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Backarc Extension in the Andaman JOURNAL OF GEOPHYSICAL RESEARCH: SOLID EARTH, VOL. 118, 1–19, doi:10.1002/jgrb.50192, 2013 Back-arc extension in the Andaman Sea: Tectonic and magmatic processes imaged by high-precision teleseismic double-difference earthquake relocation T. Diehl,1,2 F. Waldhauser,1 J. R. Cochran,1 K. A. Kamesh Raju,3 L. Seeber,1 D. Schaff,1 and E. R. Engdahl4 Received 10 August 2012; revised 29 March 2013; accepted 16 April 2013. [1] The geometry, kinematics, and mode of back-arc extension along the Andaman Sea plate boundary are refined using a new set of significantly improved hypocenters, global centroid moment tensor (CMT) solutions, and high-resolution bathymetry. By applying cross-correlation and double-difference (DD) algorithms to regional and teleseismic waveforms and arrival times from International Seismological Centre and National Earthquake Information Center bulletins (1964–2009), we resolve the fine-scale structure and spatiotemporal behavior of active faults in the Andaman Sea. The new data reveal that back-arc extension is primarily accommodated at the Andaman Back-Arc Spreading Center (ABSC) at ~10, which hosted three major earthquake swarms in 1984, 2006, and 2009. Short-term spreading rates estimated from extensional moment tensors account for less than 10% of the long-term 3.0–3.8 cm/yr spreading rate, indicating that spreading by intrusion and the formation of new crust make up for the difference. A spatiotemporal analysis of the swarms and Coulomb-stress modeling show that dike intrusions are the primary driver for brittle failure in the ABSC. While spreading direction is close to ridge normal, it is oblique to the adjacent transforms. The resulting component of E-W extension across the transforms is expressed by deep basins on either side of the rift and a change to extensional faulting along the West Andaman fault system after the Mw = 9.2 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake of 2004. A possible skew in slip vectors of earthquakes in the eastern part of the ABSC indicates an en-echelon arrangement of extensional structures, suggesting that the present segment geometry is not in equilibrium with current plate- motion demands, and thus the ridge experiences ongoing re-adjustment. Citation: Diehl, T., F. Waldhauser, J. R. Cochran, K. A. Kamesh Raju, L. Seeber, D. Schaff, and E. R. Engdahl (2013), Back-arc extension in the Andaman Sea: Tectonic and magmatic processes imaged by high-precision teleseismic double-difference earthquake relocation, J. Geophys. Res. Solid Earth, 118, doi:10.1002/jgrb.50192. 1. Introduction associated with trench rollback [e.g., Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979]. Oblique plate convergence is accommodated in part [2] The Andaman Sea in the northeast Indian Ocean is an by strain partitioning along this subduction zone resulting actively opening marginal basin inboard of the Western Sunda in arc-parallel strike-slip faulting and the formation of a Arc (Figure 1). Extension in the Andaman Sea is primarily northward moving sliver plate [e.g., Fitch,1972; driven by oblique subduction of the Indian-Australian plate McCaffrey,1992;McCaffrey, 2009]. The boundary beneath the western Sunda arc, in contrast to back-arc basins between the sliver, Burma Plate, and the Sunda Plate is fi in the southwestern Paci c, where extension is mainly a system of arc-parallel transforms and arc-normal ridges in the back-arc of the Andaman Sea, which connects to the right-lateral Sumatra fault along the volcanic arc in Additional supporting information may be found in the online version of the southwest (Figure 1). The connection with the this article. Sagaing Fault to the northeast is less distinct, and differ- 1Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, Palisades, New York, USA. ent geometries have been proposed [e.g., Rangin et al., 2Now at Swiss Seismological Service, ETH Zurich, Zurich, 1999; Curray, 2005] (see Figure 1). As the Burma Plate Switzerland. is dragged northward (with respect to the Sunda Plate) by 3National Institute of Oceanography, Dona Paula, Goa, India. 4 the underthrusting Indian-Australian plate, “pull-apart” basins Department of Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA. develop along the plate boundary, resulting in NE-SW Corresponding author: T. Diehl, Swiss Seismological Service, ETH Zurich, extension of the Andaman Sea [e.g., Curray, 2005; Sonneggstrasse 5, CH-8092, Zurich, Switzerland. ([email protected]) McCaffrey, 2009]. While the term “pull-apart” usually refers ©2013. American Geophysical Union. All Rights Reserved. to intracrustal extension along a strike-slip system, extension 2169-9313/13/10.1002/jgrb.50192 in the Andaman Sea involves the formation of new crust 1 DIEHL ET AL.: BACK-ARC EXTENSION IN THE ANDAMAN SEA [3] The first geophysical evidence for active opening of the Andaman Sea was derived from bathymetric, magnetic, gravimetric, heat flow, and seismic surveys [e.g., Rodolfo, 1969; Curray et al., 1979; for a summary, see Curray, 2005]. Kamesh Raju et al. [2004] mapped the structure of the Andaman Back-Arc Spreading Center (ABSC, Figure 1) in detail, using high-resolution multibeam swath bathymetry in combination with magnetic and single-channel seismic surveys. They identify three SW-NE trending spreading segments, separated by left-stepping offsets of several kilo- meters. Interpretation of magnetic anomalies suggests that true seafloor spreading started at about 4 Ma and is thus much younger than the Sunda arc. It may still be developing, according to the kinematic model of Kamesh Raju et al. [2004] that implies a westward propagation of the spreading center. Magnetic anomalies suggest an initial spreading rate of 1.6 cm/yr and an increase in rate up to 3.8 cm/yr from about 2–2.5 Ma to present [Kamesh Raju et al., 2004]. The estimated 118 km opening of the ABSC over 4 Myr results in an average rate of 3.0 cm/yr [Curray,2005]. Chamot-Rooke et al.[2001]proposedasimilarrangeof spreading rate of 2.8–3.6 cm/yr. With a present full rate in the range of 3.0–3.8 cm/yr, the Andaman Spreading Center is in the class of slow-spreading ridges [e.g., Dick et al., 2003]. [4] Early evidence for neotectonic extension was based on focal mechanisms determined from teleseismic records of earthquakes in the Andaman Sea. Fitch [1972] found three normal-faulting events in the northern part of the Andaman Sea, indicating a WNW-NW extension. In addition, he asso- ciated four right-lateral strike-slip events located north and northwest of Sumatra with a submarine continuation of the Sumatra fault system. The existence of two spreading centers located at 10N and at 14N separated by a N-S transform fault was inferred from the recovery of additional right- lateral strike-slip and normal-faulting mechanisms in the Figure 1. Simplified tectonic map of the Sumatra- Andaman Sea by Eguchi et al. [1979]. Guzmán-Speziale and Andaman region with active faults indicated by solid lines Ni [1993] obtained the strikingly low short-term spreading and inactive faults marked as dashed black lines [after velocity of 0.05 cm/yr in the Andaman Sea from summing Curray, 2005]. Thin lines indicate the extensional horsetail seismic moment tensors of normal-faulting events between system forming the southern termination of the Sagaing 1964 and 1986, much smaller than the calculated displace- Fault as proposed by Rangin et al. [1999]. Dashed box indi- ment velocity along the right-lateral Sagaing Fault. Their cates study area. Convergence rate is from Sieh and spreading velocity was based on the assumption of full cou- Natawidjaja [2000], spreading rate in the Andaman Sea is pling in a deeply rooted extension regime with no contribution from Kamesh Raju et al. [2004]. Stars correspond to NEIC from magmatic injection and is likely an underestimate. epicenters of the December 2004 Sumatra-Andaman and [5] Earthquakes in the Andaman Sea often occur clustered March 2005 Nias events. Corresponding global CMT solu- in space and time as noted, e.g., in Mukhopadhyay and tions are plotted at their centroid locations. Triangles corre- Dasgupta [2008] and shown in Figure S1 in the supporting spond to volcanic arc [Siebert and Simkin, 2002]. Bold information. In the course of this study, we use the term labels indicate plates. AB: Aceh Basin, ABSC: Andaman “cluster” to indicate spatial clustering and “sequence” for Back-Arc Spreading Center, AR: Alcock Rise, I-A: Indian- spatial as well as temporal clustering of earthquakes. Special Australian, SEU: Seulimeum strand of the Sumatra fault sys- types of sequences are “swarms,” which typically lack a tem, SFS: Sumatra fault system, SR: Sewell Rise, WAF: distinct main shock, show an unusually large spatial extent West Andaman fault. compared to the moment release of the largest individual event, and have magnitudes that fail to decay with time [e.g., Roland and McGuire, 2009]. The characteristics of several [Kamesh Raju et al., 2004] and justifies identifying the sliver earthquake sequences in the Andaman Sea are described in as a distinct plate. This transtensional mode of back-arc detail in section S.1 of the supporting information. Earthquake opening is also referred to as “rhombochasm” [e.g., Rodolfo, swarms were observed in 1973, 1983–1984, and 1993, particu- 1969; Curray, 2005] or “leaky-transform” [e.g., Thompson larly in the south Andaman Sea (Figures 2, S1, and S2). In and Melson, 1972; Uyeda and Kanamori, 1979; Taylor March 2006, more than 1 year after the Mw =9.2December et al., 1994]. 2004 Sumatra-Andaman earthquake, an earthquake swarm 2 DIEHL ET AL.: BACK-ARC EXTENSION IN THE ANDAMAN SEA Figure 2. Seismicity in the Sumatra-Andaman region as reported in the ISC and EDR bulletins for focal depths ≤40 km. (a) Time period: 1 January 1964 to 25 December 2004.
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