follows the histories laypeople who are interested in imple- program serves the educational needs of of several students.The students talk menting similar programs. the retarded children in the Boca Raton about their feelings almut the school, the schools as well as the training needs of teachers and themselves. The teachers Southern Illinois University the university students entering special also discuss their feelings and convic- Edwardsville, Illinois 62026 education programs. tions.The film was shot in a ghetto Florida Atlantic University high school in Palo Alto. GASES AND "AIRS" IN THE College of Education Extension Media Center CLASSROOM Boca Raton, Florida 33432 University of California 16 mm., b & w, 32 min. Berkeley, Calif. 94720 1965 EYE OF THE STORM This film demonstrates an experimental In a small, all-white Midwestern com- FOUR CHILDREN classroom technique for teacher training. munity, a third grade teacher imposes 3/4" video cassette, b & w, 20 min. It shows children in a sixth grade class racial prejudice on her class as a special 1972 as they work on experiments relating to two day course.She announces that A documentary about four headstart chil- gases and their interactions with other children with blue eyes are superior and dren. substances. The film shows the independ- will have privileges.The film records U.S. National A /V Center ence of the children and the teacher's the frustrations, animosity and fear that National Archives and Records Service role.Shot in a sixth-grade classroom in soon pervade class ground.After io Washington, D. C. 20408 Weston, Connecticut, it features teacher days, they switch statuses. The children Paul Merrick. seem to quickly adapt. FOXFIRE Educational Development Center Extension Media Center 39 Chapel Street University of California 16 min., color, 26 mM. Newton, Mass. 02160 Berkeley, Calif. 94720 1973 This filmisabouta young English teacher in a Georgia high school who gets GEORGE WASHINGTON HIGH THE FIGHT FOR BETTER SCHOOLS disenchanted studentsto work on the SCHOOL ANNEX"THE GOOD, 16 mm., 21 min. production of a magazine about the life THE BAD, AND THE BORING" The dramatic story of how the citizens and crafts of rural Appalachians. & "THE ANNEX EXPERIENCE" of Arlington County, Virginia, worked to Foxfire Project 1/2", b & w, 20 mM. improvethequalityoftheirpublic National Endowment for the Arts 1971-1972 schools.The filmconcentrates on the Washington, D. C. 20565 nature of the problems they confronted Video artist Parry Teasdale worked with and how they were solved. a professional photographer and a teacher FREE TO BE tointroducetheteacher's ninth-grade U. of Minnesota & U. of Penn. 1/2" or ", b & w, 28 mM. English class at Washington Heights to Audio Visual Library modern media. Washington Heights is a Minneapolis, Minn. 55455 This tape describes the Atkinson School, middle school in a racially and ethnically an alternative elementary school, solely mixed area of Manhattan. The students THE FIRST DAY supported by parents ( on a sliding scale produced their own programs with vary- according to means ) and donations, in 16 mm., b & w, 35 min. ing degrees of guidance. These two tapes Rochester, N. Y. The tape was made for were shown in school and on cable T.V. 1972 cablecast, broadcast and for use by the This film documents incidents froni the in New York City. school in explaining their philosophy at Media Bus first day of school in the lower school of this"Icid"-centeredschool. ( Outtakes the Massachusetts Experimental School Box 418 available ) Produced by John Kavanaugh. Lanesville, New York 12450 System. These schools were established Portable Channel, Inc. to act as a laboratory for the state De- 8 Prince Street partment of Education to develop educa- A GET OFF tional innovations for the public schools Rochester, New York 14607 of Massachusetts.The start-up process 16 mm.,b&w of an urban open school and a staff dis- FRIDAY 1971 cussion among the teachers are shown. 16 mm., 5 min. A documentary film dealing with first Educational Development Center FRIDAY reports the effects of the teach- grade chili,lren in a Harlem ghetto school. 39 Chapel Street ers and school organization on children Barry W. Serben Newton, Mass. 02160 who are trying to discover theirOwn New York, New York 10001

18 2 0 GETTING IT ALL TOGETHER views with black staff.A state official the history of blacks and browns who 16 nun., color, 2 min. explains why the funds were cutoff. provoke student attacks on the teaching This film is about an innovative public (Made by NET) system. elementary schoolin Palo Alto,Cali- National Educational Television, Inc. San Francisco Newsreel fornia. Indiana University 450 Alabama Street Media 5 Bloomington, Indiana 47401 San Francisco, Calif. 94110 3211 Cahuenga Blvd. West Ilclly wood, Calif. 90068 HERE AND NOW 16 mm., color, 30 min. HIGH SCHOOL TEAM TEACHING: THE FERRIS STORY GLIMPSES OF THE WORKERS A hidden camera view of a foUrth-grade EDUCATION PROGRAM IN class session that is being observed by 16 mm., color, 26 min. FLORIDA an observer. This film explains the planning and ex- 16 mm., b & w, 17 min. perimental stagesof a team teaching 1937 Yale Divinity School Visual Education Service program in the new Ferris High School A documentary from the past. This film, 59 High Street in Spokane, Washington. made in 1937, shows classes and recrea- New Haven, Conn. 06520 BFA Educational Media tionalactivitiesat workers camps for 2211 Michigan Avenue girlsoperated by the Department of HEY, LOOK AT MEl Santa Monica, Calif. 90404 Works Projects Administration. 16 mm., color, 12 min. 1970 GREGAN EIGHTH GRADER HORIZON OF HOPE 16 mm., b & w, 21 min. A film about a visual literacy program in 16 mm., color, 15 min. 1967 Appalachia that includes filmmaking by 1972 elementary schoolchildren.The film ( Part of the Four Students Series ) shows children with cameras recording A film about the special school at the Thisfilm presents a seriesof candid UCLA Neuro-psychiatric Institute where views of one student in a number of their surroundingsthey gain new self researchers and teachers ate trying to confidence and increased self-awareness. help kids with learning disabilities. school situations.The focusis on the Penn. State University student and the purpose isto provide Extension Media Center Audio Visual Aids Library individual behavior data for observation University Of California and analysis. The record of a typical day University Park, Penn. 16802 Berkeley, Calif. 94720 provides raw data rather than a series of exceptional events.It is not intended to HEY! WHAT ABOUT US? illustrate teaching methods or techniques. 16 turn., color, 15 min. HOT LUNCH 1974 Penn. State University 16 mm., color, 14 min. Audio Visual Aids Library This is a film about sex-role stereotyping 1972 University Park, Penn. 16802 in elementary schools. It includes physi- A film about the management of a hot cal education classes, playground games, lunch program in Akron, Ohio. The film GUIDING BEHAVIOR and boisterous classroom behavior.It includes the reactions of the children 16 mm., b & w, 20 min. was shot in elementary school settings. and the principal. In this filmthe camera has captured Extension Media Center Modern Talking Picture Service a number of actual behavior situations University of California 1212 Avenue of the Americas that frequentlytrouble nursery school Berkeley, Calif. 94720 New York, New York 10036 teachers. HIGH SCHOOL Churchill Films 16 mm., b & w, 74 min. HOW CHILDREN LEARN 662 N. Robertson Blvd. 1969 16 mm., color, 23 min. Los Angeles, Calif. 90069 A documentary by Frederick Wiseman 1972 An NBC documentary survey of schools HE COMES FROM ANOTHER ROOM about a"cafeteria"-typeschool. The film deals with the ideology and values which are beginning to focus on learning ( One to Grow On Series) of a large urban high school as seen environments rather than teaching en- 16 mm., color, 28 min. vironments.Includes scenes from tradi- 1973 through encounters betweenstudents, teachers and parents in guidance sessions, tional elementary schools, experimental This film documents the transition of two collegecounseling,discipline,faculty junior high acid old urban schools. emotionally handicapped children from meetings, corridor patrol, the gymnasium NBC specialized to regular third grade classes. and classroom activities. 30 Rockefeller Plaza Chris, a young black, is shown just as he New York, New York 10020 makes the move. David, a young white Zipporah Films who exhibits some symptoms of autism, 54 Lewis Wharf is further along in the process and is fol- Boston, Mass. 02110 HOW'S SCHOOL, ENRIQUE? lowed as he cautiously tests himself in a " video cassette, color, 18 min. larger environment.The filmincludes HIGH SCHOOL OPINIONS Ye reel to reel video, b & w, 10 min. A tape about the problems of Mexican- both the classroom and fieldtrip scenes. Americans in a hostile society, and in It tries to show how both regular and A tape of interviews with Lakeview High American public schools. special needs teachers cope with special School students shot in the school. needs kids. Instructional Media Services, Inc. Alternative Schools Network P.O. Box 1010 Extension Media Center Video Project Hollywood, Calif. 90068 University of California 1105 West Lawrence, Room 210 Berkeley, Calif. 94720 Chicago, Illinois 60640 THE HUMANITY OF TEACHING HEADSTART IN MISSISSIPPI HIGH SCHOOL RISING 16 mm., 29 min. 16 mm., b & w, 60 mM. 16 mm., b & w, 15 min. A study of positive relationships in the The film shows scenes of children in A film about the politics of high school classroom and how they can strengthen Headstart classes.Also includes inter- narcotics agents and the distortion of the climate for effective, natural disci-

19 2i pline, rewarding both teacher and stu- cago's inner city. The program stresses are divided into Alphas, who follow a dents withsatisfying andproductive the student's ability to make decisions'conventional work schedule, and Omegas, existence. about what they want to learn, an atmos- who plan their own use of thne in a Media 5 phere of community at the school, and "contract" system with the teacher. 3211 Cahuenga Blvd. West the extensive use of contemporary media Extension Media Center Hollywood, Calif. 90068 as learning tools. University of California Saint Mary's High School Berkeley, Calif. 94720 I AIN'T PLAYIN' NO MORE 2044 W. Crenshaw Chicago, Illinois 60612 16 mm., b & w, 61 min. INNER CITY SCHOOLMY FIRST 1970 TEACHING ASSIGNMENT THE IMPACT OF A TEACHER'S A documentary about the Morgan Com- 16 mm., b & w, 20 min. munity School in Washington, D. C. The BEHAVIOR ON LEARNERS AND LEARNING 1973 Morgan isa public elementary school (Prom: The Human Relations One withan enrollmentof60 primarily 16 n.m., 71 min. minority children. The film shows clacs- 1969 Dimension of Teaching Series) rooms, teachers meetings, parent meet- An unrehearsed teaching demonstration The film follows Rose Brady, a first year ings and follows Principal Ken Haskins forinservice and preserviceteachers. teacher, through a typical day with her around the school. Two instructional modes are used to em- racially mixed sixth-grade class of 27 stu- Educational Development Center phasize the finpact of verbal and non- dents. 39 Chapel Street verbal behavior barriers. The film was Indiana University Newton, Mass. 02160 made to stimulaie teacher self-eva/uation. Audio-Visual Center Penn. State University Bloomington, Indiana 47401 I AM HERE TODAY Audio Visual Aids Library 16 mm., b & w, 43 mM. University Park, Penn. 16802 INNOVATIONS IN PRE-SCHOOL 1969 EDUCATION FOR DISADVAN- A cinema verité description of the in- IN A CLASS BY HIMSELF TAGED CHILDRENA SERIES tegrated day approach to education at 16 ram., color, 27 Min. 16 mm., color the Shady Hill School in Cambridge, This documentary examines the logic, the 1967 Mass. The film was made in a classroom philosophy and the day to day details Reading: 20 min. of 5-, 6-, and 7-year-olds towards the of successfully creating an informal in- I. end of the school year. dividualized approach to classroom in- U. Language: 28 min. Educational Development Center struction. III.Arithmeties: 30 min. 39 Chapel Street Media 5 Each of three films shows an actual class Newton, Mass. 02160 3211 Cahuenga Blvd. West of 4- or 5-year-olds being taught basic Hollywood, Calif. 90068 skills in one of the three areas. Film II I AM THE PRINCIPAL OF THIS Languagecompares a class of 4-year- INCIDENT ON WILSON STREET olds who have never been to school with SCHOOL a class that has been in the program 16 mm., b & w 16 mm., b & w, 51 min. 1965 for seven months. Film IIIArithmetic-- 1978 features a Carl Bereiter and Siegfried This filmisa re-edit made from the This film is about the use of guidance Englemann program. outtakesofIAIN'T PLAYIN' NO techniquesas a school-wide mode of MORE. This film focuses on Ken Has- operation to overcome the problems of Pennsylvania State University kins, the Principal of Morgan Community "culturally deprived" children.It docu- Audio Visual Aids Library School, and explores hi: role. The sound ments a class of fifth-graders at an all- University Park, Penn. 16802 track is primarily a voice over in which day Neighborhood Day School for under- Haskins explains his understanding of the privileged kids in the higher elementary INSIDE OUT job of the principal. grades. 16 mm., color, 56 min. Educational Development Center ( Comes either as 51 Mill. film or in two 1971 39 Chapel Street parts of 25 min. each ) This film first documents the failure of Newton, Mass. 02160 The Anti-Defamation League of urban high school programs in the U.S. B'nai B'rith Then it examines in detail the success of I IS FOR IMPORTANT 315 Lexington Avenue a secondary "school without walls" in 16 mm., color, 12 min. New York, New York 10016 Philadelphia. 1974 Extension Media Center Also 3/4" video cassette INCITEMENT TO READING University of California This is a film about sex-role stereotyping 16 mm., 37 min. Berkeley, Calif. 94720 in schools.It includes sequences show- 1966 ing sex-role biases displayed by teachers This is a candid documentary of a class- and resistance to role reversals by kinder- room that encourages children to relive INSTITUTE FOR TALENTED garten children.It was filmed in class- significant experiences in spoken words YOUTH rooms from kindergarten through eighth and then to write the words. 2" video, possibly 3.14 " copies, grade. Penn. State University b & w, 30 min. Extension Media Center Audio Visual Aids Library A television documentary on the Institute University of California University Park, Penn. 16802 for Talented Youth. The documentary ex- Berkeley, Calif. 94720 plores the teachers, the administration and INDIVIDUALS the students. Produced by KTCA-TV. IF THE MIND IS FREE ( One to Grow On Series ) Institute for Talented Youth 16 mm., b & w, 60 min. 16 mm., color, 18 mM. Twin City Area Educational 1971 1973 Television Corp. KTCI-TV This film is about an experimental pro- This film shows everyday events in a 1640 Como Avenue gram at St. Mary's High School in CM- California classroom in which students St. Paul, Minnesota 55108

20 INTERACTION IN LEARNING It is *meant to provide data regarding his participation in the learning process are 16 mm., b & w, 29 nnn. behavior and activitiesfor observation well documented. 1969 andanalysis.Itdoesnotillustrate Educational Development Center This is a teacher education film that tries teaching methods or techniques. 39 Chapel Street to present the different types of social Indian University Newton, Mass. 02160 interactionthat may ariseduring the Audio Visual Center school year. The film shows students in Bloomington, Indiana 47401 LEADERSHIP FOR TOMORROW an informal group discussion, giving class 16 mm., color presentations, and interacting with their A KEY IN THE DESERT This is a study of the administrators in teachers. 16 mm., color, 30 min. three innovative open space public high Indiana University 1969 schools in Montgomery County, Tennes- Audio Visual Center see. The film attempts to discover the Bloomington, Indiana 47401 This is a film about life at a Southern role of the principal in new organizational Arizonaboyscollege-prep.boarding and curriculum patterns. The principals school.The film describes the educa- IT'S ABOUT YOU are shown in their schools with teachers, tional goals of the school through actual students, and parents. 1/2", b & w, 28 min. situations and scenes.It also features 1977 students and staff who portray (re-enact?) Educational Planning Service This tape is about sex roles and stereo- events that take place on campus and School nf Education types in high schools.The tape was on field trips. 2084 ay Center shot in two inner-city public high schools AuburIniversity Modern Talking Picture Service Auburn, Alabama 36830 in Rochester, New York: Madison High 1212 Avenue of the Americas SchoolandEdisonTechnicalHigh New York, New York 10036 THE LEAGUE: FILM REPORTS ON School. The tape was intended to be IDEA'S STUDY OF CHANGE used in classrooms with high school stu- KIDS ARE PEOPLE TOO (4-part series) dents to promote discussions about sex- 16 mm., b& w ism.It has also been used successfully 16 ram., color, 42 min. in in-service teacher/administrator train- 1972 When IDEA's (Institute for the Develop- Study ingsessions.Outtakesareavailable. This is a documentary about one teacher ment of Educational Activities ) Produced by Nancy Rosin. of Educational Change and School Im- who attempted to reach disruptive chil- provement was begun, it was anticipated Women's Educational Equity Act dren by providing a special classroom that not all aspects of change process Officc of Education atmosphere where the students can learn could be described in print. These four Department of HEW to trust an adult as well as other students. films are a part of the final report of the Washington, D. C. 20202 CCM Films, Inc. study. The intent of the filming was not 866 Third Avenue to show exemplary practices. Rather, the JIMMY New York, New York 10022 producers tried to capture the essential 16 min., b & w, 30 min. ingredients of what happens to teachers 1965 KINDERGARTEN and principals in the process of school This film documents six weeks in the life 16 mm., b & w, 22 min. improvement. The films show incidents as they actually occurred over the five- of Jimmy Douglas, a Mack high school This filmis a candid camera study of sophomore.It includes Jimmy in school, children's spontaneous behavior in a kin- year period. on the street, and dropping out for three dergarten classroom at the Van Home IDEA weeks to look for a job.Produced by School in Montreal, Canada. Institute for the Development NEA. of Educational Activities Penn. State University Mass Media Mini Aries 5335 Far Hills Avenue Audio Visual Aids Library Dayton, Ohio 45429 2116 N. Charles Street University Park, Penn. 16802 Baltimore, Maryland 21218 THE LEAGUEPART I THE KINGDOM COME SCHOOL THE STRATEGY JORDAN PAULONE TEACHER'S 16 mm., b & w, 70 min. APPROACH 16 mm., color, 20 min. 1973 This filmis about the initial problems 16 mill, 22 min. faced by the IDEA research staff and the 1971 The film follows the 22 pupils and their ( From: The Social Seminar Series teacher, Harding Ison, as they work and principals and teachers they worked with. play together \ on a typical day at the One example of a problema class history a series on Drug Abuse ) of an unsuccessful effort in team-teaching This film follows a high school health Kingdom Conte School in eastern Ken- tacky. This school is one of the few re- is presented. The film also shows how teacher, Jordan Paul, who believes that research on decision making in schools involvement with hisstudentsisthe maining one room schools in the country. It has survived the threat of consolidation was carried out in activities with princi- ultimate goal and reward of teaching. pals and teachers. Finally, the film shows It shows him in action in the classroom, because the teaching methods are very similar to modern open education models. how the League began to grow into a on campus, on field trips, and in problem- group where schools shared problems and solving sessions with teachers, students, Appalshop, Inc. helped each other find solutions. and their families. Box 743 Whitesburg, Kentucky 41859 IDEA Extension Media Center Institute for the Development University of California of Educational Activities Berkeley, Calif. 94720 KITCHEN PHYSICS 5335 Far Hills Avenue 16 mm., color, 30 min. Dayton, Ohio 45429 KEITHA SECOND GRADER This film follows a sixth-grade class in 16 mm., b & w, 23 min. Vermont studying an ESS unit over a THE LEAGUEPART II 1966 period of several weeks. The children A MATTER OF TRUST ( The Four Students Series) work through many activities together 16 mm., b & w, 32 min. This film is a document of a second- with their teacher.The informality of This film shows the difficulties that typi- grade student in various school situations. the classroom and the childreA active cally prevent decisions from being made

21 by theappropriateschoolpersonnel. show older children discussing the teach- LITTLE WORLD Examples include (immunities not trust- ing techniques they will use when they 16 mm., 17 min. ing school staffs, the reluctance of prin- assist in the class of a bland teacher. This film describes the activities of a day cipals to trust teachers and the reluctance Extension Media Center care center in New York City.It shows of teachers to trust students. University of California the manner in which it provides for the IDEA Berkeley, Calif. 94720 children's needs and how it responds to Institute for the Development the problems of parents. of Educational Activities LECTURES ARE A DRAG 5335 Far Hills Avenue 16 mm., b & w, 19 min. University of Minnesota Dayton, Ohio 45429 1960 Audio Visual Library Minneapolis, Minn. 55455 This film observes an average class dur- THE LEAGUEPART III ing a spiritedsession on theBillof TRY IT SOMETIME Rights. LIVE, LEARN, AND TEACH 16 rum., b & w, 47 min. Churchill Films 16 mm., color, 25 min. This film describes what happened when 662 N. Robertson Blvd. This is a documentary of a program for teachers began to visit other classrooms Los Angeles, Calif. 90069 graduate students and teachers.This 8 in the school. The film shows how teach- 213-657-5110 week summer session at the University ing can change from a lonely profession of New Hampshire iacludes a wilderness to one where teachers can give each A LESSON IN LEARNING experience as wells other experimental other mutual professional support. 16 mm., color, 45 min. techniques. IDEA This film presents spontaneous and un- Educational Develoi ment Center Institute for the Development rehearsed classroom activity which cap- 39 Chapel Street of Educational Activities sules a semester's curriculum. Newton, Mass. 02160 5335 Far Hills Avenue Yale Divinity School Dayton, Ohio 45429 Visual Education Service LIVING AND LEARNING 59 High Street LANGUAGE THE LEAGUEPART IV New Haven, Conn. 06520 16 mm., b & w, 63 min. I JUST WANTED TO TELL YOU HOW 1963 RHONDA IS DOING IN SCHOOL LESSON IN TEACHINGA SERIES This film is a documentary of seven deaf 16 mm., b & w, 39 min. 16 mm. children being taught a lesson in gram- This film showed the changes that oc- 1969 matical usage. This unrehearsed, "typical" curredin the League's classrooms.It This series brings the teacher-in-training lesson was filmed as an aid in training shows, as an example of changes in de- into a third-grade classroom in order to supervisors in conversational and discus- cisionmaking, how teachersinone experience real-life situations. The fdms sion skills.It is not presented as a model school participate in hiring a new teacher show a variety of training methods and to be imitated. and 1,...0 integrate her into the staff. techniques. Los Angeles Valley College ELLA I.Mathematics--28 min. A /V Services Institute for the Development II.Reading-23 min. Van Nuys, Calif. 91401 of Educational Activities III.Science-28 min. 5335 Far Hills Avenue LONG WALK Dayton, Ohio 45429 Universal Education and Visual Arts 16 mm., color, 60 min. 100 Universal City Plaza 1970 Universal City, Calif. 91608 LEARNING BY DEGREES This filmis a documentary recollection 16 mm., color, 25 min. A LESSON ON CHANGE of the forced winter march in 1864 of This film is a documentary produced by 16 mm., color, 12 min. 6,000 starving Navaho Indians to a con- NBC-News of a well funded career edu- 1969 centration camp in New Mexico. The cation program. film ends with a look at the Indian con- This film presents a model cf good teach- trolled Rough Rock School which em- NBC ing.It shows a teacher as she spon- phasizes Navajo culture and language. 30 Rockefeller Plaza taneously explains the life and death of New York, New York 10020 Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., to her sec- Extension Media Center ond grade class.The film emphasizes University of California LEARNING IN KINDERGARTEN taking advantage of teachable moments. Berkeley, Calif. 94720 This filmfollows a day's activitiesat Ohio State University LOS NIETOS the Elliot-Pearson Children's School, an Dept. on Photography and Cinema experimental school run by the Tufts 156 West 19th Ave., Room 208 16 mm 28 min. University Child Study Department. Columbus, Ohio 43210 This is the film story of a special sum- Anti-Defamation League Att: Film Librarian mer kindergarten, Los Nietos. The school B'nai B'ri th is in Los Angeles and students are pri- 315 Lexington Avenue LET US TEACH GUESSING marily Mexican-American. New York, New York 10016 16 mm., color, 61 mM. University of Minnesota 1966 Audio Visual Library LEARNING STRATEGIES This film shows Prof. George Polya guid- Minneapolis, Minn. 55455 ( One to Grow On Series ) ing a class of undergraduates to discover 16 mm., color, 11 min. the number of parts into which three- THE MADISON SCHOOL PLAN 1973 dimensional space is divided by five arbi- 16 mm color, 18 min. In this film unrehearsed scenes document trary planes. He also identifies the steps 1971 some of the teaching techniques that in plausible reasoning. 3/4" video cassette have been discovered for elementary and Modern Learning Aids This film presents a plan for integrating kindergarten classes as a part of Project Division of Wards Natural Science exceptionalchildrenintotheregular G.O.O.D. ( Guiding One's Own Develop- P.O. Box 302 school program. It explains that children ment ).Particularly interesting sequences Rochester, New York 14603 are allowed to take part in regular classes 22 24 as well as to be instructed by specialized Howard MitchellU. of Pennsylvania interested and excited when given cam- faculty in the learning center. Lloyd ReynoldsReed College eras with which to learn. Instructional Media Services, Inc. William GeerU. of North Carolina, Association for Educational P.O. Box 1010 Chapel Hill Communications & Technology Hollywood, Calif. 90028 Indiana University 1201 16th Street Audio-Visual Center Washington, D. C. 20036 MAKING THINGS TO LEARN Bloomington, Indiana 47401 16 mm., b & w, 11 mM. THE MUSIC LESSON This film on the workshop process was METRO! SCHOOL WITHOUT WALLS 16 mm., 30 min. made in several public, private and Head 16 mm., color, 18 mM. 1967 Start classrooms in the Boston, Massa- 1970 A film about the Hoff Barthelson Music chusettsarea.The film showS adults This film presents the activities of Metro, School.It shows how teachers make use working to build imaginative inexpensive a Chicago "high school without walls." of student discovery and participation in materials, and children using them in It shows some of the advantages and learning activities to teach children the their classrooms. problems of overall community involve- language of music at an early age. Mrs. Educational Development Center ment in planning and executing an inno- Mary Helton leads a group of 7-year-olds 39 Chapel Street vative curriculum which focuses on the through musical games andexercises. Newton, Mass. 02160 city itself as a learning laboratory. The Produced by NET. philosophy, structure and operation of Penn. State University A MAN'S REACH Metro should be considered as a form Audio Visual Aids Library 16 mm., b & w, 32 min. of alternative education. University Park, Penn. 16802 University of Minnesota This filmtakes the viewer through a Audio Visual Library MY ART IS ME typical day with the superintendent of 16 mm., color, 21 min. schools in a large school district.The Minneapolis, Minn. 55455 viewer will see the numerous problems 1969 and human relationssituations which MODULAR EDUCATION AND This film presents a view of children in must be handled by a school superinten- ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS an experimental nursery school program. dent. High points of the film include a 16 mm., color, 29 mM. It shows them painting, drawing, sewing, regular Board of Education meeting, an This film was shot on location at five mixing play dough, manipulating clay, encountsr with an upset parent, and a elementaryschoolsinwhich modular and constructing wood and scrap sculp- policy conference with central office staff. education has been developed. ture. The Council for Administrative Educational Coordinates Extension Media C Leadership in New York State Box 348 University of California Bedford, Mass. 01730 Berkeley, Calif. 94720 MANY ROADS MY NAME IS CHILDREN 16 mm., color, 23 min. MORE THAN A SCHOOL 16 mm., color, 55 min. 16 mm., b & w, 55 min. This film shows how schools can provide 1974 This is a documentary about the Nova children with opportunities to learn in Lauderdale, the best waysbest for theparticular A film about the Community School in Elementary School inFt. child, at a particular time, for a particu- Nassau County on Long Island.Docu- Florida.It shows teachers using an in- lar learning objective.It was filmed in ments the issues that led to the creation quiry approach to motivate students.It the Httegel Elementary School in Madi- of a free school within a school. includes a teachers' meeting to discuss Films Incorporated coordination of plans and individual stu- son, Wisconsin. dents' problems. Produced by NET. Institute for the Development International Corporate Headquarters of Educational Activities 1144 Wilmette Avenue Mass Media Ministries 5335 Far Hills Avenue Wilmette, Illinois 60091 2116 North Charles Street Dayton, Ohio 45429 Baltimore, Maryland 21218 MOTHER, THIS ISN'T YOUR DAY Educational Planning Services 16 mm., b & w, 22 min. College of Education MARKED FOR FAILURE This film documents the Young Authors 2084 Haley Center 16 mm., 60 min. Conference held at Harvard University Auburn University 1967 in May, 1970. The conference empha- Auburn, Alabama 36830 A television news style documentary on sized the importance of children being American education and the handicaps given a choice of subject matter for their NEW YORK CITY TEACHERS' that affect children from depressed areas. writing.The 100 authors werefirst- STRIKE Shows a pre-nursery school pilot program through twelfth-grade students from the 16 mm., color, 27 min. in N.Y.C. schools. Produced by NET. Cardozo Model School District in Wash- 1962 Penn. State University ington, D. C. This film reports on the historic strike of Audio Visual Aids Library ( See also "CLOUD 9") University Park, Penn. 16802 more than 30,000 of the 44,000 New Educational Devdopment Center York City teachers. It includes interviews Distribution Center with teachers. MEN WHO TEACHA SERIES 39 Chapel Street AFL-CIO 16 mm., 60 min. ( each ) Newton, Mass. 02160 Education Department The series consists of five hour long docu- 815 16th Street, N.W. mentaries about six of America's great A MOVIE ABOUT LIGHT Washington, D. C. 20006 college and universityteachers.Each 16 mm., color, 8 min. film takes the viewers into the teaching This film presents first grade urban school NOBODY TOOK THE TIME and learning environments of these men. children and their teacher who are study- 16 mm., b & w, 26 min. Gerald HoltonIiarvard ing light and making a movie about it. 1973 Norman JacksonU. of Cal., Berkeley The movie explains that many children This film depicts ghetto children who are Abraham KaplanU. of Michigan who had barriers against learning became handicapped withlearningdisabilities

23 but are often labelled mentally retarded. these children can learn from the dance. OPEN DOORSTHE MARION STORY The film demonstrates that trust in them- Campbell Films 16 mm., color, 13 min. selves and others is their first need.It Academy Avenue 1967 shows how highly structured classroom Saxton's River, Kentucky 40769 This film presents a report on the activi- and playground techniques result in an ties of the people of Marion, Indiana, understanding of order and the develop- ONE AT A TIME TOGETHER who initiated the first locally financed ment of language. 16 mm., color, 25 min. community education program inthe Instructional Media Services, Inc. This film follows three students in an state.Local leaders explain the proce- P.O. Box 1010 elementary school ( ages 5-12) who are dures of starting the program. The film Hollywood, Calif. 90028 working on specific learning objectives also includes classroom scenes. in an IGE system. Some of the IGE com- ponents covered are: adoption of instruc- Purdue University A / V Center NOT A PLACE Lafayette, Indiana 47907 16 mm., color, 28 min. tionalgoalsandlearningobjectives, 1973 assessment and learning program design This film documents a teacher-training and implementation. The film is docu- OPEN FOR CHILDREN program at Appalachia State University mentary in nature and was produced at in Boone, North Carolina, which is de- the Martin Luther King, Jr., Laboratory 16 mm., color, 30 min. signed to open lines of communication School in Evanston, Illinois. 1972 betweentheUniversity,thepublic IDEA This film investigates the attitudes of schools and the commLnity.( From: The Institute for the Development workers in community day care centers Dynamics of Change Series) of Educational Activities in New York City and Hoboken, New Educational Systems and Designs 5335 Far Hills Avenue Jersey. Itincludesinterviewswith 236 Main Street Dayton, Ohio 45429 teachers, daily classroom activities, and Westport, Conn. 06880 meetings. ONE WITH THE EARTH Odeon Films NUEVA: AN ALTERNATIVE ", 1", b & w or color 1619 Broadway 16 ram., color, 18 min. 1976 New York, New York 10019 isaboutthe Albuquerque 3/'4" video cassette This tape 1974 IndianSchoolinAlbuquerque, New This film demonstrates the philosophy Mexico. It was made by Native Ameri- OPEN PLAN SCHOOLS and method of the Nueva Day School cans for the Native American Videotape 16 rnm. and Learning Center of Hillsborough, Archives. This film shows scenes from 3 open plan California.It shows representative clan Institute for American Indian Arts schools to illustrate the major charac- activities of pre-kindergarten, kindergar- Museum teristics of this type of school: open ten,6-,7-, 8- and 9- to 11-year-old Native American Videotape Archives space, open administration, open teachers levels.It also shows the involvement of Cerrillos Road and open curricula. Activities of a typical parents at the school and surveys the Santa Fe, New Mexico 87501 day are shown. educational research being done by the Educational Media, Inc. faculty. ONLY FOR A MOMENT 16 mm., color, 29 min. P.O. Box 39 Extension Media Center 1965 809 Industrial Way University of California This film shows the educational philoso- Ellenburg, Washington 98926 Berkeley, Calif. 94720 phy of and techniques employed by the Western PennsylvaniaSchool forthe OPERATION HEAD START 0.T.0.A CLASSROOM COMMUNITY Its main purpose is to equip its Blind. 16 mm., b & w, 27 min. "Opportunities to Teach Ourselves" is an pupils to handle their prAlems, realize integrated learning experience program their potential, and become better citi- 1966 in operation at the Andrew Warde High zeus. This film is a documentation of a project School inFairfield, Connecticut.Fea- Western Pennsylvania School far the conducted at the Van Nuys, California tured in the film is an O.T.O. canoe trip Blind Head Start Development Center for un- on Long Island Sound. derprivilegedchildren.Itshowsthe Media 5 THE OPEN CLASSROOM child's home and classroom experiences 3211 Cahuenga Blvd. West 16 mm., color, 2 min. and the work and training of volunteers Hollywood, Calif. 90068 This film surveys the various forms of and teachers.( Narrated by Burt Lan- open education in operation in public caster ) THE OAKLEAF PROJECT schools in New York, Washington and BFA Educational Media 16 mm., b & w, 30 min. California. The film features Prof. Lillian 2211 Michigan Avenue This filmisabout the problems and Weber, a leading proponent of the open Santa Monica, Calif. 90404 achievements of an experiment in indi- classroom concept and director of C.C. vidually prescribed instructionat the N.Y.'s Workshop Center for Open Edu- Oakleaf School. The experiment is being cation. THE OPPORTUNITY CLASS cirried out by researchers from the Uni- Media 5 16 mm., color, 22 min. versity of Pittsburgh. 3211 Cahuenga Blvd. West This film documents the origin, develop- University of Minnesota Hollywood, Calif. 90068 ment and activities of a special nursery Audio Visual Library class for both handicapped and normal Minneapolis, Minn. 55455 OPEN CLASSROOM children under seven. The film sbows 16 mm., b & w, 12 min. how the opportunity class plays a useful OH YES, THESE ARE VERY This film shows actual on-going public role in preparing the physically or men- SPECIAL CHILDREN school settings in the Southern California tally handicapped child for entry into a 16 mm., color, 20 min. area. formal classroom setting. 1971 Sherwin P. Rubin New York University Film Library This film is about retarded children and 23920 Ariza Avenue, #246 26 Washington Place their dance teacher. It shows how much Torrance, Calif. 90505 New York, New York 10003

24 OUR BUILDING voiceover explanation accompanies scenes THE PRE-SCHOOL 16 mm., b & w, 25 min. of her and the students. 16 mm., color, 22 min. 1976 Extension Media Center This film is introduced by Dr. Wilson This film follows an experiment at the University of California Riles, California Superintendent of Public Putney School in educalion and architec- Berkeley, Calif. 94720 Instruction.It includes a day's visit to ture (1973-1975). Students and staff built a pre-school where teachers, assistants, a 7200 sq. ft. arts and crafts building. POND WATER and aids cooperate to help the children. Marjorie Morton 16 mm., color, 40 min. Paramount Oxford Films 15 Cleveland Street This two-part film shows a lively sixth 5451 Marathon Street Arlington, Mass. 02174 grade class on Long Island, New York, Hollywood, Calif. 90038 exploring an ESS unit with the support PANCHO of their teacher. POND WATER begins PRETTY GOOD CLASS FOR A 16 mm., color, 25 min. with a field trip to a nearby pond. The MONDAY 1967 pond lifewhich thechildrencollect ( One to Grow On Series) becomes the subject of intensive study, 16 mm., color, 26 min. This filmsurveys the features of the Head Start Program. It follows the de- experimentation, classification, and dis- 1973 cussion over thenext five weeks in Thisfilmpresentsastudyofthree velopment of one young boy of Mexican the classroom.Gradually the children uniquely different high school students in descent showing his miraculous physical sharpen their observations and begin to a single history class. It shows how each and mental change from cretin to normal see relations among the tiny life forms participates in the class with his own through Head Start. they study with hand lenses and micro- special set of motives, needs and values. U.S. National Audio Visual Center scopes. They draw what they see, keep Extension Media Center National Archives and Records Service records, and make predictions. Washington, D. C. 20408 University of California Educational Development Center Berkeley, Calif. 94720 39 Chapel Street THE PARKWAY PROGRAM Newton, Mass. 02160 PROFESSOR 16 mm. 16 mm., b & w, 20 min. This film is the documentary of a suc- PORTRAIT OF THE INNER-CITY 1971 cessful inner city school without walls SCHOOL: A PLACE TO LEARN ( From: The College Selection Series) withinthe Philadelphia public school 16 mm., b & w, 19 min. This film presents a psychology professor system. The film concentrates on a few 1965 at the University of Pennsylvania who studentsin rap sessions and in other This film is basically a survey of inner- declares himself to be a "revolutionary?' educational activities. city schools.It discusses some of the It shows him in class, at home, and inter- Films Incorporated creative ideas with which school teachers acting with his students in his office or International Corporate Headquarters andadministratorscan approarhthe on campus. 1144 Wilmette Avenue problem of teaching pupils from the dis- University of Pennsylvania Wilmette, Illinois 60091 advantaged inner-city. It also points out Audio Visual Aids Library how these pupils view school. University Park, Penn. 16802 PERFORMANCE CONTRACTING Penn. State University THE GRAND RAPIDS EXPERIENCE'Audio Visual Aids Library PROGRAMMED TI1TORDIG le mm., b & w, 27 min, University Park, Penn. 16802 16 mm., color, 30 min. This film depicts an integrated program In this film the performance contracting POUGHKEEPSIE DAY SCHOOL of individualized tutoring on an elemen- projects are viewed from the perspective b & w (2 tapes ) tary level. The subject shown is reading. of the child, the teacher, and the prin- 1973 cipal. Indiana University These tapes are the result of a project Audio-Visual Center Indiana University in which two video artists, Parry Teas- Bloomington, Indiana 47401 Audio-Visual Center Bloomington, Indiana 47401 dale and Nancy Cain, were asked to PROMISES TO KEEP inlioduce video to a high school social 16 mm., color, 28 min. studies class at the Poughkeepsie Day PINE SCHOOL School. The school is a well equipped This film examines several federal proj- 16 mm., 30 mM. private school in the suburbs of Pough- ects in inner-city xhools in Philadelphia, 1965 keepsie, N. Y.It is attended primarily Miami, and San Diego. The film dis- This film is a study of mentally retarded by children of the affluent middle class; cusses the problems facing inner city children, 3 to 6 years old from under- it has open classrooms and a small en- schools and offers some new ways to privileged homes. ThPine School pro- rollment. The artists hoped that the stu- solve them. videsmaterials for mental stimulation dents would make a revealing tape about Motion Picture Productions of and a high protein 4liet to help over- their feelings toward the school.The Texas, Inc. come nutritional defici ncies. Of 27 chil- parents were outraged by the results of 1101 Nueces dren who have left, 46 have been able the first program and refused to let it Austin, Texas 78707 to enter school and tace regular work. be played on local cable T.V. A second University of Iowa less controversial tape was also produced. PRUDENCE CRANDALL A /V Center Media Bus 16 mm., 48 min. C-5 East Hall Box 418 1965 Iowa City, Iowa 52240 Lanesville, New York 12450 This NBC documentary is a profile of PrudenceCrandall,a New England PLAY IS THE WORIC OF YOUNG PRE-KINDERGARTENNEW HAVEN school teacher, who is promoting the CHILDREN This is the film story ot a pre-kindergarten cause of equal opportunity forevery 16 mm., " video casaktte program in New Haven, Connecticut. American child regardless of color. This film shows Lenork Wilson teaching University of Minnesota NBC a class of five-year-o/ds at the Nueva Audio Visual Library 30 Rockefeller Plaza School in Hillsborough, California. A Minneapolis, Minn. 55455 New York, New York 10020

25 2 THE QUIET REVOLUTION form and content to show how it feels to from classes, social activities, and student 16 mm., color, 28 min. fusing time of change in higher educa- homes. 1967 tion. Norwood Films This film depicts the staffing patterns Extension Media Center P.O. Box 1894 in five different schools that ha%initiated University of California Wheaton Post Office team teaching, flexible scheduling, non- Berkeley, Calif. 94720 Silver Springs, Maryland 20209 graded elementary programs, and other innovations. The film explains that im- RETARDED CHILDREN GO TO RX FOR LEARNING CAMP provement in American education can 16 mm., color, 28 min. only follow when the teacher has time 16 mm., color, 14 min. 1964 This film is an in-depth examination of to plan and analyze them.It suggests an I.P.I. ( individually prescribed instruc- some alternatives for educators who de- This film pictures a camp which has been tion system) in the Oakleaf Elementary sire action. developed for retarded children and their School in Pittsburgh. Stanford University parents.It discusses some of the problems which parents encounter with their International Communications Co. Stanford, Calif. 94305 244 Thorn Street Att: Film Distribution children and describes the benefits of the camp. Sewickly, Penn. 15143 Minnesota Association for QUIET TOO LONG Retirded Children SAVE ADULT EDUCATION 16 mm., b & w, 29 min. 3225 Lyndale Avenue, South 1/2" video, b & w 1967 Minneapolis, Minn. 55408 A documentation of people organizing This film is about the new militancy of around funding issues for Community, teachers who are rising in protest against REVIEW LESSONBIOLOGY GED and Basic Education for Chicago poor school facilities. The film observes SCHWALEN adults. the work of two teachers: in the class- 16 mm., b & w, 41 min. Alternative Schools Network room, on the streets, in budget meetings, 1962 Videoproject and at a space center. This is a film of an unrehearsed class 1105 West Lawrence, Room 210 National Education Association session showing student participation in Chicago, Illinois 60640 Division of Press, Radio and the revieç of a unit of work. The teacher Television Relations has helpe1 to plan, organize and assign SCHOOL 1201 Sixteenth Street, N.W. activities, but the students actually do Washington, D. C. 20036 16 mm., b & w, 30 min. the revieing. 1968 Pennsylv nia State University This film shows children who were con- RAG TAPESTRY Psycholo 'cal Cinema Register sideredunteachablebyconventional 16 mm., color, 13 min. A/V SeIces modes of judgement to be fully engaged 6 Willar4i Blvd. 1968 in the learning process because the ex- UniversØy Park, Penn. 16802 periences offered are meaningful to them This film is about the making of a rag and emerge out of mutual respect and tapestry by 25 children at the Junior REWA D PROCEDURES FOR Museum of the Metropolitan Museum of warmth between students and teachers. CLA SROOM MANAGEMENT Grove PressCinema 16 Film Library Art in New York City. 16 mm. b & w, 20 min. Penn. State University 196 W. Houston Street 1971 New York, New York 10014 Audio Visual Aids Library This fi demonstrates in documentary University Park, Penn. 16802 techniq e step-by-step methods for modi- A SCHOOL DAY fying e academic and social behavim 16 mm., color, 24 min. REBOP :RAFAEL CANCEL of chilen and teenagers through the MIRANDA HIGH SCHOOL use of ewards in the classroom. This film follows Beth, a bright, well adjusted nine-year-old girl, who is con- ;V video, b & w BEHT genitally blind, during a school day. Behavi r Technics, Inc. This tape was made for a pmgram on Box 11 Penn. State University the Boston Educational Television Sta- Lemon , Penn. 16581 Audio Visual Aids Library tion. It is about a Chicago Puerto Rican University Park, Penn 16802 High School and its cultural identity. ROOK I TO LEARN Alternative Schools Network 16 mm color, 22 min. SCHOOL DAYS Videoproject Thism documents the imaginative ap- 16 mm., color 1105 West Lawrence, Room 210 proach taken in planning for the educa- This film documents the radical students Chicago, Illinois 60640 tionaleeds of very young children.It organizing in the New York City public portraone of the most outstanding preschools.It shows how they begin to use REPORT schoolacilities, the Early Learning Cen- newspapers as an organizing tool and 16 mm., b & w, 53 min. ter intamford, Connecticut. The film struggle to develop ways to protect them- 3/4" video cassette explainthat the Center's design is based selves against repression and tendencies 1970 in part on the Montessori philosophy. toward insignificant reform. This film is a "fantasy-documentary" re- Instruc 'onal Media Services, Inc. San Francisco Newsreel port on a painful, nightmarish experi- P.O. Bo 1010 1232 Market Street ence:trying to teach an experimental Hollywd, Calif. 90028 San Francisco, Calif. 94102 political science course at the University of California during 1968-1969. The film HIGH SCHOOL SCHOOL IN A CELLBLOCX deals chaotically with chaosft does not 16 mm. b & w, 18 min. 16 mm., b & w, 13 min. attempt to portray a coherent teaching Thisffi describes the home life and This is a documentary about the value of experience. Instead, it-tries-thrnpgh both school experience of students in a large vocational .education training in prison teach and learn in the midst of a conz. U.S. rural high school. It includes scenes education.It follows the experiences of

26 a sullen inmate in the Wyoming Peni- joining their school districts into larger SIGHT AND SOUNDA SERIES tentiary who becomes interested in the units. 16 mm., color, 12 min. ( each film) prison school. University of Minnesota 1969 Wyoming State Dept. of Education Audio Visual Library Capitol Building, Room 213 Minneapolis, Minn. 55455 Media in French Language Teaching Cheyenne, Wyoming 82001 Thisfilmrecords the progress of an THE SEARCH: INADEQUATE inner city school fifth-grade French class SCHOOL IS FOR CHILDREN SCHOOL FACILITIES in Philadelphia, Penn. 16 mm., 26 min. Media in German Language Teaching 16 mm., color, 17 min. 1955 1973 This film shows an advanced German ThisfilmisaboutHarvardUniver- class in a high school in Minnesota. This film shows children in special edu- sity's pioneering research technique, the cation classes for exceptional pre-school "shadow" where researchers follow chil- Media in Spanish Language Teaching children learning to master their bodies dren through the school day to try to This film shows a fifth semester Spanish and share and interact with one another determine their needs. The film includes class at Bucknell University. in specially designed group activities. interviews with parents and teachers. University of Southern California Instructional Media Services, Inc. Penn. State University Department of Cinema P.O. Box 1010 Audio Visual Aids Library UniVersity Park Hollywood, Calif. 90028 University Park, Penn. 16802 Los Angeles, Calif. 90007

SCHOOL OF THE OZARKS SEE MY RAINBOW A SMALL THINGS CLASSROOM 18 mm., color, 28 min. 16 mm. 16 mm., b & w, 25 min. 1974 This is a film about an open education This film shows a combined fifth/sixth This film explores the meaning of work classroom.It was filmed at the Dryden grade class studying the ESS unit "Small and education in a candid look at the life Street School in Westbury, N. Y., a Things." The children learn how to oper- of students at the School of the Ozarks suburb in the middle of Long Island. atesmall hand-held microscopes and at Point Lookout, Missouri. The school is a grade one to four racially study such materials as corn meal and School of the Ozarks and ethnically mixed public elementary salt and sugar crystals.The following Point Lookout, Missouri 85720 school with an enrollment of approxi- day they examine organisms in pond mately 300. The film was shot on five water and draw diagrams of what they, consecutive days and tries to capture the have seen. THE SCHOOL ON STILTS daily experience of open education. Educational Development Center This film is about an elementary school Nassau Film Productions in the St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana, with 39 Chapel Street 24 West Terrace Road Newton, Mass. 02160 an open education program and an open Great Neck, New York 11021 space facility. Educational Planning Services SEE, TOUCH, FEEL: A REPORT ON THE SMALL WORLD OF NURSERY College of Education THE ARTIST LN THE SCHOOL SCHOOL 2084 Haley Center 16 mm., color 16 mm., color, 29 mM. Auburn University This film documents the Artist in Resi- This film is a survey of nursery schools. Auburri, Alabama 36830 dence program in three schools: two high It was shot on location at four nursery schoolsinEvergreen,Colorado, and schools where varied approaches to pre- Philadelphia, Penn., and a junior high school education are being tried. SCIMOL TIME IN CAMP in St. Paul, Minnesota. 16 mm., b & w, 18 min. Educational Coordinates ACI Films Box 348 This film shows the activities of two 35 West 45th Street Bedford, Mass. 07130 groups of city children in grades five and New York, New York 10036 seven who go to a teacher guided camp SOME OF OUR SCHOOLMATES for two weeks during the regular school SENSE OF THE FUTURE term. ARE BLIND Kinescope, 28 mM. 16 mm., color, 20 min. Audio Visual Center This film features Dr. Charles Stewart. 1960 Montclair State College Ittakesviewersintotheclassrooms Upper Montclair, New Jersey 07043 This film describes the education of blind where the film shows why Negro school and sighted children in a public elemen- drop-outratesaredisproportionately' tary school in Temple City, California. SCHOOL WITHOUT FAILURE high. It shows how the blind child becomes 16 mm., color, 46 min. A/V Education Center identified with his peers and with the 1970 University of Michigan total school program. It includes scenes This film is a documentary of a public 416 4th Avenue of a blind child in regular classroom elementary school in which Dr. William Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 work, on the playground and in sessions Glasser's philosophy of no-failure educa- where special teachers meet special cur- tion is being practiced. SETTING THE STAGE FOR riculum needs, such as the teaching of LEARNING Braille. Media 5 16 mm., b & w, 22 min. 3211 Cahuenga Blvd. West American Foundation for the Blind Hollywood, Calif. 90068 This film is a record of 411 experiment 115 West 16th Street in which_a, group- of children are urged New York, New York 10011 to playin a sandbox witk no tools or SCHOOLHOUSE IN THE RED toysonly sand.This debacle iscon- SOMEBODY SPECIAL 16 mm., color, 42 min. trasted with a number of familiar nursery 16 mm., color, 21 min. 1955 school situations. This film is about ICE in the middle or This film deals with the sociological and Churchill Fibre junior high school ( ages 10-15). It fol- psychological factlirs involved when small 662 N. Robertson Blvd. lows a student through the IGE system communities face up to the problems of Los Angeles, Calif, 90069 as he works on specific learning objec-

27 2D tives.Italsosketchesthe decision- and the cooperation between the com- TEACHER EDUCATION IN THE making structure of an IGE school as munity and school officials. OUTDOORS well 2S illustrating many of the IGE com- BFA Educational Media 18 mm., color, 20 min. ponents in operation. 2211 Michigan Avenue 1985 ( IGE = Individualized Instruction) Santa Monica, Calif. 90404 This film is about a week of school camp- Institute for the Development ing for the sixth grade class from the of Educational Activities STUDENT DIRECTED CURRICU- Bloom Grade School in Rockford, Illinois. 5335 Far Hills Avenue LUM=AN ALTERNATIVE Penn. State University Dayton, Ohio 45439 EDUCATION APPROACH Audio Visual Aids Library 18 mm., color, 21 min. University Park, Penn. 18802 THE SOONER THE BETTER 1971 16 mm., 27 min. This film focuses on the perception of TEACHER GAP This film, made by Beverly Simon, is inner-city students of their schools and 18 mm., 60 min. designed for teachers of pre-school chfl- how education could satisfy their con- 1965 dren.It explores the problem of sex- cerns.It shows the strategies taken by This film focuses on school administrators stereotyping in the classroom by focusing theInstitute for the Advancement of and teachers in two communities to ex- on positive, nOn-sexist teaching practices. Urban Education in identifying the prob- plore the teacher shortage and its effects It was filmed in multi-ethnic pre-schools lems at an inner-city high school. Then it on the quality of teaching hr public around the country. depicts the setting up of a pilot program schools. The Non-Sexist Child Development that incorporates the elements of an open education approach. Indiana University Project ( A Project of the Women's Audio Visual Center Action Alliance, Inc.) Educational Coordinates Bloomington, Indiana 47401 370 Lexington Avenue 825 Ellis Street New York, New York 10017 Mountain View, Calif. 94043 212-532-8330 TEACHER IN REFLECTION A SUCCESS ORIENTED CLASSROOM ( One to Grow On Series) 18 mm., color, 11 min. SPECIAL EDUCATION 18 mm., color, 28 min. 18 mn., color, 25 min. 1973 1968 This film is an uncut 18-minute visit to This film shows a teacher interacting This film deals with the organization, a success oriented classroom at one of with her students in a "class meeting," philosophy, objectives, and activities in D.Glasser'smodelschoolswithout a technique she uses to work through the area of special education in the Shel- failure. personal and classroom problems. She by County School System. It shows vari- Media 5 then records her unrehearsed thoughts ous classes and programs. 3211 Cahuenga Blvd. West as she views herself in the partially com- University of Tennessee Hollywood, Calif. 90088 pleted film. Film Service Extension Media Center Knoxville, Tenn. 37918 SUMMERH1LL University of California 18 mm., color, 28 min. Berkeley, Calif. 94720 STARTING SCHOOL 1967. 18 mm., color, 14 min. This film is a documentary of the English TEACHING A CONCEPTA SERIES 1973 boarding school, Summerhill, a school 18 mm., b & w This film documents the activitiesin without fixed rules where each student Each film is an unrehearsed class session one day at a kindergarten. is his own or her own master. Alexander in which a six-step process is used to Encyclopedia Brittanica Neill,founder,explains his objectives teach a concept. Educational Corporation and how his methods work.It is in- 425 North Michigan Avenue cluded here as an open school "classic." 1.MathematicsBainbridge Chicago, Illinois 60611 Penn. State University 25 min. ( teaching quadratic Audio Visual Aids Library equations) STEP BY STEPTHE STORY OF University Park, Penn. 18802 2. MathematicsCressman HARLEM PREP 38 min. (factoring ) 18 mm., color, 30 min. TATOO MY SOULMAKE STRAIGHT This film is about Harlem Prep, a school MY MIND 3. PhysicsRutshley located in an abandoned supermarket 18 mm., color, 28 min. 38 min. ( Boyle's Law ) that prepares Harlem's high school drop- 1971 4. American HistoryEverhart outs for college. The film shows classes This film is about the Windom School 35 min. ( Jacksonian Democracy) in progress, a Harlem Prep graduate at District in Texas, a county wide program Penn. State University Vassar College, and the homes and streets for more than 7,000 students. Audio Visual Aids Library of Harlem. Windom School District University Park, Penn. 16802 Modern Talking Pictures Box 938 1212 Avenue of the Americas Windom, Texas 75492 TEACHING ENGLISH LITERACY TO New York, New York 10038 PRE-SCHOOL INDIAN CHILDREN THE TEACILER, A COMMUNITY AT THE SAN FELIPE INDIAN THE STORY OF THE HARLAN- HELPER RESERVATION SHOEMAKER SCHOOL 18 mm., color, 15 min. 18 mm., b & w and color, 10 min. 18 nun., b & w, 9 min. 1980 1967 1988 This film documents the complete therapy This film describes a typical day in the This film is a survey of a three month program for physically handicapped stu- life of a primary school teacher. experiment conducted by the behavioral dents at the Harlan-Shoemaker School in Sigma Educational Films technology department of Westinghouse Los Angeles, California.It shows daily 1717 Ventura Blvd. research laboratories in teaching English activities including: psychological testing Studio City, Calif. 91804 vocabulary by using a contingency man- 28 3 agement system and special equipment THE TEACHERS THEY CAN DO IT to Indian children. The film shows the 16 mm., 49 min. 16 mm., b & w, 53 min. use of rewards for learning and evaluates 1966 1969 the progress of the children. This is a cinema-verité account of a six- This film deals with 26 first graders at Westinghouse Electric Corp. week advanced study institute in which the Pastorius Public School in Pennsyl- Visual Communications Department 50 teachers are prepared for teaching vania who have never been to school. Gateway Center disadvantaged children.Their training The film starts with the second day of Westinghouse Building begins with a five-day live-in" in poor school and follows the class on five more Pittsburgh, Penn. 15222 people's homes so that they can under- visits throughout the year. The class is stand low-income and migrant families. taught by Louie Glenn, who believes TEACHING STYLESI Later, at a mountain resort, the teachers that underprivileged kids must be taught 16 mm., b & w, 30 min. are filmed holding uninhibited discus- how to learn in an "educational frame- 1969 sions. work" as well as specific subjects. A teacher in a small rural school in Extension Media Center Educational Development Center Maine shows films of his community of University of California 39 Chapel Street the modified media system in use in his Berkeley, Calif. 94702 Newton, Mass. 02160 classroom and of his students' activities. Other teachers discuss his teaching style THE TEACHERS VIEW '- with him. 16 mm., color, 28 min. THEY DO NOT WALIC ALONE McGraw-Hill Textfilms This film features staff members from 16 mm., color, 29 min. 1221 Avenue of the Americas Variousschoolswithoutfailurewho 1970 New York, New York 10020 gather to discuss their experiences in This film portrays the operation of an beginning class meetings and enrichment oral education program for deaf children programs. They discuss common prob- from pre-school through junior high.It TEACHING STYLESII lems and solutions. shows the educational, vocational and 16 mm., b & w, 30 min. Media 5 social experiences of graduates of the 1969 3211 Cahuenga Blvd. West Clarke School for Deaf Children. A teacher in a suburban California town Hollywood, Calif. 90068 McGraw-Hill Textfilms shows films of his students doing group 1221 Avenue of the Americas research, working in laboratory activities TEAM TEACHING IN THE New York, New York 10020 and choosing what to do. A panel dis- ELEMENTARY SCHOOL cusses with the teacher the advantages 16 mm., color, 22 min. THREE YEAR OLD SERIES and disadvantages of his teaching style. This film introduces team teaching dur- McGraw-Hill Textfilms ing a regular school day at the Ernotine 16 mm., b & w, nine films 1221 Avenue of the Americas MatmIce Elementary School in Cypress, This series of nine films was made at New York, New York 10020 Texas. the City and Country School in New Institute for the Development York City during the course of a school TEACHING STYLESHI of Educational Activities year.This school provides pre-kindergarten children with a curriculum based 16 mm., b & w, 30 min. 5335 Far Hills Avenue on developmental needs and gives im- 1969 Dayton, Ohio 45429 portance tothe social and emotional A teacher in a conventional Massachu- TEAM TEACHING ON THE needs of growth. Children are shown as setts school shows films of his fairly con- ELEMENTARY LEVEL they go about their daily activities. ventionalclassroomapproach,which 16 mm., color, 14 min. 1. Roof, 15 min. offers students a diversity of activities. 1964 2. Rhythms, 9 min. / A panel discusses the teacher's style. The purposes of this film are to explain 3.Indoors, 14 min. / McGraw-Hill Textfilms the reasons for and the methodology of 1221 Avenue of the Americas team teaching; to trace the development 4. Roof & Indoors, 16 min. / New York, Ncw York 10020 of an experimental project from theory to 5.Indoors, 16 min. practice; and to demonstrate the feasi- 6.Indoors, 20 min. TEACHNG THE CHILD WHO IS bility of team teaching in the elementary 7.Roof, 19 min. RETARDED school.Cashmere, Washington, is the 8.Indoors, 25 min. 16 mm., color, 20 min. scene of the experiment. The film traces the motivation, plans and details involved 9.Rainy Day, 34 min. This film shows classroom situations for in achieving the new methods. It includes Educational Development Center retarded children at the University of a summer workshop at Central Washing- 39 Chapel Street South Dakota summer school. ton State College. Newton, Mass. 02160 University of South Dakota University of Minnesota Audio Visual Center A /V Library THIS IS A LABORATORY SCHOOL Vermillion, South Dakota 57069 Minneapolis. Minn. 55455 16 mm., b & w, 29 min. 1964 TEACHING THE ONE AND THE TEAM TEACHING: THE CORONA This film is about a team teaching pro- MANY AFFAIR gram at the Laboratory School of the 16 mm., color, 28 min. 16 mm., b & w, 25 min. University of California. This film is about a high school in rural This film documents the problems of one U.C.L.A. Idaho that had been passed by as far as team of teachers in an elementary school. 405 Hilgard Avenue educational innovations were concerned. This is not a staged success story; rather Los Angeles, Calif. 90024 It explains how a learning center was set it is a true story of the struggles of a up and shows the reactions of students real team of teachers. and teachers. Institute for the Development THIS IS MY SCHOOL Modern Talking Picture Service of Educational Activities 16 mm., color, 12 min. 1212 Avenue of the Americas 5335 Far Hills Avenue This film tells a student's story of what New York, New York 10036 Dayton, Ohio 45429 his school has meant to him.It was

29 31 written and filmed by the students of TIME TO GROW TO TOUCH A CHILD the Cherry Lane School in Connecticut. 16 mm., color, 28 min. 16 mm., color, 29 min. Pix Film Service This film is about an innovative idea in 1966 34 East Putnam elementary education: the pre-first-grade This film presents the story of the Com- Greenwich, Conn. 06830 class.It is based on the idea that kids munity School System in Flint, Michigan. need maturing before they enter first THE THREE R'S ... AND SEX It shows how the public school buildings grade. The film shows two classes in are being used for other purposes. EDUCATION action. 16 mm., b & w, 60 mM. Campbell Films Cintron Corporation P.O. Box 687 This filmisa docunu ntary exploring Academy Avenue 1621 W. 9th Street opposing responses wl .3nteaching sex Saxtons River, Vermont 05154 education. The film includes a visit to Lawrence, Kansas 66044 the Germantown Friends School and a TO CALM A TROUBLED CAMPUS P.T.A. meeting in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. TOMORROW WE'LL SEE WHAT 16 mm., 33 min. HAPPENS Indiana University 1970 Audio Visual Center Shows the resolution without violence of 16 mm., b & w, 30 min. Bloomington, Indiana 47401 student protestsat the Universityof This film reveals the satisfactions and Pennsylvania. Theprotestscentered frustralions of people who are trying to THURSDAY'S CHILDREN around government contracts for war re- change schools into a school community. 16 mm., color, 28 min. search and the expansion of the univer- It was filmed at the Pacoima, Dublin This film visits a special school that helps sity into a neighboring ghetto. Avenue and Wilshire Crest Public Ele- people with learning disabilities related National Educational T.V., Inc. mentary Schools in Los Angeles, Cali- to emotional problems to overcome these Indiana University fornia. problems.The film features four pre- Bloomington, Indiana 47401 Phoenix Films school children and the ways in which 470 Park Avenue their problems are recognized and dealt New York, New York 10016 with. TO FIND A WAY 16 mm., b & w, 35 min. KETC-TV This filmfollows a teacher education TUESDAY 6996 Millbrook Blvd. 16 mm., color, 28 mM. St. Louis, Missouri 63130 program based on the workshop process as a means of initiating and invoking TUESDAY is a useful film for any school TENSE: IMPERFECT future teachers in open education. The staff working on team teaching and indi- 16 mm., 12 mM. teachers are shown both as students and vidualizing learning. Filmed on location 1968 as teachers. The program was given at at the Wilson School in Lanesville, Wis- Lowell State College in Massachusetts. consin, it follows a teaching team through This film is about the psychological prob- a typical day. The film has ten projection lems of a middle class teacher with good Educational Development Center 39*Chapel Street stops for discussion periods and is ac- intentions who has a class of "culturally companied by a study guide. deprived" students. The film shows the Newton, Mass. 02160 effect on the teacher and the class. Institute for the Development of Educational Activities McGraw-Hill Textfilms TO LEAD USEFUL LIVES 16 mm., b & w, 23 min. 5335 Far Hills Avenue 1221 Avenue of the Americas Dayton, Ohio 45429 New York, New York 10020 This film is about theoretical and actual approaches to special education. It docu- THE TIME OF GROWING ments actual events in a classroom and THE TUTORS OF FERNALD (1962 version; IF THESE WERE isolates specific situations. 16 mm., 30 min. YOUR CHILDREN) Edinboro State College This film focuses on one phase of a re- 16 mm., b & w, 29 mM. Edinboro, Penn. 16412 search projectthe use of students to 1965 tutor other students. Filmed in a cinema- This film pictures the activities and be- TO LIVE TOGETHER verité style at the Fernald School of the havior of a group of second-grade chil- 16 mm., 34 min. University of California in Los Angeles. dren and their teacher during an ordinary As one example of the program it shows school day. The film shows that the chil- This film shows the difficullies encoun- underachieving black male students from dren reveal their feelings and anxieties tered and the experiences shared by chil- a ghetto school who were busing to a more readily through their behavior than dren in an interracial summer camp. school devoted to a program for high SES in words.It includes conversations be- Anti-Defamation League whites with similar learning difficulties. tween the teacher and parents and has a B'nai B'rith S-L Film Productions commentary by a well known educator. 315 Lexington Avenue P.O. Box 41108 Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. New York, New York 10016 Los Angeles, Calif. 90041 Health and Welfare Division 1 Madison Avenue TO MAXE KIDS LOVE SCHOOL: TWO INDIANSRED REFLECTIONS New York, New York 10010 THE 280 ACRE CLASSROOM OF LIFE 16 mm., color, 22 min. 16 mm. THE TIME OF THEIR LIVES 1974 1973 16 mm., b & w, 30 min. This film documents the Mac Skimming This film is a documentary study of two 1962 Natural Science School, a rural school North American Indian high school boys. This film presents a synoptic view of one without walls in Canada. The film dem- One is from Zuni Pueblo, New Mexico, day in the life of 24 5-year-olds in a onstrates how disturbed urban children where he was raised in a traditional In- kindergarten class. The footage is com- are successfully helped by bringing them dian setting and retains his tribal iden- pletely "natural" and unrehearsed. into contact with the natural world. tity and world view. The other boy is Mass Media Ministries Extension Media Center from the Yachi tribe in Oklahoma and 2116 North Charles Street Unifersity of California is searching for his identity in art and Baltimore, Maryland 21218 Berkeley, Calif. 94720 school politics. The film includes student

30 rap sessions, student government meet- giams.It also shows methods of incor- shows several schools where human rela- ings, rock and roll and traditional dances, porating Indian culture into the American tionships have been consciously improved. art classes, and discussions among In- educational system. Examples are shown Media 5 dians of Red Power. of learning through Indian methods. 3211 Cahuenga Blvd. West Contron Educational Films Extension Media Center Hollywood, Calif. 90068 1255 Post Street, Suite 652 University of California San Francisco, Calif. 94109 Berkeley, Calif. 94720 WHY BILLIE COULDN'T LEARN 16 mm., 40 min. VERONICA "WE'LL SHOW YOU WHAT WE'RE 1968 16 min., color, 27 mM. GONNA MrART WITH This film is about special education for This film is a cinema-verité portrait of MULTIPLE-HANDICAPPED the neurologicallyhandicapped. It Veronica Glover, a black teenager who CHILDREN shows actual classes in the Palos Verdes is pres: tent of her class in a predomi- 16 mm. Unified School District in Southern Cali- nantly white high school in New Haven, This film shows an exploratory art pro- fornia. Connecticut. The film is about her strug- gram with 18 blind of partially sighted Pe an. State University gle to maintain her identity under stress. and additionally handicapped children. Auiio Visual Aids Library Jason Films it shows how kids can exceed expecta- University Park, Penn. 16802 2621 Palisade Avenue tions and how adults can help. Riverdale, New York 10463 ACI Media, Inc. WOMEN EMERGING: COMPARING 35 West 45th Street CULTURAL EXPECTATIONS VIGNETTE SERIES New York, New York 10036 16 mm., b & w, 27 min. 16 mm., b & w, six films 1974 This series of six films provides continu- WHAT DID YOU LEARN IN SCHOOL This film documents the experiences of ous observations of pre-school children TODAY? a multi-cultural women's class at Agora, in Head Start classrooms and situations. 16 mm., b & w, 48 min. an experimental school within Berkeley Newswoman Joan Murray narrates this High School in Berkeley, California. The Chairs, 9 min. examination of an alternative educational film shows four days separated by inter- Injections, 10 min. method, the "open classroom." She in- vals of five weeks in the spring semester Marble Games, 12 min. terviews Lady Bridget Plowden, whose of 1974. Seven Day Itch, 7 min. report on education changed many British Extension Media Center Water Play, 12 min. schools; ,visitsNorth Dakota, astate University of California Wall Washing, 12 min. which is changing entirely to open class- Berkeley, Calif. 94720 Educational Development Center rooms; visits the Grape School in Watts; 39 Chapel Street and goes to a teacher-training workshop WORLDS APART Newton, Mass. 02160 in Connecticut. One segment also deals 16 mm. with satellite or mini high schools. This film shows techniques to bridge the WARM UP TO PSYCHODRAMA Indiana University gap between the white world and the 16 mm., 30 min. A /V Center ghetto as contrasted with standard teach- 1968 Bloomington, Indiana 47401 ing methods which doom the ghetto Thisfilm shows the spontaneous, un- child. It was filmed in a pre-kindergarten rehearsed behavior of a college class in, WHAT IS TEACHING, WHAT IS class supervised by the Institute for De- socio-drama and itsrole in education. LEARNING , velopmental Studies at N.Y.U. Employing non-verbal and psychodrama ( One to Grow On Series) Anti-Defamation League of techniques, the group confronts one of 16 mm., color, 30 min. B'nai B'rith its members who has been perceived as 1973 315 Lexington Avenue "turning off" the participation of others. In this film teachers enthusiastically dis- New York, New York 10016 ( limited showings ) cuss their first year's experiences in the State University College at Buffalo classroom."Flashbacks totheir 1300 Elmwood Avenue classes illustrate the conversation. 1.33 Topical Index to the Buffalo, New York 14222 Extension Media Center Catalogue University of California THE WAY IT IS Berkeley, Calif. 94720 (All films are listed alphabetically by title 16 mm., 60 min. in the catalogue) 1967 WHERE IS PREJUDICE This film is about experiments being con- 16 mm., 60 min. ABOUT SCHOOLS ducted by New York Universityina 1968 seventh-grade public school class in an In this fihn 12 college students of dif- ALTERNATIVE OR INNOVATIVE attempt to stimulate some kind of interest ferentracesandfaithsarecandidly EDUCATION among the pupils.They used "cluster shown while participating in a week long Alternative SchoolsMiscellaneous readers" in conjunction with small class workshop totest their common denial The Beginning of a Total Group groups with limited success so far. that tbey are prejudiced. As frank dis- Children of Synanon National Educational T.V., Inc. cussion and questioning of one another Education by Choice (Ed. pluralism) Indiana University continues, latent prejudices emerge. The Getting It All Together ("Innovative") Bloomington, Indiana 47401 students are unable to cope with this Modular Education and Elementary revelation. Schools THE WAY OF OUR FATHERS Penn. State University My Name Is Children 16 mm., color, 33 min. Audio Visual Aids Library Nueva: An Alternative 1972 University Park, Penn. 16802 0.T.O.: A Classroom Community Northern California Indians depict unique Our Building (Kids build a school elements of their culture. The film ex- WHY HUMAN RELATIONS? building ) plores the destruction of self-concepts 16 mm. 29 min. Play Is the Work of Young Children and the loss of cultural heritage by con- This' fihn identifies the basic need for Portrait of an Inner City School ventional white-oriented educational pro- good human relationships in schools.It A Place to Learn

31 The Quiet Revolution More Than a School ART/DANCE PROGRAMS Room to Learn Open for Children Acting Is the Art School To Touch a Child And a Time to Dance Student Directed CurriculumAn As We See ItA Series (T.V. shows Alternative Education Approach INNER CITY SCHOOLS produced by kids) Time to Crow As We See It (A Seriessome segments Being Me Tomorrow We'll See What Happens best with urban schools and desegrega- Foxfire The Way It Is tion) Cinder City Plus Six Women Emerging: Comparing Cultural Diversity in the ClassroomA Series Hey, Look at Me Expectations George Washington High School Annex Mother, This Isn't Your Day (conference of kid writers) Experimental or Laboratory Schools Inner City SchoolMy First Teaching Assignment A Movie About Light The Caring Center It's About You My Art Is Me The Circle Portrait of an Inner City School: Oh Yes, These Are Very Special Children The First Day A Place to Learn Our Building Horizon of Hr Promises to Keep Poughkeepsie Day School (kids and How Children Learn Step by StepThe Story of Harlem Prep video) Learning in Kindergarten Rag Tapestry The Oakleaf Project MUSIC OR ARTS See, Touch, Feel: A Report on the Artist One at a Time Together in the School Teaching the Child Who Is Retarded Children Discover the World: Childhood, "We'll Show You What We're Gonna This Is a Laboratory School the Time of Discovery . The Music Lesson Do"Art with Multiply Handicapped The Tutors of Fernald Children Individualized Instruction ONE ROOM SCHOOLS COMMUNITY ED The Eastville Experience A Chance to Learn Open DoorsThe Marion Story The I of a Learner Country School If the Mind Is Free The Kingdom Come School HEAD START Individuals A Chance for a Change Many Roads PREP SCHOOL The End of a Morning The Oakleaf Project A Key in the Desert Four Children One at a Time Together Step by StepThe Story of Harlem Prep Head Start in Mississippi Rx for Learning Making Things to Learn Somebody Special PRIVATE SCHOOLS Pancho Tuesday Operation Head Start' A Day at New Moon School Vignette Series No Fail Friday School Without Failure Poughkeepsie Day School OFF CAMPUS A Success Orier.ted Classroom Discovery The Teachers View SPECIAL EDUCATION Foxfire The Caring Center From Dream to Reality Open Education Children of the Silent Night 0.T.0.A Classroom Community The British Infant SchoolSouthern Style The Circle Our Building Center School Institute for Talented Youth Rag Tapestry Children as People Only for a Moment Retarded Children Co to Camp Choosing to Learn Pine School School Time in Camp Curriculum Designed Schools They Do Not Walk Alone A Day at New Moon School Thursday's Children MISCELLANEOUS Free to Be All Kinds of Weather Friends George Washington High School Annex TRADITIONAL SCHOOLS Learning By Degrees I Am Here Today School in a Cellblock Inside Out AliceA High School Junior Kids Are People Too DickA Fifth Grader CregAn Eighth Grader The Kingdom Come School ABOUT CLASSROOMS Leadership for Tomorrow KeithA Second Grader Metro! School Without Walls High School CHILD CENTERED More Than a School High School Rising As the Twig Is Bent' My Art Is Me How Children Learn The Open Classroom Lectures Are a Drag INDIVIDUALTZED Open Plan Schools Teaching StylesIII The Creative Kindergarten: A 'Pilot The Parkway Program Study on the Prevention of Failure The School on Stilts MISCELLANEOUS in Early Education Summerhill School of The Ozarks In a Class by Himself To Find a Way Tatoo My SoulMake Straight My Mind To Make Kids Love School: The 280 INTEGRATED DAY Acre Classroom Another Way to Learn What Did You Learn in School Today? ABOUT PROGRAMS KIDS TEACH EACH OTHER Learning Strategies COMMUNITY OR GRASSROOTS ADULT EDUCATION 0.T.0.A Classroom Community A Chance for a Change Adult Learning Laboratories A Commraity Nursery School From Dream to Reality OPEN CLASSROOMS Comn:naity Schools Can't Stand Still Glimpses of the Workers' Education Open Classroom I Ain't Playin' No More Program in Florida See My Rainbow I Arn the Principal of This School Save Adult Education What Is Teaching, What Is Learning

32 3 4 SPECIAL ED. CLASSES Only for a Moment ( teaching the blind) Sex Discrimination (See: As We See It The Opportunity Class The Open Classroom A Series *123) Play Is the Work of Young Children Where Do I Belong (See: As We See R TRADITIONAL Pond Water A Series *113) As the Twig Is Bent Review LessonBiologySchwaler A Lesson in Learning Reward Procedures for Classroom Inner City SchOols Management George Washington High School Annex ABOUT TEACHING Small Things Classroom Inner City SchoolsMy First Teaching School Without Failure Assignment TECHNIQUES The Sooner the Better Portrait of the Inner City School: Teacher in Reflection A Place to Learn BEHAVIOR SITUATIONS Teaching a Concept: A Series Promises to Keep Guiding Behavior Teaching English Literacy to Pre-School Sense of the Future Interaction in Learning Indian Children at the San Felipe Step by StepThe Story of Harlem Prep INDIVIDUALIZED INSTRUCTION Indian Reservation Teaching StylesII Integration/Desegregattion Adult Learning Laboratories Teaching StylesIII As We See ItA Series Programmed Tutoring Teaching the Child Who Is Retarded Black and White Together Bussing: A Rough Ride in Southie KIDS TEACH EACH OTHER They Can Do It The Three Ws and ... Sex Education He Comes from Another Room Learning Strategies Three Year Old Series Inner City SchoolMy First Teaching 0.T.0.A Classroom Community Thursday's Children Assignment The Tutors of Fernald Wann Up to Psychodrama Prudence Crandall MEDIA USE The Way of Our Fathers To Live Together Adult Learning Laboratories "We'll Show You What We're Gonna Migrant Workers Airborn Television: Profile of a School Do"Art With Multiply Handicapped Desk for Billie Sight and Sound: A Series Children Teaching English Literacy to Pre-School Worlds Apart MinoritiesCeneral Indian Children at the San Felipe In- From Dream to Reality dian Reservation ABOUT SOCIAL ISSUES A Get Off Teaching StylesI The Tutors of Fernald MAINSTREAMING SPECIAL Native Americans TEAM TEACHING EDUCATION KIDS Concho High School Team Teaching: The Ferris Long Walk Story He Comes from Another Room The Quiet Revolution The Opportunity Class One With the Earth Team Teaching in the Elementary School A School Day Two Indians: Red Reflections on Life Team Teaching on the Elementary Level Some of Our School Mates Are Blind The Way of Our Fathers Team Teaching: The Corona Affair MINORITIES IN EDUCATION SEX EDUCATION This Is a Laboratory School Asian Americans The Three R's ... and Sex Education MISCELLANEOUS TECHNIQUES Locked in These Rooms (See: As We SEXISM The Caring Center See ItA Series *103) Center School Changing Images: Confronting Career The Circle Blacks Stereotypes Heyl What About Us? Cloud 9 A Chance for a Change Creative ImaginationEnglish (how to I Is for Important Digging for Black Pride It's About You teach creative thinking) I Ain't Playin' No More Discussing a Controversial Issue Sex Discrimination (See: As We See It I Am the Principal of This School A Series *123) Fur All My Students (teaching in an Step by StepThe Story of Harlem Prep integrated classroom) The Sooner the Better Gases and "Airs" in the Classroom Disadvantaged Students Women Emerging: Comparing Cultural The Humanity of Teaching A Chance at the Beginning Expectations The Impact of a Teacher s Behavior on A Chance to Learn STUDENT REVOLT Learners and Learning Children Without To Calm a Troubled Campus Incident on Wilson Street (teaching Incident on Wilson Street Diary of a Student Revolution culturally debrived kids) Innovation in Pre-School Ed. for Dis- Incitement to Reading High School Rising advantaged Children: A Series Report Innovations in Pre-School Education for Marked for Failure School Days Disadvantaged ChildrenA Series Nobody Took the Time Kitchen Physics Operation Head Start Learning Strategies Pine School ADMINISTRATION AND Lectures Are a Drag The Teachers A Lesson in TeachingA Series Tense: Imperfect RESEARCH A Lesson Change They Can Do It Let Us Teach Guessing Worlds Apart ADMINISTRATION/ A Movie About Light (Getking kids ADMINISTRATORS interested in learning) Hispanic Americans To Calm a Troubled Campus The Music Lesson Aspira The Day They Had to Close the Schools My Name I. Children Cuban Dropout (See: As We See It Diary of a Student Revolution Nobody Took the Time (working with A Series *113) Diversity in the ClassroomA Series disadvantaged kids) Los Nietos The Eastville Experience One With the Earth (native American Rebop: Rafael Cancel Miranda High The Fontana Story teaching) School From Dream to Reality

33 High School Team Teaching: The Ferris Pretty Good Class for a Monday BLACK Story Retarded Children Go to Camp Acting Is the Art Hot Lunch Rebop: Rafael Cancel Miranda High As Our Boyhood Is I Ain't Playin' No More School Busing: A Rough Ride in Southie I Am the Principal of This School Rural High School A Chance for a Change Institute for Talented Youth School Children Without Leadership for Tomorrow School in a Cellblock Digging for Black Pride The League Somebody Special A Dream to Learn Part IStrategy Step by StepThe Story of Harlem Prep For All My Students Part IIA Matter of Trust This Is My School A Get Off Part IVI Just Wanted to Tell You Two Indians: Red Reflections of Life He Comes From Another Room How Rhonda's Doing in School Warm Up to Psychodrama Head Start in Mississippi A Man's Reach Veronica I Ain't Playin' No More Modular Education and Elementary I Am the Principal of This School Schools ABOUT TEACHERS Incident on Wilson Street Open Plan Schools Diversity in the ClassroomA Series Jimmy Performance Contracting: The Grand The Frst Day Sense of the Future Rapids Experience For All My Students Step by StepThe Story of Harlem Prep Portrait of the Inner City School: Head Start in Mississippi The Tutors of Fernald A Place to Learn High School Team Teaching: The Ferris Schoolhouse in the Red Story NATIVE AMERICAN The Story of the Harlan-Shoemaker I Is for Important Concho School The Impact of a Teacher's Behavior Long Walk Student Directed CurriculumAn on Learners and Learning One With the Earth Alternative Education Approach Institute for Talented Youth Teaching English Literacy to Pre-School Teacher Gap Interaction in Learning Indian Children at the San Felipe Team Teaching on the Elementary Level Jordan Paul: One Teacher's Approach Indian Reservation The Fight for Better Schools The LeaguePart II:Matter of Trust Two Indians: Red Reflections of Life Tuesday The LeaguePart III: Try It Sometime The Way of Our Fathers Why Human Relations? The LeaguePart IV:I just Wanted to RURAL RESEARCH Tell You How Rhonda Is Doing in School As Our Boyhood Is The League Part IStrategy Men Who TeachA Series A Chance for a Change Nuevat An Alternative My Name Is Children A Chance to Learn The Search: Inadequate School Facilities New York City Teachers' Strike Country School Student Directed CurriculumAn Nueva: An Alternative Heyl Look at Me Alternative Education Approach Open for Children The Kingdom Come School Teaching English Literacy to Pre-School Planning for Change (Diversity in the Rural High School Indian Children at the San Felipe ClassroomA Series) Schoolhouse in the Red Indian Reservation Professor Teaching StylesI The Tutors of Fernald Prudence Crandall Teaching the One and the Many The Way It Is The Quiet Revolution To Make Kids Love School: The 280 Worlds Apart Quiet Too Long Acre Classroom ,ABOUT STUDENTS Report SPANISH SPEAKING Role Expectations for Teachers Aspire Alice: A High School Junior (Diversity in the ClassroomA Series) BienvenidosLearning English as a As We See ItA Series The Teacher: A Community Helper Second Language Aspira The Teacher Gap Cuban Dropout (As We See It Being Dumb ... It's NoGood (See Teacher in Reflection A Series *113) Diversity in ClassroomA Series) The Teachers' View How's School, Enrique? The Caring Center Teaching StylesI Los Nietos Concho Tense: Imperfect Pancho A Desk for Billie Tuesday Rebop:Rafael Cancel Mirando High DickA Fifth Grader What Is Teaching, What Is Learning School For All My Students Handicapped Teachers Sex Discrimination (As We See It Four Children Learning Strategies A Series *123) Friday A Blind Teacher in a Public School Where Do I Belong (As we See It GregAn Eighth Grader A Series *113) He Comes from Another Room Teachers in Revolt High School Opinions Quiet Too Long Hot Lunch New York City Teachers' Strike PRE-SCHOOLS Individuals Teachers in Training And a Time to Dance Institute for Talented Youth The Challenge of Change Approaches ot Early Childhood Jimmy Exceptional Child Education Curriculum Keith: A Second Grader Live, Learn & Teach As the Twig Is Bent Kindergarten Not a Place The Beginning of a Total Group Learning Strategies The Teachers The British Infant SchoolSouthern Style Mother, This Isn't Your Day Teacher Education in the Outdoors A Chance at the Beginning - Operation Head Start To Find a Way A Chance for a Change 0.T.0.A Classroom Community SPECIAL GROUPS A Community Nursery School The Parkway Program The Creative Kindergarten: A Pilot Portrait of the Inner City School: ASIAN AMERICANS Study on the Prevention of Failure A Place to Learn Locked in These Rooms (As We See it in Early Education Poughkeepsie Day School A Series *103) The Eastville Experience

34 3 6 The End of a Morning Kitchen Physics Poughkeepsie Day School Four Children Learning Strategies Pretty Good Class for a Monday Guiding Behavior A Lesson in Teaching Rebop: Rafael Cancel Miranda High Head Start in Mississippi A Lesson on Change School I Is for Important Many Roads Rural High School Innovations in Pre-School Education for Modular Education and Elementary School Days Disadvantaged ChildrenA Series Schools See, Touch, Feel: A Report on the Artist Kindergarten A Movie About Light in the School Learning in Kindergarten The Music Lesson Learning Strategies Sight and Sound: Media in German Nueva: An Alternative Language Teaching Little World One at a Time Together Los Nietos Planning for Change (Diversity in the Step by StepThe Story of Harlem Prep Making Things to Learn Classroom) Student Directed CurriculumAn Marked for Failure Pond Water Alternative Education Approach My Art Is Me Programmed Tutoring Summerhill Nueva: An Alternative Rx for Learning Teaching the One and the Many Open for Children A School Day Two Indians: Red Reflections of Life The Opportunity Class The School on Stilts Veronica Pine School School Time in Camp Women Emerging: Comparing Cultural Play Is the Work of Young Children School Without Failure Expectations Pre-KindergartenNew Haven See My Rainbow The Pre-School Sight and Sound: Media in French POST-SECONDARY Room to Learn Language Teaching School Is for Children To Calm a Troubled Campus Small Things Classroom The Challenge of Change Setting the Stage for Learning Some of Our Schoolmates Are Blind The Small World of Nursery School Diary of a Student Revolution The Teacher: A Community Helper From Dream to Reality The Sooner the Better Teacher Education in the Outdoors Starting School Team Teaching in the Elementary School Let Us Teach Guessing Teaching English Literacy to Pre-School Team Teaching on the Elementary Level Live, Learn and Teach Indian Children at the San Felipe Team Teaching: The Corona Affair Men Who Teach Indian Reservation They Can Do It Not a Place Three Year Old Series The Time of Crowing Professor Thursday's Children Time to Grow Sight and Sound: Media in Spanish The Time of Their Lives Tomorrow We'll See What Happens Language Teaching Vignette Series The Way It Is Step by StepThe Story of Harlem Prep Worlds Apart To Find a Way ELEMENTARY Warm Up to Psychodrama JUNIOR HIGH TO Where Is Prejudice Acting Is the Art Airborn Television: Profile of a School POST-SECONDARY Another Way to Learn Balancing JUNIOR HIGH SPECIAL EDUCATION Bones A Blind Teacher in a Public School And a Time to Dance The Caring Center Beyond the Night Changing Images: Confronting Career Being Dumb: It's No Good (Diversity in Stereotypes the ClassroomA Series) California Project Talent Children as People Children as People The Caring Center The Circle Greg: An Eighth Grader Center School Cloud 9 How Children Learn (Survey) The Circle A Day at New Moon School Somebody Special Children of the Silent Night Dick: A Fifth Grader School Time in Camp Exceptional Child Education Discovery See, Touch, Feel: A Report on the Horizon of Hope Discussing a Controversial Issue Artist in the School Living and Learning Language A Dream to Learn Summerhill The Madison School Plan Eye of the Storm Oh Yes, These Are Very Special Children The First Day HIGH SCHOOL Only for a Moment Five Opinions (Diversity in the Class- Alice: A High School Junior The Opportunity Class room) As We See ItA Series Pine School The Fontana Story The Day They Had to Close the Schools He Comes from Another Room Free to Be Education by Choice Retarded Children Go to Camp Gases and "Airs" in the Classroom For All My Students School Is for Children Getting It All Together Foxfire Some of Our Schoolmates Are Blind He Comes From Another Room George Washington High School Annex Special Education Here and Now High School The Story of the Harlan-Shoemaker Hey! Look at Me High School Rising Hey! What About Us? High School Opinions School How Children Learn (Survey) High School Team Teaching: The Ferris Teaching the Child Who Is Retarded I Ain't Playin' No More Story They Do Not Walk Alone I Am Here Today If the Mind Is Free Thursday's Children I Am the Principal of This School Inside Out To Lead Useful Lives Incident on Wilson Street It's About You "We'll Show You What We're Gonna Inner City SchoolMy First Teaching Jimmy Do"Art With Multiply Handicapped Assignment Jordon PaulOne Teacher's Approach Children Keith: A Second Grader Metro! School Without Walls Why Billie Couldn't Learn

35 13 I 1.4 ADVICE ON THE MECHANICS OF SHOW- 4.Extension cord for power (if needed ) INC: AN EDITED DOCUMENTARY 5.Extension cord for speaker (if needed) TO AN AUDIENCE 6.Screen or white wall People may avoid using films and videotapes in 1.412 Emergency Supplies continuing education because they have had trouble 1.Spare lamp ( as presenters and as viewers ) with the mechanics of 2.Scotch tape or masking tape showing a film. These mechanics contribute to the film's overall framing as a situation for teaching and 1.413 Setting Up and Checking Out the Film and learning. Breakdowns and sloppiness in the showing the Equipment that detract from the fihn's impact as a teaching device After you have moved all of your equipment to can be quite easily avoided. What is necessary is a the room in which the screening will take place, do bit of advance planning and attention to the follow- the following: ing details. As details they are mundane but they are 1.Set up the screen or select the wall that will not trivial, in that they affect the overall impression serve as a screen. an audience hasnot only of the film itself, but of the 2.Set up the projector across the room from the person and institution presenting the film to the screen and plug it in. audience. 3.If you have an external speaker, set up the 1.41 Projecting 16mm Film speaker near the screen. If possible try to put the speaker at about shoulder height. Point the Showing a film to an audience is called a screening. speaker so that it is aimed toward the center Running a professional looking 16mm screening is not difficult. Anyone can do it if they take the time to of the audience. At this point you should also set up the equipment and run some of the film before turn on .the sound amplifier. The switch for the amplifier is generally located on the volume the audience arrives. Generally, if you allow one half control knob, or is next to the jack that receives hour to set up and cheek the equipment, you should have more than enough time. The following steps the cord from the speaker. and procedures may seeni simple, but some of them 4. To determine the distance that the projeclor are often overlooked. To project a film well, one should be from the screen: should do the following things: a. Turn on the projector ( without film) and 1. Make all adjustments before the audience ar- lamp and try to position the projector in rives. When the audience first sees the film it such a way that the light fills the screen. should be centered on the screen, it should Moving the projector 'forward will make the be in focus, and the sound level should be image larger. This will give you a rough properly adjusted. Do not try to show a film idea of where the projector should be. without first testing it, the projector, and the b.If it seems that you cannot get a correct speaker. image size, it is possible to get a different 2. Only the movie should be shown. A reel of sized lens for the projector. The standard film always includes film that is not a part of lens size for 16mm projectors is two inches. the actual movie. At the beginning of the film If your room is very long, you can get a is a section called the leader. The leader con- two and a half or three inch lens. If your sists of a countdown of numbers. These num- room is very short, you can get a wide angle bers tell you how many seconds( when the lens. See your audio visual technician. projector is running) before the start of the 5. Now thread the machine. film. The audience should never see the leader 6. The next and last step in the set-up is to run projected on the screen. Similarly, the film at approximately one minute of the film so that the end of a reel should not be shown. This you can see what it will look like on the screen. filmisthere to protect the footage that is a. Turn on the projector motor and lamp. actually a part of the movie. b. Focus the image. c. Move the projector around so that the image 1.411 Equipment is centered on the screen, and fills as large 1.Projector an area of the screen as possible. 2. Take-up reel d.Set the volume level and the tone control. 3. Three to two prong AC power cord adapter - Remember that the audience will absorb be sure to have onet Some of the sound, so that when you start

38 the screening you may have to adjust the count seconds too long, so it is safe to count sound slightly. However, this should give two. you intelligible sound right at the beginning. 4. You should have a perfectly focused, perfectly e. When everything looks perfect to you, stop centered picture on the screen. the projector. You might wonder why it is necessary to start the 7. Rewind the film. motor first a few seconds before the picture is turned a.If you have an auto-load projector, you can on. Why not just stop the film so that the image is run the fihn in reverse. Reverse it until the right in front of the aperture and start right up? beginning of the picture has come back out There are two reasons. First, it takes the projector a the top of the machine and the section of second or two to get up speed (24 frames/second), the film with numbers on it has come out. and so the picture quality would be faulty if you just You will notice that the numbers count started right up. Second, you will notice that you have down from eight to three.Stop the pro- already set the volume level.If you start right up jector when the number eight has just come you will hear the sound starting up as it is dragged out of the machine. across the sound head before the projector gets up to b.If you have a manual load projector, either speed. reverse the film, if there is a "reverse" setting on the motor control, or unthread the 1.415 Film With More Than One Reel machine.If you unthread the machine It is common for amateur projectionists to let the make sure that you put the arm that holds film run out and the screen go white before they turn the reel on the back of the projector into off the projector at the end of the first reel. This can the rewind position. Then, take up all of distract the audience and detract from the film. It is the slack between the two reels, and rewind bad enough that there has to be a break in the screen- the film. Rethread. ing to change reels. Instead do the following: 8. Run the film forward in the machine until the 1. Keep an eye on the front reel. When it starts number three is visible and just about ready to to get near the end, go over to the projector go into the first roller on the projector. The and get ready to turn off the lamp and turn numbers at the beginning of the film tell you down the volume setting. how many seconds remain before the beginning 2. Make a note of the volume setting. of the ffim is in front of the aperture, or the lamp, that is, how long before the film will 3. When the last frame of the movie runs through start.If the number three is just above the the projector, turn off the lamp only and turn machine, you have four seconds until the film the volume down as fast as possible.The will begin ( three seconds plus one second that motor should still be running it will take the number three to get to the 4. While the film is running out, turn on the lights. aperture ). 5. Do not rewind the first reel. Move the empty 9. Now you are finished with the set-up and you reel to the take-up position and thread up the should have 15 minutes to sit around. second reel. As in the first reel, run the film forward ( without the lamp) until you can see 1.414 Beginning the Screening the number 3 getting ready to go into the pro- One of the things that differentiates amateur jector. Stop the film. screenings from more professional screenings is that 6. Now reset the volume control to the level at most amateurs tend to show the numbers rather than which you ran the first reel. starting right on the film. In order to start up right 7. Turn off the lights. on the picture: 8. Turn on the projector motor, aot the lamp, wait 1. Turn out the lights. two seconds and then turn on the lamp. The 2. Turn on the projector motor only for about two second reel should be on the screen. Sometimes seconds. you inadvertantly move the projector while 3.After two seconds, turn on the lampthe screen you are rethreading it.If so, readjust the pro- will either be black for a second before the jector to center the film. picture comes on, or the picture will be there it depends on how well you count seconds. In 1.416 Emergency Situations actual clock time there are four seconds of There are only two common 16mm emergencies: a film to be run through, however, most people projection lamp blows out or the film breaks.

31 1.Just as with ordinary light bulbs, projector recorded on one model of a manufacturer's line may lamps gererally blow out when you turn them not play back on a different model. The reason for on. Thus you can expect to have to deal with this is that the technology for non-professional video this before showing a reel. When you get the equipment (1/2-inch and -inch) has only been de- projector from the audiovisual technician, ask veloped within the last 10 to 15 years. This tech- him or her how to change the bulb, and get a nology is still in its infancy, but the electronic process spare. If the bulb blows, change it. Be as calm by which the video image is produced is so complex as possible. that even minor misadjustments can have a major 2. Film breaks are relatively uncommon. If this effect on the outcome of the signal you see on the should happen to you, stop the projector im- television screen. mediately. Fortunately, videotape playback is becoming less a.If the film has broken so that it runs out and less risky with the development of relatively. in- of the back of the projector ( as it would expensive 1/2-inch cassette equipment (advertised as if you had just threaded it), you are lucky. "home video" equipment). Playback units for these All you have to do is check the threading systems now feature reliable remote controlled stop- to make sure that it is still threaded cor- action install* replay and fast forward and reverse, rectly, and then tape the two ends of the making it easy to stop a tape for audience discussion film together and continue the screening. and skip quickly back and forth on the tape to locate If when you start the projector, it sounds salient footage.There are two differentsystems funny (as if the film is being chewed up) currently in use for 1/2-inch cassettes; VHS and Beta- stop the projector immediately. You were Max. Tapes recorded on one system are not playable not as lucks as you thought. on the other system, so it is important toidentify b.If the film break occurs somewhere inside which system the tape was recorded on when planning the threading path, you must unthread the a screening. If you have ari projector and rethread it. 1.421 Video Disks autoload projector this can be very difficult. With an autoload you must be very patient The other new systems for video playback (using and wiggle the film off the sprockets, lifting platters somewhat like phonograph records ) are not up the rollers that hold the film down. After currently being used for production of edited docu- you have rethreaded, tape the two endsof ments, and so they are not discussed here. When film together and continue the screening. disks become available for educational purposes they c. Because you are repairing the break with will have a reliability and flexibility in playback simi- tape, it is impossible to begin the film again lar to that found in the new cassette equipment. exactly at the break. You must sacrifice the few feet of film immediately after the 1.43 Some Final Things to Remember break, and wind the break around the take- The best advice to follow on the playback of video up reel. Your repair will not run through is to test everything several days before you are to the projector. have a showing, to make sure that your equipment d. Make sure that you tell the personS from works and is compatible with your tape. Of course, whom you rented the film that it broke and if you are showing tape that you recorded yourself you taped it together. A technician must and have been working with, this is not necessary. splice it before it can be run again. If, however, you will be showing someone else's tape, it is wise to check it out first. Fortunately, it is begin- 1.42 Videotape Playback ning to be common for distributors to signal-process Videotape playback is considerably more prob- videotape.This process is very expensive, but it lematic than the playback :of 16mm film. The most results in tapes that are electronically compatible. annoying problem in videotape playback is the fact Finally, remember to carry with uou to any video or that the different brand names of equipment are often cinema showing a three-prong to two-prong power not compatible. This means that a frequent problem cord adapter so that you can plug your power cord for videotape users is that a tape that has been re- into a wall socket. This may be the single most im- corded on Sony equipment, for example, may not play portant thing to remember in your career as an effec- back on Panasonic equipment. Furthermore, tape tive presenter of audiovisual documents.

38 40 11 MAKING AND USING RESEARCH DOCUMENTS OF EVERYDAY LIFE IN SCHOOLS

2.1 AN OVERVIEW OF APPROACHES AND attempt to hold other features constant in order to see PURPOSES what results from our intervention. On the basis of experiments we can assert that the occurrence of A, 2.11 Purposes of Audiovisual Documentation in given conditions X, makes event B maximally prob- Research able.Experiments are appropriate (1) when we already know a great deal about A, B, and X, and Before discussing the how of audiovisual documen- about the conditions of their occurrence, and (2) when tation it is appropriate to discuss briefly the why of it. it is logically and ethically possible to alter social life Audiovisual documentation is one technique used in so that event A will happen consistently or not happen approaches to research,that can be thought of as mem- and that conditions X are held constant across each bers of a family called by differing names: qtNitative experimental trial. research, ethnography, participant observational fieldwork, case study, naturalistic research, interpretive Fieldwork research gives us a detailed view of research. An extensive theoretical and methodological events that are naturally occurring at a particular literature has developed out of these approaches. place and time. These methods are appropriate when Access to that literature is provided in section 2.3 of we need to know more about the following: this handbook, which is an annotated bibliography. 1. The specific structure of occurrences rather than Social research by means of audiovisual documen- their general character *of distribution. (What tation and analysis is best seen in the context of field- does dropping out of high school look like and work research generallyits substantive concerns as mean to the people involved?) What is hap- well as its methods. Family resemblances among the pening in a particular place rather than across various approaches to fieldwork involve an attempt to a number of places (if the dropout rate were understand social life in terms of its ecological char- lowest in a certain major American city, we acter as a set of interacting systems and levels of might first want to know more specifically what organization, in terms of the meanings and purposes was going on there, before looking at large of social action for actors involved, and in terms of cities with average school dropout rates ). the social and cultural organization of events and 2. The location of naturally occurring points of meanings that are enacted by particular people at contrast that we can observe as natural experi- particular points in space and time. In the light of ments when we are unable logistically or ethi- these theoretical concerns and assumptions, under- cally to meet experimental conditions of con- standing is discovered through narrative description sistency of intervention ("treatment") and con- and analysis, in specific detail, of naturally occurring trol( we can't cause students to drop out of happenings in concrete situations of everyday life. high school, nor can we hold constant the con- Differing methods in social and behavioral research ditions under which they do so), are better and worse at answering different kinds of 3. The identification of specific causal linkages that questions. Large scale survey research using question- were not identified by experimental methods, naires, tests, and census data can answer questions and the development of new theories about concerning the typicality (or atypicafity) of general causes and other influences on the patterns kinds of occurrencestheir frequency distribution identified in surveys and test data. within a large population that is found across a variety In educational research, fieldwork has often been of places in space, and points in time. For example, used to get specific information about the implemen- if we want to compare high school dropout rates tation of new practices. General information on im- across various cities or states or years, survey research plementation may not tell us enough; for example, methods are appropriate. Survey methods are unable simply to know that a school district has implemented to show the causes of the distributions they identify. mainstreaming of handicapped children does not tell Experimental research is an approach that can us about types and levels of implementation, nor about answer questions of cause. In an experiment in social barriers to implementation at the point of implemen- research we alter some features of social life and tation in the local site that were not taken account

39 41 of in the rational planning models used by policy 5. How do the ways everyday life in this setting makers and program designers at the national, state, is organized compare with other ways of or- or local school district level. Fieldwork studies of the ganizing social life in a wide range of settings implementation of new programs often identify gaps in other places and at other times? between the practices at the "street level of policy The answers to the primary question, "What's making" in the local site and the intentions of the happening here, specifically?" is not obvious or trivial program planners.These studies may also identify for three main reasons. First, everyday life (because interesting local success stories with implications for of its familiarity and because of its contradictions) is application in other settings. Examples of fieldwork largely invisible to uswe do not realize the patterns research in the field of special education are the study in it.Second, everyday life is organized in slightly by Weathers ly( 1979) ofrelations between state differing ways from one setting to the next. Often levels, local district levels, and building levels of im- these objectively small differences of pattern and plementation of special education entitlement legisla- meaning can make a big difference in the subjective tion, and the study by Mehan et al. (1982), of special reality and qualitative character of social relations in education referral decisions, which is a natural history the setting. These differences across settings can affect of decision-making from the level of the classroom such matters as program implementation.Third, through the individualized education planning team because many of the patterns are outside conscious meeting at the school district level. awareness for the actors in the setting and because Fieldwork is increasingly used to study the imple- many of the patterns are constructed around distinc- mentation of manifest, formal curriculum, as in the tions of meaning attached to slight differences in case studies of mathematics education done by Stake amount (such as the measurable difference between and Easely (1978). Fieldwork is also done to identify "not too loud" and "too loud"), description and analysis patterns in the so-called "hidden curriculum," as in of specific local details is necessary. The widely rang- the study by Cusick, (1973) of the peer relationships ing view or measurement by general categories may and school achievement motivation among students miss subtle features that have important consequences in an urban high school. In both kinds of curriculum for causation or for the underlying structure of pat- studies a recurring theme is the identification of dif- terns and ecological relations in the local setting. ferences between the formal and informalsocial Audiovisual documentation involves the recording system of the institution, that is, between the official of the finely shaded details of everyday life in a set- and the unofficial definitions of appropriate relationships among members of a setting (formally, all the ting.The record permits the researcher and the researcher's audience various kinds of vicarious "re- teachers in a school building have similar rights and visiting" at later points in time. Because settings of obligations in relations with the principal; informally social life are so complex and their details are so some have special privileges and responsibilities). numerous, the ability to revisit an audiovisual record Both the informal and formal systems of relations are orderly and make sense; they are, however, qualita- enables us to compensate for our limited human information processing capacities and to discover, after tively differing sets of principles of social order and the fact, new aspects of meaning and organization meaning. Audiovisual docu- In short, fieldwork is best at answering the follow- that we did not realize at first. mentation and analysis is a research procedure that ing questions (on these questions, see also Erickson, is essentidlly similar in its underlying logic to that of Florio, and Buschman, 1980): Indeed, as we What's happening, specifically, in social action participant observational fieldwork. 1. will argue here, the best way to do audiovisual docu- that takes place in this particular setting? 2. What do the actions mean to the actors in- mentation research is to dc it in conjunction with fieldwork. Consequently the ensuing discussion of methods volved in them? 3. How are the happenings organized, as inter- presented here resembles very much the discussions acting systems and subsystems, in patterns of found in the standard literature of ethnography and social organization and learned cultural prin- participant observation. ciples for the conduct of everyday lifehow, in Issues of substance that might be addressed by other words, are people in the setting con- audiovisual documentadon and analysis are basically sistently present to each other as environments the same as those classically considered by fieldwork for one another's actions? researchers in education. Topics especially appropri- 4. How is what is happening in this setting as a ate for study by audiovisual documentation are those whole related to happenings at other system involving the conduct and organization of face to face levels outside and inside the setting? interaction. In the annotated bibliography and listing

40 of projects found in this handbook (in Sections 2.3 issues of intent, we begin here by considering the pur- and A.4, respectively) issues of face to face interaction poses of research filming in contrast to those of ordi- figure prominently. Other kinds of topics in educa- nary documentary filmmaking (see also the discussion tional research that have been studied by means of in Section 1.15 above, pp. 6-7). audiovisual documentation are: There are two fundamentally differing aims in 1. Relationships between federal and state man- making audiovisual records of naturally occurring dates and building and classroom level imple- events: to tell a summary story of what happened, or mentation, for a variety of issues such as racial to make an exhaustive record that permits analysis of desegregation, gender equity, teacher centers what happened. Films and tapes made for the first for the improvement of instruction, and the purpose are in what can be called a documentary implementation of special education service narrative tradition; those made for the second purpose delivery systems, including the natural history are in what can be called a primary data source tradi- of referral decisions from their origin in the tion, and it is footage of the latter kind that is usually classroom experience of the teacher through used in research. the development of an individualized instruc- Films and tapes in the documentary narrative tra- tion plan for the student. dition are by far the ones most frequently made. These 2. The role of the principal, in relation to school were discussed in Part I of the handbook ( Section 1.1 ) staff, students and the school community. and will be only briefly reviewed here. 3. The implementation of a curriculum innovation One type of documentary narrative is the so-called in subject matter content (e.g., social studies) "ethnographic filin," which is an attempt to record or in the reconstruction of social relationships key features of a people's way of life, with emphasis in teaching and learning ( open education, direct on those features that are important to the people instruction). themselves, from their points of view. The points of 4. Peer relationships among teachers involved view are discovered by intensive, long-term, partici- in planning and implementing district-wide pant observation in the setting.Ideally, the ethno- changes. graphic film is an audiovisual report of research find- 5. Classroom teaching, considered from a variety ings about a group's way of life, findings derived from of aspects, and for a variety of purposes ( class- fieldwork. The ethnographic film is usually not a rooms are the settings that have been docu- primary data source in itself. Some narrowly focused mented audiovisually most frequently in educa- fihns that document a particular ceremony or tech- tional research). niquea wedding or weavingcan be used as primary 6.Illustration and analysis of particular teaching research materials, along with field notes. The first techniques. ethnographic film is of this sort.It was made by In sum, audiovisual documentation and analysis is Regnault showing West African pottery malcers at useful in collecting records that have a documentary work during the Paris Exposition (see la Jard and interest and function analogous to those of the written Regnault, 1895, and see de Brigard, 1975, and Heider, records studied by historians. Audiovisual documen- 1976, for a survey of the history of ethnographic film). tation and analysis is also useful in discovering new Whether the scope of ethnographic narrative is insights about the organization of everyday life in wide or narrow, such films tell a story of typical events. educational settingsnew perspectives on phenomena The means of narration is a connected sequence of that may have been overlooked because of their sub- edited .shots.Often the degree ofe camera editing, tlety and their familiarity to those closest to them. however, is slight. The shots are relatively long, with How one collects audiovisual records that are appro- a minimum of zooming and closeups. An attempt is priate for these research purposes is the topic of the made to make the sequential chunks of the film con- next sections of the handbook. form to the naturally occurring flow of the action that is being documented. This approach can be seen 2.12 Contrasts Between Research Footage and in the work of such anthropological filmmalcers as Documentary Films Timothy Ascii and Carroll Williams. Some ethno- Research footage differs from ordinary documen- graphic films are highly selective and heavily edited tary footage in a number of respects: in the social (see the discussions on selectivity in Hockings, 1975, circumstances of its shooting, in the technical charac- and in Heider, 1976). A resource for learning more ter of its shooting and editing, and in the ways it is about this approach to documentary filmmaking is used in analysis and in presentation to audiences. SAVICOMThe Society for the Anthropology of Because these how-to differences all stem from basic Visual Communication ( address: Annenberg School

41 of Communication, 3620 Walnut St., C5, Room G20, ments of human activities should, in the ways they Philadelphia, PA 19104) and its journal, Studies in are made, point to aspects of contrast that are mean- Visual Communication. ingful to the people whose actionis being docu- Another type of documentary narrative is that of mented, that is, audiovisual documents of everyday cinema verite.In this narrative style, the action is life should be at least minimally edited, even if they unrehearsed, and there is often a great deal of camera are to serve as primary research documents (see the editing. Close-ups and other changes of framing are discussions by Grimshaw, 1982). A useful rule of frequent. In the final edited version of the film, shots thumb is making audiovisual records asprimary may be spliced togcther out of the order in which research data sources is to keep all forms of editing they occurred during the action being recorded. In to a minimum. general, these highly edited films or videotapes are By far the most frequent setting filmed or video- not of much use to a researcher. They present an taped in schools has been the classroom, and by far extremely selective interpretation of what happened; the most frequent kind of analysis has been that de- they are not a document from which can be derived rived from what has been called "systematic class- a variety of alternative interpretive accounts of what room observation," in which predetermined coding happened. Since it is the construction of such analyti- categories are used by observers to categorize various cally interpretive accounts (and the sifting through verbal and nonverbal behaviors of teachers and stu- and weighing of alternative interpretations) which is dents as they occur. Beginning with the relatively a major purpose of making audiovisual records as simple coding system developed by educational psy- research documents, films and tapes made in cinema chologists such as Flanders (1970); this stream of verité style are usually not appropriate. research has seen the development of more complex At the opposite extreme from cinema verite are coding procedures in the work of Good and Brophy films made in the second, or primary data source tra- (1978); Anderson, Evertson, and Brophy (1979); Stal- dition, for purposes of research. Films of this type lings and Kaskowitz (1974); Berliner (1975); and Den- have been made farless frequently in the social ham and Lieberman (1980).As the complexity of sciences than have documentary films.Films made coding has increased, so has the usefulness of films as a primary data source are akin to some research and videotapes, which permit repeated observation films made in the natural sciences, such as the films and the training of coders to high standards of inter- made to mcmitor the daily cycle of the opening and coder reliability (agreement in making the coding closing of a flower, or of phases in the activity of judgments). sunspots. In films of that type a constant visual frame A related approach has been that of the ecological is maintained to enable the viewer to make precise psychologist Barker (1968) and his associates. They observations of the changes occurring over time. have used more varied approaches to the study of While real time may be distorted (as in the artificially classroom behavior than the researchers in the Flan- speeded up films of plants, or in slow motion films) ders tradition, emphasizing nonverbal aswell as the changes in time are done according to a regular verbal behavior. For the ecological psychologists as system; a consistent time-series sampling pattern is well as for those researchers in the Flanders tradition, maintained throughout the film. the fully continuous, minimally camera-edited, audio- An analogy in the study of social life is the video visual record is of the most use. camera used in a store or bank. Placed in a fixed A third approach to research also uses continuous, position in order to monitor the behavior of custo- minimally edited footage as a primary data source. mers, such a camera is on continuously. Because of its This approach derives from three sources: (1) from at- fixed position and continuous monitoring, it provides tempts to make ethnography more sensitive and a maximally neutral documentary record of what is systematicattempts that developed in anthropology happening in the store.The neutrality may be a and sociology over the last generation, (2) from the mixed blessing, however. In films made the way the interdisciplinary field of sociolinguistics, and (3) from store camera does it, the audiovisual record is an the microanalytic study of nonverbal communication. ignorant one; deliberately so. The continuous shape The approach has been called microethnography and of the record does not contain any emphasis, as every- focused ethnography by Erickson ( 1976, 1977) and day life does, with all its contrast of discontinuity constitutitve ethnography by Mehan (1978). Exam- from one moment to the next. Since human activity ples of these various studies and some of the basic is not the same as that of plants or sunspotssince it theoretical discussions on which the empirical work is informed by meaning that is socially cued through is based, are reviewed in an annotated bibliography contrastsome have argued that audiovisual docu- in Section 2.3 of the handbook, pp. 52-62.

42 4 4 The purposes of the microethnographic approach not include statistical summaries, always accompanies are to identify the fundamental principles of social films used as primary data sources, and so the audio- organization, and to identify the cultural patterning visual document does not need to tell the story itself. of that organization, according to which people make It does need to be a continuous and comprehensive sense of the actions they and others take in the con- record of the action the researcher wants to study, duct of everyday life.This aim differs from that of for it is a sample of social action. The highly edited two of the approaches previously describedethno- footage in the documentary narrative introduces kinds graphic film, and classroom observation by means of of sampling biases that can and should be avoided predetermined coding categories.Those approaches when shooting footage that is to be used as a primary are concerned with observing and reporting what source of research data. happens in everyday life. The simplest shooting procedureisto set the The microethnographic approach is concerned, as camera for a wide pogle shot and make a single "take" are the other two approaches, with reporting the what that begins slightly before and ends slightly after the of face to face interaction in key scenes in people's event being documented. While the camera is on it everyday lives.In addition, the microethnographic remains stationary, mounted on a tripod.This so- approach is concerned with detailed analysis of how called "locked-on camera" approach is not absolutely people do what they do interactionally in schools necessary. A variant of this is possible in which mini- how what other educational researchers have con- mal camera editing occurs (moving the camera, chang- sidered as outputs or products of schooling ( engage- ing the angle and breadth of the shot) provided ment with academic tasks in lessons and other class- (1) that the camera is left on the entire time that the room scenes, counselors academic placement decisions major phases or episodes of action occurred, and about students and testers' assessments of children's (2) that the shot was wide enough to include within ability) are, at least in part, interactionally produced. the frame all the participants engaged in interaction This interest in the how of what happens in school is in the event. Such minimally camera edited footage also found in some of the work of ecological psycholo- does not look quite so alien as does the entirely gists, notably Kouniu and Gump (1976). locked-on, stationary camera footage, but it still pre- Microethnographic work depends upon a combina- serves the naturally occurring shape and sequence of tionof participant observation (direct,continuous the action as it unfolded across real time. Happenings observation and reflection, recorded in running field- are not re-arranged out of the sequential order in notes) and microanalysis of films and videotapes of which they actually occurred, nor are episodes short- everyday happenings in schools. For such analysis, ened through editorial cutting so that their duration lkh quality audiovisual records are necessary. But in the film is less than it was in the original event. what meets standards of adequacy for these research Preserving the actual sequence and real-time duration purposes is not what professional media production of events is absolutely essential in a record of them people consider high quality footage. Footage that is that will be useful as a primary data source. It is also good for research purposes does not require beauty necessary that the film keep within the visual frame or vividly dramatic content, although these standards all the interacting individuals in the event.If these can be approached, if not entirely met, in shooting essential conditions are met in the initial shooting, footage that is useful for research. Research footage later editing to add emphasis and to make the shots can be subsequently edited as an ethnographic film more aesthetically pleasing is entirely appropriate. that tells a story. But it must first Of all meet basic Even with the slight "cleaning up" of the audio- conditionsof adequacyforresearch purposesa visual record provided by minimal editing, films and record that is maximally continuous and comprehen- videotapes made this way are still rough. These ways sive and that preserves the original sequence and of making an audiovisual record for analytic purposes duration of actions as they occurred naturally in the run directly counter to the intuitions and quality behavior stream that was recorded. standards of production people, who are accustomed While the main purpose of an ethnographic film to making documentary films that contain all the audio is to tell a story, and do so in a selective way, the main and visual ingredients needed to tell a story to an audi- criterion for a film or tape that is to be used as a ence. Because of this it is advisable for researchers to primary data source is that it contain as complete a do their own production work rather than to hire pro- record as possible of the continuous sequence of action fessional camera crews and editors. It is quite simple as it occurs in real time. Such records permit systema- to make usable films and tapes with clear picture and tic analysis of verbal and nonverbal behavior in the sound. The production decisions involvedwhere to event recorded. Written analysis, which may or may point the camera, how to edit after shootingare all

43 4 5 research decisions that affect the quality of the pri- the researcher to prevent harm coming to those being mary data source. Paul Byers said once, "Cameras studied. In medical research "harm" can involve phy- don't take pictures; people do" (Byers, 1966). The sical pain, illness, or even death. In social research people making research decisions while shooting and harm can involve embarrassment or punishment for editing should be the people with the clearest sense being revealed asdoing something socially disap- of research aims and findings at that point in the proved of. Usually, social researchers try to minimize research process. Those people presumably are the the risks to those they study by guaranteeing confiden- researchers themselves. tiality of data, including keeping the identity of informants secret.While absolute confidentialityis 2.13 Shooting Research FootageHuman Issues usually impossible to maintain in fieldwork (with or Because it is people that take the pictures, it is withoutaccompanying audiovisualrecordsbeing useful to consider the human as well as the mechani- made) gross misuse of data can and should be pre- cally technical aspects of making audiovisual records vented by prior agreement. A teacher, for example, of everyday life in educational settings. The human should know that the researcher will not leave the and technical aspects of shooting continually interact classroom and go tell stories immediately to the prin- in the actual process of filming. In this discussion, cipalor show the principal the videotape made that however, the two aspects can be treated separately. day. Parents should know that the videotape made in Under human issues we will consider negotiating their home will not be shown to teachers or other entry, protecting confidentiality, securing informed school officials without the parents' previewing and consent, and reducing the obtrusiveness of recording. consent. Research files (and the labels on tapes and film cans ) should not reveal the names of individuals 2.131 Negotiating Entry or the school/community sits.All parties involved should know that field notes will not be reported in Negotiating entry is both a first step and a con- the daily paper, nor will film of the classroom, parent tinuing process. Its complexities need to be considered conference, or family scene suddenly appear on the carefully before approaching a school setting. The evening news. process of negotiating entry involves contacting the Specific agreements to protect the interests of the various parties who will be involved in and be affected parties involved need to be worked out in terms of by the research, explaining the purposes and pro- the particulars of the setting. If a school has a vindic- cedures of the research to them, and gaining their tive martinet as a principal or an intense gossip net- consent either to be filmed, or (as in the case of work among the faculty, then a teacher may be at parents, teachers, and school administrators), to allow risk if the principal or other teachers get to see class- others in their charge to be filmed. room footage. In another school in which teachers Negotiation of entry begins before you enter a and principal have worked out mutually acceptable setting and continues as long as you are there. It well ways of observing and reflecting on various people's mayi continue as long as you continue to use the foot- teaching, the risks to the teacher of showing classroom age in research. All along the way it is necessary to footage to the principal and to the faculty are much explain what you are doingto new people who be- different.Similarly, with a teacher whose standards come involved, and to those already involved as your of correct student behavior are very tight and rigid, plans and procedures change during the course of showing footage to the teacher containing information research. If the research is for applied purposes it is about what children do outside the teacher's aware- necessary to decide who the main clients are (parents, ness could put the children at risk. But with a teacher teachers,administrators) before negotiating entry. who is interested in the ways children in the classroom These issues are discussed in standard texts on field- have of helping each other and generally dealing with work involving participant observation, (e.g., Lofland, one another, showing footage to the teacher of chil- 1971; Schatzman and Straus, 1973; McCall and Sim- dren working, playing, or even "misbehaving" together mons 1969; and in the more recent works by Cassell, would not put them at risk. 1978, and Agar, 1980). They also appear in discus- Consequently, in each particular setting researchers sions of the ethics of social research, such as that of and the people they study must tottier determine Sjoberg (1967). specifically which kinds of people are liable to which kinds of harm by the showing of what kind of footage 2.132 Confidentiality in what kinds of screening circumstances. It is help- The issue of confidentiality comes immediately to ful if written statements can be made that sum- mind. It is a key issue, but only as part of a larger marize agreements on ethical guidelines, taking into one, which is the fundamental ethical requirement of account cultural standards of appropriateness for this.

44 4 6 (If oral agreements are appropriate with!parents ina that the consent of parents of the children videotaped given community but written ones would not be, then would also be sought before any protocol tapes or a written agreement about the process of gaining oral films were made. The researchers and teacher agreed conserit-could be made with school staff and school/ that the teacher should not have the authority to veto community representaitves. The point is not to be writing the researchers might publish in scientific legalistic, but to be thorough and genuine in develop- journals or monographs (so long as the identity of ing processes of gaining consent and protecting the individuals and the school was kept confidential). But people involved.) the researchers agreed they would share all manu- The following are examples of agreements appro- scripts with the teacher before publication so that the priate in particular circumstances. In a study of chil- teacher knew what would be said, and had the oppor- dren at home and at school, the parents of those tunity to give reactions. If subsequent researchers or children videotaped at home agreed with teachers, university faculty wanted to make use of the video- administrators, and researchers that not only would tapes, each request that came in the future would be no edited footage be generally distributed without the considered by the principal investigator and the parents' review and consent, but that no home footage teacher. would ever be shown informally to the classroom Confidentiality and informed consent are only two teacher or the principal during the first part of the of the issues of ethics involved in the process of nego- school year (as the teacher's impressions of the chil- tiating entry. Clearly, the negotiation of entry is less dren were being formed), and that any home footage complicated when the researchers do not intend to that might be shown later in the year to school per- produce edited footage for general distribution. The sonnel would be shown first to the parents, who could more control that researchers have over who will see at that point withhold consent.In that suburban the footage, the easier it is to make explicit agreements school community, such an agreement seemed reason- about the use of the footage. It is important that the able to all parties concerned. parties involved understand the research purposes In a quite different school community in a large and procedures and that explicit agreements are made city, in a study only of classrooms, similar general that take into account the local circumstances of likely guidelines about edited footage were adopted.In risk.It is good to be as explicit as possible, but not addition, the school administrators, teachers, and re- to become obsessed over this either. If people in the searchersinvolved agreedthat no administrator, setting understand the general purposes and pro- whether at the building level or city level, would see cedures of research, and a mechanism for continued any unedited classroom footage until the (nontenured) consent decisions is established, then their interests teachers' contracts were renewed for the subsequent are being protected, legally and ethically. year, and that if any "down-town" administrators asked 2.133 Obtrusiveness of Recording to see classroom footage before that time, their request would be denied by the building principal. Obtrusiveness of recording is another of the human issues that is addressed initially and then continuously Two different kinds of studies in two differing during filming. Because people take pictures, hiding school communities presented different ethical issues the equipment or its operators will not make recording that wcre salient, and needed explicit agreements, less obtrusive; the obtrusiveness of recording is a given the local situations. Accordingly, different types social matter, not a mechanical one. We have noted of agreements were made, but in both instances the that one reason people get nervous while being filmed agreements were explicit and were arrived at by by researchers is that the people filmed don't under- consensus. stand the study's purposes and confidentiality pro- Long-term as well as short-term uses of the research cedures. Another cause for nervousness in those being footage should also be agreed upon when negotiating filmed is the researcher's unfamiliarity with and ner- entry. One aspect of initial negotiation can be the vousness about the use of recording equipment. Be- establishment of an ethics review committee for the sides negotiating the entry thoroughly and rehearsing project.This committee can be given authority to their technical routines in practice shooting sessions make decisions on future uses of the research mate- before arriving on the scene, there are two other rials. In one study of a single classroom such a com- kinds of things researchers can do to make their mittee was very smallit consisted of the classroom recording unobtrusive. One is to help the people in teacher and the senior investigator on the research the setting become accustomed to the equipment team. The teacher agreed that the teacher would have The other is to use the equipment while recording in a veto over any footage that might be made into a ways that avoid drawing undue attention to it, inter- protocol videotape or film for general distribution, and fering with the action in the settings.

45 2.134 Trial Run adults, as will the mundane content of the tapes. This A trial run should be planned for in the research is not a misrepresentation of what you are shooting. process. If the members of the research team have not Most of what you shoot will be mundane activity filmed or taped together before, a tryout with equip- interesting only to a researcherand often not even ment is essential. Plan to have the trial run in a set- interesting to the researcher. ting comparable to the one you plan to film in. Even If you give people time to get used to the presence if you have all worked together before, trial runs are of equipment and show them test footage, the equip- useful. Remember Murphy's Law: If anything can go ment will soon become part of the woodwork, pro- wrong, it will. vided the recording crew does not use the camera Making audiovisual records of everyday life in and sound equipment in ways that draw attention a setting is a process of face-to-face interaction to it. between the researchers and those they are filming and also among the researchers themselves.The 2.136 Unobtrusiveness in Shooting pieces of equipment and the proeesses required to Simplicity of camera work has social advantages operate them enter into the interpersonal relations in the setting. In shooting to make a primary data among the film crew. If crew members are nervous record it is not necessary to move the equipment about or are in conflict about use of equipment and/or around as much as it is when you are pursuing the each other's work relationships, this gets communi- most beautiful or dramatic camera angle in anticipa- cated to the people being filmed, and may make them tion of editing the take into a documentary narrative nervous too. The best way to be unobtrusive in film- film. The stationary camera can be put on a tripod ing is to be thoroughly at home with both the equip- and turned on; it can be walked away from occa- ment and the work team relationships. The team sionally if the cameraperson is familiar enough with needs practice in "debugging" its teamwork relation- the action to know how likely it is that the action will ships as well as practice in using the mechanical remain stable for a while.Even hand-holding a equipnrent. This means having set-up and take-down camera, you can move slowly. By judicious use of routines,attaching labels to key pieces of equip- the zoom lens you can avoid coming up close to the ment, and knowing who does what. Plan to spend people you are shooting. whatever time it takes to "debug" the technical and It is good to avoid moving abruptly while shooting, interactional processes involved in the research team's and to attend to the naturally occurring "seams" of filming and observing. (A clear, eminently practical transition in the flow of events. These transition points discussion of both the mechanical and the human are good times to check equipment, move it, and con- aspects of audiovisual documentationis found in fer with other team members. Transitions such as Griffin and Shuy, 1978, Chapter 2.) those between one meeting and the next, or between the "windup" phase of a lesson and its concluding 2.135 Initial Entry With Equipment phase on the way to snack timeare kinds of "seams" Bringing the equipment into the setting for a few during which you can interact with equipment and clays before shooting helps people get used to it. Dur- team members unobtrusively. With experience your ing this time some test shooting can be done. You can movements in operating the equipment become syn- show pieces of these takes back to the people as a chronized with the rhythms of ebb and flow in the way of demystifying the recording process. Try to action you are shooting. As that happens your move- show material that the people who are taped can re- ments as an operator no longer draw attention to gard as a neutral portrayalneither negative nor espe- yourself and the equipment. You have become part cially heroic. In the footage you show they should be of the scene and its naturally occurring timing. able to see themselves acting in mundane events in If wireless microphones are used, adults will wear competent ways. This can be especially important for them on a lavaliere or pin, with the cigarette package- teachers who are nervous about being recorded. Small sized transmitter in a pocket. Adults soon become children may want to watch the tape too. accustomed to the wireless mike, but for children In any initial showing, play the tape long enough it is more obtrusive. This can be capitalized on by so that people begin to lose interest in it. This often Making the wcaring of the mike an occasiona happens after about five minutes. They have already desirable opportunity. Attractive vests in bright colors lived this everyday life, after all. They know what can be made for the children to wear. The micro- will happen next. Choose footage that was shot very phone is attached to the shoulder of the vest, pointing simply, with no particular individuals standing out. forward so the voices of other speakers will be picked The very simplicity of shooting will bore children and up too. The battery powered transmitter can be put

46 4 6 in a small pocket sewn on the back of the vest. This ticipant observation also helps you decide what kinds keeps itrelatively safe from bumping and is also of equipment will be needed and how it will be used. visually unobtrusive. Have two or three vests made Finally, participant observation helps with rapport. As and rotate them around the class, not necessarily you do fieldwork, people in the setting get acquainted recording as you do this, so everyone has a turn at with you and with the ways in which you and your wearing them. Continue rotating them (itis useful team members operate as researchers. As the research to have at least one dummy vest for this purpose) so progresses and you begin filming or taping, it is good that the target children you are focusing on do not to continue with participant observation, with various get singled out for special attention by other children members of your team sharing in note-taking and in the room. As you rotate the vests you will find that interviewing the people you are filming. The footage children want to wear them, and as the vests become "in the can" will not contain everything you need to part of the natural classroom routine, their presence know in order to interpret what you shot. becomes unobtrusive. 2.15 Equipment and Shooting: Strategies for 2.137 A Final Caution on Recording Selectivity in Data Collection If any technical maneuver that is convenient for Thisisreally the simplest part. We will not you is obtrusive or interferes with the action of the discuss cinema techniques here, except to say that settinga route for stringing a power cord, the place- because of the cost of sound cinema film, you are ment of a camera, the timing of your movement to usually more selective in what you shoot in cinema correct camera focussacrifice the technical matter footage than you need to be with videotape, which rather than inconvenience the people you are filming. is less expensive. Consequently, the process of shoot- If you are doing audiovisual documentation as part of ing cinema film resembles the later stages of what ongoing fieldwork, the chance to get adequate pic- we are about to describe in documentation using ture and sound recording of an event will probably videotape (and in cinema documentation even more come again; the chance to repair damagecl rapport participant observation is necessary prior to filming, may not. since the filming to be done is more selective than that done in the initial stages of videotaping). .02.14 Participant Observation Overall, the strategy is to be increasingly selective Audiovisual documentation is a sampling process, as the research progresses in deciding what to record, involving decisions about what and what not to record while still controlling carefully the degree of selec- in a setting. Those decisions are best made on the tivity at any given point. Often it is desirable to record basis of firsthand experience with the educational whole classroom days or whole mornings in the prin- setting, and ideally, with its broader community or cipal's office or another school setting, unless at the institutional environment. Accordingly, it is desirable onset of the study you have specifically focused in- to be able to hang around before the shooting begins. terests in research content (school lessons, interviews Permission to do this needs to be discussed in the between the principal and parents, etc.). initial entry negotiations. The main variables in selectivity are (1) the visual In addition to providing information on the broader and auditory breadth of framing in "takes," and the environment of the setting you are interested in film- duration of the "takes."(See the discussion at the ing, participant observation provides important infor- beginning of Section LI of this handbook in which mation about the setting itself. You need to know these variables are discussed in more detail.) We will some of the things that are locally meaningful in that use the school classroom as a source of examples in particular settingissues, definitions of appropriate considering selection, but the discussion applies to the behavior, and other customary features of everyday documentation of other school and school-community life there. You also need to know the ordinary pat- settings as well. terms of activity in the setting: who does what, with The most unselective visual recording would be whom, when. Learning this, and taking and writing to use a stationary video camera with a wide-angle up field notes systematically, is part of the classic lens, mounted on a tall tripod, shooting continuously. process of doing fieldwork.Intensive participation The most unselective audio recording would be to use and firsthand observation helps you substantively by a single microphone suspended from the ceiling about providing evidence on which to make principled two-thirds of tbe way up toward the end of the room decisions about what will be included and what will that your prior observation shows the teacher spends be left out of the filming. Thus it helps you reduce the most time in when large group instruction is hap- inadvertent bias in the sampling of ernts and actions pening. The microphone cord would be strung along that is inherent in audiovisual documentation. Par- the ceiling, and would be plugged directly into the 47 4 video recording deck. With a video deck that records these extra people and their movements are not espe- one hour reels or cassettes, recording would only be cially obtrusive.Still, a few suspended microphones interrupted once an hour while the tape is changed. or wireless radio microphones are the least obtrusive A teacher can easily produce a useful videotape just means of sound recording. by turning on this system while teaching the class, More complicated combinations of equipment are and letting it record until the tape runs out. In the also possible. Multiple wireless microphones can be next stage of research, as you review field notes and used. Three or even four cameras can be used, with the continuous, wide-angle shots you recorded, some the visual images electronically mixed in a two- or kinds of action and kinds of individuals will become three-part split-screen format (for detailed advice on salient, given your research interests. Once you have this, consult the researchers listed in the annotated decided why you want to focus on some events and bibliography, Section 2.3, and in the short list of people and not on others, a more selective shooting reseasch projects, Section 2.4). strategy becomes appropriate, and a more complex More elaborate technology makes it easier to re- system of people and recording equipment then be- cord multiple visual perspectives of a given event. It comes necessary. also decreases your chances of missing unexpected For more visual selectivity you might place the happenings you want to be sure to document. Keep camera closer to those scenes you wanted to record, in mind that the more complicated the equipment is, still using the wide angle lens and a tripod. Or you the greater its obtrusiveness.If enough participant might change to a zoom lens, still using a tripod, or observation was done prior to filming, you are in a hand-held camera. You would still take* long shots, position to decide in advance what selectivity you keeping within the visual frame as much as possible want. You are able to predict the likely occurrence of all the bodies of all the individuals engaged in and spatial organization of the naturally occurring interaction. Your shots, consequently, would be some- events you plan to record. What you lack in equip- what wider than those usual in commercial film or ment you can more than make up for by adequate television, but would be considerably narrower than fieldwork. Lacking familiarity with everyday routines the extreme wide angle shot used in the previously in the setting, and lacking familiarity with the variety described approach. of meanings and priorities people in the setting attach to the events that happen there, fancy equipment by Similarly, the sound recording would be more nar- itself will not enable you to make an adequate audio- rowly focused than in the former approach. Audio visual record. selectivity is accomplished in three ways. One is to The various equipment options carry with them use multiple microphones whose recording strength different costs and benefits. With a single camera, as can be turned tip or down, depending on which you move from wide-angle shots to more narrow ones, microphones are closest to the people whose inter- you lose contextual information. The wide angle shot, action you are recording. Using this approach micro- however, is lacking in fine detail, and is visually dull. phones can be suspended from the ceiling at the places For audio recording, you get the best record of overall in the room your observation has shown the key events context by using a suspended microphone, but you you plan to record are most likely to happen. I he lose detail on individual voices. A wireless micro- various microphones are connected to a mixer box, phone does very well for the voice of the person wear- and their signals are mixed in various combinations ing it, but not so well in recording people who are before the sound is fed into the video recorder. An- talking in a large group. A shotgun mike is more other alternative is to use hand-held, highly directional flexible than either the suspended or wireless one, microphones, called shotgun mikes.They are the but when hand-held the shotgun mike is relatively audio equivalent of the zoom lens. A third alternative obtrusive as it is pointed alternately toward the vari- is to use one or more wireless microphones, which are ous persons speaking. worn by key individuals in the event being recorded. Two notes on wireless mikes: (1) If you buy one, The signal from these microphones is broadcast to a tell your dealer you want a microphone of the type receiver, and the sound signal from the receiver is that will pick up the voices of those talking to the then fed in to the recording deck. person wearing the mike; the standard microphone Remember to consider the obtrusiveness of record- supplied with a wireless system is designed to pick ing. The use of multiple mikes often necessitates hav- up only the voice of the person wearing it, and (2) if ing an additional person to monitor sound levels on you buy one, don't get a cheap onean adequate the audio mixer. The shotgun mike requires a person single mike with transmitter and receiver can cost to hold it and point it in the direction of salient events. between $800 and $3500. Cheaper equipment is not If good familiarity and rapport has been established reliable in the field.

48 (j Perhaps the most useful system is one including are stored, then later mixups are easier to unravel if a two cameras (one relatively stationary and wide angle, tape or film is accidently put in thr wrong box or one carried from place to place and focusing more can after it has been viewed. T a running notes narrowlya "roving" camera), two recording decks, should contain the tape reference numbers so that multiple suspended microphones whose signals are fed the tape index is instantly available. When the tapes in through a mixer to the sound track on the deck are stored in the research corpus library, they should which records a wide angle picture, and a wireless be organized on the shelves according to the shooting microphow: whose signalis recorded on the deck date and series position reference numbers, with the which records the picture from the roving camera. index files organized the same way. The roving camera follows a key individual wearing When reviewing films or videotapes for research the wireless microphone. The stationary camera docu- purposes you should avoid using the original footage. ments general context. As you become even more This is standard procedure in cinema film production, selective in videotaping and begin to concentrate on but those using videotape may forget to do this. Use scenes involving small groups or pairs of key indi- the original tapes to make copies for repeated view- viduals, a technically easy option is to use a second ing. Your research budget should include funds for wireless microphone and turn the formerly stationary copying films and tapes.It is very helpful to have camera into a second roving one. In general, the best time reference numbers printed on the film or tape procedure for recording large-group classes or meet- as the working copy is made. This permits the precise ings is to record simultaneously on two separate decks, location in real time of whole events, their constituent one with a wide angle camera and another with a subsections, and particular verbal or nonverbal be- more narrowly focused one. As noted earlier, video- haviors that are of research interest. Time reference tape is relatively cheap, and the benefit of having both numbers also save a great deal of work time as you a record of broad context and a record of finer detail view parts of tapes repeatedly, and they are of great far outweighs the cost of the tape. help in slow motion analysis. For cinema film the time reference numbers are printed on the film as an 2.16 Indexing, Note-taking, and Labelling answer print" is made. The frame numbers, one While shooting, at least one person in the research number for each frame, are printed on a "B-wind team should be taking running notes. These should reel" and the image from that reel is superimposed on atleast include the clock times at which major the picture image from the "A-wind reel" which con- shifts in activity occur and the clock times that tapes tains the "camera original" footage. The frame num- or film reels are changed. Notes on the taping done bers are then visible as you project the answer print1 by a roving camera should identify who the key Mdi- viduals were who were being taped, and what the For videotape the time reference numbers are taped activities were. These notes taken while shoot- printed on the tape electronically. They appear on ing can serve as an index later in the research the television screen as you replay the tape. The day, process.It is extremely important to have an index hour, minute, second, and tenths of second can be to the tapes because this saves a great deal of time displayed, or the number of each video frame ( 60 per in reviewing them later. The index helps you first second) can be displayed. The device which prints to find single events for initial review, and then to these numbers is called a time-date generator. find multiple instances of the same type of event for further review and analysis. The shooting notes also 2.17 Analyzing Audiovisual Records indicate overlap between the footage shot with the Methods of analysis vary greatly depending on the stationary and the roving camera. (For further dis- nature of the research problem, and a discussion of cussion of substantive and procedural issues involved the wide variety of theoretical orientations and ana- in developing an index by event type and participant lytic procedures is beyond the scope of this handbook. typeone appropriate for computer storage and re- Unfortunately there is very little written on methods trievalsee the discussion in Erickson et al., 1980, and of analysis, so the best thing for a beginning researcher in the review article by Green, 1982). to do is to contact some of the people listed in the Each reel or tape cassette should be marked with section of the handbook that describes particular re- the date of shooting and with a reference number search projects.Visits to projects are probably the indicating that tape's series position in the shooting, the clock time at the beginning and ending of the lThis process was developed by Ray Birdwhistell.Copies of the "frame numbered B-roll" are available at cost, together tape, and the camera that it was recorded on (station- with more information you need to tell your cinema film lab ary or roving ).If the actual tape or film reels or cas- about the frame number printing process. Write to Frederick Erickson, Institute for Research on Teaching, College of Edu- settes are marked, as well as the boxes in which they cation, Michigan State University, E. Lansing, MI 48824.

49 5,1 best ways of learning the "how to" of film and tape Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. Looking in classrooms (2nd analysis. Some discussions of the specifics of analysis Ed.). New York: Harper & Row, 1978. are beginning to appear or are forthcoming, and these Griffin, P., & Shuy, R. The study of children's func- are identified in the annotated bibliography that be- tional language and education in the early years. gins on page 52, Section 2.3. Final Report to the Carnegie Corporation of New York. Arlington, Va.: Center for Applied Linguis- 2.18 References tics, 1978. Agar, M.The professional stranger: An informal Green, J. Research on teaching as a linguistic process: introduction to ethnography. New York: Academic A state of the art (NIE 9-81-0084 of the National Press, 1980. Institute of Education). Newark, Delaware: Uni- Anderson, L., Evertsor & Brophy, J. An experi- versity of Delaware, 1982. mental study of effective teaching in first-grade Grimshaw, A. D. Introduction. In Uses of sound and reading groups. Elementary School Journal, 1979, visual records in studies of social interaction. Spe- 79, 193-223. cial issue of Journal of Sociological Methods and Barker, R. G. Ecological psychology. Standford, Ca.: Research, 1982, 11(2). Stanford University Press, 1968. Heider, K. G. Ethnographic film. Austin, Texas: Uni- Berliner, D. The beginning teacher evaluation study: versity of Texas Press, 1976. Overview and selected findings.San Francisco, Hockings, P. Principles of visual anthropology. The Ca.: Far West Regional Laboratory for Educa- Hague, The Netherlands: Mouton, 1975. tional Research and Development, 1975. Kounin, J., & Gump, P. V. Signal systems of lesson Byers, P.Cameras don't take pictures.Columbia settings and the task related behavior of preschool University Forum, 1966, 2, 27-31. children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1976, Cassell, J. A fieldwork manual for studying desegre- 66, 554-562. gated schools. Washington, D. C.: National Insti- la Jard, J., & Regnault, F. Poterie crue et origine du tute of Education, 1978. tow.Bulletin de la Societe d'Anthropologie de Cusick, P. Inside high school. New York: Holt, Rine- Piiti,s, 1895, 6, 734-739. hart & Winston, 1973. Lofland, J. Analyzing social settings: A guide to quali- tat4ve observation and analysis. California: Wads- de Brigard, E. The history of ethnographic film.In wprth, 1971. P. Hockings (Ed.), Principles of visual anthro- McCall, G., & Simmons, J. Issues sn participant obser- pology. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. ,vation. Massachusetts: Addhon Wesley, 1969. Denham, C., & Lieberman, A. (Eds.). Time to learn: *Ilan, H.Structuring school structure.Harvard A review of the beginning teacher evaluation study. / Educational Review. 1978, 48(1), 32-64. Washington, D. C.: National Institute of education, 1980. Mehan, H., Meihls, J. L., Hertweck, A., & Crowdes, M. Erickson, F. Gatekeeping interaction: A social selec- IIdentifying handicapped students. In S. B. Bacha- tion process. In P. R. Sandy (Ed.), Anthropology rach (Ed.), Politics and administration: Organiza- and the public interest: Fieldwork and theory. New tional analysis of schools and school districts. New York: Academic Press, 1976. York: Praeger Press, 1982. Schatzman, A., & Strauss, A. Field research: Strategies Erickson, F. Some approaches to inquiry in school- for a natural sociology.Englewood Cliffs, New community ethnography. Anthropology and Edu- Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1973. cation Quarterly, 1977, 8(2), 58-69. 1 Sjoberg, E. Ethics, politics, (Lai social research. New Erickson, F., Cazden, C., Carrasco, R., & Maldonado- York: Schenkman, 1967. Guzman, A.Social and cultural organization Stake, R. E., & Easley, J. Case studies in science edu- interaction in classrooms of bilingual children. cation (U.S. Government Printing Office, Stock No. (First and second year interim report to National 038-000-0377-1). Urbana-Champaign, Ill.: Center Institute of Education, Teaching and Learning for Instructional Research and Curriculum Evalua- Division, Project #NIE-00099). 1980. tion, University of Illilnois, 1978. Erickson, F., Florio, S., & Buschman, J. Fieldwork in Stallings, J. A., & Kaskowitz, D. Follow-through class- educational research (Occasional Paper No. 36). room observation evaluation 1972-1973.Meulo East Lansing, Mich.: Institute for Research on Park, Ca.: Stanford Research Institute, 1974. Teaching, Michigan State University, 1980. Weather ley, R. A. Reforming special education: Policy Flanders, N. Analyzing teacher behavior.Reading, implementation from state level to street level. Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 1970. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1979.

50 t7: (.1 2.2 FRAMING: HON% TO PRESENT RESEARCH than two to three minutes of minimally edited footage FOMAGE ro AUDIENCES can be viewed continuously without viewers' overload setting in. The selection of an appropriate place to 2.21 General Discussion start and stop is a very important decision. It requires We have said that audiovisual recording media are considerable thought when planning a showing. A under-used for documenting everyday life in educa- common mistake of people showing unedited footage tional settings.One reason forthis may be that is to try to show too much of it at once. The maxim most people don't know how to take their own films of the architect Mies van der Rohe applies here: "Less and tapes or to edit them. Another reason may be is more." that people don't know how to show their own tapes or films. Showing involves more than just turning on 2.222 Describing Contexts Oaiside the Tape the playback device. What viewers perceive and learn It is important to tell before the actual screening during a showing is influenced by the presenter's inter- or after it, what needs to be known more generally pretive framing through introductory remarks, through about the school or community setting in which the comments during the showing, and through discus- documented events occurred. Often it is also impor- sion with the audience after the showing. tant to tell what happened in the immediate scene Some interpretive framing is important, even when before and after the strip that is shown, and to tell showing an edited documentary, but it is especially some salient points of contrast between what the crucial in showing relatively unedited films or tapes. viewer can see and what happens at other times in the In a sense, all audiovisual documents that reach a same kind of scene or in other kinds of scenes of every- viewer in a viewing event are edited; it is just that in day life in the school and community. the highly edited documentary film the viewer's atten- tional focus is directed by organizing devices that are 2.223 Orienting to Important Features in the Segment intrinsic to the film or videotape itself.With minimally editedmaterial,effective showing involves It is helpful to point out in advance the arrange- teaching and active interpretation by the presenter. ment of people and objects in space, the most signifi- The effective presenter of a minimally edited film or cant actors in the events that will be viewed, and a tape uses a set of medium-extrinsic means of focusing description of the action sequence to be seen (one attention; commentary and ways of starting, stopping, that describes it as a whole and points to salient stra- and replaying selected parts of the film or tape. These tegic moves within it). The description of sequential ways of presenting guide the viewer, pointing to what and strategic relationships among the actors in the to look at in a given moment and across a connected event anticipates for the audience what is about to hap- sequence of moments.Such guidance makes the pen, focusing their expectations, just as shot sequenc- minimally edited film intelligible. Without some guiding and camera angles do in highly edited documen- ance the viewer may be confused by uninterpretable tary films. In addition, this kind of commentary by a detail, or may be overwhelmedor simply bored presenter provides an analytic frame of reference for by the excess of informational riches in the minimally the viewers, placing in the foreground some of the key selective real-time record of what was happening. relationships between one occurrence and another. Key relationships may be those of sequencing or 2.22 Specific Strategies for Interpretive Framing of simultaneity. Here, for example, is a helpful pre- As with the showing of highly edited footage there senter comment about sequencing: "Watch for the is no need to be sloppy about the mechanical aspects student's ways of answering the teacher; each time he of the presentation.Note our suggestions on the or she asked a question the students answered in mechanics of screening presented on pp. 36-38.In chorus rather than in unison." Comments about simul- addition, the following steps make a minimally edited taneity might be as follows: "Notice that as the prin- film or tape more readily comprehensible to viewers. cipal turned in place and opened the faculty meeting by announcing the agenda, all but three teachers 2.221 Choosing a Place to Start and Stop turned in their chairs and oriented posturally to the Decide in advance when to begin a segment to principal in the same moment in which he or she be shown and when to end it. The segment itself is was turning and beginning to speak. Those teachers usually a connected series of events: one whole dis- who were oriented to the principal stopped speaking course topic in a lesson, one whole round in a game, in side conversations as the principal began to speak. the whole sequence in which a staff meeting is called The three teachers who did not stop talking with each to order and begun, the whole windup phase in a other at that moment can be seen on the left of the parent-administrator conference.Usually no more screen, sitting together. Later in the meeting these

51 were the teachers who disagreed with what the prin- presenter occasionally points to the screen cipal proposed to the faculty." and/or "talks over" the action as it is being Sometimes in using minimally edited film or video- shown. tape for teaching purposes you may want the audience 2.225 Moving on to the Next Segment to induce organizing properties rather than point them out yourself in advance. In that case you need to The presenter recycles steps 2-4 above. provide some framing for their induction: "In this 2.226 Discussion After Showing lesson segment see how many different types of Standardtechniquesfor leadingdiscussion teacher questions you can identify." "In this segment apply here. The leader is wise not to point out from a school staff meeting see if you can identify, too soon details he or she akeady knows according to nonverbal cues, the group of teachers about, but that the audience didn't see yet. that will later agree with what the principal has said, Push the audience tri look for evidence in the and the group that will later in the meeting disagree film for assertions they are making, remember- with what has been said." Some kind of framhig is ing that your reviewing and prior training en- necessary, even in an inductive approach to viewing. ables you to know more about what's in the It is not enough simply to say "Look for whatever film or tape than the audience does. Try to get interests you." With that loose a frame you get dis- them to look closely,too, but do so with cussion that wanders all over the place. patience.Questions should arise about what 2.224 Showing the Complete Segment actually happened. Divergent opinions should emerge about what something meant. That is a.Playing the segment of interest all the way a good point to replay the relevant section for through without stopping.The presenter yet another look.In general, remember that may point occasionally to the screen as a in edited footage the interpretive framing is way of foregrounding key aspects of the medium-intrinsic--containcd in the form of events being shown. Usually one needs to shooting and editing.In viewing minimally begin showing the segment at least 10 sec- edited footage, interpretive framing must be onds before the phenomena of special in- constructed by you and the audience through terest will begin to appear. This allows the demonstration and discussion. Minimally edited viewers time to get involved in the sequen- visual material cannot be looked at passively. tial flow of the action, as they would be It must be viewed actively, chewed on, and involved while watching a continuous show- digested. ing of a highly edited film.Usually it is effective to continue showing at least 10 2.3 ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY seconds after the action has moved on past the phenomena of interest.This enables While little has been written on methods of analyz- viewers to have a beginning sense of the ing audiovisual records as primary data sources, there contrast between the phenomena of interest is considerable literatureespecially in anthropology, and those events that happened just after sociology, sociolinguistics, and ecological psychology them. that provides a foundation and rationale for such b. Replaying the segment of interest. Here the analysis.This literature is surveyed here.Sets of presenter may rewind all the way back to readings are listed alphabetically by author and the point first shown the viewers. Or the grouped according to the following headings: presenter may replay only key segments of 2.31 FOUNDATIONS IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL AND SO- action. The presenter may stop the film or CIOLOGICAL APPROACHES TO STUDYING EVERY- DAY LIFE tape occasionally and intersperse comments. General discussions of ethnographic and sociolingustic The presenter may replay a brief segment research that emphasize issues of the organization of face repeatedly. When stopping and starting it to face interaction, verbal and nonverbal. is often wise to rewind slightly ahead of 2.32 ISSUES IN ETHNOGRAPIHC FILMMAKING AND the moments to which viewers are to attend ANALYSIS most carefully. This gives viewers a chance General discussions of ethnographic film and the uses of to anticipate what they are about to see by still photography, film, and videotape in social research. getting acquainted with the flow of action. 2.33 PERSPECTIVES FROM ECOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY AND FROM CLASSROOM OBSERVATION USING Telling the viewers what to look for and PREDETERMINED CODING CATEGORIES listen for in the replay can precede the re- Literatureofecologicalpsychology,includingsome play itself and can also accompany it, as the studies of schools that involved audiovisual recording, and studies of classroom interaction using predetermined Given the scarcity of written discussions of video- coding categories to analyze classroom videotapes. tape and film analysis, the following items in Sec- 2.34 METHODS OF EDUCATIONAL ETHNOGRAPHY tion 2.35 are noteworthy: Mehan's discussion in the AND DOCUMENTATION appendix to Learning Lessons (1979), chapters on Discussions of participant observation as an applied re- data collectionand analysisin thefinalreport search method in educational settings. by Griffin and Shuy (1978), and the chapters by 2.35 EXAM PLES OF STUDIES OF EVERYDAY LIFE IN Corsaro and by Erickson and Shultz in Green and SCHOOLS Wallat, 1981. A special issue of the Journal of Socio- Stt dies of a range of school settings using audiovisual logical Methods and Research, Vol. 11, No. 2 (Nov. records as a primary data source; combination of partici- 1982) will be devoted to issues of audiovisual docu- pant observation and microethnographic analysis of films mentation and analysis in research on social inter- and tapes. action. The special issue is edited by Allen D. Grim- shaw (see the annotated listings for Grimshaw It will be apparent from the annotations that most Section 2.32). of the research on schools currently done in the primary data source tradition focuses on everyday life 2.31 Foundations in Anthropological and Sociological in gradeschool classrooms. This is a pattern similar Approaches to Studying Everyday Life to that noted for documentary films of everyday life in schools that were reviewed in the first section of Agar, M. The professional stranger: An informal intro-. this handbook. Moreover, there is focus in most of duction to ethnography. New York: Academic the literature reviewed here on issues of face to face Press, 1980. interaction and verbal and nonverbal communication This is a book-length introduction to ethnographic between teachers and students in classrooms.This fieldwork methods and their uses in both basic and is partly due to the interests of the authors of the applied research. It is written from a perspective that handbook.Itis also, we believe, indicative of the emphasizes social cognition and social interaction as current state of the art in the field. Audiovisual docu- phenomena of central interest in social research. mentation and analysis has made significant contributions to our understanding of classroom life, in terms Bateson, G. Naven (Second Edition). Stanford, Calif.: of processes of interaction and social relationship Stanford university Press, 1958. between students and teachers and between students This is the firstand almost the onlybook length and students. Recognition of the implications of this ethnographic report to be organized around a single work is just developing as a solid foundation in the key event. The event, a dance that was part of an field of research on teaching and in teacher education. adolescent rite of passage, is described in a detailed That recognition is likely to grow in the years ahead, narrative. Connections between particular actions of fostering interest in further studies of classroom by the dance and patterns of social relationship in the means of audiovisual documentation and analysis. community analyzed. Although the event was not filmed the book provides a model for the interpretive Research inside classrooms, however,is by no analysis of a socioculturally salient key event of the means the only area of educational research for which sort that lends itself well to audiovisual documenta- audiovisual documentation is appropriate. The pre- tion and analysis. ponderance of research focus on classrooms and on the early grades seems to have been due to patterns of Erickson, F., & Shultz, J. When is a context? In J. funding by government agencies and private founda- Green & C. Wallat (Eds.), 'Ethnography and lan- tions. There is a clear need for greater support for guage in educational settings. Norwood, New Jer- audiovisual studies of children, teachers, and adminis- sey: Ablex, 1981. trators in their everyday lives in school settings out- Social context is viewed here not as external to side the classrooms, as well as inside the classrooms, face to face interaction but as constructed within it and for studies that relate everyday life outside school and continually shifting across time during it. Know- in the family and community to everyday life inside ing how to "read" these implicitly signalled shifts in the school. The only studies mentioned in the bibliog- contexting activity during eventschanges of social' raphy that dealt with school scenes outside classrooms participation structure (see the discussion of Philips, are the research on special education decisions by 1972, and in press )is a crucial aspect of the knowl- Mehan and his colleagues, the research on school, edge necessary to interact with others.This tacit counselors by Erickson, and the research on children knowledge can be studied by audiovisual recording at home and school by Florio et al.( see the listings and analysis of interactional events. The paper con- for these studies in Section 2.35). cludes by describing methods for analyzing film and

53 videotape to discover shifts of participation structure tation) in that it focuses on a key event and points and actors' knowledge that actors themselves may not interpretively beyond that event to various levels of be consciously aware of. context around it. This is an article-length rather than Frake, C. 0. A structural description of Subanun book length treatment, however, rd the description isless detailed than Bateson's.Moreover, Geertz's "religious behavior."In W. Goodenough (Ed.), theoretical orientation differs from that of Bateson. Explorations in cultural anthropology. New York: Consequently, it is useful to read this article as an McGraw-Hill, 1964. alternative way of approaching a set of issues similar Frake, C. 0. Ilow to enter a Yakan house.In M. to those addressed by Bateson. Sanches & B. Blount (Eds.), Sociocultural dimen- Goffman, E. The presentation of self in everyday life. sions of language use. New York: Academic Press, Indianapolis, Indiana: Bobbs-Merrill, 1959. 1975. (Both essays reprinted in C. 0. Frake, Language Goffrnan, E.Frame analysis. New York: Harper and cultural description. Stanford: Stanford Uni- Colophon Books, 1974. versity Press, 1980.) Goffman, E. Forms of talk. Philadelphia: University These two papers discuss the ethnographic study of the cognitive principles underlying the conduct of of Pennsylvania Press, 1981. Concerned with issues of the organization and everyday life.In the first paper the author argues conduct of face to face interaction, these works em- that general analytic categories, such as religious be- phasize the implicit and subtle nature of the processes havior, must be defined in terms of the specific sets of by whichsocial identity and social meaning are actions to which the category is being applied and that negotiated. These processes are illustrated by numer- in assigning such a category one must not be misled by surface appearances of the form of actionwhat ous narrative examples. looks at first glance not to be religious behavior may Gumperz, J. The speech community. In D. L. Sills function as such, and the converse is also likely to (Ed.), The international encyclopedia of the social hold. The second paper describes the implicit and sciences (Volume 9). New York: Macmillan Co., subtly shaded meanings of territory and distance that & The Free Press, 1968. are involved in approaching andi entering a house in This is a discussion of one of the fundamental a primitive village.Given that in schools, surface notions in the ethnography of communication. The appearances of behavioral forn\ may mislead one's speech community is a set of persons who share com- attempts to interpret meaning, and given that these mon traditions regarding the uses and meanings of meanings are often conveyed implicitly through spatial speech and non-verbal communication, as distinct relationshipsand other nonverbal communication from a language "community, a set of persons who media, the author's discussion of ways of paying close share common knowledge of the grammar and sound attention to the fine details of everyday life is useful system of a language, but who do not necessarily for researchers who plan to use audiovisual docu- share common definitions of the uses and meanings mentation. of particular stylistic variants in ways of speaking. Carfinkel, H.Studies in ethnomethodology. New Since schools (together with work places and social service and health care delivery systems) are institu- York: Prentice-Hall, 1967. The ordinary knowledge and reasoning necessary tional settings in which communication often happens to make sense of everyday life is the focus of this between people who are members of the same lan- book, which argues that social scientists need to be- guage community but not of the same speech community, the distinction between speech community come more aware of these usually taken-for-granted and language community is fundamental to an under- kinds of thinking. To do so it is necessary to pay close standing of some of the kinds of miscommunication attention to the conduct of everyday life itself. Various Audiovisual documentation and analysis studies in this vein are reported.Since the book's that occur. publication, researchers influenced by ethnomethod- can revealspeech community differenceswithin schools ( in a sense, every classroom becomes a small ()logy have used audio and audiovisual recording and scale speech community) and between schools and . analysis to study scenes of everyday life as occasions their surrounding neighborhoods. for ordinary reasoning. Geertz, C. "Deep Play: Notes on the Balinese Cock- Hall, E. T. The silent language. New York: Fawcett, fight" in The interpretation of cultures. New York: 1959. Basic I300kks, 197:3, pp. 412-454. Hall, E. T. The hidden dimension. Garden City, New This is comparable to Bateson's Naven (see anno- York: Doubleday, 1966.

54 Hall, E. T. Beyond culture. Garden City, New York: considered until recently have been those that are Doubleday, 1966.' relatively distinct and often are consciously performed Notable for the clarity and nontechnical character by speakers.Future research is necessary to study of the writing, these books providean introduction to more subtle variations in speech style that speakers implicit aspects of cultural patterning in the conduct are not fully aware of. Since audiovisual documenta- of everyday life, emphasizing the importance of inter- tion can record these subtle shifts in style, making cultural differences in notions of time, uses of space, their analysis possible, and since it is these subtle interpersonal distance, and definition of situation. aspects of stylethatoftendifferentiatestudents, Hymes, D. Foundations in sociolinguistics: An ethno- teachers, and administrators in schools, tho line of argument taken in this article is of special relevance graphic approach.Philadeiphia:Universityof Pennsylvania, 1974. for educational research that uses audiovisual documentation. An introduction to basic notions of the ethnography of speaking; the study of variation in ways, uses, and 2.32 Issues in Ethnographic Filmmaking and in the meanings of speaking within a community. Stylistic Analysis of Visual Data differences in ways of speakingare considered in Bateson, G., & Mead, M. Balinese character: A photo- relation to the social positions occppied by the speaker, graphic analysis. New York: The New York Acad- and to the kinds of events in which the speech takes emy of Science, 1942. place. With its focus on communication and inter- This study, in which still photographs of Balinese action, this research approach is one in which audio- child rearing and Balinese dance postures were juxta- visual documentation can be of use (see also the dis- posed, was one of the first attempts to use still photog- cussion of Hymes, 1972, under the heading Methods raphy in the analysis of cultural patterns. The shots of Educational Ethnography and Documentation, in of dance postures come from the cinema films made this handbook). by Bateson and Mead in a study that was one of the McDermott, R. P., Gospodinoff, K., & Aron, J. Criteria earliest to use ethnographic film as a primary data for an ethnographically adequate description of source. activitiesand theircontexts,Semiotica,1978, Bellman, B. L., & Jules-Rosette, B. A paradigm for 24( 3-4 ), 245-275. looking: Cross-cultural research with visual media. This paper argues that extremely specific knowl- Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex, 1977. edge of the interactional behavior of individuals is A report of the authors' methods of audiovisual necessary as an evidence base to warrant the state- documentary research on ceremonies among syncre- ments of ethnographic description that claim to rep- tistic religious groups in West Africa, this book also resent meaning, intention, or social appropriateness, contains discussion of generic issues of selection in from the points of view of the social actors. Audio- filmingshooting and editingthat attempts to portray visual recording and analysis is recommended as one events from the actors' points of view. Interviewing way to achieve the necessary level ofspecificity of using audiovisual records is also discussed, and the data. volume contains a bibliography of basic sources Sanday, P. R. The ethnographic paradigm(s). Ad- in phenomenologically oriented sociology and ethno- ministrative Science Quarterly, 1979, 24(4), 527- graphic filmmaking. 538. Byers, P. Still photography in the systematic record- A brief introduction to and definition of ethno- ing of an analysis of behavioral data. Human Or- graphic fieldwork research, written to an audience ganization, 1964, 23, 78-84. interested in the uses of ethnography in the study of This article discusses photography as a process of formal organizations in modern societies. sampling, and considers some of the sampling deci- Sherzer, J. The ethnography of speaking: A critical sions involved in making visual records. appraisal.In Georgetown University round table Byers, P. Cameras don't take pictures. Columbia Uni- on languages and linguistics 1977.Washington, versity Forum, 1966, 2, 27-31. D. C.: Georgetown University Press, 1977. An argument that photography is not an objective This review of research in the ethnography of record but a highly selective and interpretive account speaking tradition ( see the discussion of Hymes, 1974, in which the social relationship between the photog- in this section) argues that while this approach to rapher and the photographed is manifested in the research has made significant contributions to our way the shot is framed. Although the author is dis- understanding of the relations between language and cussing still photography the implications for cinema social life, the aspects of speech style that have been and videotape are obvious.

55 5 ", Collier, J. J.Visual anthropology: Photography as a is the conventional film language, in which shots vary research nwthod. New York: Holt, Rinehart and greatly in scope and are pieced together in an order Winston, 1967. different from the original sequence in which they A discussion of still photography as a sampling were shot.At the other extreme is the locked on process in which a wide range of kinds of sampling camera approach, in which the camera runs continu- is considered and is illustrated with sets of photo- ously in an unchanging single shot, with no subse- graphs. A new edition of this work is currently being quent editing. An intermediate approach is research- prepared. able film observation, in which long "takes" are shot, Dabbs, J. M., Jr.Making things visible.In J. Van and in which subsequent editing does not change the Maanen (Ed.), Qualitative methods. Beverly Hills, original sequence of shots, but in which the camera California: Sage Books, 1982. does zoom in and out, focusing on details salient to The paper has two principal parts.In the first, the camera operator during the shooting. The authors visual techniques for gathering data are discussed. argue for the latter approach. Regardless of the posi- In the second part, ways of reporting these data tion one finally adopts, reading their review of the through computer graphics are discussed. The author advantages and disadvantages of the three types considers means of collecting visual data in ways filming can help the audiovisual documenter make that stimulate new perspectives on phenomena that an informed choice of an approach to shooting and werepreviously unknown ortaken forgranted. editing. Among these means are changing the speed of record- Grimshaw, A. D. Introduction. In Uses of sound and ing (time lapse, slow motion, faster than life record- visual records in studies of social interaction. Spe- ing), changing the camera angle, and givingstill cial issue of Journal of Sociological Methods and camerasto informants and asking themtofilm Research, 1982, 11(2). phenomena in a way that displays their point of view. Grimshaw, A. D. Data and analytic procedures. In In the latter half of the paper, discussion turns to ways A. D. Grimshaw (Ed.), Collegial discourse: Pro- of reporting data by other than the univariate sum- fessional peer conversation, forthcoming. marization employed in standerd statistics. Computer graphics enables the researcher to create maps tracing These papers provide general discussion and extensive bibliographies on issues of filmmaking for such things as people's movement through space and time in a home, park, or classroom, and patterns of research purposes. The first paper introduces a series sending and receiving messages within an organiza- of papers on audiovisual documentation and research that will appear in a special journal issue that will tion. The paper also discusses various research studies be a major resource for audiovisual research methods. that have made use of these techniques of data col- The second paper will be part of a jointly authored monograph in the Multiple Analysis Project, in which lection and analysis. a number of researchers will produce analyses of a A narrated color videotape( 3/4" video cassette, 22 minutes) is available that illustrates the various film of a sociology doctoral orals examination. While the two volumes are in preparation, Professor Grim- filming and computer graphics techniques.It can be viewed on loan from the Center for Creative Leader- shaw's papers are available by writing to him at ship, P.O. Box P-1, Greensboro, NC 27402. A copy the Department of Sociology, University of Indiana, can he purchased at cost ( $25) from the author, James Bloomington, Indiana 47405. Dahhs, Department of Psychology, Georgia State Uni- Heider, G. G. Ethnographic fi/m. Austin: University versity, Atlanta, Georgia 30303. of Texas Press, 1976. de Brigard, E. The history of ethnographic film. In A short history of ethnographic filmmaking. De- P. IIockings (Ed.), Principles of visual anthro- tailed discussions of classic films of various types are pologu. The Hague: Mouton, 1975. accompanied by a survey of generic issues, a bibliog- An overview of the development of ethnographic raphy, and a film list. film as a cinematic genre, the discussion emphasizes Hockings, P. Principles of visual anthropology. The edited films and their characterictics and uses as docu- Hague, The Netherlands: Mouton, 1975. mentary narratives. A collection of papers from a symposium presented Feld, S., & Williams, C. Toward a researchable film in 1973 at the World Congress of Anthropological and language. Studies in the Anthropology of Visual Ethnological Sciences, this volume contains a wide Communication, 1975, 2(1), 25-32. range of points of view on ethnographic film-making The authors distinguish between three major types and on the usesof audiovisual records as primary of shooting and editing styles. At one extreme there data sources in social research.

56 r-- ICendon, A.Studies in the behavior of social inter- matics lessons, focusing primarily on the children's action. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University verbal behavior rather than on nonverbal behavior. Press, 1977. Barker, R. C., & Wright, H. F. One boy's day: A A collection of papers on various aspects of the specimen record of behavior. New York: Harper & organization of verbal and( especially )nonverbal Row, 1951. behavior in face to face communication, this volume illustrates methods of finely detailed microanalysis of Literally "a day in the life of a first-grader," this films, although the main emphasis in the papers is on study followed its central character's actions in every reporting substantive findings. major behavior setang ( see discussion of Barker and Wright, 1954) encountered from 7 a.m. as the child Studies in Visual Communication woke up until 8:30 p.m. when he went to sleep. Read- This is the journal of the Society for the Anthro- ing the notes taken from minute to minute (which pology of Visual Communication (SAVICOM ), pub- included the child's entire classroom day ) gives one lished at the Annenberg School Press, Annenberg an idea of what a complete audiovisual record might School of Communications, 3620 Walnut Street, Phila- look and sound like. delphia, Pennsylvania 19104. The journal is an im- Barker, R. C., & Wright, H. F. Midwest and its chil- portant resource for literature in the semiotics and dren. Evanston, Illinois: Row, Peterson, 1954. anthropology of visual communication; fields of study The ecological psychology of Barker and colleagues that provide insight into relationships between form considers individnals and their actions in the context of and meaning in filmmaking and still photography. the immediate physical and social ecology, or behavior Literature in this field is not extensively represented setting, within which the actions take place.This in this bibliography, but Studies in Visual Communi- volume reports on an intensive study, conducted over cation provides the interested reader a point of entry a number of years in an American small town. The into current theory and empirical work. study attempted to identify every major behavior set- Worth, S.In L. Gross (Ed. ), Studying visual com- ting encountered by children and adults during a munication.Philadelphia:University of Penn- whole yearsettings ranging from the fourth of July sylvania Press, 1981. ceremony in the town square, to interaction, with the This is a posthuntously edited collection of essays druggist at the cash register in his store. The volume on the relations between symbolization and meaning argues for the necessity of being specific in identify- in ethnographic film.Scientific, aesthetic, and politi- ing the relations between social actions and their con- cal issues in the study of audiovisual documents and texts. The compendium of behavior settings reported their uses are considered by the author, who was a represents a potential shooting list for an audiovisual founding member of the Society for the Anthropology documenter, and the analysis reported helps one to of Visual Communication. think about what scenes of everyday life it would Worth, S., & Adair, J. Through Navaho eyes: An ex- be necessary to film in order to have an adequately ploration in film communication and anthropology. representative record of everyday life in one or more Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press, institutional settings. 1972. Good, T. L., & Brophy, J. E. Looking in classrooms This is the first work to address systematically the (2nd Ed.). New York: Harper & Row, 1978. issue of selectivity of filming and editing in audiovisual documentary. Pairs of films of ostensibly the A general review of various aspects of classroom "same" events, made by Navaho and non-Navaho life, some of which were studied by the authors using cameramen, were compared and contrasted. The im- videotape, others of which were studied by the authors plications of the cultural differences in filmmaldng ( and by other researchers) using predetermined ob- perspective rev.-aled by this analysis are discussed. servational coding systems. For the audiovisual documenter the discussion is useful as he or she thinks 2.33 Perspectives From Ecological Psychology and about a range of research issues and the range of scenes Classroom Observation Using Predetermined of classroom life that might be filmed and studied. Coding Categories Gump, P.Intra-setting analysis: The third grade as Adams, R., & Biddle, B. Realities of teaching: Explora- a special but instructive case. In E. Williams & tion with videotape. New York: Holt, Rinehart, H. Roush (Eds.), Naturalistic viewpoints in psy- and Winston, 1970. chological research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and One of the earliest videotape studies of classrooms, Winston, 1970. this research compared the relative amounts of stu- An essay, from the perspective of Barker and dents' task involvement in social studies and mathe- Wright, on the variety of behavior settings encoun-

5;:,0 tered by children and teachers in classrooms, and the An introduction to a wide range of ethnographic variety of different patterns of socially appropriate research issues, especially those distinctive to the behavior found across the differing settings. study of schools. Topics include site selection, data Gump, P.School environments. In I. Altman & J. collection strategies, teamwork in the research group, Wohlwill ( Eds. ), Children and the environment. report writing, and relations with the sponsoring New York: Plenum, 1978. agency. A bibliography is included. On the basis of videotape analysis and direct ob- Erickson, F. What makes school ethnography "ethna servation the author considers broad contrasts in the graphic?" Council on Anthropology and Education patterns of social relations and uses of space in pre- Newsletter, 1973, 4(2), 10-19. schools organized according to contrasting educational This introductory discussion reviews various dimen- philosophies. The article also contains general dis- sions of social structure and culture and analyzes the cussion of dimensions of contrast in school learning issues of adequacy of evidence and cogency of re- environments. search questions in ethnographic research in schools Kounin, J. S.Discipline and group management in and school communities. classrooms. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Win- Erickson, F. Some approaches to inquiry in school/ ston, 1970. (Reprinted by R. E. Krieger Publishing community ethnography. Anthropology and Edu- Co., Huntington, New York, 1977). cation Quarterly, 1977, 8(3), 58-69. This volume reports a series of studies of classroom Beginning with a discussion of the etic-emic dis- management that were done from the perspective of tinction in fieldwork research, this article concludes Barker and Wright. The second half of the book re- with a review of various focused ethnographics that ports two videotape studies in which :30 half days and have used audiovisual documentary recordsas a 50 whole days of school were recorded in 80 early- primary data source. grade classrooms in suburban schools. Various &men- Heath, S. B. Teacher talk: Language in the classroom. sions of teacher style in classroom management were In Language in education: Theory and practice identified, and the tapes were coded according to ( Number 9). Washington, D. C.: Center for Ap- those dimensions. plied Linguistics, ERIC Clearinghouse on Lan- Kounin, J., & Gump, P. V. Signal systems of lesson guages and Linguistics, 1978. settings and the task related behavior of preschool A survey of the range of implicit social meanings children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1976, and social uses of teachers' conventional ways of 66, 554-562. speaking in classrooms, this review article points to a Houseman, J.An ecological J.t udy of interpersonal number of research issues of interest to those doing conflict among preschool children.Unpublished sociolinguistically oriented audiovisual documentation doctoral dissertation, Wayne State University, De- and analysis. troit, Michigan, 1972. Hymes, D. H. Ethnographic monitoring. In Language Rosenthal, B. An ecological .itudy of free play in a development in a bilingual setting. Pomona, Cali- nursery school. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, fornia:Multilingual-Multicultural Materials De- Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, 1973. velopment Center, State Polytechnic University, Sherman, L. An ecological study of glee in small 1979. groups of preschool children. Child Development, A discussion of the basic features of ethnographic 1975, 46, 53-61. rescarch methods in education, this paper argues for These are all studies of interaction in preschool problem-focused ethnography in which the research classrooms, based on a collection of videotapes of 598 questions are developed collaboratively by researchers lessons and of 37 continuously taped half days of and practitioners. school.In the latter tapes each of 37 children was Hymes, D. H.Introduction.In C. Cazden, V. P. followed as the focal child.Primarily quantitative John & D. Humes (Eds.), Functions of language analysis of the tapes was done, in the tradition of in the classroom. New York: Teachers College Barker and Wright. Press, 1972. A general discussion of ethno'graphic and socio- 2.34 Methods of Educational Ethnography and Docu- linguistic approaches to classroom research, this intro- mentation duction argues for the need for these approaches, Cassell, J. A fieldwork manual for studying desegre- presents brief discussion of key concepts ( communica- gated schools. Washington, D. C.: National Insti- tive competence, social and cognitiverepertoires, tute of Education, 1978. ERIC #163-100. speech acts), and lists fundamental bibliography. The

58 6 1 introduction also reviews issues raised by the various tation is available through University Microfilms, Ann papers in the volume, a number of which were based Arbor, Michigan. on audio recording and analysis. Cahir, S., & Kovac, C. Exploring functional language. Spindler, G. (Ed.). General introduction. In Doing Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguis- the ethnography of schooling: Educational ethnog- tics, 1981. raphy in action. New York: Holt, Rinehart and A set of protocol videotapes with accompanying Winston, 1981. booklets that include transcripts of speech, analytic A discussion, in nontechnical language, of criteria discussion, and bibliography, these materials were for quality in ethnographic research. Various issues collected in the grade school study discussed in the of method are briefly surveyed, including the role of entry for Griffin and Shuy, 1978. audiovisual documentation in ethnographic research. When Is Reading? Wolcott, H. Criteria for an ethnographic approach to This tape shows children using reading skills research in schools. Human Organization, 1975, in both "non-official" (the day's lunch menu and 34(2), 111-127. a recipe ) and "official" (readers) reading events. This essay is an introduction to participant obser- The concluding sequence shows a teacher reading vational fieldwork in educational settings in which a story to a class, and the children's grasp of nar- the interpretive analysis of patterns of culture is the rative by their responses to and anticipation of central research interest. The discussion cites a wide the plot. range of references. Transitions: Activity Between Activities This tape has three sequences dealing with rules 2.35 Examples of Studies of Everyday Life in Schools and procedures that govern the transition times Adelman, C.Uttering, muttering: Collecting, using, between defined classroom activities.Sequences and reporting talk for social and educational re- illustrate how this so-called "down time" or "dead search. London: Grant McIntyre, 1981. time," can become a learning event, either through the teacher's or the student's initiatives. This is a collection of articles by British researchers who have been conducting naturalistic inquiry into A Way with Words the language use of children and teachers at school This tape illustrates children's facility with lan- and at home. Important sociolinguistic research on guage. Bather than using spontaneous events, the discourse, conversation, and social class differences tape records a specially devised test for deter- in styles and uses of speech has been done recently by mining children's language use. An interviewer educational iesearchers in England. The papers and presents the children with a hypothetical situation bibliography in this collection provide in a single and asks for their response ("What would you say volume an excellent introduction to this British work, if...."). Tape shows how projected language use which deserves broad recognition in the United States. varies according to age of child, status of person addressed, intensity of situation, and so on. Au, K. IL Participation structures in a reading lesson Teacher Talk Works with Hawaiian children: Analysis of a culturally This tape shows characteristics of a teacher's appropriate instructional event. Anthropology and classroom language in three different settings.It Education Quarterly, 1980, 9(2), 91-115. illustrates "talk" that presents material, asks ques- Au, K. IL, & Jordan, C. Teaching reading to Hawaiian tions and evaluates responses, manages the conver- children: Finding a cuhurally appropriate solution. sational flow, and reprimands. In H. T. Trueba, G. P. Guthrie, & K. H. Au (Eds.), What's What With Questions Culture in the bilingual classroom. Rowley, Mass.: This tape examines children's use of questions Newbury House, 1980. beyond simply that of gaining information. Four Reports of analyses of videotapes of reading lessons segments examine the use of questioning forms which show that cultural patterns of conversational (especially the word "what?") as directives, atten- organization influenced children's reading achieve- tion getting devices, information gaining devices, ment. This is the only study to date that demonstrates clarification devices, and the like. a clear causal relationship between academic achieve- It's Your Turn ment and subtle features of conversational organiza- The four segments on this tape illustrate vari- tion, features that were revealed through micro- ous elicitation devices used by teachers, and chil- analysis of audiovisual records. The research reported dren's understanding and response to these "rules" here was further developed in Au's doctoral disserta- of turn-taking. They also show teachers' use of tion at the University of Illinois (1980). The disser- evaluative responses. The concluding section is silent and shows nonverbal behavior used by stu- analysis is preceded by a brief review of other visual dents to gain teacher's attention and a turn. and audiovisual research, and the report concludes Cazden, C., Carrasco, R., Maldonado-Guzman, A., & with brief discussion of techniques of shooting and Erickson, F.The contribution of ethnographic analyzing film. research to bicultural bilingual education.In J. Erickson, F., & Mohatt, G. Cultural organization of Alatis (Ed.), Current issues in bilingual education. participation structures in two classrooms of Indian Washington, D. C.: Georgetown Roundtable on students.In G. D. Spindler, (Ed.), Doing the Languages and Linguistics, Georgetown Univer- ethnography of schooling. New York: Holt, Rine- sity Press, 1980. hart and Winston, 1982. This is a review article reporting findings from an An extension of the work of Philips (see the dis- audiovisual documentary study of bilingual classrooms cussion of Philips, 1972, and in press), this study done by the authors in Chicago, together with discus- identified cultural differences in ways of teaching sion of the research on culturally responsive teaching between an Indian teacher and a non-Indian teacher methods done by Au in Hawaii, by Philips and by in adjoining first grade classrooms in a school on an Erickson and Mohatt in schools on Indian reservations, Odawa reservation in Northern Ontario. The differ- and by Kleinfeld in an Alaskan boarding school for ences in ways of teaching provided different social Eskimo children. arrangements for interaction and for engagement with Cicourel, A. V., et al. Language use and school per- the curriculum. Videotapes were made in the class- formance. New York: Academic Press, 1974. room from fall to spring during one school year, accompanied by limited participant observation. The A set of papers reporting studies of everyday rea- tapes were analyzed collaboratively with Indian teach- soning and decision-making in schools. The studies ers from the reservation school. focus on how children's language use affects judgments of them by school professionals in testing situa- Erickson, F., & Shultz, J. The counselor as gatekeeper: tions, in classroom situations, and in committee meet- Social interaction in interviews. New York: Aca- ings to determine the first grade academic placement demic Press, 1982. of kindergarten students. These situations were video- An analysis of relationships between the process taped and the videotapes were analyzed intensively. of verbal and nonverbal communication in junior Collier, J. J. Alaskan Eskimo Children: A film analysis college counseling interviews and the outcomes of of cultural confrontation in the schools. New York: counselors' decisions about student mobility in school Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1973. and in the wider society, this study examined various This is a report on films of classrooms made in aspectsofinter-ethnicandinter-racialrelations 1969 as part of the National Study of American Indian through microanalysis of films and videotapes, com- Education, sponsored by the U.S. Office of Education. bined with limited participant observation in junior Films show children and teachers from the early colleges and extensive participation in the large city grades through high school. The films were made in in which the study was conducted. The book illus- two villages of central Alaska, in a town that was the trates the use of multiple data sources, including regional center, and in the urban setting of Anchorage. audiovisual records, and the use of a particular inter- Broad patterns of activity in the films were analyzed view technique, the viewing session, in which the and described, with emphasis on cross-cultural dis- counselor or student watched the tape of their original continuity between Anglo teachers and Native Ameri- interview and made comments on it. can students. Florio, S. Learning how to go to school: An ethnog- Collier, M. A film study of classrooms in western raphy of interaction in a kindergarten/first grade Alaska. Fairbanks, Alaska: Center for Cross Cul- classroom. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Har- tural Studies, University of Alaska, 1979. vard Graduate School of Education, 1978. A close analysis of some of the footage shot in the Shultz, J., & Florio, S. Stop and freeze: The negotia- National Study of American Indian Education, this tion of social and physical space in the classroom. study focused on classrooms in a village and in a Anthropology and EducationQuarterly,1979, small town, and on family life in a home in the village. 10(3), 166-175. The pace and flow of interaction were of central in- Shultz, J. J., Florio, S., & Erickson, F. Where's the terest in the analysis; how smoothly children and the floor?: Aspects of the cultural organization of teacher coordinated their action in the classroom, and social relationships in communication at home how this coordination in the classroom compared to and school. In P. Cilmore & A. Glatthorn (Eds.), coordination of interaction in an Eskimo home. The Ethnography and education: Children in and out

80 p 0 4 of school. Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied the location of the various scholars that will enable Linguistics, 1982. the reader to contact them for further information. Florio's dissertation focuses on the social knowledge Griffin, P., & Shuy, R. The study of children's func- necessary for students and teachers to interact in a tional language and education in the early years. multiple group play period in a kindergarten class- Final Report to the Carnegie Corporation of New room. It sets the analysis of the play period in the con- York. Arlington, VA: Center for Applied Linguis- text of the complete classroom day and school year. tics, 1978. Videotape analysis of the play periods and intensive, A cross-sectional study of the acquisition by chil- year-long participant observation were combined in dren of the interactional knowledge necessary to be this study. The dissertation by Florioisavailable a student in elementary school, this study involved through University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan. videotaping a wide range of classroom events in pre- The article by Shultz and Florio focuses on classroom school, early-grades, and middle-grades classrooms management during play time. The article by Shultz, during one school year. The final report contains a Florio, and Erickson is a case study that identified chapter on social, logistical, and technical considera- differences in the organization of conversation at home tions in doing naturalistic classroom videotaping. (See and at school.It employed microanalysis of video- also the entry for Cahir and Kovac, 1981, in this tapes of classroom lessons and family dinner table section). conversations, focusing on patterns for taking turns at speaking. The paper discusses the general educa- Gumperz, J. j., Jupp, T. C., & Roberts, C. Crosstalk: tional significance of cultural differences in turn-taking A study of cross-cultural communication. Southall, patterns between teachers and students. Middlesex: The National Centre for Industrial Language Training and BBC, Continuing Educa- Green, Wallat, C.( Eds.). Ethnography and tion Department, 1979. language in educational settings. Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex, 1981. This videotape was one of the half hour shows broadcast in a BBC series on inter-ethnic relations in This volume of recent papers contains a number Britain. The show and an accompanying study manual of studies that discuss theory and methods in socio- provide vivid illustration of cross-cultural miscom- linguistic and ethnographic approaches to research munication that occurs between East Indian immi- in schools. Many of the studies reported used audio- grants and native middle classBritons.Analysis visual documentation, and most studies focused on identifies specific cultural differences in verbal and the classroom. Of particular relevance here are the in- nonverbal communication style that appear to lead troductory chapters by Gumperz and Cook-Gumperz, to particular kinds of misinterpretation of intent. The and the chapters on research methods by Corsaro, two role-played scenes shown are a transaction with (r(Til and Wallat, Hall and Guthrie, Garnica, Wil- a bank teller and an interview for a position as a kinson, and Erickson and Shultz.The paper by librarian at a small college. Erickson and Shultz is discussed separately in the annotated bibliography in Section 2.31. McDermott, R. P., & Gospodinoff, K. Social contexts for ethnic borders and school failure. In H. Trueba, Green, J. Research on teaching as a linguistic process: A State of the art ( NIE P-81-0084 of the National G. Guthrie, & K. H. Au (Eds.), Culture and Institute of Education). Newark, Delaware: Uni- the bilingual classroom. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1981. versity of Delaware, 1982. This is a review article rather than a report of a Reading groups in a multi-ethnic and multi-racial first-grade classroom were studied by participant ob- single empirical study.Itsurveys the theoretical orientations, methods, and findings from a set of servation and videotape microanalysis. The authors studies supported during 1978-1981 by the National argue that neither cultural communication differences Institute of Education's Teaching and Learning Divi- and similarities between the teacher and students, nor children's reading levels are by themselves adequate sion.The studies were funded under the heading "Teaching as a Linguistic Process in a Cultural Set- to explain differences in the character of interaction in the top and bottom reading groups in the classroom. ting." Many of the projects used audiovisual records It is necessary to consider as well the micropolitics of as a primary data source. Green's review is invaluable, not only because of its coherent summary of sub- interaction in the two groups. tantive issues that emerged within and across the Mehan, H. Learning lessons.Cambridge: Harvard various projects, but because it provides the reader University Press, 1979. with access in a single place to reports and publica- In recitation lessons, getting the answer right (and tions from all the studies, and with information on the question right) involves knowledge, by children

r) and teacher, of principles of fine tuning in the organi- land, California, the authors studied differences be- zation of ccinveisation, as well as knowledge of the tween the ways children from differing speech com- subject matter of the lessons. This analysis of implicit munities told anecdotes during "sharing time" at the social principles and conversational strategies used beginning of the school day. The authors discuss the in classroom lessonsisbased on videotapes made consequences of these aspects of speech style on throughmit a school year in an inner-city multi-ethnic, teachers' judgments of children'sintelligence and multi-racial early-grades classroom in San Diego. motivation. Mehan, II.Practical decision making in naturally Philips, S. The invisible culture: Communication in occurring institutional settings.In 13.Rogoff, & classroom and community on the Warm Springs J. Love (Eds.), Everyday cognition: Its develop- Indian Reservation. New York: Longman, in press. nwnt in social context.Cambridge, Mass.: Har- A study of the school/community interface, this vard University Press, 1981. work examines the educational consequences of differ- Mehan, B., Hertweck, A., Combs, S. E., & Flynn, P. J. ing cultural communication patterns found in home Teachers' interpretations of student behavior.In and community life of Native Americans on the Warm L. C. Wilkinson (Ed.), Communicating in the Springs reservation in Oregon, and in first-grade and cla.ssroom. New York: Academic Press, 1981. sixth-grade classrooms in which the teachers were Mcban, IL.. Mcihls, J. L., Hertweck, A., & Crowdes, M. non-native Americans. The author identifies differing I(lentifying handicapped students. In S. B. Bacha- sets of preferred communicative rolestermed partici- rach ( Ed.), Organizational behavior in schools and pant structuresin interaction situations at home and school districts. New York: Praeger Press, 1982. in the school classroom. Participant observation was A natural history of special education placement the principal method used, with some audiotaping and decisions in the elementary schools of one school dis- videotaping. trict, this project videotaped children in classrooms who were identified as potential candidates for special 2A A SHORT LIST OF RESEARCH PROJECTS education.In viewing session interviews the classroom teachers watched and commented on the class- 2.41 Introduction to the List room videotapes. Assessment team meetings, at which This shortlistisillustrative of the particular special education placement decisions were made, projects presented rather than being representative of were also videotaped. The first article listed provides the emerging field of audiovisual documentation and an overview of the project, the second article reports analysis as a whole. The list is limited, in other words, findings from the analysis of classroom videotapes both in length and in scope. Limitations of time and and interviews with the teachers, and the third article money prevented us from pursuing as aggressively as reports findings from the analysis of the videotapes we might have done a broader range of research of the assessment team ,T.L.etings. projects. We are certain to have missed significant Merritt, M.Distributing and directing attention in studies and scholars. primary classrooms.In L. C. Wilkinson (Ed.), The list was compiled by sending requests for Communication in the classroom. New York: Aca- information to a set of researchers identified from the demic Press, in press literature and through a telephone survey of key in- This study used videotapes from the Center for formants at various points in the networks of scholars Applied Linguistics's study of children's functional who have used audiovisual records as primary research language in the classroom (see the entries for Griffin documents. Then a questionnaire was sent to all the kind Shuy, and Cahir and Kovac). The author focused individuals we were able to identify. As is usual, not on the issue of the teachers management of interrup- everyone responded to the questionnaire, which was tions by one or more students while the teacher was necessarily a complicated one. We are very grateful engaged with other children. Analysis of videotape to the researchers who responded. made possible the identification of verbal and non- As responses came back to us it was apparent that verbal strategics by which teachers and students gain they varied greatly in the level of detail or response and hold one another's attention. to the various questionnaire items.In preparing to Nfichacls, S., & Cook-Gumperz, J. A study of sharing report the information in a handbook we arranged the time with first grade students: discourse narratives responses ina consistent sequence of topics. We in the classroom. In Proceedings of tlw 5th annual altered the writing of the respondents as little as pos- meetings of the Berkeley Lingui.vtie Society, 1979. sible, however, avoiding editorial paraphrase which, Using videotapes collected in a study of multi- although it might have made the listings look more ethnic... nmlti-racial carly-grades classrooms in Oak- consistent across projects, would have run the risk

62 of misconstruing what some of our informants had Strategy: Each child was taped for five minute meant by what they had said. segments on ten different occasions. The taping Then a delay of some years ensued. In the fall of occurred over the period of a year. We did not 1982 we recontacted projects to update their publica- get the "hoped-for" 50 minutes on each child, how- tions lists.Some researchers and projects were not ever, for many we did reach this objective. reachable at that short notice, and for this we apol- Comments: The equipment moved easily, so it ogize. was easy to follow an individual child.Also it The short list has considerable use, despite its gave us maximum pick-up on the children's con- limitations.It concretizes the discussion of research versations. The children were aware of being the procedures in the previous sections of the handbook. "object" of the camera at first, but it was not long It also provides the reader access to initial contacts before they accepted the camera as being just at various points in the networks of researchers who another pair of eyes. use these methods. People on this list, and others The Collection: 40 reels, 361-1/2"-1200 R148B Scotch mentioned in the annotated bibliography can be con- videotape organized chronologically. Researchers may tacted for more specific advice about research methods come and view the tapes. and funding sources. Papers: If you are not on this list and if you have done or Bachtold, L. M. Children's social interaction and are currently doing research using audiovisual docu- parental attitudes among Hupa Indians and Anglo- mentation and analysis, please fill out the question- Americans. Journal of Social Psychology, 1982,116, naire at the end of this section eo that your project can 9-17. be included in a subsequent edition of this handbook. Send your response to: Researcher: Ruth Seiman Bennett, Institute of Human Frederick Erickson Learning, University of California, Berkeley, Cali, Institute for Research on Teaching fornia 94720. College of Education Project:Bicultural Education in Performance Con- Michigan State University texts( 1976).This study was concerned with per- East Lansing, Michigan 48324-1034 formances by native American childi en in the context (517) 355-9693 of a reading class in summer school. The children were taught with a combination of reading methods, 2.42 List of Projects including formal instruction in phonetics and infor- Researcher:Louise M. Bachtold, Department of mally structured projects initiated by the children. Applied Behavioral Sciences, University of California, One of these projects, stimulated by the presence of Davis, California 95616. the camera in the classroom, was the performance of Project:Social Behavior of Ilupa Indian Children dramatic renditions of local tribal stories and the role (1976-1979). The objectives of the study were ( 1) to playing of local television personalities. As the chil- describe social interaction between child-child and dren requested that the tape be turned off between teacher-child in school settings; (2) to compare social performances, the tape consists of episodes rather behavior of Hoopa preschool children with children than a sustained account of classroom interaction. in the mainstream culture; ( 3 ) to contrast both groups Setting and Participants: The setting was an ungraded with findings on children in other cultural settings in summer school reading class in a Johnson-O'Malley rural communities, e.g. Okinawa, Kenya, India; (4) to funded summer school on a Hoopa Indian Reservation assess Hoopa adults' values and their relation to the in northwest California.The classroomstructure children's observed behaviors. varied from day to day, since this was a newly formed Setting and Participants: The study took place in a school in which the teachers were exploring ways daycare center and a nursery school on the Hoopa of teaching. The students were all Native American, Indian reservation in northern Californiaindoors and ranging in age from four to fourteen. in the playground area outside. The participants were The Recording Process: the children enrolled in the school, the teachers, and Equipment: Sony small studio camera, Sony 8650 the teachers' aides. 1/2" VTR, 1 Sony uni-directional mike. The Recording Process: Strategy: The camera was set up on a tripod to Equipment: Sony "Rover"Sony AVC-3450 port- get a view of one section of the room. The chil- able black and white camera with 12.5-75mm dren who wanted to participate in the perform- f 1.8 lens. ances came to the camera. As stated above, at

63 the request of the children, the camera was turned Papers: off between performances. This strategy was satis- Seminar paper only. factory. Caputo, J. S. That's heat: An ethnography of the dis- The Collection: 11/2", 112 hour reel, videotape. People course structures of conflict in adolescent girls may come and view the tape. (unpublished qualifying paper). Claremont, Cali- Papers: fornia: Claremont Graduate School, 1976. Seiman Bennett, R. Bicultural education in performa- tive contexts. Unpublished paper. University of Researchers:John S.Caputo, Communications California-Berkeley, forthcoming. Studies, Chaffey College, Alta Loma, California 91706; Richard C. Jacobs, School of Education, California Researchers:JohnS.Caputo, Communications Polytechnic University, Pomona, California 91766. Studies, Chaffey College, Alta Loma, California 91706; Project: Cultural Mis-match (1977). An examination Ray Stupin, Director Upward Bound, Harvey Mudd of cultural mis-matches in classrooms. College, Claremont, California 91711. The Setting and Participants:Beginning collection. Project: Junior High Classroom Interaction (1976). Three junior high schools.Three teachers: white; A study of interaction patterns in three different junior 75 studentsblack and Chicano. high classrooms, three different subjects. Equipment: Sony portapack. The Setting and Participants:Classrooms, grades 7 Strategy: One camera, side of classrooms. and 8, English, Math, Social Studies. Three experi- The Collection: Three hours, unedited tape. The col- enced teachers, 64 racially eclectic students. lection may not be viewed under any conditions. The Recording Process: Papers: Equipment: Bell & Howell sound super 8 mm. Caputo, J. S. Ideology and utopia in the classroom. Strategy: One camera, continuously operating. Presented at the conference on culture and com- Comments: Very cruderough. munication.Philadelphia, Penn.. Temple Uni- The Collection: Four hours of unedited film. The versity, 1977. collection may not be viewed under any conditions. Caputo, J. S. Infra-language and the phematic web of Papers: discourse structures in classrooms. Unit Seminar at the Social Psychology Research Unit, University Caputo, J.S.Language functions in the classroom of Kent, Canterbury, England, 1981. (Mimeo) (unpublished). Claremont, California: Claremont Graduate School, 1976. Researchers:JohnS.Caputo, Communications Caputo, J. S. Two classrooms inside the British pri- Studies, Chaffey College, Alta Loma, California 91706. mary school. In Claremont Reading Conference Project: Ethnography of a Community College (1978). Annual Yearbook.Claremont, California: Clare- An examination of everyday activities in a community mont College, 1982. college. The Setting and Participants:Southern California Researchers:JohnS.Caputo, Communications Community College, Financial Aid Office, Children's Studies, Chaffey College, Alta Loma, California 91706; Day Care Center, Transportation Department, and Eric Cottrell, School of Education, Pepperdine Uni- Board of Trustees Meeting. Staff, faculty, trustees. versity, Malibu, California 90265. The Recording Process: Project: Argument Strategies ( 1976). A study of in- Equipment: Sony portapack. formal argument strategies. Strategy: One camera, moving. The Setting and Participants: Students grades 11 and The Collection: Four and one-half hours, unedited. 12all girls high school. Students grades 6 and 7all According to setting in community college. As com- girls elementary school. 24 girls, grades 11 and 12; putation grows and gets edited, anyone may come 24 girls, grades 6 and 7. and view. The Recording Process: Papers: Equipment: Sony portapack. Caputo, J. S. Ethnography of a community college Strategy: One camera, students doing role-taking (unpublished working paper).Institute of Lin- activities. guistic Studies. Claremont, California: Claremont Comments: Very rough. Graduate School, 1978. The Collection: Two hours, unedited tape. According to age and types of arguments. The collection may Researcher:Louise Cherry Wilkinson, Department not be viewed under any conditions. of Educational Psychology, Wisconsin Research and

64 6 6 Development Center forIndividualized Schooling, was taped four times during (a) October-Novem- University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin 53706. ber, 1978, and (b) March-April, 1979, for a total Project: Students' Communicative Competence in In- of 64 tapings. structional Contexts (1978). Effective communication Comments: The video was comprehensiveall stu- depends upon developing communicative competence, dents and teachers were filmed by both cameras. which enables students to use language to communi- Different angles provided maximal nonverbal in- cate their intentions to others and to indicate their formation. Also, the audio was excellent, and it understanding or lack of understanding of instructions was possible to do a fine-grained analysis. and directions. Educators need to be aware of ( a) the The Collection: 64 tapings, 45 minutes each. Ethno- language and communicative skills required in learn- graphic reports and indexes of the tapes included in ing activities such as the small group and (b) indi- the collection. Others may come and view, but they vidual differences among students in these skills in must get the permission of the subjects. order to plan and implement the model of instructional programming for the individual student. Thus, under- Papers: standing language and communicative skills that are Wilkinson, L. C. (Ed.) Communicating in the class- used in classroom activities is central to developing room. New York: Academic Press, 1982. and demonstrating improved instruction for teachers and students. Researchers: Michael Cole and Ken Traupmann, Uni- The purpose of the project was to examine school- versity of California, San Diego, California 92037; age children's language and communicative skills in Lois Hood and Ray McDermott, Rockefeller Univer- instructional groups and individualdifferences in sity, New York City, New York 10003. these skills. The anticipated results were intended to Project: Learning in Informal and Formal Situations provide direction for encouraging the development (Sept. 1976-May 1978). The current state of theory of these skills.In an illustrative study certain lan- in cognitive psychology is too weak a base to pro- guage and communicative skills used by students in vide for principled means of making inferences from an instructional reading group, and individual dif- test and laboratory-based observations to the wide ferences in their skills can be identified. Opportunities variety of intellectual behavior observed innon- to study spontaneous language and communicative laboratory settings (everyday life). A review of cog- behavior in naturally-occurring classroomactivities nitive research reveals several plausible speculations over the course of the school year were provided. about thinking in everyday life based on laboratory Questions such as the following are the focus of the research and theory. Descriptions of several everyday study: "What are certain central language and com- life scenes drawn from our research with a group of municative skills used by students in instructional children show these speculations to be plausible only small groups?" "Are students individually different in if our descriptions and interpretations remain within these skills?" the constraints of the model systems from which they Setting and Participants: We taped eight first-grade were derived. But such models systematically sup- reading groups. The groups were both peer directed press or exclude basic principles that our analysis and student directed and ranged in size from four to suggests are fundamental to the organization of be- 10 students.In total 53 students and three teachers havior, particularly the dynamically organized influ- participated. The groups were average, above aver- ence of individuals on their environment. We con- age, and below average in reading ability. clude that current method and theory of cognitive psychology are invalid for the non-laboratory settings The Recording Process: to which many researchers wish to generalize. The Equipment: We used two cameras per group and need for developing alternative methods for describing three microphoneseither hanging from the ceil- scenes or task environments that people encounter in ing, laying on the table, or sitting on stands. We everyday life is emphasized. got both separate and coordinate audio and video Settings and Participants: There were two settings: tracks. (1) The Manhattan Country School, a private school Strategy: The entire reading activity was recorded. in upper Manhattan; the main classroom was non- This included ( a) a teacher-directed orientation, graded and had children from eight to ten years old. instructionphase;(b)anallstudent(peer- Tapes were also made in other parts of the building: directed ) work phase; and (c) a teacher-directed the art room, shop, library, etc. ( only during 1976-77). evaluation phase. Each reading session was ap- Also during 1976-77 only, the children were taken on proximately 45 minutes. Each of the eight groups trips and visited in their homes (not taped) and 'Obser-

G.1 vations were n lade during their trip to a farm (taped). Cole, M., & Traupmann, K. L. Comparative cognitive The farm ( in upper New York State) is owned by the research: Learning from a learning disabled child. school and thne spent there is part of the curriculum. In A. Collins (Ed. ), Minnesota symposia on child (2) A club room set up for video taping in the Rocke- psychology. Hillsdale, N. J., Erlbaum, 1980. feller University, equipped for cooking club (stove, Griffin, P., Newman, D., & Cole, M. Activities, actions sink, utensils, etc.), for nature club (plants, rat and and formal operations: Zygotskian analysis of a mice cages, etc.) and for other activities such as board Piagetian task. Paper presented at the International games and drawing. Eight children attended at any Society of Behavior Development. Toronto, Can- one time. The participants were 17 eight to ten-year- ada, August 1980. old children in one class during 1976-77.During Hood, L. Let's try to make it a good daySome not 1977-78 these same children continued to be a part so simple ways. Discourse Processes, 1980, 2(3), of the study, but they were in different classrooms. 155-168. The sole site for 1977-78 was the Rockefeller Univer- Newman, D., Griffin, P., & Cole, M. Laboratory and sity club room. Also participating were one teacher, classroom tasks: A social constraint in evaluation one assistant teacher, several special subject teachers of children's performance. In J. Laze & B. Roggs ( math, art, shop, etc.), and four club leaders (mem- (Eds.), Everyday cognition:Its development in bers of the research team). social context.Cambridge: Harvard University Press, in press. The Recording Process: Equipment: Sony Porta-pak, Sony 3600 VTR, JVC Researcher: William A. Corsaro, Department of Soci- 3/4" cassette VTR. ology, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana 47041 Strategy: In the classroom, frozen frame cameras (William Corsaro is currently an Assistant Professor on a tripod were used. One for the whole class of Sociology at Indiana University in Bloomington, and one for the behavioral scene. In the club room, Indiana. He became involved in research using video- two frozen frame wall mount cameras were used, tape documentation when he was investigating adult- one for a wide angle shot, and one for the specific child interaction and childhood socialization for his behavioral scene. In both settings, hanging micro- dissertationatthe University of North Carolina, phones were employed. Chapel Hill. He continued research on socialization Comments: Open classroom recording may be im- using videotape procedures during a post-doctoral possible; club settings have adequate sound and year when he focused on peer interaction in a nursery visuals for most of the eight children and the school.) adult(s ).The ctose-up camera provided most project: Peer Interactive Patterns in a Nursery School scenes, running often 10 minutes at a time,which ( 1974-1975 ).This was a year-long ethnography of are most useful for an in-depth context analysis. peer interaction in a nursery school. The study in- The Collection: Approximately 200 hours of 1/2" half- volved the documentation of spontaneous peer activi- hour and one hour reel to reel and 3/4" cassettes. The ties of two age groups ( 3) 4 and 4 to 5 year-olds ) in tapes were organized by date and setting. The tapes a nursery school setting. The study was designed to will be sent on request, recorded with reverse polarity, capture features of childhood culture in this peer to be returned. environment as well as trace the children's develop- Papers: ment of interactive and communicative skills. Video- Cole, NI., flood, I.., & McDermott, R. Doing ecologi- taping began the fourth month of the study and con- cal psychology isn't so easy. Paper presented at the tinued twice a week for the next five months. Sampling Conference on Research Perspectives in the Ecol- was theoretical and based on earlier and accompany- ogy of Human Development, Cornell University, ing participation observation. The study was basically August 1977. hypothesis generating in nature. Cole, NI., Hood, I.., & McDermott, R. The social or- Setting and Participants: The setting was a nursery ganizmion of thinking displays.Paper presented school classroom in a child study center affiliated at the NVorkshop on Language, Culture and the with a large state university. The classroom was Family, Teachers College, Columbia University, "'semi-open" with the majority of the time devoted June 1978. to self-selection of activities by the children in various Cole, NI., flood, L., & NleDermott, R. Ecological niche- areas of the school. A total of 49 children participated *king: Ecological invalidity as an axiom of ex- in the study. There were II children in the 3 to 4 perimental cognitive psychology. Rockefeller Uni- year-old group (13 boys and 11 girls), and 25 chil- versity, 1978. dren in the 4 to 5 year-old group (13 boys and 12

66 girls ). The majority of the children were from middle div d into interactive episodes.Episodes are in- arid upper class families.Several racial and ethnic dexed acrding to participants (names of children groups were represented (blacks, MexicanrAmericans, and ages), locsn or area in the school, length (time and Asians). in minutes, revoluti., and fortranscribed material, number of interactive tu The Recording Process: , and a running description of the episodes (what hap ed) by the principal Equipawnt: 1 Sony :3600 VTR, 1 Shihaden camera investigator shortly after the tape w ade. Approxi- with rod controlled zoom lens, 4 Sony omnidirec- mately 18 hours of the data are transcribed. People tional mikes, 1 Sony unidirectional mike, audio may come and view. mixer. Strategy: The camera and VTR were placed in Papers: one of five locations inside the school or in the out- Cook-Gumperz, J., & Corsaro, W. Social-ecological side yard.All locations were several feet from constraints on children's communicative strategies. play areas, but the zoom lens allowed for con- Sociology, 1977; 11(3), 411-434. tinuous documentation of play in specific areas. Corsaro, W. Young children's conception of status and Camera and VTR were not moved during a par- role. Sociology of Education, 1979, 52(1), 46-59. ticular taping session. Since ta,ng was preceded Corsaro, W. Entering the child's world: Strategies by three months of participant observation predic- for field entry and data collection in preschool tions (anticipation) regarding where certain activi- settings. In J. Green & C. Wallat (Eds.), Ethnog- ties occurred were usually correct. This allowed raphy and language in educational settings. Nor- for documentation of a range of activities in all of wood, New Jersey: Ablex Press, 1981. the major areas of the school without the obtrusive Corsaro, W., br Tomlinsc-, G. Spontaneous play and movement of equipment during ongoing activities. social learning in the nursery school.In H. B. Mikes were suspended from the ceiling in several Schwartzman (Ed.), Play and Culture. New York: areas of the school.Also I would often take a Leisure Press, 1980. microphone into areas of the school to improve the audio quality. Once taping began I continued Researchers:Frederick Erickson,Institutefor Re- participant observation while an assistant operated search on Teaching, College of Education, Michigan the camera with no verbal directions from me. The StateUniversity,East Lansing,Michigan 48824; basic strategy was .to record interactive episodes Courtney Cazden, Teaching, Curriculum, and Learn- in specific areas of the school from beginning to ing Environments Department, Harvard Graduate end. Sampling was theoretical and based on patterns in School of Education, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138; field notes collected during participant Robert Carrasco, School of Education, Arizona State observation. University, Tempe, Arizona 85281; Abdil Abel Mal- The quality of the video data ranges from good donado-Guzmán, Teaching, Curriculum, and Learning to excellent.I found that movement and following Environments Department, Harvard Graduate School of the children with portable equipment was ex- of Education, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138. tremely obtrusive.Also the half-hour limit of portable equipment before changing reels would Project:Social and Cultural Organization of Inter- cause major problems since many episodes lasted action in Classrooms of Bilingual Children (1978-1981). lons4er than 30 minutes. The fact that I was' ac- The title of this project is self explanatory; itis an cepted into play areas and activities prior to taping investigation of cultural patterns in the organization was important. The main problem in the study of social interaction, done by means of a combination was audio quality. The mikes were inexpensive of participant observation and videotape recording and not really what was needectior this study.If and analysis. Two issues were of primary interest: additional money had been available, shotgun and (1) the ways in which Spanish and English were uied wireless mikes would have been employed for for various social interactional functions by bilingual some data collection.I would also have improved Spanish-speaking children and teachers in the early the acoustics of the inside of the school. However, grades, and (2) whether or not the teachers, who there is no getting around the fact that nursery were bilingual Chicanas, could be seen to be organiz- schools are noisyfair to poor audio quality will ing instruction and classroom management in ways often come with naturalistic work of this type. that were consonant with culturally Hispanic role definitions for social relations between adults and Tape Collection: 27 hours, 1/2" hour reels, videotape. children, and between child:en and their peers. Two Tapes are organized by day. Each tape is dated and aspects of role definition were found to be culturally

(CI Hispanic: (1) in the teacher-student relationship, the Shooting Strategies:In this project we moved character of cariiio (love, teuderness) in the behavior faster to selective shooting by asingle, roving of the adult toward the child, and (2) in peer relation- camera than we had done in the earlier project. ships, skillful helping of one another by the children This was because we decided on a range of class- that was encouraged rather than discouraged by the room scenes that were of special interest because teachers. Peer helping and features of caritio in the of the degree of contrast in scale across them and teacher-student relationship were found regardless of the kinds of participants in them. Participant obser- whether the interaction individuals were speaking vationalso accompanied the videotaping more Spanish or English. intimately from the outset of the research.By Setting and Participants: The two first-grade class- spring the cameraperson was able to use a semi- roving camera (mounted on a light tripod) and rooms studied intensively during one school year were located in a neighborhood of Chicago that is the port also write field notes, because of the familiarity of entry neighborhood for migrants from south Texas with the flow of activity in the classroom that had and immigrants from northern Mexico. Half the chil- been gained by participant observation. dren in the classrooms were born in Mexico or south The Collection: There are approximately 50 hours of Texas and almost all the other -children had older videotape for each of the two classrooms studied Sibling& who came from Mexicoor Texas. Most of intensively. Whole classroom days account,for about the childrenwere Spanish dominant,asassessed one-third of each 50 hours. The remainder shows focal by standard tests of language dominance. The two children in a range of instructional events (whole- teachers were bilingual by standard tests of language group/small-group, peer-tutoring inarithmetic and dominance. The two teachers were bilingual Chi- language arts) and non-instructional events (games, cams.Brief observation and videotaping was also classroom transitions to recess, non-instructional inter- done for comparative purposes in a classroom of simi- action with peers). lar students taught by a Spanish-speaking Anglo The tapes can be viewed by visiting Carraseo at teacher. Arizona State University or Cazden at Harvard Uni- In the two classrooms studied intensively, video- versity. Copies of the tapes can be made at cost with taping was done most comprehensively at the begin- consent of Erickson, Carraseo, and the classroom ning of the year, with whole days being recorded. As teachers. Write for permission to Erickson. Requests the school year progressed, videotaping became more should be made in writing, and the letter of request selective, focusing on particular classroom events and should state that thl,footage will be used for teaching on a set of nine focal children in each classroom. The and research purposes only, and that the person re- focal children varied in academie performance level questing the videotape footage agrees not to copy it and in language proficiency, ranging from Spanish for others, nor to edit it into another tape that would dominant to balanced-bilingual. These focal children be generally distributed, nor to show it on broadcast were videotaped in a variety of classroom scenes, television. The letter should also state the research ranging from whole group lessons to informal peer problem or teaching issue the user of the tape intends tutoring without the teacher present. to address. The Recording Process: Papers: Equipment: The video and audio recording was Erickson, F., Cazden, C., Carraseo, R., & Maldonado- done with equipment similar to that used in the Guzman, A. First and second year progress reports study done by Erickson, Shultz, Florio and Dorr- to the National Institute of Education, Project Bremme. There were two main differences in the NIE-C-0099. (Available from Erickson) equipment used:(1) sound was not recorded Cazden, C., Carraseo, R., Maldonado-Guzman, A., & through a stereo tape recorderthe overhead and Erickson, F. The contribution of ethnographic re- shotgun microphones were fed into a mixer box search to bicultural bilingual education.In J. and output from the box was fed directly into the Alatis (Ed.), Current issues in bilingual education. video deck recording the picture from the sta- Washington, D. C.: Georgetown Roundtable Gil tionary camera, and the wireless microphone out- Languages and Linguistics, Georgetown Univer- put was fed directly ibto the video deck recording sity Press, 1980. the picture from the roving camera, and (2) occasionally a second wireless microphone was used Researchers:Frederick Erickson, Institute for Re- one worn by the teacher and the other by a child, search on Teaching, College of Education, Michigan or both worn by children. StateUniversity,EastLansing, Michigan 48824;

68 Gerald Mohatt, Sinte Gleska Community College, vidual children in the classroom. In order to hear Rosebud, South Dakota 57570. what the Indian teacher was saying to individuals Project: Children's Interaction at Home and at School it was necessary to have her wear the wireless on an Odawa Reserve (September 1975-June 1976). microphone. This study investigated the cultural organization of The Collection: A total of 36 hours of classroom video- social relationships through communication at home tape, 18 in each of the two classrooms, showing a and at school on an Indian reservation in Northern complete morning or afternoon.Twelve hours of Ontario. Of interest were the ways in which patterns videotape from children's homes. of interaction in the classroom were similar to or dif- Classroom tapes may be viewed by visiting either ferent from patterns of interaction thatwere customary Erickson or Mohatt.Footage from the children's in home and community life. Two different first-grade homes may not be viewed or copied. Copies of class- classrooms were studied, one taught by an Indian room footage are available at cost with consent of teacher who was a member of the reservationcom- either Erickson or Mohatt. Two brief excerpts from munity, and the other taught by a non-Indian teacher. footage showing the first four minutes of the school Classroom interaction in the former classroom was in day in each of the two rooms, are available with the some key features of interactional etiquette similar consent of Erickson.Requests should be made in to patterns of interaction found in home and com- writing, and the letter of request should state that munity life.In the latter classroom some patterns of the footage will be used for teaching and research interaction resembled those found in the community purposes only, and that the person requesting the outside school, and other patterns of interaction dif- videotape footage agrees not to copy it for others, nor fered from those of the community and home. to edit it into another tape that would be generally Setting and Participants: Complete mornings or after- distributed, nor to show it on broadcast television. noons were videotaped in two adjoining first-grade The letter should also state the research problem pr classrooms in which all the children were Indian. One teaching issue the user of the tape intends to addre* classroom was taught by an Indian teacher, the other Papers: by a non-Indian teacher. The classroomswere videotaped in fall, winter, and spring.Videotapes were Erickson, F., & Mohatt, G. The cultural organization also made in the homes--of some of the children in the of participation structures in two classrooms of classrooms. The teachers were interviewed in view- Indian students. In G. Spindler (Ed.), Doing the ing sessions. In addition, the videotapes were studied ethnography of schooling. New York: Holt, Rine- for the next two summers by Indian teachers from hart, and Winston, 1982. the same school, who took summer school courses Mohatt, G.-V., & Erickson, F. Cultural differences in with Mohatt and Erickson. In the courses the teachers teaching styles in an Odawa school: A sociolin- viewed the classroom tapes and studied their own guistic approach. In H. T. Trueba, G. P. Guthrie, family and community life, identifying cultural pat- & K. H. Au (Eds.), Culture and the bilingual class- terns in social relationshipsespecially thOse involving room: Studies in classroom ethnography. Rowley, the exercise of social control. In this way, members Mass.: Newbury House, 1982. of the community were not only informants but co- investigators and analysts in the study. Researchers: Frederick Erickson, Susan Florio, Insti- tute for Research on Teaching, College of Education, The Recording Process: Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan Equipment: For video recording, a Sony inch 48824; Jeffrey Shultz, College of Education, Univer- color cassette system was used. The camera was sity of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio 45221; Donald stationary and mounted on a tripod.For audio Dorr-Bremme, Center for the Study of Evaluation, recording, a single microphone suspended from College of Education, University of California, Los the ceiling was used alternately with a Vega wire- Angeles, California 00024. less microphone. Project:The Acquisition and Use of Interactional Strategy: These were essentially those described Knowledge in the Classroom: A Study of Children for the stationary camera in the previous study and the Teacher in a Kindergarten-First Grade Class- by Erickson, Shultz,Florio, and Dorr-Bremme. room ( 1974-76). This was a study of how children One difference was that in this study the wireless learn to go to school. The social knowledge necessary microphone was put on one of the teachers rather to interact appropriately in an early-grades classroom than on the students. This was necessary because is something that children do not bring with them at the Indian teacher spoke in what for us seemed the beginning of the year; it must be acquired through a very low voice volume when addressing indi- experience during the course of the school year. This

69 7i is true for all children, and for children whose family two Italian-American focal children were videotaped background differs from the mainstream American at home as well as at school. Much more community middle class, the acquisition of interactional knowl- and home study would have been desirable, but this edge can be especially tricky because of speech com- was precluded by the study's small budgeta total munity differences between home and school regard- of $14,000.(This demonstrates that research using ing such aspects of the conduct of interaction as pat- audiovisual media need not be expensive.) Across the terns of taking turns at speaking and acceptable levels two years the teacher and the researchers developed of ambiant noise. When cultural standards of ap- increasingly close working relationships, with more propriateness in these aspects of interaction differ, and more of the research questions being developed one can expect that as children learn how to go to collaboratively by the teacher and the researchers, school they are learning a new cultural system for the especially during the second year of the study as a conduct of interaction. result of the increased presence of the participant Teachers, too, need to learn how to go to school observer. Viewing sessions were also done, in which each year, as a new set of children provides a different the teacher and the researchers watched videotape mix of students who differ as individuals and who together, but rapport in those sessions was better after come from a variety of speech communities. This is the intensive participant observation had begun. Be- especially true in schools with multi-ethnic student fore that, when the researchers had been present in poptilations. The teachers' mode of leadership and the classroom primarily as camera people, the viewing classroom management is adaptive to each new set of sessions held with the teacher were more tense than individuals they confront at the beginning of each those held after the teacher had developed a close year, so that as the children are adapting to the inter- relationship with the researcher who was doing the actional expectations of the teacher, the teacher is intensive participant observation. changing expectations and behavior in response to the The Recording Process: students. Equipment: For video recording, two Sony 3600 Very' little is known about all this. The aim of 1/2-inch black and white, reel to reel recording this research was to take a close look at the interaction decks, one stationaryShibaden studio camera patterns in a classroom, to identify the kinds of social mounted on a tripod, and one roving Sony Porta- knowledge that the teacher and the students needed pak video camera on a monopod, connected to the to possess in order to interact together appropriately, recording deck by a 36 foot camera extension cable to identify changes in ways of interacting as the school were used. For audio recording, three omnidirec- year progressed, and to infer from these changes in tional condenser microphones suspended from the behavior what new interactional knowledge was being ceiling at various points in the classroom, one Elec- acquired across tinw. trovoice shotgun microphone mounted on a stand, Setting and Participants: The classroom was a kinder- and one Vega wireless microphone that was worn, garten-first grade in a school &Immunity whose popu- on a vest by focal children were used. Sound was lation was 80`,;. Italian-American. This was a working recorded on a Sony stereo reel to reel audio re- class ethnic neighborhood in an upper-middle class corder as well as on the video decks, so that audio- sulnirb of Boston. The speech community of the tapes with high quality sound would be available neighborhood differed from that of the American for transcribing. mainstream whkh was the speech community affilia- Strategy: The stationary and moving camera were tion of the rest of the suburb, and of the staff in its operated simultaneously. During the project's first elententary and secondary schools). The classroom year the stationary camera was operated continu- teacher was of upper-middle class, non-Italian-Ameri- ously, over a complete classroom day or half day. can background. The camera angle was only changed as the entire The classroom was studied for two years; in the class changed position in the room. The roving first year by limited participant observation and exten- camera focused on a particular child and followed sive videotaping, and in tlw second year by extensive that child continuously, still with a relatively wide- participant obser% ation and relatively limited video- angle shot, but providing a more detailed view taping. One hundad hours of videotape were col- than that available from the stationary camera. lected in the first year, and thirty hours in the second The roving camera was not operated continuously year. During both years individual focal children were only when events of particular research interest studied, as well as was the overall shape of classroom were occurring. During the project's second year events, the whole school day, and the whole school the roving camera was sometimes used alone, week. At the beginning of the first school year studied, sometimes together with the stationary camera.

70 Sound for the roving camera alwayscame from communication skills. New York: Academic Press, the wireless microphone. Sound for the stationary 1981. camera came from the suspended microphones and the shotgun microphone. Inputs from these Florio, S. Learning how to go to school: An ethnog- were raphy of interaction in a kindergarten/first grade fed into a mixer box and sound levels for the various microphones were monitored and adjusted, classroom. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Har- depending on where the teacher and students hap- vard Graduate School of Education, 1978. pened to be in the room at that point. The output Florio, S., & Walsh, M. The teacher as colleague in from the mixer box was fed into the right channel classroom research.In H. Trueba, G. Guthrie, & of the stereo audiotape recorder, and theoutput K. H. Au (Eds.), Culture and the bilingual class- from the wireless was fed into the left channel room. Rowley, Mass.: Newberry House, 1982. of the audiotape recorder.(This provided the Shultz, J., & Florio, S. Stop and freeze: The negotia- focal child's voice as the child interacted with tion of social and physical space in a kindergarten/ others in the immediate surrounding area.) Sound first grade classroom. Anthropology and Education from the right channel of the audiotape recorder Quarterly, 1979, 10(3), 166-181. (line out) was fed into the video deck recording the picture from the stationarycamera (audio line Shultz, J., Florio, S., & Erickson, F. Where's the floor?: in) and sound from the left channel of the audio- Aspects of the cultural organization of social rela- tape recorder was fed into the video deck record- tionships in communication at home and at school. ing the picture from the roving camera. In P. Gilmore & A. Glatthorn, (Eds.), Ethnography and education: Children in and out of school, The Collection:For year 1, one hundred hours of Washington, D. C.: Center for Applied Linguistics, classroom videotape, approximately half of thetapes 1982. showing the whole class across the whole school day or half day with wide-angle shots, arid approximately Researchers:Frederick Erickson, Institute for Re- half of the tapes focusingon a kindergarten girl or search on Teaching, College of Education, Michigan a first-grade boy, both focal children being Italian- State University, East Lansing, Michigan 48824; Jef- American. For thee two children there are also twelve frey Shultz, College of Education, University of Cin- hours of videotape of them after school at home. cinnati,Cincinnati, Ohio 45221; Carolyn Leonard- For year 2, tlnrtv hours of classroom videotape, two Dolan, Rosary College, River Forest, Illinois 14226. fullclassroom days recorded simultaneously bya wide-angle and more narrowly focused camera, with Project: Inter-ethnic Relations in Urban Institutional the remainder of the tape shot witha roving camera Settings (1970-1973). The purpose of this study was and wireless microphone focusingon two first-grade to identify cultural differences in verbal and nonverbal children: an Armenian-American girl andan Italian- communication patterns that contributed to miscom- American boy. munication and stress in school counseling and job The tapes may be viewed by visiting Erickson and interviews.These are differences of which people Florio at Michigan State University,or Shultz at the are often not consciously aware, yet which can affect University of Cincinnati.Portions of tape cart also their impressions ofothers.Especially significant be copied ( at cost ), with the consent of the classroom situations of inter-ethnic contact are those involving teacher and Frederick Erickson.Requests must be institutional gatekeeping, judgments by an institu- made in writing, and the letter of request should state tional official that affect an individual's social mobility that the footage will be used for teaching and research and that may result in diagnostic labels for individuals purposes only, and that the person requesting the that are entered into the institution's official records. videotape footage agrees not to copy it for others, School counseling sessions and job interviews are nor to edit it into another tape that would be generally especially significant gatekeeping situations for adoles- distributed, nor to show it on broadcast television. cents and young adults. The research showed that The letter should also state the research problemor cultural differences in communication style did in teaching issue the user of the tape intends to address. some cases have a negative influence on counselors' Papers: and job interviewers' judgments of students, and on the overall emotional tone and behavioral smoothness Bremme, D. W., & Erickson, F. Relationships among of interviews. In other cases the negative influences verbal and nonverbal classroom behaviors. Theory of differences in communication style seemed to be and Practice, 1977, 16(3), 153-161. overridden by the establishment of interpersonal soli- Erickson, F. Timing and context in everyday dis- darity through talk about common experiences and course.In P. W. Dickson( Ed.), Children's oral interests. 717 Setting and Participants: Counselors in public junior as possible of the bodies of the interviewerand colleges and job interviewers in businesses were simul- interviewee continuously in frame. The shot did taneously filmed and videotaped in naturally occurring not change at all during the course of filming. The ,interviews. junior colleges and businesses were found cameras were placed so that the interviewer and in which interviewers during a normal work day met interviewee were filmed in full or partial profile. interviewees whose ethnicity or race was sometimes The Collection:Fifty-six 10-minute films of junior similar and sometimesdifferent from thatof the college counseling interviews, in various intra-ethnic interviewer. A series of intra-ethnic and inter-ethnic and inter-ethnic combinations. Excerpts from seven interviews was Einwd for each interviewer. The major of the interviews are available on a 16mm master film ethnic and racial groups to which the interviewer and of 18 minutes. interviewees belonged were, black, Chicano, Puerto The videotapes are no longer available for view- Rican, Irish-American, 1talian-American, Polish-Ameri- ing because of lack of Bell and Howell playback can.All the interviewers and interviewees studied equipment. Films can be viewed by visiting the prin- were male.After the interviewers were recorded, cipal investigator, or by requesting a videotape copy the videotape was played back to the interviewer and of the master film, which is available from the prin- the interviewee in separate viewing sessions. The com- cipal investigator at cost (approximately $25). Re- ments made (luring these sessions were audio recorded. quests should be made in writing, and the letter of The Recording Process: request should state that the footage will be used for teaching and research purposes only, and that the per- Equipment:For video recording,aBell and Howell, 1/2 inch, reel to reel, black and white re- son requesting the videotape research agrees not to cording deck was used, with a Shibaden studio copy it for others, nor to edit it into another tape that camera. The video camera was mounted onthe would be generally distributed, nor to show it on top of the "blimp" box. For cinema recording, a broadcast television. The letter should also state the Bo lex 16min camera with a 12.5mm lens and 4(X) ft. research problem or teaching issue the user of the tape magazine was used. The camera was mounted in intends to address. a "blimp" ( a sound-proof box) on a tripod,and Papers: was connected by pilot tone synchronizationcable Erickson, F. Gatekeeping and the melting pot: Inter- to a Nagra IV audio recorder. The Nagra was also action in counseling encounters. Harvard Educa- connected by line output to the simultaneously tional Review, 1975, 45(1), 44-70. recording video deck. Two types of highly direc- Erickson, F. Gatekeeping encounters. A social selec- tional "shotgun" microphones were usedan Elec- tion process. In P. R. Sanday (Ed.), Anthropology trovoice EV642 was used first, and later a Senn- and the public interest. New York: Academic heizer MI01804 was used because of the problem Press, 1976. of background noise.Both microphones were Erickson, F. Talking down: Some cultural sources of mounted on stands rather than handheld. miscommunication in inter-racial interviews.In Strategy: These were extremely simple. The video A. Wolfgang (Ed.), Nonverbal Communication: and cinema recording systems ran silently. They Applications and cultural implications. New York: were operated simultaneously by remotecontrol, Academic Press, 1979. monitored from an office adjoining that of the Erickson, F., & Shultz, J. The counselor as gatekeeper: interviewer. Informed consent was obtained from Social interaction in interviews. New York: Aca- the interview(p, arid then the recording equipment demic Press, 1982. was turned on shortly before the interviewee entered the interviewer's office. Recording continued Researchers: Lou Gomes, Harvard Graduate School until the interviewee had left the office.(With ofEducation,Cambridge,Massachusetts02138; the cinema camera, sometimes the 10 minutes of Frederick Erickson, Institute for Research on Teach- film in the magazine had run mft before the inter- ing, College of Education, Michigan State University, view was completed. With the video system, this East Lansing, Michigan 48824. (Lou Gomes received was not a problem, and a complete record of each his Ed.D. fromthe Harvard Graduate School of interview was made by video. Most of the school Education and was a guidance counselor for the couns(ling interviewslasted no more than10 Cape Verdean Bilingual Program in New Bedford, minutes, however). Shooting was continuous, in Mass. Ik became involved in the use of videotape as single "takes" that lasted the entire length of the a research tool as a student of FrederickErickson, a interview, or until the cinema film ran out. The former Professor at the Harvard Graduate School of shot was wide-angle, in an attempt to ke(p as much Education. Before coming to Harvard, Lou Comes

72 was a teacher, counselor, and administrator in New Researchers: Francis Barnes, Antioch College, Yellow Bedford. Ile kts also been very active in Cape Ver- Springs, Ohio 45387, Judy Skudlark, Berkeley School dean community affairs). District,Berkeley,California94720,and George Project:Participant structure and social interaction Stoney, Alternative Media Center. styles of Cape Verdean children (1978-present). The Project: Media Literacy for Children With Learning purpose of this study was to try to discover how the Disabilities( 1974-1977).Not so much a research sociocultural behavior of a Cape Verdean child con- project as an ongoing experimental teaching technique tributes to his/her social identity in the classroom. that was incorporated into the Caring Center's activi- Specifically we were interested in the following ques- ties. The purpose of the project was to use audio- tions:(1) IIow are the social behaviors and com- visual media to help kids with learning disabilities munication modes learned in a Cape Verdean home learn basic skills.Children with neurological defi- continuous and discontinuous with the behaviors and ciencies can be aided by audio-visual projects that communication skills that are necessary for a child prepare them for reading and writing, and coding and to be competent in the first year of school? (2) How decoding the world. We developed a visual literacy are the participant structures and social organization program that got our children to perform certain skills patterns of a Cape Verdean home similar to or dif- better than average school district or neighborhood ferent from those found in a classroom? children. Also, playback of their work and personal Setting and Participants: Videotapes for this study characteristics gave autistic children as well as other were shot in a nmlti-racial, multi-ethnic kindergarten kids a strong reinforcement of their self concept. class, two Cape Verdean homes, arid a day care center. All were located in a large city in southwestern Mas- Setting and Participants: The tapes and slides were produced at the Caring Center, an after school center sachusetts.Four full class sessions( 1/2(lay) were taped. Two "target" children were also taped in their for children with learning disabilities and neurological homes. One child was also taped at his day care deficiencies, located in Berkeley, California. The cen- cenhT. Both the kindergarten and the day care foot- ter is a converted older house with a classroom in the age include a "rap session:" a discussion period when back and a backyard that includes trees, a sanded the teacher and the class talk about class activities. area, and an asphalt area. The house is accessible to other neighborhood children who may join in when The Recording Process: they want to. The center is designed according to Equipnwnt: Panasonic porta-pac, in-camera micro- theory on milieu therapy and tries to provide a caring phone. and individualized social environment for the children. Strategy: In the kindergarten, the camera was set The Recording Process: on a stationary tripod. The camera person then Equipment:1/2 inch videotape, Ektachrome color tried to focus on the two target children.In the slides, Audio tapes. homes and in the day care center, the researchers Strategy: The equipment was available for use employed a roving camera technique and followed over a three-year period, at any time that seemed tlw participants around in the setting. In all cases appropriate. Also, the older children learned how the in-camera microphone was used. The station- to use the equipment and both helped the Center's ary camera in the kindergarten class prevented the teachers as well as wrote and produced their own taping of activities that occurred outside the field projects. of view of the camera. The teacher, however, The Collection: Unknown amount of video and slides objected to the use of the roving .eamera because organized chronologically.People may come and she thought it would be distracting. view with permission from subjects. The Collection:131/2 hours; 1/2 inch, 1/2 hour reels; Papers: videotape organized by shooting date. Art as a heuristic tool. People may come to view, but must get the per- A visual approach to reading for children with learn- mission of the subjects. ing disabilities. Papers: Project: The Caring Center. "The Caring Center" is Collies, L. A., Jr. Social interaction and social identity: actually an edited videotape that shows a day in the A strubj of two kindergarten children. Unpublished life of a child whose neurological disabilities alienate doctoral dicsertation, IIarvard University, 1979. him from his schoolmates in elementary school.It shows the change in behavior that occurs within the Resem.:.1wrs:Manuel Gonzalez, Fresno Cable TV, Caring Center, an environment that reinforces his 1511 North Maple, Fresno, California 93703; Co- abilities. The tape is intended for playback to parents

73 of kids in tlw Center, and to kids themselves.It is of three settings. We correlated teacher behavior used in an ongoing basis by the school. We have to this map; we correlated pupil behavior ( from included it in this section because it is not commercial, the photography ) to setting qualities and phases. but rather experimental and therefore more research- We found the pupil data to be quite manageable. oriented.They have also produced a more highly Disadvantages: Rich or complex analysis of stu- edited version for outside viewing. dent behavior was not possible since there are The Recording Process: "breaks" in continuity. Our solenoid was not too reliable and we lost some databut this could be Equipment:1/2 inch video portapac. The Collection: 7 hours, 1/2" tape, B & W, Edited, out- fixed. The time-lapse photos are not too informa- takes. People may come and see the tapes. tive without the chronicles. The teacher chronicle is probably less exact than a T.V. record, for Researcher: Paul V. Gurnp, Department of Psychol- example, of her action. Over all, the chronicles are ogy, University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kansas 66044. much more revealing than the films. The chronicles Profect: The Classroom Behavior Setting: Its Nature (verbal, adapted "specimen" records) make sense. and Relation to Student Behavior (1963-1966). The The photoswithout the chroniclesdo not. major questions this study addressed were: (1) How The Collection:12 days of time-lapse, 12 days of may the environment operating for a day in a third- chronicles of teacher behavior. People may come and grade classroom be described? (2) What is the rela- view the films.Seven chronicles have been edited tion between the quality and structure of this environ- and mimeographed and could be loaned. The others ment (and its parts ) and student and teacher immedi- could be inspected but the typing is not very clear. ate behavior? Papers: Setting and Participants: The study took place in. 6 Gump, P. The classroom behavior setting; Its nature third-grade classrooms, from a range of socioeconomic and relations to student behavior. Final Report, and academically favored backgrounds. Records were Office of Education Project 2453, Bureau 5-0334, taken of two full days in each classroom. The partici- Grant OE 4-10-107 (can be loaned). pants were third-grade students, from lower- to upper- Gump, P.Intra-setting analysis:The third grade middle class, and their teachers. classroom as a special but instructive case.In E. P. Williams & H. L. Raush ( Eds.), Naturalistic The Recording Process: viewpoints in psychological research. New York: Equipment: 16mm Bolex camera with wide angle Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968. lens (10mm) enclosed in a sound reducing box Gump, P. V. School settings and their keeping. In and set for time lapse photography with a timer D. Duke (Ed.), Helping teachers manage class- and a solenoid ( 1 picture every 20 seconds). rooms. Arlington, Virginia: Association for Super- Strategy: The camera box was placed on a seven- vision and Curriculum and Development, 1982. foot tripod in a corner of the room such that 75% of the room's activity was included in the shot. Researchers: Nancy K. Johnson, Foreign Language The observer sat by the tripod to develop the Education Center, University of Texas, Austin, Texas chronicle and to check on the continuousness of 78712 ( Nancy Johnson received her doctrate in Bilin- the photography. gual Education at the University of Texas. She has Comments: We used the visual record (time lapse worked on several research projects on classroom photography)torecordpupilbehavoirsself- interaction and has taught both Spanish and French touching, "languishing," on-or-off task. We used at the elementary school level); Paul Train Marston, the chronicle to record both teacher acts and the ( Paul Marston was formerly the Program Director of continual setting organization of the classroom. We the Evaluation of Teaching Program at the Research found that previous research could only make and Development Center for Teacher Education at the quite rough or global inferences about the classi- University of Texas.) He is interested in formative fication of child behavior when on-going teacher and summative teacher evaluation, characteristics of behavior and classroom structure were unknown. teacher observation systems and methodological prob- Coders, viewing the photography, used the type- lems associated with measuring teacher and student written chronicles to learn what was supposed to behavior. Current research interests include external be happening and could more reliably code such and internal forms of bias on observation of behavior, matters as on-task behavior. reliability and generalizability of specific teacher be- Advantages: We were able to "map" the temporal haviors, statistical methods for dealing with sequential and spacial expanse of subsettings throughout tl e behavior, statistical methods of change, and the use of day. We were also able to _cle,crilw the qualitu,s minicomputers and videotapes for data collectiQn.

74 Project: T cache r-Student Interaction in Bilingual Class- some of the later ones used only one camera. When rooms (December 1978-April 1978). Four first-grade the teacher spent most of the time working with classrooms were videotaped on five occasions. Teach- one group of students, the one-camera set-up ers were told that the researchers were interested in proved almost as good for our purposes. The sound classroom interaction during oral language instruction system took some time to set up, but was worth the and to conduct their classes according to their usual trouble. Generally, only two or three microphones routine. The subjects of the four classes were English were active at any one time. The size and weight Reading, Spanish Reading, English Language Arts and of the equipment was the biggest problem and Spanish for Spanish Speakers. we are currently working to reduce this. Setting and Participants: The self-contained class- The Collection: 20 hours of three-quarters inch video rooms videotaped were located in two small towns cassette,organizedchronologicallyand byclass. near Austin, Texas. The elementary schools were Others may come and view. selected because their curricula included some form Papers: of bilingual education. The ethnic-racial characteris- Johnson, N. An analysis of teachers' responses to stu- tics of the students in Town A are 85% Anglo, 12% dents' errors in first-grade bilingual classrooms. Chicano and 2'2;. black. Town B's students are 48% Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Austin, Texas: Anglo, 29',; Chicano, and 23 f: ;,black. University of Texas, Foreign Language Education The students who were the focus of this study were Center, 1980. of varying degrees of bilingualism. Neither school's bilingual program included bilingual instruction for Researcher: Cathie Jordan, Research Anthropologist, monolingual English speakers. Two of the classes Kamehameha Early Education Program (KEEP), contained only bilingual students; the other two con- Karnehameha Schools, Honolulu, Hawaii 96810. tained bilingual children, aswell as monolingual Project:Kamehameha Early EducationProgram, speakers of English. The students designated "bilin- Peer Teaching/Learning intheClassroom Study gual" were examined for language dominance using (October 1976-April 1977). This project was a study the Piimary Acquisition of Language (PAL) and the of peer teaching/learning in:eractions among children Perfil tests. of Hawaiian ancestry in one kindergarten and one The Recording Process: first-grade classroom. Peers and near-peers are known Equipment: Video-2 Panasonic WV 34 P mono- to be important as sources of help and information chromatic cameras with zoom lenses ( 11-110mm ), for Hawaiian children in non-classroom settings. This Panasonic-WV-545P combination switcher special study was inten)led to gather information about the effects generator, and Sony V02600 UOmatic cas- nature and oceurrence of peer teaching/learning interactions in the classroom. Settings taped were those setteVTR. AudioSure M-67 mixer, Ampex MX-10, MXR graphicequalizer, and 6 micro- in which such interaction seemed most likely to phones (2 EV635, 2 EV660A, and 2 Sure 545). occur. For the first-grade, these were "learning centers"; for the kindergarten, work tables and the "don Strategy: Either a one- or two-camera set-up was corner." All children in both classes are represented used. In tlw one-camera 3et-up only the camera on the videotapes, but since settings rather than indi- and video recorder were used. In the two-camera viduals were taped, the coverage of all children is set-up, the two cameras were fed through the not equal. switcher'special effects generator.The cameras were located as close as possible to the front and Setting and Participants: The setting was one kinder- back of the room. This maximized the number of garten classroom and one first-grade classroom in faces that could be seen when children were seated Ka Na'i Pono School, the research and demonstration around a table.In some cases it was possible to school of the Kamehameha Early Education Program split the screen with a tight shot of the teacher in (KEEP). KEEP is a privately funded educational One corner and a wide angle shot of the students research institute with the primary purpose of improv- inthe rest.The microphone placement varied ing the education of Hawaiian children. The school from room to room, but generally consisted of is located in a low income area of urban Honolulu. putting tlw directional microphones in the corners The kindergarten classroom was traditionally organ- and the monidirectional Ones near the center. ized. The first-grade classroom was organized around Comments: The two-camera set-up provided the a series of 10 "learning centers." best coverage of the classroom, but also required Fifty-six children participated in the study, but more personnel, equipment, and set-up time. The coverage is not equal on all children. About 75% first tapes :n every class were made this way, while of the children at Ka Na'i Pono School are of Hawaiian

75 ancestry. About 75','; of them a.-e poor. The children Researchers: Cathie Jordan, Rod Calkins, Roland G. speak a dialect of English, Hawaiian Creole. Tharp, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, Hawaii 96822. (Cathie Jordan is currently a research anthropologist The Recording Process: at the Kameharneha Early Education Project (KEEP), Equipment: Vega wireless microphone, Sony elec- Kamehameha Schools, Honolulu, Hawaii. She partici- tric condenser ceiling-hung mikes, Panasonic WV- pated during the late 60's in an ethnographic studof 240P camera mounted near the ceiling in one cor- a Hawaiian community in which her focus was espe- ner of the classroom, Viscount 1120 Programmer cially on the socialization patterns.In the course of and McMartin Accu-five Audio Central Control this work the importance of siblings and other children Unit, and Vega 56 Receiver. as socialization agents became apparent, so did also Strategy: The overhead camera was focused on the great difficulties that many Hawaiian children a group of two or more children at a work table, experience in school. These two facts generated an learning center, or in the "doll corner."Sound interest in investigating peer interactions of Hawaiian was from the Vega wireless microphone concealed children in school settings. When she became part of inside a cardboard box which was fixed to the table the KEEP staff, the access to the videotape equipment or from an overhead microphone in the "doll at Ka Nal Pono seemed to provide an ideal oppor- corner." Individual children were not followed if tunityfor studying suchinteractions closely and they left the setting.During taping sessions an unobtrusively.). observ,r in the classroom recorded any events that Project: Kamehameha Early Education Program Kin- seemed to impinge upon the children in the target dergarten Interaction Study (September 1977-Novem- setting that might not have been picked up by the ber 1977). This was a study of the classroom inter- camera. The camera was operated by remote action patterns of seven kindergarten children of control from a console on an observation deck. All Hawaiian ancestry. The main purpose of the study of the equipment was a permanent part of the was to gather information about interactions among classroom scene, to which the children seemed peers, but interactions with the teacher were also very much accustomed. The observer was also a documented. regular feature of the classroom. Setting and Participants: The setting was one kinder- Comments: We felt that the fact that all of the garten classroom and one first-grade classroom in Ka equipment was a regular part of the classroom Na'i Pono School, the research and demonstration scene for several weeks before taping was begun school of the Kamehameha Early Education Program resulted in the taping process being very unobtru- (KEEP). KEEP is a privately funded educational sive.The sound from the wireless box was, in research institute with the primary purpose of improv- most cases, quite good; the overhead microphone ing the education of Hawaiian children. The school produced sound that was less satisfactory. is located in a low income area of urban Honolulu. The Collection: Quantity: 36 hours of cartridge video- The kindergarten classroom was traditionally organ- tape (30 hours on 30-minute and 6 hours on 2-minute ized. The first-grade classroom was organized around tapes ).Organized: By day, time and child.There a series of 10 learning centers. are tr.mscripts ofall teaching 'learning sequences. Seven Hawaiian children (4 boys, 3 girls) were Other researchers may come and view the tapes. selected randomly from a class of 29 to represent a Papers: range of adaptation to kindergarten. Jordan, C. Centers and sibling groups (KEEP Work- The Recording Process: ing Paper). Honolulu, IIawaii: The Kamehameha Equipment: Panasonic WV-240P overhead camera, EarlyEducationProgram, The Kamehameha Viscount 1120 Programmer and McMartin Accu- Schools, 1980. five Audio Central Control Unit, Vega Receiver, Jordan, C. Teaching learning interactions and school Vega wireless (in box), EdCor wireless on child adaptation: The Hawaiian case. In C. Jordan, et al, ( worn on vest). idisc iplinar y approach to research:The A M Strategy: The overhead camera was operated by Kameharneha early education program (Technical remote control from an observation deck.The Report No. 81 ).Honolulu, Hawaii: The Kame- child being taped wore the EdCor wireless in a hameha Early Education Program, The Kame- wrap-around vest. The Vega wireless was in a box }lamella Schools, 1978. fastened to the table where the observed child Jordan, C., D'amato, J., & Joesting, A. At home, at had his/her assigned seat. During taping sessions, school, 'and at the interface. Educational Perspec- an observer looking into the classroom from the tives. 191, 20( 1). 31-37. observation deck through one-way glass recorded

1/4 any classroom event which seemed likely to im- Spring.The students arefirst, second, and third pinge upon the child and which might not be graders; there was an even division of boys and girls, recorded by the camera. The children were taped blacks and Mexican Americans. Cazden and Coles in a regular rotation designed to give equal cover- served as teachers. age for each child across all days and the entire morning time period, which was the "serious work" The Recording Process: portion of the classroom schedule. One child was Equipment: Sony 1/2 inch video-recorder equip- focused on at a time and the camera followed ment (3650), 3200 camera, comprised the video him/her for 15 minutes. recording equipment. In the Fall, two Sony omni- Comments: The combination of the two wireless directional microphones were placed in the ceiling mikes provided very good sound except for the over the two major instructional centers.In the static produced by the children bumping the vest Spring, a Vega wireless microphone was used. mike against things. The camera provided good Strategy: See Figure 21 for classroom in the Fall. coverage except for one corner of the classroom Equipment was set up in a clothes closet.This which was immediately underneath the camera. position enabled us to get a continuous wide angle The vest mike was generally worn willingly, but context. The recording strategy was to record the was not unobtrusive.Also, the vest mike neces- first hour of the day continuously. This time was sarily came in for a lot of accidental abuse, and chosen to obtain the informal "set-up" of the class- during pilot taping one was broken. That's prob- room, and the first "formal lesson" of the day. The ably an unavoidable risk with 5-year-olds. basic strategy was to record continuously and The Collection: 107 15-minnte segments of cartridge unobtrusively. videotape organized by day, time and child. Also, all Comments: The stationary camera proved effec- of the tape has been tinw coded.Researchers may tive. However, the ceiling microphones did not. come to view. While they afforded us access to the main teacher- Papers: student channel of communication, they did not Calkins, R. P., Impulsivity and tolerance for ambiguity. provide us access to student-student conversations. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the West- Therefore, we introduced the Vega wireless micro- ern Psychoh)gical Association, Honolulu, Hawaii, phone. That equipment gave us access to students' 19S0. views of classroom activities. Jordan, C. Hawaii peer interaction and the classroom The Collection: Quantity Nine hours of classroom context ( KEEP Working Paper). Honolulu, Ha- lessons; 18 hours of student-student interaction. Both waii: The Kamehameha Early Education Program, batches have been transcribed. The lessons have been The Kamehameha Schools, 1979. analyzed for sequential and hierarchical organization. Transcripts will be sent for cost of xerox. The collec- Researchers: Hugh Mehan, Department of Sociology, tions may be viewed at University of California-San University of California, San Diego, California 92037; Diego only. Courtney B. Cazden, Graduate School of Education, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138; Papers: LaDonna Coles, Encinitas Unified School District, Carrasco, R. L., Zera, A., & Casden, C. B.Aspects Encinitas, California 92024; Sue Fisher and Nick of bilingual students' communicative competence Maroules, Department of Sociology, University of in the classroom: A class study. In R. Duran (Ed.), California, San Diego, California 92037. Latinolanguage and communicative behavior Project:San Diego Classroom Interaction Study (Volume 6 Advances in Discourse Prophecies). (1974-1976 ).Teacher-studentinteractioninnine Norwood, New Jersey: Ablex Press, 1981. whole-class lessons conducted throughout the school Cazden, C. B. How knowledge about language helps year and student-student interaction in 18 peer teach- the classroom teacheror does it: a personal ac- ing situations is the focus of the study. The structure count. The Urban Review, 1976, 9, 74-90. of classroom lessons, the interactional activity that Cazden, C. B., Cox, M., Dickinson, D., Steinberg, Z., assembles these lessons as interactional events, and the & Stone, C. "You all gonna hafta listen": Peer teach- students competence in these events are analyzed. ing in a primary classroom. In W. A. Collins ( Ed.), Setting and Participants: A 1-2-3 classroom in an Children's language and communication. Hillsdale, "inner city" school in San Diego is the setting. The New Jersey: Erlbaum, 1979. classroom was organizedin the Fall as teacher- Mehan, H. Learning lessons.Cambridge: Harvard directed, and in learning centers in the Winter and University Press, 1979. Mchan,II.Structuring school structure.Harvard The Recording Process: Education Rctiew, 1978, 48( I ), 32-64. Equipment: Video-2 GPL Precision 900 cameras Mehan, H. The competent student. Anthropology and with zoom lenses (15-150 mm ), Dynair VS-121B Education Quarterly, 1980, 11, 131-152. switcher/fader, Ball Brothers MARK VI-A Special Effects generator, and AMPEX 660B 2" helical khan. IL, & fief, M. M. Teachers' and students' in- scan video recorder. AudioAmpex MX-10 mixer struf,tional strategies.In L. Adler (ED.). Cross and various Electro Voice microphones. cultural research at issue. New York: cademic Strategy: One camera was positioned at the rear Press, 1981. of the classroom and one was positioned near the front. The switching equipment and audio tech- Researcher: Robt rt F. Peck, Research and Develop- nicians were located in a small, air conditioned ment for Teacher Education, University of Texas, van parked near the closest window. The camera Austin, Texas 78712.( Robert Peck is currently the in the rear followed the teacher while the one in Director of the Personality Research Center at the front followed the students. A split screen was University of Texas. He created prototype muiti- used as much as possible. variate models to identify and assess the effects of Comments: Quality was good but the number of teacher educationinthe NIMH project, Mental personnel required was high. Health in Teacher Education, which he led from 1958- The Collection: 75, 30-minute helical scan tapes. The 1963;inthe USOE-funded TeacherPersonality, organization is by teacher with five sessions for each Teacher Education, and Teaching Behavior project one. which he designed and led, 1962-1969; in the Personal- ized Teacher Education program at the R & D Center, The original tapes can be played only on Ampex 1965-1973especially the PTE Evaluation Study which 660 series recorders. The R & D center still owns he designed and Gars, Borich executed in 1973; and several of these but only one has been successfully in the Individualized Teaching for Effective Coping kept in working condition. We are trying to transfer project which he designed and executed 1968-1972. this set of tapes to 19 mm U-matic cassettes but per- In the process. he created, or initiated and :aipported sonnel and monetary considerations will probably the creation of many of the instruments which are now keep this project from being completed in less than showing substantial validity in the TLI program. He two years. Viewing of the original tapes must be kept was principal designer of the coping and motivation at a minimuni because deterioration of both tapes and measures in the Cross-Natural Study of Coping Styles, recorders has made the tapes susceptible to damage whose current re-analysis is showing unpreeedentedly when played. strong validity in explaining school achievement, over Papers: and above the effects of aptitudes.). Emmers, E. T., & Peck, R. S. Dimensions of classroom Project: Individualized Teaching for Effective Coping behavior. Journal of Educational Psychology, 1973, ( ITEC(1968-1970 ).The project was designed to 64(2), 223-240. look at the interaction of coping styles and achievement. The ITEC data was collected in conjunction Researchers: Paul W. Wellinver, Dorothy Alfke, Theo- with the Austin. Texas, part of the Cross National dore Johnson, Robert Shrigley, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802. Study. Measures were taken on the Raven progres- Project: Science for the Seventies and Instructional sive matrices, the Behas ior Bating Scale, the Social Television ( January 1974-Deeember 1976). The video- Attitudes inventory, anti the Student Sentence Com- taping of in-class instruction was carried out to gain pletion. material for illustrating appropriate instructional stra- Other information on this project is limited because tegies for the teaching of science. there was no final report published. One must rely This project was designed to develop a coordinated on proposals and recollections. effort to use all available administrative and communi- Settin, aml Participants: The videotapes were made cations channels to bring about change in elementary in 15 classrooms of the Austin (Texas) Independent school science instruction on a statewide basis.In- School District. The classrooms were self-contained structional television was used as one of the key and most were at the fifth-grade level, with a few sixth- elements of this effort. and seventh-grade classrooms in addition. The teachers Setting and Participants: Tapes of elementary school were all experienced and had volunteered to be in the science classroom instruction were recorded in the study. The students were those assigned to them. following settings:( 1) First-grade classroom, inner-

78 city open classroom school, small city, (2) First-grade Shroyer was a coresearcher, with William Fitzgerald classroom, inner-city open classroom school, small city, at Michigan State University, on an NSF funded ( 3) First-grade classroom, rural school, team teaching project entitled: A Study of the Teaching and Learn- situation, (4) Fifth-grade classroom, rural school, tra- ing of Growth Rellationships in the 6th Grade. Pre- ditional classroom, and (5) Fifth-grade classroom, viously she was a research intern at Michigan State rural school, traditional classroom. University, a statistical design consultant, Assistant In the first two situations described above, students Professor in the Department of Mathematics at Oregon were mostly white children from lower income fami- Colllege of Education, and a mathematics teacher in lies and were taught bytheir regular classroom the Lansing public high schools). teacher. Project:Critical Moments in Teaching Mathematics In the last three situations, the children were from (January-April 1977). Three case studies of upper- an all white, middle and lower income rural area. elementary teachers were conducted to examine the They were taught by a visiting teacher who was . critical moments they experienced while teaching chosen to use special instructional strategies. two units in mathematics."Critical moments" were The Recording Process: momentary occlusions in the instructional flow when Equipment: Broadcast quality remote van (black teachers reported about unexpected student difficulty and white ) equipped with two 2-inch quad low or insight and their own interactive planning. Teacher band video recorders, and switching and audio reports were stimulated by having the teachers view cmisolcs. Two studio cameras mounted on castered videotapes of the lessons just as they had taught. tripods, and one lavalier aml one shotgun mike. Taping was done for each day's lesson over two units. The initial study on critical moments, based on Strategy: Cameras were positioned to give opti- the teaching of the first unit, was a doctoral disserta- mum coverage of situation, allowing for a range of close-up and cover shots. The teacher, being tion. The study was continued with a second phase or follow-up study in which the teachers were given the key smind source, was miked with the lavalier unfamiliar content and activitiestopresent.The and the students were covered with the shotgun. second unit was included to determine the ecological The strategy was to get good quality without invalidity of the first. trudim4 into the situation. Setting and Participants:Classroomsrepresented Comments: We succeeded in getting material that mixed grades of two levels from fourth, fifth, or sixth was quite effmtive for our purposes, and the children grade. The classes were all from the same large city readily krgot about our presence. school system. Diversity was evident in each class- The Collection:- Two-inch quad and 3,:1-inch cassette. room with one from a "Title I" school and the others Total of approximately BO minutes.Itis Organized from predominantly middle income neighborhoods. according to the following titles: Teaching was representing some variation of the tra- ( 1)Investigating EyesClassroom Instruction I, ap- ditional approach with some being more casual than proximately 35 minutes others. Instruction was conducted with full classes of ) Investigating EyesClassroom Instruction II, ap- students. proximately :33 minutes The three elementary teachers were experienced ( 3 )Investigating DropsClassroom Instruction, ap- (4 to 10 years), had reputations as being "good" proximately 35 minutes teachers, and had previously demonstrated willingness ( hivestigating MagnifiersClassroom Instruction, to participate in a project which brought observers approximat(ly :35 minutes into the classroomsUnified Science and Mathematics ( 5)InvestigatingEvaporationClassroomInstruc- in the elementary schools. One taught the highest tion, approximately 35 minutes math group in a joplin grouping of fourth through Others may come and view. sixth graders, one taught a fifth-F;xth Title I class and Papers: the third a split grade of fourth and fifth graders. Numerous papers have been written on the overall Classes ranged in size from 26 to 35 students. dissemination and implementation project of which thew recordings are a part. None have been prepared The Recording Process: specifically related to these recordings. Titles of the Equipment: 1 Sony -inch video cassette (1600) others are available upon request. with 2 sound channels, 1 Sony small studio format camera (21(X)) with zoom lens, 1 Electro-voice Researcher: jarwt Shroyer, Mathematics Dept., Ac- wireless microphone system (221-121), and 1 Sony quina.s College, Grand Rapids, Michigan 49506. (Janet low imp. microphone (F-28).

'79 Strategy: The camera was positioned to be as un- sound mixer would have improved the overall obtrusive as possible and still allow for focusing on sound quality.Because focusing on the teacher the teacher and the maximum number of students. or students was restricted to minimize student dis- Directional focusing was limited whenever the mo- tractions, the pictures often lacked a narrow focus tion attracted student attention. The wireless mike on the action and, occasionally excluded the indi- was on the teacher and the second mike was posi- viduals being recorded on the audio channels. tioned near the rear of the classroom. The second The Collection: 36 60-minute, 3/4-inch video cassette audio channel was used primarily as a back-up in tapes. Each teacher has been taped for each lesson cases of failure of the wireless mike and as a means of two units. There are, on the average, six tapes for of trying to pick up responses from students not the first unit and five for the second unit for each in close proximity to the teacher. The basic strat- teacher. A tape represents one day's lesson, which is egy was to record the teacher's presentation and usually not the full 60 minutes. These are unedited interactions for use in stimulated recall sessions. tapes. Comments: The overall strategy was adequate for Others may come and view or order a copy with the purpose of the study but the quality of the permission from the teachers. tapes, both video and audio, was often sacrificed. Having the two channel recording capability within Papers: the video taping system was a definite advantage, Shroyer, J. C. Critical moments in teaching mathe- but the second audio microphone was of a lesser matics: What makes teaching difficult? Unpub- quality than the wireless resulting in unbalanced lished doctoral dissertation. Michigan State Uni- sound levels.Both a better second mike and a versity, 1981.

80 2.43 Questionnaire for Future Project Listings

PROJECT INFORMATION FORM

Project title

Dates of project data-gathering: From_ to Co-researchers Institution (current)

Abstract of research proposal or project final reptirt, with reference to hypotheses or questions under study and ,sarnpling or observation strategies, etc.

Des.cription of the Site: Setting:

Participants:

Description of how the film/tape documents were recorded: Type of equipment:

How the equipment was set up and the shooting strategy:

Comments on the advantages and disadvantages of your recording process:

The film and/or tape collection: format amount

81 How is the collection organized?

The conditions under which a colleague may view the collection: may come and view (video only) will send a ct,py (may keep) with reversed polarity will send a copy (to return) without reversed polarity must get permission from subjects under no conditions other:

Papers based on these data:

A brie' ,aragraph on how and why you became involved in film/video documentation of schools:

Something we should know that we forgot to ask about:

Others to whom we should send this inquiry:

REMINDER: Please send your Curriculum Vitae. MAIL TO: Frederick Erickson Institute for Research on Teaching College of Education Michigan State University East Lansing, Michigan 48824-1034