OL. X, 1 ie)UiJ1)llNU!IUD)lwaillllD,,IIU)D)P))QOill)l)ftll)II/IO,i/ l)Dl(1UDiliWDWIIIDllililBIIIWJtli fiiftli))f;IN)IiillUil~~lli 1 · 1NTER0IscIrL1NE ··. e I ****** I I A Quarterly Journal. of So c i.a I Science I a Research and Documentation I It is publ.ished by the Gan.dhian Institute of I Studies, a centre for study and research and iJ training in various areas of fundamental and I applied social sciences. This Journal intend. s 1 1Ii to provide a forum to advanced social science I § thinking and research with an articulated I ~ orientation to foster planned social chang~. · I ~ INTER~ISCIPLINE usually have the following I 1 sections: I * Articles, research papers ~nd critical I reviews in all important branches of I- I social sciences. Effort will-..be made to I d.e v e Lop an iI1:terdi~ciplina1:'y f_ramework I . in modern social science thinking. I f I * Abstracts of articles i.n st. andard socia. l ., ..· ·..'·~ . science Journals of Indian and foreign .. f I specially those_ dealing with social i~ I problems and social changes. ;~ I * Index of social science articles speci- [Z a~ly tho~e dealing directly with emer- Ii~ . I. g i ng social problems. I,~· I * Review of latest publications in social ·I Sciences. ~ * Special Abstracts, Research no t es , book .\j notes, Indax of recent additions to the I Institute Library and glimpses of Inst·' I tuteactivities, etc. . PERIODICITY: Spring : Summer : Autumn: .. ~UV~~ • I ANNUAL SUBSCRIPTION 1 I India Rs . 12 · 00 : U. S. A. $ 5 · 00 : U. K. Sh. 30 I I ADVERTISEMENT TARIFF I ~I · III Page Cover (Full) Rs. 150 · 00 1· III Page Cover (Half) Rs. 90 · 00 _ I IV Page Cover (Full) Rs. 200 · 00 I - Full Page Rs . 100 · 00 I I Half Page Rs. 60 · 00 I For ,further particulars write to I I The publication Incharge, I I . GANDHIAN INSTITUTE OF STUDIES' I . I .·. · . .. Rajghat, Varanasi (U. P .) , I ~,;119ffi1!1\a!!!1~11Rili!fflmJ1i'!Dit1k'ffitl1ffll(l!lll1!Uffimailtmart!-ll1A!il!tl!liQl!!:~lll!a!!tltrai!!l!mlfflll!D!!'•~ ADIBASI 1968-69 Number Three & Four

CONTENTS

PAGB

1. Priorities for Tribal Education N. Das 1-10

2. Factionalism .and Development in a R. Ratan 11-14 Naga Village. 3. Anthropometric and Pinger and P. D. Prasad Rao 15-24 · Palmar Dermateglyphic study of the Soaras,

4. Sex Initiation in a Dule Bauri K. L,. Bhowmik 25-32 Village.

5. The Koadh Pantheon and their . J. Swain 33-J9 Social Significance.

6. Methods of Social · Anthropology N. Das .. 40-50 and Study of Tribes in India.

7. An address in Census Conference 51-56 of 1969 .

• Brief Notes Social status of 57-58 Khaiuria.

9.0ith eomplime11to ol €clito~o, o4-cliba6i 'cribal ~eoearch ':Bureau

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On May, 3, 1969, the nation was shocked to learn that the Head of the! State, President Zakir Husain was no more. Dr. Husain was elevated to the High office only two years ago in May 1967. It was then least known that the cruel hands of destiny would snatch him away depriving the country of an able leader, stateman and literature. He was the first President to pass away in harness, at a time when the country needed him most. Dr. Husain combined scholarship with geniality and did not touch anything which he did not adore. In befitting reverence to his eminent personality, millions in this country and aboard have paid their homage and condolence which is manifest from the fact that foreign dignitaries from sixty countries attended the funeral along with thousands of mourners of our land.

Dr. Husain's affection for the tribes of India knew no bounds. It was an irony of fate that his last tour was spent among the tribal brethren of N. E. F. A. and Nagaland. The other day Dr. Husain received two tribal chiefs from Orissa and was presented with a set of the Adibasi. We will for long cherish the occassion when his searching enquiries about the tribes of the State showed his anxiety for the welfare of the tribes.

The "Adibasi" joins with millions in this country and abroad to condole the sad demise of Dr. Husain and respectfully extends its sorrowful condolence to the bereaved family. The void is difficult to fill, but his spirit would continue to guide us in our pursuit to develop our tribes. N. DAS I PRIORITIES FOR I TRIBAL EDUCATION I Spread of education among the languages. There are semi-assimi• tribes deserves serious thought for lated groups who while retaining the next ten years. That has their language and customs, etc., become doubly important, in view have made some progress in the ,_ of the fact that_Tor the last twenty field of education. There are years concentrated efforts by official advanced section of tribals who and non-official agencies have been have adopted formal education and made to spread education among the some of them have considerably im• tribes. Educational improvement of proved their education standard. tribes has been better than econo• mic, health and hygiene develop• In some States residential institu• ment. We have 29,883,470 tribal tions meant for tribals have been population according to 1961 opened to others who can attend Census. There has been some in• those as day-scholars. In the resi• crease during these seven years. dential institutions boarding charges There are altogether 62 tribal are provided for tribal students groups classified as· Scheduled while in general institutions they Tribes under Presidential Order of are provided with stipends. 1956. Some· modifications are ex• Central Government provide grants• pected on the recommendation of in-aid for management of these re• Lokkur Committee and the intro• sidential institutions for tribes. duction of the Bill to amend the Both officials and non-officials have Scheduled Castes and Scheduled made serious efforts to extend Tribes Lists (Modifications) Order, education in remote tribal areas. 1956. A few more may be added During the Three Plan period pri• after the finalisation of the recom• mary and Secondary Schools have mendations of Lokku Committee. been established in far-flung tribal Although these groups could be areas. denoted by the generic term 'Scheduled Tribes' they are at However, the position is deplor - different stages of culture and eco- able in case of real backward ~ nomic development. tribes. That is why they deserve special and concentrated attention There are backward tribals who for the next· decade. Four-point have not made any progress in edu• criteria are imperative to an edu• cation. They have their distinct cation system, viz., (a) method,

: )~" 2 ADIBASI \__ .. ,

(b) personnel, (c) content, of the adult and there is always ( d) motives and attitudes underlying reciprocal obligation on the part of the sducational progress, the adults to understand the handi• caps and difficulties of the children. Among the contemporary back• Discipline among the tribes is self• ward tribal people the gulf between evolved, unlike other societies the informal education which is where it is imposed by the imparted at home and the formal authorities. Prizes are real source education which is imparted in the of satisfaction and the rewards are schools is practically lacking. Ex• won for the benefit of the individual cept highly specialised craft or the in the context of social benefit magical spells there are no specia• obtained from his actions. Thus lised organs. Moreover, traditional the entire educational system is one education is always direct. By of homogeneity and reciprocity. direct, we mean learning by experiencing. We usually read and The widespread student unrest in are made to understand things this country as welt as in almost all which have no relationship in our parts of the world has called for daily life and which we sometimes attention to evolve a proper system cannot see during our life time. of education. The adolesent and The people of Uttar Pradesh or the the youth have now become restive. Punjab are often told about the sea Parents are equally responsible for or the port, though hardly a hand• not maintaining a comfortable ful of them get the opportunity in atmosphere in respective homes. their lives to see the sea. Among Repurcussion of those fall on young the tribal people the method of edu• boys and girls. The general indis• cation is always direct and the cipline in the social structure · and . observations are real. This acts as apathy of the leaders to decide a handicap for adopting the present about the proper system of educa• system of education and learning. tion leads to this sorry state of There are no professional teachers affairs. and of course no learned professors. As everybody is jack of all trades except the sorcerer or magician, the In this respect when we judge rest are teachers and students the tribals we find a completely simultaneously. Among the pre• different picture. In the tribal literate societies, interest created society there is respect for tradi• among children themselves, makes tional leadership. Rigorous disci• them active participants instead of pline and informal education enable passive recipients. Content of edu• tribals to respect their social system. cation similarly aims at two main Some of the tribes had well points, the individual adjustmept to organised dormitory . institution. the community and the acquisition In the dormitories boys and girls of social values including sex life. used to live together and parti• Now the last though not the least cipate in all the activities like is motive and attitude underlying dancing and merriment. Social the educational process. There is a Scientists who have s t u d i e d large grade of sharing of interests these institutions have reported i"\ . w / .• ' PRIORITIES FOR TRIBAL EDUCATION 3

· that there is a b s o 1 u t e 1 y no different dialects. Even the social """' vulgarity or unnecessary activities, anthrepologists, who emphasise Some outsiders were apt to dub the knowledge of the language of dormitory life to licentious affairs. a tribe before they study the tribe That cannot be substantiated from are bewildered. Therefore, the any study, Rather it could be defi• the question of a uniform langu- nitely asserted that these -propen• age for the tribes is not possible. sities do not occur in traditional tri• At present tribes are being educa- bal societies, The dormitory insti• ted. through different regional tution has been discarded, when 'the languages, but there are compla- tribes come in contact with out• ints of lack of reception among siders. They hardly get any sub - the backward tribes. The point stitute to enforce discipline which is whether the tribes are to be dormitory could do. educated in different regional Ian• guages from the beginning or the That does not mean that the tribal students are to be educated tribal people should be left in iso• at primary and secondary stages lation, nor that is possible in a through the medium of their own developing country. The policy languages, The greatest need for of seggragation followed by the a scheme like this to be successful, British Government contemplated is the adequate number of tea• this state. However, in the light of chers in tribal languages. To train various dimensions the policy on sufficient number of teachers to tribal education should be contem• teach them in their respective lan• plated to coalesce and not disinte• guages is a difficult process. g:r;ate the tribal life. The non-tribal students in the schools situated in the heart of The last but not the least the tribal areas can not be suc• important is the problem . of cessfully educated through the language and script, Almost all medium of the prevalent tribal the tribal languages have no script. languages. Boardly speaking, the interior tribes speak languages belonging to Hindi in Devanagiri script two families. the Austric and the has been accepted as the natoinal Dravidian. The former include language. Therefore, one of the Mundari, Santali, Ho. Bhumij. objectives of the administration Birhor, Kharia and Saoras, The is also to propagate Hindi among Dravidian language is spoken by non-Hindi speaking population. Oraons of Chotanagpur, Kandhas There will be no harm if the tribal of Orissa and several southern people are also made to learn tribes. The fronties tribes of Hindi, side by side with the regio-. course speak dialects of Tibeto• nal languages, In lower primary Burman and, Indo-Burman family stages the lesson could be expla• of languages. None of these ined in tribal languages to interest languages has got a script. the tribal students. No script Surprisingly among the N agas even should be evolved afresh as it a tribelet separated from another will never be feasible stray indu• by a few miles speak completely vidual efforts were made to devise \ 2 4 .ADIBASi '

scripts on tribal languages. But course they join. If they fail in those are nither standardised 'nor the annual examination they convient. abandon their studies. In some cases after joining the school they Residential schools · established leave for some years to. rejoin in: tribal areas have been found again. Stagnation affects the useful. In comparision to the general progress of tribal students institutions· run by Education in educational institutions. This Department the residential schools also wastes the investment in run by Tribal Welfare Depart• tribal education. There is neces• ments nourish a better atmosphere. sity for effective co-ordination Teachers living with the students among the education authorities, enable them to understand and and the teachers to induce tribal appreciate the difficulties of the parents to send their children to latter. · The vocational training schools. The uncongenial atmos• provided to the students in those phere in schools has to be improv• schools enable them to learn a few ed to attract the "tribal students. crafts. As the time when employ• Studies conducted by some tribal ment facilities are limited vaca• research .bodies show that there is tional training could be usefully little doubt that the tribal students utilised by the students to settle provided with proper atmosphere down in villages as craftsmen. in educational institutions can compete with others, but they take As regards primary education it lesser interest in higher studies. has · been found that there are They seek petty employment and · already large number of schools in are satisfied if they get the same. remote tribal areas. Those are · mostly managed by a single Another important aspect of teacher. If the teacher remains education which is to be counter• absent due to any reason the acted is the general aversion of all school is closed. If these schools categories of tribal students for in remote tribal areas are fre• science and technical education. quently closed the parents would There are hardly 5 per cent rather engage their children in students · among the tribals who different domestic chores than take up science and technical remain away unnecessarily from studies including medical, engi• their homes. The inhibitory neering, etc. The residental and factors are that firstly the tribal other schools which we had the students are not interested in occasion to visit have not got pro• attending schools. Secondly if the perly equipped science laboratory. atmosphere in the school and the No doubt science education is still medium of instruction are not con• making progress in the country as genial there is good reason to deve• a whole. But by taking all-India lop aversion towards education. average the position relating to tribal students is much inferrior. The problem of stagnation of A good deal of emphasis should be laid on promoting science and -i tribal students is serious. Most of the students do not complete the technical education. Necessary PRIORITIES FOJ.. TRIBAL EDUCATION 5

impetus should be provided for this All efforts directed during the last purpose. If necessary, enhanced 20 years have not succeeded in rate of stipend should be provided inculcating values of education to the tribal students persuing sci• among real backward tribes. The ence education. drive has got a set back mainly due to non-participation of tribes. There exists indigenous skill In accessibility both physicai and among some tribes in different mental played their role. An over• parts. During these years we have all estimate indicates that tribal not tried to encourage those. If education is in transition. those could be encouraged we may A study conducted by the Tribal be able to produce suitable crafts• Research Bureau in Orissa among men among the tribe. In tribal the backward tribes has shown that areas for construction and other Bonda high landers, Lanjia Saoras, works skilled workers have to be Kutia Kondhs, Hill Juangs, Paudi imported from outside. Similarly, Bhuiyas, Gadabas and Dongria when big industries and river Kondhs have shown the least recep• I valley projects are established in tivity to education. The number of tribal areas, tribals cannot be schoolgoing children among these employed as skilled or semi-skilled communities in a rough estimate workers. This aspect has to be does not exceed two per cent. The taken into consideration by con• I figure may be lower, not higher in cerned authorities. Science and view of the fact that exact enumera• technical education could, there• tion of schoolgoing children is not fore, be widely introduced in tribal always possible. The study has fur• areas for this purpose, and Train• ther shown that in the primary ing-cum-Production Centres should classes though there is some enrole• be encouraged. t ment, the students do not continue to complete their school course. Some of the tribes have been They however, continue in the rolls benefitted from the provisions for and that gives a higher figure than f general education. There are edu the actual number of students in t cational institutions exclusively those schools. It has been found meant for tribals. In others tribal that boys of the age of 14 to 15 are boys are reading with others. Insti• still in the roles of primary schools. tutions meant exclusively for tribals This study, therefore, indicates that are run by states as well as non• the schoolgoing habit is yet to be officials including C h r i s t i -a n developed among the backward Mdss'ions. tribes as they are apathetic to formal education. However, it may be seen among Priorities are, therefore, to be the backward tribal groups, the fixed for next ten years to plug the percentage of literacy is only 2-3. drawback, to bring real backward These groups have remained father tribes into the fold of modern edu away from education and deserve cation. Particularly science and special attention for the next 10 technical education are to be popu years for advancement of education. larised. l l 6 ADIBASI

In real backward tribal areas the interior places. In the interior there should be always two teacher places there is hardly any commu• primary schools. This is neces• nication. There is no medical sary because the absence of one facility. If some one falls ill he teacher would not automatically may have to be carried miles to• close the institution. It has been gether across the hills. These found that primary teachers in factors, therefore, stand on the way inaccessible parts remain absent of posting suitable persons in• frequently. The inspecting staff terior tribal areas. Anybody who cannot check such truancy for the could manage to do so always simple reason, that the schools are avoids such a posting. Hence, un• located in inaccessible regions and derqualified local men are usually could be reached only on foot. posted as teachers in the primary Absence of the teacher with corres• schools in backward tribal areas. ponding closure - of schools disen• They seldom take interest in their able the tribal children to form work. school-going habit. • Still now backward tribal areas Secondly the tribal children help are considered as punishment cen• their parents in domestic care. tres and only those who are consi - When parents are out on hill clea• dered to be undesirable elsewhere rings or in other pre-occupations are transferred there. Hence they grownup children are left in charge usually feel dejected and do not of their younger brothers and take any initiative. It is, therefore, sisters. Children are also to graze essential that in the inaccessible .and herd cattle. They assist them backward tribal regions there in agricultural operations after the should be atleast 20 per cent speci• _age of 10. Hence sending children al pay for the teachers in various to the school, would_ mean disloca - schools particularly p r i m a r y tion of the social and economic schools. There should be always two life of tribes and considerable teachers so that if one falls ill the hardship to the parents. other can attend to him. Teachers posted to the primary schools in the backward tribal The teachers should be provided .areas are seldom selected on the with accommodation free of cost - basis of any special aptitude and within the school premises. They qualification to deal with tribal can live with their family and children. They do not get any should not leave the school fre• additional incentive or lucrative quently. Thei; stay in the school special pay. A small amount of premises would also enable them Rs. 10 to 15 per month is paid to to raise gardens and demonstrate teachers from the British time new varieties of crops to the which is known as 'Agency Spe• tribals. cial Pay'. This special pay is the same for incumbents posted to the The teachers can have frequent district headquarters or subdivisio• dialogue with the villagers to in• nal headquarter_s of such agency duce them to send their children areas. As those who are posted to to the school. The villagers when .

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PRIORITIES FOR TRIBAL BDUCATION 9

grains grown by them are often their annual plans and proposals sold out and the sale-proceeds are for the 4th and 5th Plan States and deposited in Government account. Union Territories should incor• This is not a desirable practice. porate these priorities. It may be Students may be allowed to use a scrutinized by the Planning Com• good portion of the produce to mission that proportionate ex - supplement their boarding charges. penditure is earmarked for The sale-proceeds may be allowed spread of education in "the most to be utilised for seed manure backward tribal areas. A tenta- · and irrigation. This will generate tive list of the most backward incentive for gardening. tribes in different States is enclosed.

As regards distribution of sti• States and Union Territories pends and scholarships it has been may take the help of tribal re• reported by the Commissioner for search bodies now established in Scheduled Castes" and Scheduled states having sizable tribal popu• Tribes as well as by Scheduled lation to prepare a list of the Areas and Scheduled Tribes backward tribal areas and most Commission, that the vocal and backward tribes. States may also t indicate how they propose to in• f advanced sections among the tribes [ derive the maximum benefit from corporate the priorities in their .. respective set up. Central assis• rf this programme. Studies under• taken in some selected tribal areas tance may have to be provided have shown that christian ·converts after proper scrutiny. Periodical and other advanced tribals get 87 evaluation of the working of the ,, percent of the stipend and scholar• system is to be conducted by the I, ship meant for the tribals. Among tribal reserch bodies. Such evalu• the backward tribes there is hardly ation reports are to be submitted any student who has gone up to by States while advancing propo• high school to receive pre-matric or sals for plan outlay and for see• post-matric scholarship. T h e king central assistance for this purpose. There being no second ·, youth organization where pre• valent have to be revitalised for opinion that the most backward - promoting social education. sections among the Scheduled Tribes are to be given greater importance it is the question now The States and Union Terri• as to how the programme could tories may, therefore, be asked be effectively implemented within by the Planning Commission to the available resources. The fix these priorities for spread of states have a duty, but adequate education among the most back central assistance for this purpose ward tribes. While· submitting is essential. \_ C, 10 ADIBASI. Statement shows the number of Scheduled Tribes in the States and Union Territories and their percentage to the total population of each ti States as per 1961 census '!I 1,, ,'fi Percentage of Total Scheduled Sche du I e d .:"'.I Tribe of •.. · State/Union territory population Tribes C

--·------·- --·-· (4) (5) ( 1) (2) (3) -- I ,. ~ "t 1,324,368 3·68 Andhra Pradesh 35,983,447 11,872,772 2,068,364 17;42 Assam .' 46,455,610 4,Z04,770 9·05 Bihar 20,633,350 2,754,446 13·35 Gujrat Jamu and Kashmir 3,560,976 16,903,715 207,996 1·23 Kerala .. 6,678,410 20·63 Madhya Pradesh 32,372,408 33,686,953 252,646 0·75 Madras l 39,553,718 2,397,159 6·06 Maharastra ! 23,~86,772 192,096 0·81 -Mysore 369,200 343,697 93·09 Nagaland 4,223,757 24·07 17548,846 I Orlssa .. 20306,812 14,132 0·07 Punjab 20155,602 2,309,447 11·46 Rajas than 73746,401 Uttar Pradesh .. 34926,279 2,073,883 5·91 West Beagal .•"".'. Union Territories and other areas, 14,122 22•22 Andaman & N. Islands 63,548 . .. 2,658,612 Delhi 108,194 8·01 Himachal Pradesh .. 1,351,144 23,391 97·03 L. M. and A. Island 24,108 780,037 249,049 31•93 Manipur 1,142,005 360,070 31·53 Tripura 57,963 51,261 88·14 Dadara and Nagar Habeli 5,042 1•50 NEPA .. 336,558 369,079 Pandicherry 162,189 37,170 22·92 Sikkim 4,38608,104 29,883,470 6·81 INDIA •

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R, RATAN lFACl'IONAIJ§M AND DJEVJELOPMJEN'f JIN A NAGA VILLAGE Village-its background The N agas in Lang dang village are divided into three clans-( 1) Langdang is situated at a Tasharvanao, (2) Luithuinao, (3) distance of four miles away from . Phungchamreanao. Henceforth in Ukhrul, a small Iown and a seat this study for convenience sake of subdivisional administration, they would be termed by their Manipur State; the· Block also has first letters, i.e., T for Tasharvanao, its headquarters located at Ukhrul. L for Luithuinao and P for The village is spread over the Phungchareanao. slopes of a hill near Burma Boarder which is only 60 miles The households distribution over the three clans is as follows :- away from the settlement. The height of the hill is almost 6,000 No. Clan No. of households feet above sea-level ; the forest round the village is not very I T 24 thick ; most of · it has been devastated by the people as their 2 L 24 main source of economy is shift• ing cultivation, 3 p 14 Like · other N aga villages in Langdang is essentially a Tangkhul area, Langdang has also nuclear village ; four years back got the traditional village council ·an the houses were at one place· known as village authority ; on this but now the village is divided into organisation clans L and P have two-hamlets known as Langdang been represented by their two clan Khullen and Langdang Khunou. chiefs and six other elderly per• The main habitation is Langdang sons, each clan thus having 4 re• Khullen ; in Langdang khunou only presentatives. Clan T has four 15 households are residing. representatives besides its chief The total population of the who is also the chief of the village village is 335; the number of authority. Thus the village autho• families is 62, all belong to rity is constituted by 13 village Tangkhul N aga tribe ; 54 families leaders. T clan had moved to have adopted Christianity as their this site from outside first and religion ; only 8 families are of inhabited this village and hence non-converts. its chief has the right to be the 12 ADIBASI

chief of the village authority. The · said that this father was the village village chief and clan chiefs are chief and when he died, . he was hereditary in nature. minor ; the father of the present village chief taking advantage of I The village authority is recog- this opportunity, manipulated to nised by the Government for all get his name entered into Govern• administrative purposes in the ment records as the chief of the village ; the village chief collects village (Khulapa). In 1920 when house-tax and deposits it in the the present chief of the clan L treasury ; land revenue has not became major, he claimed village yet been levied here. The village chiefship and filed a suit but in authority has been given a stamp vain. of recognition by the Government as legal authority to decide all On that issue the village social village disputes. Though its deci• organisation has split up into three sions are appealable in the groups which ca~ be clearly deli• S. D. O's court, yet till 1920 neated. They are organised along because it had a reputation of the three clans- T. L and P. The settling disputes amicably with numerical strength of each clan full justice, very seldom any appeal is also the numerical strength of was made to a higher court. In each group; T has the following social and cultural matters it was of 24 families. L of 24 and P of 14 the main guiding and controiling families. force in the village. In religious matters too the chief and village Spatial Distribution of three authority was looked up for guid• groups- Two groups L and P are ance. Jiving in Langdang Khullen with 9 families of group T; the rest of the Langdang under the leadership 15 families of group T are living of the village chief and village in Langdang Khunou. They have authority was a cohesive group moved to the new site of Langdang with a sense of solidarity and 'we• Khunou due to tension among the feeling'. The village-wide leader• groups of T on the one hand and ship and loyalty to it was preva• grohp Land Pon the other. lent. This state of affairs Inter-group Relations-Group T changed in 1920 and since then and L have hostile relations; group disruption a~ splits-up in the P always supports group L. So in social organisation of the village · terms of factionalism in which an have been on increase. element of hostility is involved, the village is divided into two factions, Factionalism i. e .. T on the one side and L and P on the other. Henceforth L and The process of faction forma• P would be termed as LP group. tion-The beginning of the process of faction formation in this village Disruptive E/f ects of Factiotui• goes back to 1920 when the chief lism on Village Social Organisa• of group L claimed the chiefship tion and Leadership-Now the (Khulapa) of the village. It is village is a dividing house in itself. FACTIONALISM AND DEVELOPMENT IN A NAGA VILLAGE 13

Let us see how far factionalism has Factionalism and Developmen t created a disruption in the tradi• tional institution of village council . Primary School-The faction• or village authority and also in alism has also affected the village the new organisations set up by lower primary school ; this was the development department. situated in Langdang Khullen six years back. In 1963 the village Village Authority-The tradi• chief ~ot it shifted with the help of tional institution, the village coun• the Education Department towards cil or the village authority has his hemlet. The school building at broken clown ; the village chief the old site at Langdang Khullen (Khulapa) is no more accepted was set on fire. In protest faction as (Khulapa) by ·faction LP; as LP stopped to. send its children to ) the chief of the village. By the school and raised contributions tradition the village chief has the from amongst theselves and got 1; right to hold !he meetings of the new building constructed at the old village authority is his house school building site and appointed to decide all types of cases two teachers ; now the strength of and disputes in consultation with the students in this institution is other members of the village 40 while in the lower primary authority but since 1960 the chief school there are only 12 students. and other leaders of, faction LP The leaders of LP have been trying have refused to go to the village to get it recognised by the Educa• chief's house to participate in any tion Department. type of deliberations. In fact they challenge his right to hold 1'illage Development Committee• meetings in his house. Instead Formerly, there was one village they hold deliberations regarding development committee for Lang- , disputes and also to take decisions dang but now there are two. concerning other social and reli• Faction T, i. e .. the village chief's gious matters. of their group. in the group. three years back, has quitted .._ house of the chief of L group. the development committee- _and •.. ,. has organised a new one for .its The· village chief on the advice members, though this has not yet of the S.D.O. of Ukhrul subdivision been given a recognition by the in order to tide over this difficulty, block authorities. constructed a small room in be• Village l'olunteer Force-It was ' tween his hemlet and the hemlet organised by the Gram Sevak ; now where faction LP was residing and there is a split in it also on faction tried to persuade the leaders of lines ; faction LP has its own and faction LP to participate there in faction Tits own V. V. F. the meetings to decide cases but they did not agree. Thus the Road constmction-U k h r u I Block B. D. 0. wanted co-opera• authority and leadership of the tion of Langdang village in con• village chief and also the village structing a jeepable road from authority has shattered, Ukhrul to Langdang which is 4 14 ADIBASI miles away from the Block head• village authority has quarters. Faction LP took up broken down into two the work but faction T led by the factions hostile to each village chief (Khulapa) boycotted other; the attitude of it but later on, on the request of hostility is quite obvious the B. D. 0. faction T also agreed in the working of the on the condition that 4 miles road village-authority. was divided into two and half was allotted to faction T and the other ( c) The villagewide leadership half to faction LP for construction. and the villages' loyalty to it has disappeared. Compost Pit and Villaue Clean• liness Competition-The Block (d) Clan still plays an impor• organised village compost pit tant role in determining competition and also village clean• groups and factions and liness competition in Langclang. their leadership, Faction LP co-operated while fac• tion T non-co-operated with ( e) In place of village commu - V. L. \V. in his attempt to mah nity, · each faction is these competitions a success. characterized by solidarity and cohesiveness with a Visit of the B. D. 0.-The B.D.O. sense of we-feeling. visited Langdang and discussed about some development issues ( l) Faction leadership is the with the leaders of faction LP; he effective leadership and sent a ward to the village chief. serves as ready-made effec• leader .of {action T to come over tive channels of communi• there to meet him but the later cation to their members. refused and said "Why has the B. D. 0. gone to the leaders of LP (g) Factionalism has proved to faction ? He should have come to be a serious social barrier 111e first". in development activities No development activity . .(j

Conclusion has been undertaken by ;. the village as a whole. Deductions [rotn the above {acts The attitude on the part are-- of the two factions is that if one co-operates ( a) The village is no more a with the extension agents, cohesive unit. the other boycotts them. (b) The traditional village The two factions do not social organisation. the agree on any issue of village council or the village welfare.

•• - I

P. D. PRASADA RAO ANlflHIROlPJEMJETRilC AND FlNGJER AND 1P AJLMAR DJERMAJ'OGJL YlPlHllIC §J'lUDY OlF l'lHIJE §OAR.AS.

Introduction (I) Anthropometry-The follow• ing measurements were taken :- The Saoras are well known people in the Anthropological field. ( 1) Maximum Head length, They constitute a major bulk of the (2) M a x 1i m u m Head tribal population in the State of breadth. (3) Minimum Orissa. They are commonly found frontal diameter, (4) Maxi• in the Ganjam and Koraput dist• mum bizygomatic breadth, ricts, but sporadically distributed (5) Bigonial breadth, (6) through out the State. Concern• Nasal height, (7) Nasal ing their social, religious institu• breadth, (8) Morphological tions and economic pursuits or total facial length, (9) numerous papers have been pub• Stature and (10) Auricu lished but no systematic Anthropo• lar head height. metric studies have been made of · this interesting tribe. The following indices have been The synthesis of the present worked out of the above measure• paper deals wjth the statistical ment:- -;:, analysis of the data on their bodily .... measurements and the study of (l) Cephalic index, (2) Nasal the finger and palmar prints. The index, (:1) Length-height study is based on a random sample index. and index. (41 of 110 adult males on whom the Breath-height index and Anthropometric measurements and (5) Facial index. Somatoscopic observations were made; but only 100 adult male Saoras were considered for the The measurements were stirictly Dermatoglyphic study. The data taken according to techniques des• were collected from the villages cribed by Wilder and Martin. The Siripur, Nuapalli, Russelgarh. finger and palmar print data were Baramunda, B a

_,...;;- _ '-- 16 ADIBAS[

I. Analysis of Anthropometric Measurements

Table l Classification of stature (in cm.}

Class Range Frequency Percent

Piginy X-129·9 0 0·00 Very short 130-149·9 8 7·27 48·18 Short 150-159·9 53 Belo:1VJ11ediUII1. 160-163·9 26 23·63 Medium 164--166 9 13 u-si 5-45 Above medium 167-169·9 6 3·63 .. Tall 170-179·9 4 0·00 Very tall 180 199·9 0 "ll' 0 O·OO Giant 2C0-X -- ~ Analysing the stature of the per• cm .. the maximum being 177·8 cm. sons studied it was noticed that and the minimum 146·3 cm. The majority of cases ( 71·81 per cent) percentage of. very short, are between 150-163.9 ems. in medium, above medium and tall are stature,' · i.e., between short and 7·27. 11·81, 5·45 and 3·63, respec• below medium. The average sta• ture was found to be 161·81 + 0.45 tively.

Table 2 Statistical constants of 1 JO male measurements (in cm.) Standard Max Min Mean+S, E. Deviation Measurement ±S- E. (4) (5) (i) (2) (1) 17·4 l8·89±G·04 0·46±0·03 Head length 20·1 12·8 14·!8±0·04 0·42+0·02 Head breadth .. 15·6 9·3 11 ·98±0·08 0·94±0·06 Auricular Head 14·8 Height. 9·3 10·52±0·03 0·38±0·02 Min. Frontal u-s Diamet.:r. 12·94±o·os· 0·53±0·03 Max, Bizygomatic breadth 13·8 11·2 10·38+0·05 0'56±0·03 Bigonial breadth 11·5 9·0 1 l · 19+0·04 0·41±0·03 Total facial lenth .. 12·4 9•9 3·7 4·71 ±0·03 0· 32±0·02 Nasal Height 5·6 3·0 3·89+0·04 o·43±0·03 Nasal Breadth 4·5 146·3 161 ·68±0·45 4·72±0·32 Stature 177·8 ANTHROPEMETRJC AND FINGER AND PALMAR DERMATOGLYPHIC ·17 ! STUDY OF fHB SAORAS Table-3 Statistical constants of Indices

Ir dices Standard Max Min Mean±S. E Deviation +S.E. (l) (2) (3) (4) (5) Cephali Index 81·6 69'8 76·18+·42 4·-H±·23 i Altitudinal Index 80·7 51 ·I 66·05±·27 3·0 ±·20 t Breadth-H~ight Index 107·0 I 10·9 88·86±·50 5·25±·36 I Nasal Index l . 98·2 60·8 76·55±·59 6·2[±•42 ,i,i~ Total Facial Index 105·6 7 J·8 87'8Z±·60 6·34±•46 Classification of Indices •. (A} Cephalic Index-

Class Range Frequency Per cent - Hyper-dolichocephalic X-69·9 3 2·71. Dollchocephal!c 7J·0-75·9 60 54·54 Mesocephalic 76·0-80·9 44 40·00 Brach) cephalic 81 ·0-85·4 3 2·7i Hyper-:,rachycepha lie . 85·5-X 0 ooe

"· . ~- .. - - -···,"'"-'""

The mean cephalic Index is and Hyper-dolichocepha_ly are in the 76•18 + .42 with the maximum of equial percentage of 2·72. The 81·6 and minimum of 60·8. Doli• mean head length and breadth are chocephaly (54•54 per cent) appears 18·89 + . 04 and 14•18 + .04 cm. to be predominant. Mescephaly respectively. Head length and occurs in the next highest per cent breadth various between 20·1 and of 40·00 per cent. Brachycephaly 17·4 cm; 15·6 and 12·8 respectively. (B) Length Heigtb Index

Cl 'SS Range Frequency Per cent Chamaecephalic X-57·6 4 3·63. Orthocephalic 57·7-62·5 20 18·18 Hyp,icephalic 62·6-X 86 78·18

The mean leusth-Height Index of head is 66 05-t_; 7; the range of variation being between 80·7 and 51 ·I Hypsicephaly (78·18 per cent) appears to be· predo• minant. The perc-ntage of Chamaecephalic and orthocephalic e'ernents are 3·63 and 18·18 respectively. The mean Head-Hei.:,ht is 1 I ·98±08 the maximum being 14·8 cm. and the minimum 9·3 cm. 18 ADIBASI

(C) Breadth-Height Index- Frequency Per cent Class Range 22 20·00 Tapeinoeep halic X-78·9 23 20·90 Metriocephalic 79·0-84·9 65 59·09 Acrocephalic 85·0-X The mean baeadtb-height Index is 88·86±50 with the maximum of 107·0 and minimum of 7u·9. Acrocephalv (59·09 per cent) occurs as highest coucentration s. Tapeinocephaly and Metriocephaly are 20·00 per cent •. nd 20 90 per cent respectively.

(D) NasalIndex ~- Frequendy Per cent Class Range X-54·9 0 0·00 Hyper-Leptorrhine .. ,. • "' 55·0-69·9 2 1·81 Leptorrhine 70·0 -84·9 56 50·90 Mesorrhine 85·0-99 9 52 47·27 Platyrrhine 100·0-X 0 O·OO Hy,per-platyrr_hine The mean nasal index is 76·55+59 with the maximum of 98·2 and the minimum 60·8 Mesorrhine occurs as the highest concentration of 50·90 per cent while that of Platyrrhine is 47·27 per cent. Leptorrhine occurs in t ·81 per cent only. No cases of Hyper-leptorrhine and Hyper,-platyrrhine are noticed. The mean nasal height and nasal breadth are 4·71-:\-_03 and 3 89±04 cm respectively. The range of variation of the nasal height is between 5·6 and 3·7 cm· while that ofthe nasal breadth between 4·5 and 3•0 cm .

. .(E) Total facial length Frequencey Percent Class Range .. X-78·9 12 10·90 Hypereuryprosopic 79·0-83·9 29 26·36 Euryprosapic .. 84·0-87·9 31 2R.·I8 Mesoprosopic .. 88·0-92·9 30 27 27 ~ Leptoprosopic 8 7·27 Hyperleptoprosopi c 93·0-X The mean total facial index is 87·82+0·60, the maximum being 105·6 and the minimu 73·8. It is noticed that Mesoprosopic ( 28·18 per cent) element is predo• minant, while both the Euryprosopic and Leptoprosopic elements are strengly present in the order 26·36 per cent and 27·27 per cent respectively. The Hyper• euryi:rosopic and Hyperleptoprosopic elements are low. The mean totol facial lenth is ll ·19±0·04 cm. the maximum b.':ing 12·4 cm. and the minimum being 9·9 cm. The meanzygomatic breadth is IL.·94±0·05 cm, the maximum being 13·8 cm. and the minimum 11 ·:, cm. I. l ANTHROPEMBTR[C AND FI~GER AND PALMAR DERMATOGLYPHIC 19 STUDY OF THE SAORAS l II. Finger prints-The following analysis is based on 1,000 finger prints of 100 l adult male Soaras. f Table I Frequency off inger prints patterns

Loops Digit Hand Whorl ,-----.A.---, Total Arches Ulnar Radial •. (I) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7), R 55·00 41 oo 41·00 4•00 I L 43•00 54·00 1 ·OO 55·00 2·00, R+L 49·00 47·50 0·50 48·00 3·00

R 45·00 41·00 5·00 46·00 II - 9·oo L 47·00 34·69 7·15 41·84 l0·20 R+L 46·00 37·84 6·07 43·92 9·60 ------R 23·00 73 00 l·00 74·oo 3·0u· III L 32·00 62·00 1·00 63·00 5·00 R+L 27 50 67·50 l·00 68·54 4·00

R 67 00 32·00 l·00 33·00 IV L 56· 12 39·62 1 ·02 4·64 306 R-t-L 61 ·56 35·81 l 01 ~.•.• . 36 82 1 53

R 27·0Q 72·00 72·00 l·00 V L 30 00 70·00 10·00 - R+L 28· 50 7 l ·OJ .. 71·00 0·50

All R +L 42·51 51 ·93 2·11 54·04 digits. 3·72

From the above table it is clear in digit IV to 45 per cent in digit II that the finger prints show unlike The frequency of ulnar loops is frequencies on the different digits more in digits III & V ranging from when combined. On digits I,II and 62 per cent to 70 per cent, respec• IV whorls are more frequent, the tively. The frequencies on the c frequency ranging from 67 per cent digits I, II and IV are 54•00 per cent. ADIBASI -

other digit and arches are also 34 per cent, 3'.:! per cent, respec• common on the same digit. tively. The radial loops show the maximum frequency on digit II Sarkar (1954) proposed that an (7 per cent) and show sharp reduc• approximate whorl : loop ratio of tion on the digits I, III and IV. It 60 :40 is probably a characteristic of is to be seen that there were no the Veddids or Australoid. This is radial loops on the digit V. The confirmed by the finger print data arches show greatest frequency on of the Australian aborigine digit II (10%) and less frequencies (Cummins and Setzler, 1951). The on the other digits. On the whole Saoras show mean ratio (42•51 per the whorls are seen on both right cent., 51·93 per cent) approximately and left hands whereas ulnar loops in the present study. are more common in the right hand The following table show the in digits Ill and V. It is interest• pattern intensity index, Arch/Whorl ing to note that radial loops are index of Dankmeijer and whorl/loop index of Furuhata. w more on left hand digit II than any

Table II

Pattern F. I. Frequencies of Pattern types in per cent intensity Index D. I.

Arch Whorl U. L. R. L. ~------~------~ 8·72 78·66 _42·51 51·93 2·1 l

The pattern intensity index is 14·91 which bears resemblence with Sahara· (14·07) and Juang (l4·06) worked by Sarkar. Finger prints of Orissan aborigill'1ls (all fingers combined)

Table III 1~ Indices Loops Arches r---~--..., Tribe Whorls P. I. D. J. F. I.

Per cent Per cent Per cent 3·25 .74·15 42·00 56·64 1·36 14·06 Juang (Male) 9·09 67·34 57·65 3·54 13·53 (Female) 38·82 Sarkar- (contd-:- ii i 0 t AN'l'HROPEMETRIC AND FINGER AND PALMAR DERMATOGLYPHIC 21 STUDY OF THE SAORAS i ~ I ! Indius I ( Tribe r Whorls Loops Arches r-----...A..---, I t' P. I. D.I. F.1. I -1 i ,I ~- Sahara (Male) .. 42·43 55·89 1·68 14 07 3 96 99·12 (Female) .,. 24·72 67·42 7·86 l I ·63 3 I:82 36·67

Khond (Male) 41·97 52·89 5·14 13'68 18·12 79·52 -Sarkar

Khond (Males) 29·08 65·26 5·63 12·95 14·24 62•37 -.· (Rao) ~

. .., ~ Juang (Male) 50·54 l·OO ]5·02 2·01 105·93 -Rao

Saora (Present 42·51 54·04 3·72 14·91 8·72 78·66 study). -~------·-·-··--··-----

(Ill} Palmar prints-The follow• The following table show the ing analysis is based on the 200 frequency of the three main line palmar configurations of adult formulae as in the right and left male Saoras. hands of the Saoras.

/ Table I

Freqnency of the three zypicalformulae in per cent

Formulae Right Left Mean

Per cent Per cent Per cent

11, 9, 7 58·00 30·00 44·00 9, 7, 5 23·00 37·00 30·00

· 7, 5, 5 19·00 33·00 26·00

Brom the above table it is clear that 11, 9, 7-more common (occurring in 44·00 per cent) in the right hand than the left. The formulae 9, 7, 5-and 7, s, 5 -are occurring in 30 per cent and 26 per cent respectively and are common in the left hand. 22 ADIBASI

Table II Frequencies of the· types of pa/mar configurations ~ ,, lj ' Frequency of the pattern in per cent i Canfigurational area ------'\ Right Left Mean 1 ------· ------··-·· ------

Hypothenar . , 21·00 19·00 20·00 I 'j Thenar/Inter digitat I 9·C0 I I ·00 IO·OO . Inter digital II 4·00 2·00 ~ Inter digital III .. 68·00 58·00 63•00 "11

Inter digital IV 44·0) 62•0)~ 5300 ;i

ii The Saoras show a large percentage of patterns in inter digital III (63 per cent) due to the high incidence of the main line Jorrnufae n, 9, 7-in many cases.

The following table shows the 0.0.D., O.L.D. of the combination frequencies of the pattern formulae ' of the three inter digitals 11,III, and o.o.L., O.L.O., Q.0.0., o.1.o., o.1.d., IV.

Table ID

Frequency of the pattern in per cent Formulae ,---- . A.,,. ---·-~ ru~ ~ft ~D •• ~ . Per cent Per cent Per cent

0.0.L. 14·00 20,00 17·00 .! 0.L.0. 27•00 4·00 · 15·50 0. 0.0. . •- - o. I. o. 23·00 31·00 27·00 o. I. d. 2·00 8·00 5·00 I u-co 11·00 11·00 I o.o.o. ' ... I O.L.D. 4•00 ·- 2·00 L,I,' l, l,.' ; ~ !' ti ·-\ AJ':lTHROPEMETRIC AND FINGER AND PALMAR DERMATEGLYPHIC: 23 -,.. STUDY OF THE SAORAS

/ From the above table" it is clear lively. The remaining combinations t that the combination formulae o.1.o. show insignificant percentages. occurs in many cases ( especially in · Axial Trivadius : the. left hand) in 27•00 and 0.0.L. The following table shows the and O.L.O. formulae occur in 17 positions of the axial triradius as I per cent and 15 per cent respec observed in the Saoras. Table IV

Position of the axial triradius Axial triradius r------y------~ Right Left . Total

t 77 86 163

t' 5 3 8

t" .. 2 2

tt" .. 13 10 - 23 tt' t" 3 3

Among the Saoras the axial Summary triradius is seen more or less equally on both right and left hands in the From the analysis of the Anthro• position of t ( carpal axial triradi us) . pometric data and · somatoscopic It occurs in 5 cases in right hand observations, it was observed that and in 3 cases in left hand in the majority of the people are short position of t' (middle axial statured (53%) with light brown to triradius). In 13 cases of the right medium brown skins. The hair on hand and in 10 cases of the left the head is, cymotrichous (wavy) hand is occurs in the position of tt" in most of the cases; and they show (carpal triradius with central slight growth of hair on the beard triradius). In only 3 cases in the and moustache. There is no right hand it occurs in the position epicanthic fold of the eye present tt't" ( carpal axial triradius with among these people and the eye central triadius). sllits look straight. The head fora

-· 24 ADIBASI shows dolicocephaly in most of the tribes like Khond, Juang, Munda, cases (54·54%) with a sporadic etc., who are of proto-Australoid · occurrence of mesocephals. The ethnic stock. head vault is high and majority of them are hypsicephalic ( 78· 18 % ) . References The physiognomy of the face is, that most .of them are having Cummins H. and C. Midlo (1943): medium to narrow type of faces Finger Prints, Palms and Soles An (mesoprosopictoleptorosipic) with Introduction to Dermatoglyphics ; jutting malars. The noses are Philadelphia. mesorrnine to platyrrhine in type with straight to concave profiles. Rao, P. D. Prasada (1959): The The bulk of the people exhibit Dermatoglyphics of the Khonds of ~ ~ medium lips with no eversion. Araku Valley (Visakhapatnam Dist• "'!I rict, Andhra Pradesh). From the analysis of the finger ! ,!., l Proceedings otthe 46th Indian l and palmar prints data of these 1 people, it shows that whorls are Science Congress, Delhi. seen both in the right and left hands where as ulnar loops are Rao, P.D. Prasada (1964): Anthro• ,jl more common in the right hand pometric and Dermatoglyphic study digits III and V. The Pattern of the Juangs in Orissa, India. Intensity index is 14•91. The main• line formulae 11.9.7 .-is more Anthropologica, vol. VI, N. S., common among these people. Thus No. 2, pp. 223-234 .. Sarkar, -S. S. in many respects the Soaras (1954): The Aboriginal Races of resemble more with other Orissan India, Calcutta.

-~ t I r,-

K. L. BHOWMJK ' SEX INITIATION IN A ' I DULE BAURI VILLAGE

To secure the most important a separate thuk (grade) for drives like food, sex shelter and themselves. According to the social security is attempted by survey made by the present writer each and every Dule Bauri indivi• in 1964-65 it is found that in dual, which is motivated by a Dhalbhum there are 28, 769 Dule strong desire for sustaining mate• Bauris living in 296 villages. In rial and ethical existence of indi• most of these villages they live in vidual beirig and for strengthening association with other castes and their community life. A study of communities, and only in 12 all the socio-cultural elements of vitlages they live by themselves. the Dule Bauri community lifJ1 The village J agatdeuli is represen• concludes that the sex factor plays ted here as one of such villages a dominant role in the affairs rela• where the Dule Bauris live alone. ted to the supply of food, the constitution of shelter, and the The village Jagatdeuli is located provision of social security. in the area of Indupur police• Therefore, an attempt is here station, Bankura district, West made at studying the aspects Bengal. A jeepable unmetalled road, related to sex initiation as found being branched out from the in a Dule Bauri village. Bankura-Khatra main road and then passing through the village The Dule Bauris constitute an Bheduasol has finally connected it. endogamous thak (grade) of This village Jagatdeuli is inhabited the Bauris in West Bengal. They by 29 Dule Bauri families having a claim that their ancestors migrated total population of 154 souls of to Dhalbhum of Bankura district which 82 are males and 72 are from their supposed home · in females. They were traditionally Manbhum of Purulia district and owner cultivators, but their posi• became ultimately subjugated tion in the present tenure system under the socio-ritual authority of has made them mostly share• the Dhabal Raja. Thenceforth, croppers and contract-labourers. they developed certain cultural Moreover, they are regarded as dissimilarities which, in course of _.intouchables who are devoid of time, helped in differentiating certain social as well as commu• themselves from the other Bauris nity privileges and are provided living elsewhere and in costituting with a number of social disabilities. . t, 26 ADIBASI

The Dule Bauri young people, act only from peeping through the boys as well as girls, grow up free kutclui wall of the Dule Bauri hut and unrestrained. There is no formal initiation into sexual life. On festive occasions a general In neither sex they practise any laxity in their sex-behaviour sort of deformation of genital becomes more marked. As for organs. The sexual consciousness example, during the return journey among the Dule Bauri children is from a tusu fair in the evening it is very common for a Dule Bauri developed very early. They get child to observe the pairs in this knowledge from the talks and conducts of their parents and other intimacy, and to find them in doing near relatives who speak freely and something here and there freely refer openly of such things even in and openly. Moreover, in their ordinary conversation. The lack ordinary life in village they also .,., of adequate accommodation in come across such scenes. Mostly providing separate but for married at dusk in the evening and some• couple leads the Dule Bauris to times even in day-time it is not a situation where at night the unusual for a Dule Bauri child to parents, the married sons with find pairs in action by the side of their wives, and unmarried aar (the raised earthen partition in between the two cultivable plots) children sleep together under the or a pond. Their sex-conscious• same roof. As ~ result, the Dule' lJ ness is also developed from the Bauri child enjoys every opportu• observations of animals copulating. nity of watching the primal scene. In the village as well as in grazing In the summer season the Dule fields they playfully observe the Bauris sleep in kliaiia (cot) just under the s,ky and in the moonlit copulating animals and freely l night the Dule Bauri child makes discuss the issue among them- selves. A person-to person the best use of reckoning the details of sex-act. Sometimes to enquiry reveals that the grown-up boys are quite masters their astonishment the children find the amorous act between a in demonstrating different modes of copulation as prevalent among man and a woman who donot ,.., socially share a husband-wife rela• the animals like cow, buffalo, pig, tionship. The Dule Bauris, in sheep, goat, fowl, etc, question of sexual morality, show The Dule Bauri children also a general lack. Men of other pick up sex-knowledge from castes take the opportunity of their lack in sexual morality and persons with whom they share the intensity of unbeaten poverty ; somesort of joking relationships. Such kins like grandfather, and whenever they proceed they do not face any difliculty in secur- grandmother, brother's wife, . ing a sexual mate from the Dule sister's husband often make jokes Bauri community. Most of their related to sex and in cases directly visits are made in day-time. And, impart sex-knowledge to them on the occasion of their visits to through conversation and story their Duel Bauri mistresses, the telling. Besides, the children children note the details of their collect sex-information from their SEX INITIATION IN ADULE BAUR! VILLAGE 27

folk-songs and folk-tales. Some of woman while others stand aside as the folk-songs like jhutnur, tusu, visiting Dule Bauri children. In as and bhadu directly refer sex• well as outside such games it is not affairs. Moreover, the a c t i o n unusual to go against the rule of organised in jatra ( opera) and in incest without the fear of any social khemta (a kind of dance) provide consequence. - them with a good deal of sex• knowledge. Scandals in society When they are a little grown-up, are openly discussed, which help they lose some of their freedom and in irritating their sex-knowledge. leisure. The boys take up the pro• Also, certain observances made in fession of bagali (cattle-tending) connection with a marriage cere• and become apprentices in their mony and certain actions perform• father's profession. The girls, on ed in giving a birth of a child the other hand, afford their assis• do not attempt to conceal anything tances to their mothers. Thus, they from the children, which in cases get their entry in the economic life help to develop jheir sex-queries. of the society. In this stage they also earn their afliliations in socio• The Dule Bauri children acquire political life of the community. the sex-experience in their early They are no more children but are life. From personal interviews recognised as boys and girls. Pre• taken with the informants of viously, they have no bar in parti• different age grades it is evident cipating in any rites organised by that in most cases the first experi• any sex. But now they can only ence of sexual act of the young participate in rites organised by people of either sex is received their own sex. At this stage the I • from the married people. Usually girls, clue to their close association ,t the old and unattractive people. with the women-folk, gradually ,. .and the widows/widowers take the acquire the knowledge of menstrua• lead in such affairs. After their tion. and the beliefs· and traditions first sex-experience with the elderly associated with it. They believe people, they come to their own that the first menstruation in a girl generation. In most cases they is caused by the introduction of the start the affair playfully. It is male genital organ into the female seen that their parents overlook one. It does not happen in any such games of bar-bau khela other way, save and except the (husband-wife play), the acting of same is clone by a male-spirit in ma-boba (mother-father) and sleep. Now it is Hry improper for susur-sasuri ... (father-in-law and a Dule Bauri girl to have the ex• mother-in-law) in putul-bia kliel« perience of first menstruation before - (doll-marriage play), the role per• she is duly married to a Dule Bauri formance of husband and wife in individual. Therefore, the grown qhnr-bari khela (family play), and up unmarried girls, being furnished even thakur-puja kliela (priest• with this knowledge and tradition, worship play) where the children always avoid the members of the do, apart from other acts, the opposite sex. sexual act also. In the latter game a boy plays the role of a Brahmin For various reasons the Dute and a girl the role of a Dule Bauri Bauri boys do not find it easier to

-I · C, 28 ADIBASI establish sexual connections with Menstruation, i. e., the flow of those girls of their own generation. blood from the uterine mucose of a From a consideration of their social woman in a cyclic order is locally prestige they cannot e a s i 1 y known as pali. In their · mode of approach the girls of younger living and .material existence the generations too, who are less Dule Bauris expressly show all the restricted and enjoy more freedom. characteristics of an agricultural And, there is another consideration community. Whatever area of land that they · fail to approach those they may hold they are the tillers little girls playfully as the little of soil and depend wholly or mainly boys often do. In practice, the on the harvest of paddy crop. They little girls do strongly resist them employ the· most of their time, and sometimes make scences which energy and intelligentia in the attract the attention of the elderly affairs of raising crops. In conse• people who certainly rebuke and quencr of this they have not • threaten the boys. As a result of only acquired more and more prac• all these, the boys become isolated. tical knowledges o( these affairs or But they have begun to acquire sex - have attained adequate skill and knowledge from their very I early experience in the trade but have iife and have already received a also developed a greater tie' with few primary experiences. More• this particular mode of living. over, their biology at this stage Whenever they need an explanati.on demands actual sex gratification of any affairs of their socio-cultural which is denied by the social stric• life they stretch their hands to the tures imposed upon them. This store-room where agriculturally situation, in which their growing oriented knowledges in their sexual desires do not find a way of volumes are well preserved. In ~x• channelisation, leads them to plaining menstruation t h e y homosexual practices which they smoothly elevate their agricultural adopt more freely and do more knowledges and conceptions to such frequently in such isolated grazing an extent that they nicely imagine fields. In cases it is also not un• and symbolise the woman. as a plot under cultivation. A plot being wet known to gratify their sexual I desires with domesticated animals through the action of rainfall be• ... like cow, buffalo, goat, etc. During comes cultivable. And, one at this this part of life they develop a stage of development can plough 1 and sow seeds if he wants to raise strong attachment for the women. I a crop. In their way of symbolisa• They watch the women in actions tion they equate menstruation with .: I and also in sleep, which help them rainfall, the male organ with the in doing !heir homosexual activities plough, and semen with the seeds. and in causing night pollution. In Further, they explain that the rain• addition to all these indirect affairs, water comes from the heaven ( swarga) and helps to wet the geni• it has been reported that some of tal organ of the mother earth them establish a direct sex relation (Parooii) and then passes to the with the women aged, deserted or bottom (patal). Accordingly, they perverted. equate the plough-share with the SEX INITIATION IN A DULE BAUR! VILLAGE 29 ( genital organ of the god Siva her first menstruation. However, (Sioa-lituja), and the corn with the it is very improper on her _ part goddess Las mi. because a Dule Bauri girl is always excepted to remain a virgin In the Dule Bauri community a till she is married. In such an inci• girl and a woman have two differ• dence neither the girl nor her ent entities. They say that a girl parents admit the possibility of a attains the womanhood with her human being behind it but the first experience of • menstruation. whole responsibility is laid down Before her attainment of woman• on the shoulders of an unseen hood she is in no case allowed to spirit. If that unmarried girl does I prepare or even to touch the food- 0 not become pregnant in due course stuffs which can be offered to any of time, the neighbours do also of their deities, is not permitted to agree with the spirit theory. If participate directly in any ritual the pregnancy is developed, the organised by the women-folk girl's family is to deliver the name though she may join them and of the person concerned. If the observe their doings, is not entitled girl or the girl's family fails to to participate in agricultural opera• give a name to the village Pancha• tions like uprooting paddy seedlings yat, the family will have to pay a from nursery beds and planting the heavy fine and will have to find i ! same in the plots under transplan• out a groom before she gives birth tation, and is not allowed to prac• to a child. If the person respon - tise the tossing method of winnow• sible is found, the village Pancha• ing and to paddle the husking yat applies some pressure on both lever though she may assist the the families to arrange the • operation by sitting on the left side marriage and to pay the fine. In I ' of the head of the lever. neither case the proper marriage (bia) ceremony can be conducted. In the Bauri society it is In such case a sanga (remarriage) believed that the first flow of the ceremony is observed, but the menstrual blood in a girl comes as parents of the girl donot receive and when she establishes the the benefit of satiqa, i.e., the higher sexual contact with a male. In amount of bride-price. This-nnion former times, due to their practice is socially less favoured. There• of early marriage (the average age fore, if it happens that a girl in her of the bride was eight years) they i 1 maidenhood experiences her first ! did not find anything against their menstruation and does not become belief. But now the age at pregnant, she and her family keep marriage has become considerably the fact under covering. After-• increased. As a rule, in the period wards a marriage is negotiated and of 11 to 13 years the Dule Bauri the actual marriage ceremony is girl experiences her first menstrua• observed. The girl in that case tion. On the other hand, it is not makes a show and reports accord• very uncommon today to find a Dule Bauri bride of 15 or 16 years ingly to her mother-in-law the first of age. Therefore, it is logical that mensturation after marriage as the in her maidenhood a Dule Bauri first menstruation of her woman• I girl may have the experience of hood. 30 ADIBASI

The marriage of a boy before husband. To each and every act attaining his manhood with a girl she made her full resistence, and I before attaining her womanhood applied more and more physical is still a preferred social practice. force to win over her. At last At this stage of their development being tired of it I turned to sleep both of them fail to adjust in their while she continued her weeping." 1 newly married life and to gratify One of my female informants des• - their sexual desires. The girl is cribes, "Just after the evening too young to endure the bearings elder brother's wife of my husband of such an awful experience and and other women brought me in a she always tries to avoid her hus• room and left me there alone. band. However, she docs not find During my childhood I gathered a complete escape because of some experiences playfully and on strictures formulated in their the day of marriage I received all marriage ceremony. It is custo - possible information and necessary mary that after the ceremony of instructions from my brother's the eighth day ( astcmwngala) the wife. Still I felt myself quite help• pair returns to the house of the less in that room and became very groom and there they reside for a much frightened. After a little month. while, my husband was sent in. He closed the door and told me to On the first night after coming take sit. Without making any back from astamangala. it is reply I shifted my position to one ritually prescribed that the corner of the room. Within the husband should attend his wife. room he moved this way and that • which has been so far tabued for way, and finally putting the light both of them. Women from off he took me on the bed. I was . neighbouring houses assemble so badly treated that at last I could J\ there and stay till they hear the not find anything better but to cry weeping voice of the bride. Then in a shrill voice. Ultimately the it is considered that ritually the sleep took my pains away. In the marriage ceremony 'is concluded. early morning I was received by Now let us have two sample narra• his elder brother's wife who took tions. One of my old informants me to a butidli (water-reservoir). describes, "I was of twelve and After the bathing is completed she she was of eight years old. I did brought some creepers and already gather some knowledge instructed me to paint the extract and experience, and above all on of these creepers along the walls that day I got all the detailed ins of my private, as the rapture of it tructions from my sister's husband. had already caused some injury. At night I went in and closed the According to our tradition from door. She was standing in one that clay onward I had to live with corner of the room with a posture him a complete month. In that common to a frightened animal. month I was everyday advised and First I tried to talk with her. She even sometimes forced by her did not respond. I was then female relatives like brother's wife, tempted not by sexual desires 1ml sister and even mother to go and by emotional curiosity. I brought to sleep with him. In fact., I had her to my bed and attend her as a no other way to avoid the direc

,J SEX INITIATION IN ADULE BAURJ VILLAGE 31

hons of my in-laws. At last the When the cycle starts on thursday month ended and I returned to my or Saturday, her father-in-law (or parents' house. I lived there for a her father when she lives in her complete year when my husband family of orientation) makes the paid several visits but I never slept provision of ghee ( clarified butter) with him. When the year ended and a dali consisting of the former I came to my husband's house. articles excepting the cloth. After This time the things with mo were receiving all these a Bengali r alright." Brahmm sacrifices the clarified butter in fire and pray the bless• f It is always expected that the ings of god for that Dule Bauri girl should have her experience of family. All these are observed in first menstruation in the house of case of first menstruation only. her husband. If it happens in the There is another point. If the house of her parents, her father first menstruation is experienced has to make all possible efforts to before marriage and if it is not · earn the favour of all the village kept under covering they are to deities and to arrange a social follow certain additional obser• feast where at least lineage mem• vances too. In that case they are bers, officials of the Grama Pan• to invite all the members of a chayat (village-council) and rela• caste-sholoana, and in respect to tions of her husband are to be offering dali to a Bengali Brahmin invited. To arrange this kind of family the number becomes in• social feast and to make offerings creased from one to three. to all the village deities are also observed in the house of her hus• In any menstruation afterwards band when she finally returns she is also to observe a period of there. The period of ritual pollu• ritual pollution for consecutive tion on the part of a menstruous three days. On the fourth day woman is considered for three before the sun rises she takes her days. On the fourth clay before bath and anoints her person with the sun rises she takes her bath an oil-turmeric paste. She then and anoints her body with an oil• ritually becomes clean. In the turmeric paste. Thenceforth, she period of these three days she is becomes ritually clean. She wears to observe the following taboos and a new sari (female garment) which prescriptions : The entry into is not .to be purchased from the kitchen as well as store-room is dealers in the market hut from a tabued. She is not to sleep in a bed local weaver against a payment of with her husband and is not to paddy. She then prepares the use any cot for her sleeping. She dali ( offering) consisting of sunned is to make a bed of dry paddy-• rice, and a rupee-coin, incense, stalks on the floor where she sleeps fruits and a new dhuti (male in isolation. She should not touch garment). She, being accompani• the person of any male and is not ed by other women of her caste, allowed to touch any object used goes to the house of a Bangali by a member of the male-folk. Brahmin and offers the dali to the She is not allowed to serve any• housewife who sprinkles some thing to any man, and it is highly Gangetic water over her head. improper to take even a glass of 32 ADIBASI

water from her hand. During · and actions of their own people these three days she can take her and neighours, and also from cere• bath and can anoint her body with monial observances and birth rites. mustard oil, but in no case she is Very little secrecy is maintained 'to conceal · anything from the children. ) allowed to nourish her hair on head with oil. She is not to go It is seen that they earn their sex• anywhere outside the boundary of experience also earlier. This the village and should not go to a comes to them through childish tank alone in the evening. In her games and as a grace from the period she .is tabued from parti• perverted population. Their con• cipating in any ritual or ceremony cept of menstruation and practice in the village. of early marriage lead them to a situation where they fail to deve• Thus, it is seen that the Dule lop a healthy · sex relation in the Bauri children begin to acquire beginning. This· ultimately marks sex-knowledge during the period of a stronger negative impression on their childhood. They collect L'lese information from the talks their growing thought-process.

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?j.. -i~ ., ' l •.

J. SWAIN THE KONDH PANTHEON AND THEIR SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE The Konclhs are numerically the behaviour of super empirical app• largest Scheduled Tribe in the roach varies from community to State of Orissa who were once community the goal is same, i.e., to notorious for Meriah (human) control the supernatural powers. sacrifice. The:v., number 818,847 They worship eighty-four deities at according to the Census of 1961. the time of sowing, harvesting and The Konclhs are divided into other ceremonial occasions. But several sub-tribes. Though they their Chief or High deity is 'Darani' are distributed in all the districts the Taclapenu. Long ago Human their main concentration is in Phul• sacrifice was practised by Kondhs bani, Ganjam, Koraput, Kalahancli, and the blood was offered to Sambalpur and Bolangir. They "Tadapenu' or 'Burapenu'. The worship the whole year a number most potent motivation was to pro• of Gods and Goddesses to gain vide a magical fertiliser for the soil some material or social advantages. to secure a' plentiful harvest. "The Here is described their pantheon, main three purposes of Human "'~ co-relation of major and minor sacrifice were ( 1) to enhance the deities, role of religious f'unction-. fertility of the soil, (2) to secure aries and common man and the firm foundation of a building and social significance of these religious (3) to secure good water supply rites on the basis of the observa• from a well or pond"*. The tion in the village Kanjamencli in Meriah sacrifice of the Konclh Phulbani district. became so notorious that General Campbell and Captain Mac Pherson It is indeed difficult to enlist the had to take special pains to stamp numerous names of the Konclh it out during British rule. Gods and Goddesses presiding over the field, forest, village and home. Now-a-clays Konclh parctise The Kondhs believe that the vari• buff alo sacrifice instead of human ~. ous deities can be appeased sacrifice which is called as 'Kedu'. through rituals like. prayer, offer• But Kuclutuli and Nuagaon Mutha ings, sacrifices and feasts accompa• of Phulbani district where I studied nied by singing and drinking. their custom is exception in this Although the way of approach for respect. 'Kedu' festivial is observ- i * Anthropology on 'the March P. P. 344-45

;, 34 ADIBASI ed in the months of March and the village Kanjamendi. The April in order to worship their worshipper of Darani must be ancestral deity 'Dumadahani'. It a Kondh or an Oriya. There is nothing but secondary mortuary are fifteen rahas (streets) and ritual. This festival is celebrated twenty-two 'Daranis' in that for seven days having different village. -., rites on different days. On this occasion buffalo and pig meat, eggs Generally, 'Darani' is established .and wine, etc., are offered to according to Raha. Even people 'Darani' in communal basis. They of same 'Gasi' (Lineage) can esta• believe· that the soul will horn in blish a 'Darani' if they are living an other form ,in the upper world. in a separate 'raha'. Apart from For some years, the dead persons that different !Gasi' people esta• remain as "Duma" or ghost. But blish different 'Daranis' though after that they are treated as they remain in the same Raha. ancestral deity. Kondhs have an 'Darani' can be established in the idea that by offering buffalo meat month of Chaitra, i.e., March , and to their "Dumadahani" and its April, just before the 'Kedu' festi• blood to 'Darani' the earth goddess, val. The 'Gasi' people will sit to• they would not face any calamity gether and select a faithful man to and their land will yield more. keep 'Darani' in his varandah. The Kondh word for god is "Penu" irrespective of sex. They locate On the appointed day the tlamba their gods in the village, sky earth comes and brings a stone. He 'and under world. But under the usually wears a purified cloth and Hindu influence these beliefs are observes fasting to preform the ehanging. Puja. He establishes 'Darani' and worships with some rice to four · Kondhs believe that a supreme goddesses, namely, Tadapenu, goddess rules over all the gods, i.e .. 'Daranipenu', Burapenu, and 'Darani' the symbol of which con• Srambuli, 'Dimbuli. On that day sists of a stone. Pig and fowl are the Gasi people have to sacrifice a sacrificed before 'Darani' along pig or fowl before 'Darani'. The with the first fruits (Raw rice, nua• Tlamba keeps the lever and blood khai materials like 'Kandul' and on 'Darani'. All the male gasi Aruba (Mango) Salap (Wine) and members contribute some rice and flour of rice are offered to the participate in the feast. The women are not allowed to take the deity). meat which was offered to 'Darani'. The Kondhs believe that 'Darani' The people also offer rice, pig, is the creator of the whole Uni• wine and egg to 'Darani' while verse. ln each and every Kondh they establish 'Darani' newly. raha (street) and Oriya raha there is 'Darani'. The worshipper of They worship Darani in order to 'Darani' is known as tlamba. the be saved from the wild animals like priest. Generally 'Darani' is placed tiger and bear as well as for the just below the varandha or on the betterment of t h e i r domestic varandah. There are four 'Darani' animals. They also worship in tlambas, and two 'Kedu tlambas' in other occasions such as in death II

j THE KONDH PANTHEON AND TH'.EIR SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE 35

rituals, in K e d u festivals, in guda, Dudi-Pakia, Dagam, Lanju• 'Sadrangi' and in 'Maranglaka'. rama, Mundargaon, Jamba, Kudu• I Except these they also worship tuli, join. As the 'tlamba' carries 'Darani' if a lady saw 'Darani' an iron rod symbolising the • god r during her menstruation period. with him while going to perform While worshipping 'Darani' the the puja, the name of god is - tlamba wears a good cloth . and 'Lahapenu'. This puja is celebra• observes fasting till he finishes the ted in the month of Baisakha Puja. At the time of sacrifice he (April and May) with a goat sacri• keeps there 'Siali' leaves near fice and done in anticipation of 'Darani'. Then he keeps the rice safety from natural calamities. on it. After that he kills the pig or fowl andvadds blood on that rice Previously, the "Tlamba' and his uttering some mantras in Kui wife were remaining there for 7 language for different purposes. days but now they are giving 7 clay From the above facts we can con• vessels for each day to that hill and clude that 'Darani' is the centre finally they worship. All the villa - of Konth social organization gers gather there and dance merrily because 'Dararii' is worshipped in singing songs and beating drums. each festival and in their social life like marriage, birth and death At first, the villagers of Kanja• mendi settle a day and then other in which all the Gari members unite villagers are informed. This puja together and arrange a feast. is observed at intervals when 'Darani' or "Tdapenu' is the 'Luhapenu' attacks any body. chief deity among the Kondh, deities. She has six sisters Raingod (Sashipenu) like 'Burapenu', 'B ad i p e nu' 'Dimbuli', Srambuli', 'Kokali, and Kondhs worship 'Sashipenu' in · 'Bekali' and they are for different order to get showers they required _ purposes. In any sort of festivals This deity is established by tribals or rituals they are worshipped with but worshipped by an Oriya from blood and meat of leaver portion. which the name is derived (Sashi Apart from this 'Darani' is wor• Oriya, Penu-God). They worship shipped in several occasions like a 'Sal' tree as the symbol of 'Sashi• 'Budeli", 'Kedu', 'Marangi', etc. penu' in every 7 years through a The Kondhs believe that "Darani" special tlamba. the earth Goddess presides over all the minor deities and stands as surety and security in their lives. Fountain God (Sirupenu} They are very particular to worship 'Darani' on all occasions while The following fountains they worshipping the other deities. worship at the time of Kedu festi• val, namely, 'Nabajirichua', 'Siseli• Forest God (Luhapenu} : chua' and 'Bagal banda chua'. This deity _ is worshipped by a They worship this fountain god special "Tlamba" at an interval of with a.n egg in order to get pure 7 years. In this festival villagers water and to console the fountain of Kanjamendi, Rajagara, Juruku• god throughout the whole year. pada, Dedimaha, Dimisingia, Sri ti - Besides this, they also worship in

, .. 36 ADIBASI

certain death rituals like 'Aras sacrificed along with rice and wirre in the month of May and June in Puja' (A man when killed by tiger)· ..I I and in other ceremonies like order to be saved from dangers. marriage. Old clay vessels of the kitchen are changed and the Kondhs add new Field God (Gamberupenu or Pat• vessels to their kitchen. . kbanda Devata) Budelipenu-This deity 1s wor• This festival is celebrated in the shipped in the month of Margsir month of Chaitra. The Darani• (November-December) by the tlamba performs this puj a as a 'Darani Tlamba'. The Gasi mem• puritan. Every year the Tlamba bers unite and worship before worships with some Arua rice and cutting the paddy and other crops an egg·._ Except this if a person from the wet land. They perform •' suffers due to 'Gamberu penu' then 'Budeli Puja' to get good and suffi• one goat or fowl is sacrificed. cient crops. Pig is sacrificed with Previously, this God was in a rice, wine, etc. · Tlfo deity is re• thatched cottage but now no such presented by a stone and is placed house is there. I was told by my in an open field under a jack tree. informants that many people are cured by propitiating this deity. Nadiapenu-In the month of 'Karlik', they worship 'Nadiapenu' Household Gods (Dumadahaui) the idol of Radha and Krishna, The Kondhs have a strong belief Rama, Siba, etc., to get more crops that like other gods and goddesses under the influence of Hindu tra~i• the household gods are very power• tion. Rice plantain and coconuts ful and require offerings. The are offered near the Tulsi temple. deity is the ancestoral god of Kondhs who is always associated Malevolent Deities : with. numerous spirits who acts like agents and keeps eye over the Burapenu-This god is alway! progress and prosperity of the angry with the people. He destroys family members of each house. the crops. The Darani tlamba During illness the house owner worships this deity, sacrificing fowl immediately performs the puja by and pig. offering rice and wine, etc. Kubapenu-'Kubapenu' means Salapenu-The deity is wor• the drought God. He is worshipped shipped in the month of Jaistha by once in a year by the 'Darani the family elder. Fowl is sacri• tlamba' in order to bring rain. ficed. 'Salapenu' is represented by Fowl is sacrificed. 'Lingalipenu' which is the idols of yoke, buffalo, man, snake, elephant, Ajapenu-This deity c a u s e s etc. The deity brings different small-pox and is worshipped far diseases to cattle . away from the village. The Kedu tlarnba's mother worships it by sacrificing fowl or goat before this Siripenu+: The Siripenu is the deity of kitchen room. Fowl is deity. THE KONDH PANTHEON AND THEIR SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE 37

Danda ·Penu-This god causes Shaman). (3) Kutagatali (lady pain in the belly, headache and shaman) who cures the epidemic muscular pains. Fowl, rice and diseases by enjoying the intimate i I wine are offered to this god by relationship with Gods. 4. Budda a 'Kutagatanju' the shaman. (the oldest man of the family) who 1: I worships home deities. There are fl Hadbai Penu-This god destroys 3 categories of 'tlambns' like the whole dynasty if not properly 'Darani tlamba' who worships I propitiated. It is symbolised by a 'Darani', 'Kedu tlamba' who wor• -! - copper paise and a silver rupee. ships in 'Kedu' only and other Goat and fowl are sacrificed before 'tlambas' who worship deities like this god in order to please Him. Luhapenu, Sasipenu, etc. All of them - observe certain taboos Maulipenu-Maulipenu is wor• throughout the year and also al shipped by an Oriya to save the the time of worshipping. family members. This type of puja is generally done at night in Previously, they were supplied secret by sacrificing fowl and pig. with land instead of remuneration. The puja is performed for a sick But now-a-days they are all supp• person by offering pig, fowl, egg, lied with rice, wine, cloth and rupee wine, Arua rice, verrnillion , ghee, according to their nature of per• turmeric-powder and a new clay formance in various ceremonial vessel. The male members may occasions and rituals. either arrange a feast with the sacrificed animal or throw it away. In all sorts of religious rites and rituals the concerned men contri• Religious Functionaries : bute their amount and enjoy that day by singing and dancing, finally Unlike the Hindus the Kondh the functionaries take part in functionaries worship from their eating and drinking. own community in several occa• sions. Their posts are hereditary. Economy of a Kondh Festival ,_ The Kondhs believe that by wor• shipping benevolent deities there I had an opportunity of witnes• will be peace, progress, and pros• sing the 'Salangilaka' of the Kondhs perity riot only to the individual 'I of Kanjamendi. The Kondhs are i but also to the entire community as divided into many groups. They a whole. They follow certain rites are distinguished from each other and rituals to appease the super• in their customs, tradition, Iangua. natural force to avert evil spell. ges and practices. Here the exact Persons given these· special nature economic connotation of one of of duties are called functionaries the ceremonies of the Kondhs is who enjoy high ranks in the socie• given below. It is needless to ty. They are of four kinds of such point out that even in the functionaries, viz, (1) tlamba (the twentieth century their customs worshipper) the master of ritual and traditions remained as usual. and go-between of man and god. Sometime their . religion governs (2) Kutagatanju (the magician and '-. their economic life and is the I

; i 38 ADIBASI

cause of their misery and indebted• I observed the "Salangilaka" of ness. Some of them are converted Manjiri Malik and Getua Pradhan of village Kanjamendi, the economy in to Christianity leaving their of which is mentioned below, Its traditions and some of them are purpose is to be free from all sorts on the way of Hinduisation. In of dangers. Fowl, wine and eggs fact the Kondh religions is in flux are offered and Budda the old man now. of the family worships it.

:1. Name of the Cost of Cost of the Cost of Miscell- Total Rem aks N o. festivals I animals foodg,ains _ wine aneous

1 ''Salangi laka" Fowl 2 Paddy, rice Salap Eggs 2 Rs. 14·95 Guhal Puja of Rs. 4·50 and cooked wine Rs. 0·20 Shri Manjura rice Rs. 1 ·00 clay vessel Mallik. Rs. 7·00 Rs. 2·25 2 "Salangi Laka" Fowl 2 Paddy, rice Salap Eggs 2 Rs. 13·75 of Shri Getu Rs. 4·00 and cooked wine Rs. 0·20 Pradhan. rice Rs. 1 ·50 clay vessels Rs. 5·75 3 Rs. 2·50

Salangllaka : their cattle and the ancestors would not cause any disease when they It is observed twice in a year. are properly propitiated. Another The oldest man of the family wor• fowl is sacrificed in the kitchen to ships it instead of a tlamba the ancestors and the meat is taken (Priest). They change their cook• by the females only. This puja is ing, vessels. One fowl is offered called "Takingalaka". On that day along with egg and wine near they are tabooed to do any sort of Salapenu the God of the cowshed. work. The worshipper observes fasting. The sacrificed meat is only taken Social Significance by the males but the females are tabooed. Some people call their Each of these Kondh deities has lineage gasi members to partici got certain important social signi• pate in the feast, While worshipp• ficance for which these religious ing they keep "Darab" the idols of festivals and rituals are observed. buffalo, horse, elephant, snake, The Kqndhs have a strong belief yoke and a plough man. Fowl egg, that the ,ancestral estate on which wine, Siali leaves, Bdaha (fruit) rice is grown, the ploughing, sow• and raw rice are also required. ing, transplanting and harvesting of the crop, the basket in which Purpose-Their main purpose is paddy is stored and the measures that no danger will come to. them, used for measuring paddy all the wild animals would not attack require ritual attention. It may be l' V I ' THB KONDH PANTHEON AND THEIR SOCIAL SIGNIFICANCE 39

recalled that the Kondh continues Hence it is seen practically that to take an interest in his family religion binds them together in ! ! affairs. even after his death on various festivals and rituals as a I I which the prosperity and happiness force of social control in family, ~ of the family and indirectly of the ' Gasi, village and Mutha level. "In total society depends. At the time brief we can conclude that in all i I of harvesting, they celebrate ages men have hoped that by the "Budelipuja" which is followed by proper performance of religious a collective sacrifice and dinner of action or observances they would the entire 'Gasi' members. obtain some specific benefit, health· On the last day of their harves- and long life, children to carry on ting the 'Gasi' members celebrate their line, material well-being, "Keta laka Puja" expressing a success in hunting, rain, the growth desire for plenty. According to of crops and the multiplication of ' R. Firth "Life in a community cattle, victory in war, admission of means organization of the intere~t their souls after death to a para- of individuals regulations of their dise, or inversely release by the behaviour towards one another and extinction of personality from the grouping of them t O g e t h e r round of reincarn~tion". * for common action. The relation- ship thus created between them can *The Henry Myers lecture 1945. be seen to have some kind of plan or system which may be called the Literature Cited social structure".

It goes without saying that Reli 1. Anthropology on the March. gion binds them together in seve• 344-45. ral occasions like 'Salangilaka', Nuakhai festival, marriage and 2. The Henry Myers Lecture 1945 death, and finally in 'Sashipenu' and Adajala puja, in family, Gasi, :3. Economy of a Saora ceremony village and Mutha level. So by N. Das & B. Choudhury religion is binding force amongst Vanyajati Vol. XII No. 1 ~- individuals and it contributes to January 1964. the existence of society as an " ordered and continuing -systern of 4. Religion and society among relationships amongst human the Coorgs of South India by beings. M. N. Srinivas.

I~ "

N.DAS MlETHOD§ OF §OCIAl ANTHROPOlOGV AND §TUD.Y OF TRIBlE§ lN INDIA*

I Anthropology as the all embrac- of Social Anthropology and the ing Science of a man has made process through which it is emerg• great strides during the last ing as a comprehensive study of ;. century. After the formulatory the man will be analysed. period during which it suffered Although ideas and concepts on the from a good deal of infantile theoretical frame work have been meanderings it has established taken into account, the present itself a role in the domain of paper is mostly based on direct sciences. Constant and painstak• experience of studying different ing efforts of field workers all over human groups particularly those the world who adopted various pre-literate communities wh\ch are methods from different 'branches of known as tribes. 1 sciences, technology and humani• ties broadened the scope of the Any book on the history of discipline. All these were incor• anthropological theories and porated to devise suitable tools. thoughts clearly shows that social Physical Anthropology .as a part anthropology was born out of and parcel of biological Sciences curiosity. When Europeans came virtually becomes a concrete disci• in contact with different groups of pline. Similarly Pre-his t o r i c people in the farthest continents archaeology with the help of geo• many of the adventurers consider• logy, and palaeontology established ed it worthwhile to record the itself as a specific branch of know• quaint customs and practices ledge. Linguistics with multiple different from the European ways collaboration has developed its of life. Colonization brought in its own precepts. Thus was left train missionaries, administrators Social Anthropology to proceed in and merchants. Some of them rather a lesser speed as a discipline took pains and interest to record to study the social life of man. In the customs and practices of differ• the present paper the dimensions ent human types, their beliefs and

•Seminar on research m.thodology in social sciences of India sponsored joinly by Department of Anth opology, Ranchi University & Council of 'ocial and Cultural research Bihar (Finance) U. G. C., New Delhi from j Sth decernber to 21st Dec'bmber, 1968.

l . ADIBMI 41 ,I faith, their religion and social life. ~ I, by methodology and concepts from I Eminent scholars at home compil that country. ed these which ultimately become classics in Anthropology. The earlier generation of Anthropologists in our country were Interested scholars from other mostly trained in England. Thus disciplines like Franz Boas, naturally they were oriented to the Maliriowskj, Rivers, Radcliff Brown thoug·hts and ideas developed in took to study the man. However, the British Empire. Our literature those scholars definitely establish• on the subject were based on ed the tradition of field work. concepts of functionalism, an inte• They considered the travelouges as grated approach to cultural background material to be sub• problem. All those were basically stantiated and established by pain• products of intensive 'field work staking field work among the parti • among the pre-literate tribal cular group of p_eople. This was communities which abound in this ~- the foundation of the scientific sub-continent. Moreover, t h e approach. Thereafter it was administrators and civil servants reckoned that studies by actually required a good dew of ipsi~ht into living with the community is the the life of contemporary tribal sine quanon for social Anthropo• people for peace and good Govern• logy. Year after year a good ment in those areas. They, there• number of scholars and research fore, encouraged and stimulated workers all over the world are studies among the different tribes. engaged in the study of different The scholars who were trained on comm.unities be primitive or the subject in Calcutta or at Patna advanced. under S. C. Ray were keen on studying the tribal communities. With the emergence of new After independence _our Consti• world as the most affluent nation. tution placed an onerous responsi• scholars in U.S.A. vigorously bility on the entire nation to deve• persued the study of man. Geo- lop and safe-guard the interest of . graphical, social and political the tribes. On no other subject the environment in the United States Constitution has been so emphatic of America gave philip to studies as on the development of tribes. in social Anthropology. In a multi• Even the sacrosant fundamental racical and multi-lingual country rights, make deviations in case of such studies could be easily taken Scheduled Tribes and tribal areas. up. Thus we found immediately The laws of the land were to be after the Second World War that administered in such a manner so importance was given to anthropo• as to improve the tribes within a logical studies by the American certain stipulated period. Liberal Universities and foundations. A financial provisions were envisag• large number of publications on ed for this purpose. A machinery the subject extended to different to watch over the progress was parts of the world. It is, there• also established both at the centre fore, natural that in India we are and States. All these _ therefore, gelling more and more influenced made, it absolutely essential in our 42 METHODS OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND STUDY OF TRIBES IN INDIA

country to concentrate on the tribes who have distinct pattern of contemporary tribal people. This culture distinguishable from other position has heen indicated hereto communities. It will not be out of clearly point out the environment place to indicate here some of the in which Social Anthropology is basic realities which confront now being studied in this country anthropologists in this sub-conti• as divergent from other advanced nent. Some students who have countries. lived and studied the tribes for some years have found that the In India a good number of deve• tribal people on many occasions lopment programmes have been stick firmly to their social values, launched. The Five-Year Plans although change agents have been have been responsible for establish• vigorous. Bailey has shown that ment of industries, river valley pro• among Khandhs of Phulbani land jects, hydro-electric schemes and is the basic ingredient of social communication, transport, railways status and political asendency. have been extended to many The goal drive 'among Kandhs remote tribal areas. The vast therefore has been to acquire land mineral potentialities are being as much as possible. Study of exploited. ' Agriculture, animal Saoras by the author for'last 10 husbandry poultry have been years has shown that wet land improved. The tribal people have cultivation as well as shifting culti• adopted some of these innovations. vation on hill clearings are the But by and large the majority of main occupation of the tribe. tribals could not fully accept inno• Saoras whether living in the pre• vations to any great extent and sent world or in the under world change has only been peripherial. after death equally value land. It Bound by the age old traditions and is only mortgaged, never perma• social inhibitions many of the nently transferred. Among Jua• tribes continue to retain their ngs of Keonjhar who are primarily close cultural base. The soft core shifting cultivators hill clearings of their cultural has shown some are held by communal ownership material changes but the basic faith and are allocated by village head• and beliefs persist. All those have man to individual family members. contributed directly or indirectly After allotment to a family the .. to intercept their adoption of new possession is retained with great ideas and values of life. care. The backward Bond High• landers pay no less respect to Planners, administrators and land. The value attached to land anthropologists who have studied makes tribals immensely agitated theoretical concepts of planning when they loose possession of and development are sometimes land. No doubt incursion of non• bewildered to fully account for tribals into tribal areas produced such inertia and apathy among the the first casuality that is the dis• different communities to adopt and possession of tribals from the accept changes. Of course our valley lands. This is the basic non-jribal rural communities are motivation in tribal uprisings in eqt'ially bound by such traditions. But here we are mainly dealing the the past and in the present. •• ADIBASI 43

Tribes live in close association Education among the tribals with forest. In their legends continued to be informal and there are descriptions that they pragmatic. It was based on joinder settled down by clearing forests. of discipline and actual training to Many settlement of Munda speak• grow up. On the other hand the ing tribals had the suffix Da means formal education with all its con water and Bir' means forest. The committant aspects produce a deprivation of rights over forest significant impact on the tribes. gave the tribals the greatest shock. Once the basic values were made The ·forest policy of 1842 enunci• to change in tribal life through our ated by the British rulers recogni - formal education the core of zed the traditional rights of the discipline and training get a set• tribals over the forest. The scien• back. Dormitory institution, which tific conservation of forest was is still prevalent among different considered expedient subject to tribes may show how well organized the benefits enjoyed by the tribals. and effective this institution has But after-wards; forest policy from been to provide education and time to time has overlooked basic training to the youth. When this rights of the tribals and have, is given a go by, the tribals seek therefore, made the autocthones recreation in movies and alcholism. feel alien in their own home land. Sex offences and delinquencies were unknown among the tribal The pre-literate people all over areas are on increase. During the the world are bound by a chain of recent riots in Rourkela it was reciprocity. Barter and exchange shown by a study that the tribals economy practised by tribals enable took to large scale slaughter with• them to maintain this chain. When out understanding anything of the money economy made inroads communal disharmony due to par• into the tribal life it could not fully tition of the sub-continent. The replace the traditional form of wide spread students unrest, and barter. On the other hand it pro• the pervading indiscipline in diffe• vided opportunity for outsiders to rent walks of life made inroads into exploit them. Being unaware of tribal life. The usual barrier the implications of modern ways of which isolated tribals into certain live tribals usually do not make a extent naturally crumbled before distinction about their immediate those. and future needs. The usual ebuliant life gives way to depres• The earlier definition of a tribe sion and frustration. Modern which may hold good describes a values of life pre-suppose savings tribe as a group of people having and unlimited craze for money and common language customs and material possession. When these practices inhabiting a particular values are introduced among tribals geographical area. Thus a tribe is they do not readily acquiese bound by a large number of traits those. As a result their world which determine its pattern of life. view continue to be different from The leadership in each community others. They are thus exploited by be on secular or on unreligious cunning groups. Their economic aspect was from within the Min• life cannot take a turn for better. munity. The child grows up in the 44 METHODS OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND STUDY OF TRIBES IN INDIA

milieu of parental care, neighbour• some such ism. They understood · hood affiliation. Village elders. very little of individual ownership and tribals chiefs had their joint versus public ownership, private and several contribution. The role enterprise versus socialism. They taking and growing up in tribal understood one point that most of society were therefore deeply their land have been under the associated with the training which possession of non-tribals before a are provided to them by all those few years. Prospects of shifting agencies. When modernity introdu• cultivation were curbed by forest ced Panchayats and the different regulations. Economic life has not type leadership with legislators. improved. Contact with the urban sarpanches, ward members, etc., the centres changed their world view traditional leadership lost its grip and level of aspiration. They over the community. A study found that redress through normal conducted by Tribal Research official channels has not been possi• Bureau among the Santals an ex• ble during all these years. In spite pansive tribe who spread over of the lunching of development pro• l, different States has shown. that gramme and visit of officials their even they would not accept demo• main needs have not been satisfied. cratic elections with that amount Hence their minds were charged of vigour which was expected from with suspicion and antipathy. At them. Most of the remained indiffe• the time of such mounting frustra• rent and allowed even non-tribals tion any trouble shooter or agent to be elected as their representa• provacateur could hold his sway tives to the statutary elected bodies. over the tribals to encourage them Those being associated with power to take law in their own hands. of the rulers were more awe inspi. Had the traditional leadership been ring. In case of backward tribes like able to hold them the result would Saora there was even difficulty to have been perhaps different. But induce someone to contest in in an area of leadership vacuum panchayat elections. One nomina• that could not be possible. ted sarpanch after a short time · found the job uninteresting and Tribals in the borders have been resigned it. On the other hand agitating for quite some time. Saoras have their traditional head• Nagas have got a State, Mizos de men to arbiter over their disputes mand a separate Mizo land. Assam

and to I settle their problems with is now going to have a separate the administration. All those head• hill state. The older leadership for men were brushed aside by statu• the same cause who had several re• tary elected leaders. Thus the prcsentatives in Bihar and Orissa result has been· a vacuum in leader• State Legislature are loosing their ship in most of the tribal areas. control and there has emerged a new leadership mostly of young Recent tribal upheavals in parts men. Some of them arc educated of Andhra Pradesh bordering Orissa in the universities and colleges. State has shown that tribals who They have debated on the separate have openly broken the law. under• State formed in the Eastern Fron - stood very little of the higher ethics tier. They have taken into acco• or Marxism. left communism or unt the scope of development and ADIBASI 45

employment and have based deal of frustration in the minds of their demand for separate tribals. State. Though in Orissa and Bihar we consider this movement From the above brief account of as indications of disintegration, we some of the vital issues relating to overlook the basic factor that dur• the tribal Jife in the sub-continent ing these years we have not done · t is clear that studies among tribals i much to catch the imagination of are neither complete nor exhaus• the tribals in general and the youth tive. We have to alleviate them I in particular. Tribal leaders who from stagnation and the moribund represent them in the legislature state of life. Hadden described the get divorced from the rank and file tribals in India as a group of people and from the main stream of tri• who after many wanderings have bal environment. Hence they settled down in Chutia Nagpur. loose their grip over the tribals. In Shri Chitanya avoided trekking the absence of a systematic leader• through Jharkhand. Our Puranas ship the tribals could not be blam• considered tribals as Asura, Danaba, ed for directing their energy for a an abominable group. separate political structure. Rapid industrialisation in these areas have Asoka was particularly conscious generated a number of changes. of the jungle tribes and their Conversion to christianity has equa• distinct customs and manners. The lly induced progress. Army cen• inscription at Dhauli near tres and other major projects have Bhubaneswar categorically ordered created a great reshuffie. All those the Governors to treat the jungle have contributed for a different folk with compassion. Mugul mode of life in the area. emperors avoided direct encounters with the tribal people. When the It has also been found that by Britishers ruled over the country chance accident industries, river they thought of providing safe• valley and hydro-electric, mineral guards for the tribes. Excluded development projects are mostly and partially excluded areas were located in tribal areas. These pro• formed to provide a separate form jects result in displacement of a of administration for the tribes. good number of tribals from their They were also represented in the homes. According to the existing legislatures by persons nominated law they are paid some cash com• from different walks of life. The pensation. That is spent quickly by social workers of the country were various means and the tribals who particularly antagonistic to this lost their land and houses seldom policy of segregation. The politi• get a substitute at the initial stage. cal atmosphere of the country was Some of them are engaged as un• such that it was considered expe• !. skilled worker. But thereafter they dient to the national interest. not to cannot get any other employment isolate any particular group of and become refugees. The state people. However. when we attain• which has· the sacred duty to safe• ded independence most of the safe• guard their interest seldom make guards were incorporated in the serious efforts to rehabilitate dis• Constitution with greater emphasis placed tribals. This creates a good than before. We have already . J \; 46 METHODS OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND STUDY OF lRIBES IN INDIA

discussed the salient future of these to other-directed ones. That is not safeguards earlier. However, here the case 'with backward tribes in India. They are still tradition li it is to be reiterated that within this century we definitely distin• directed. Their level of aspiration 1 guished a group of people known and world view are limited. The j as Scheduled Tribes (a) who are process of civilization on many -i not at the same level of advance• cases reached only the periphery ment as the other general popula• and seldom the hard core of their l tion, (b) who have distinct customs culture. manners and social life, (c) who are to be patronished and promo• Let us consider the case of ted to reach general level of the Lanjia Saoras in Ganjam and Koraput districts of Orissa State. country. This tribe inhabits high hill ranges In the light of these considera• and build their settlement on the tion social anthropologists cannot hill slopes. They have ingenuity easily brush aside the backward for terrace building. Religion is and pre-literate tribal communities the focal point of their culture. from their scope of studies. There• Perhaps they have the largest fore social anthropology in our number of gods, spirits and ances country is to still give emphasis on tors to be propitiated than any the tribes their customs and other group in the world. Saoras are in contact with the outside practices etc. Even after all these years of the extension of develop• world for pretty long time. They ment programme some of the migrated into tea gradens at the .backward tribes . particularly in beginning of this century. Develop Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya ment programmes have been introduced since last twenty years. Pradesh and Orissa continue to In spite of all these factors, Saoras remain in a very backward condi• continue to have a close cultural tion. On many of the tribes we do base. Change agents except conver• not have full account. Monographs compiled on some of the tribes by sion to christianity were not the earlier workers covered only successful to change this some of them. There still remain tribe. Although Lanjia Saoras continue to have their customs quite a good number of groups on whom we need authentic and and practices, a section of this tribe known as 'Sudha' means-• exhaustive monographs. clean. totally transformed them as The U. S. A. and European a Hindu caste donning sacred nations have already reached a thread. certain stage of advancement. Kandha the numerically largest Industrial and urban complex have tribe of Orissa have widely varying levelled up their social and cultu sections. Some of these sections like ral life. Cultural proliferations have Kotia, Dongria, and Pengo are all been brought to fit into a shifting cultivators and food single standard of life. Group varia• gatherers. Another section J atapus tions are insignificant in this have adopted Telegu and are process of transformation. The considerably advanced. Similarly inner-dired?d groups have changed i ADIBASI 47 Desia Kandh-means locals are have been fruitful. But one is apt • I J indistinguishable from the general to commit fallibility as language rural population of the area where stands as a barrier in many cases. f they live. At present scholars who ;_ife taking i up problomatic studies with much I Juang are similarly divided into lesser time at their disposal than ·l • three sections. Hill Juang of Keon• those of the earlier clays often jhar are shifting cultivators, food return with inadequate data. An ' gatherers while those just imme Americian scholar of eminence diately below the hills in Pallahara who came to study a specific are basket makers and those in the problem was bewildered to under• palins of Dhenkanal are settled stand the actual connotation of agriculturists indistinguishable from certain common local words. the other castes. This dearly Modern Social Anthropology has shows that change of occupation or adopted sharper methods from even departure from the moorings Psychology, Statistic and even produces tra nsf'orrnatinns. How• calculus. Those are used to ever, these are not so wide like interpret social phenomena. those which have affected different Nevertheless there still remains a population in the western countries. wide gap between the standardized The tribes around the Steel City of methods and the actual thinking Rourkela or J amshedpur still process of the man. It varies from continue to retain many of their situation to situation. It 'also traditional customs and practices varies according to the particular The different sections of Pahadiyas condition which might have been of Santai Paraganas dwell in the brought by flood, tiger menace. same geographical habital and epidemic or recent prosecution for practise shifting cultivation. breaking forest or excise laws. 111 Birhors and Khadias are nomadic such circumstances the research• groups. Birhors live by rope• worker may be confronted with making and hill Khadias by collec• situation which he may not have tion of honey and other minor been under ordinary circumstances. forest produce. When they are The modern methodology therefore. settledIn land it takes time for fall short of apprehending such them to adopt to the change of eventuality. In case of backward occupation. tribes. These instances have been shown to indicate that the trans• ,t· Due to this peculiar situation in formation taking place in the tribal our country it is therefore, highly groups are not according to any set essential for Social Anthropologists pattern or hypothesis. The usual to continue to study the tribes in methodology to assess these may relation to their sociocultural life have to be modified and changed. for taking stock of the change Field workers among the tribes agents, the process of accultura• have invariably found it extremely tion and impact of industria• difficult to elicit information from lization. Those are to be studied them. Participant observations in relation to the particular situa - and actual living with the tribes tion, period, etc. \Ve ca 1tn o t '< 48 METHODS OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY AND STUDY OF TRIBES IN INDIA

• ~ also forget about the task imposed again may only be in the warfs o~ us by the C o n s t i t u t i o n and woofs but not in the pattern to improve the condition of these of culture itself. The basic needs tribes. During these year the and satisfaction of those generate development programme have not derived and integrated needs are to made appreciable contribution to be carefully assessed. Methods of this eff eel. \Ve have therefore, a social anthropology provide a grea• good deal to study about the failure ter lever for all those than other of a particular programme in rela• disciplines. tion to a specific tribal life and cul• ture. That again will require At present we are widely talking probing into the frontiers of tribal of national integration. We have culture. Thus there is necessity not forgetten the divisions and and it is imperative on the part of factions which our country had social anthropologists to study the before the Britishers united the tribal communities and the country. Now also the separatist standardized hypotheses and techni• tendency -is raising· its head in ques borrowed from other disci• many parts. Forces of disintegra• plines have to be modified to suit tion gain momentum when we to the purpose and requirements. overlook the basic needs of all the sections of our population. As Intern-disciplinary approach in regards the tribes are concerned we studying human problems is nece• have to follow a scientific policy ssary. Nevertheless greater em• which means progressive advance• phasis on psychological techniques ment of social and economic life of may very often lead to errors. A the tribals with a view to their book recently published on the ultimate integration with the rest Saora children which claims to be' of the community on a footing of good psychological treaties has equality within a reasonable time. made certain gross -conjectures The period has necessarily to vary about the culture and life of the from trible to tribe. This object tribe. The techniques devised for could only be achieved if we have specific occasions is bound to pro• authentic studies among the diffe• duce a different interpretation if rent tribes which unfortunately w,_. the particular situation varies. lack. In the past social anthropo- - Hence the' assistance to be taken logists were considered as curio from psychology should be limited hunters who wanted to keep the to help social anthropology, not to tribals as museum pieces. In con• ,. over ride (its own techniques. trast to that it was considered that Similarly statistical representation rapid assimilation of the tribal of cultural phenomena is an assu• communities with that of the gene• mption to over simplify the issues. ral population would be essential. Formation of groups. analysis of The confusion and conflict on those group behaviour and such associa• two issues are often over stressed. ted variable may not be so wide in By following any of those' policir-s case of tribal communities. Then' \\·e have not made the tribals anv are also slight deviation and depar• way better than what they were ture from a set pattern. Those before independence. The apathy - ,.__ ~ ------~ ------ll 1 . - J . i', ADlBASI 49 I ,

i1, against social anthropologists has population are referred to anthro- - I, '{' .heen mostly due to the fact that pologists to solved expeditiously. · their studies and findings were not If our studies and findings are not always palatable to enthusiastic readily available within a parti- social workers or administrators cular span of time we may not be who considered issues on the basis able to benefit anybody. Hence in . of their own projection. Social. our approach and methodology we anthropologists in this country . have to circumvent profusion and therefore have to remove this mis- pin point the issues of course on apprehension from the minds of scientific and authentic lines. others. That will only be possible by intensive studies among diffe• rent tribal groups. Applied and action anthropology is very much required in India. Another vital issue which · the A feeling has grown during these social anthropologists should give years that human problems could premium is the-time factor for com-. be solved by social engineering and pletion of a study and the submis• social medicine. For application sion of report. It is heard from of those, we are to provide the re• many quarters that research pro• quired orientation to social workers jects which are entrusted to anthro • and administrators. This would be pologists take a considerable time possible if we vigorously pursue our to be completed. This automati• object of studying the tribal cally gives an impression that per• communities with due precession haps we have been languishing and care. Philanthropology may over the task and deb a ting over the be the other name which however methodology. The burning prob• odd it may sound, should be a part lem aff ecting the tribals and rural of. social anthropology.

Bibliography Benedict R Patterns of culture-1934

~-..::,p. I Boas F General Anthropology (ed) 1938 Race language and Culture 1940.

Elwin-V Philosophy for NEPA. Out Bois-C . • The People of Alor 1944

Golden Weiser A. A. History Psychology and Culture 1933

Hadden-A. C. Wanderings of People 1925

Herskovits M. J. Man and his works 1851 Anthropology To-day r Kroeber A. L. and others. i Linton-R. ? • The Cultural Background of Persoaality ,-- !94~. r , I.:✓✓ ••..•

~--. - L -~ ------,..... \J . ' . . . SQ METHODS OF SOCIAL ANTHROPOLOGY ANO STUDY OF TRIBES IN INDIA I'{' . .•.. Lewie R. H. Primitive Society 1920, History of Ethne• logical Theories l 920~

Majumdar D. N. Affairs of a Tribe, Races and Culture of India. .

Malinowski B. Arg innuts of Western Pacific 1922. · A scientific Theory . of Culture and other Essays 1944.

Mukerji N Standing at the. Cross Roads 1964 Parida=-G Bducation among Saora Children 1967 Publications of the State, Tribal led Tribes. Renuka Ray Team, ,- .•. ·_,, Resear~h Bodies. Commissioner Dhebar Commission, Elwin Co.• for Scheduled Castes and Schedu- mmittee, etc.

" •• \ • _/

I AN ADDRESS IN CENSUS CONFERENCE OF 1969.

A speech delivered in the Conference of Tribal Research bodies and Anthropological Survey of India convened by the Registrar-General of India, New Delhi on 27th and 28th January 1969, by Assistant Director on behalf of Tribal Research Bureau.

Mr. Registrar-General, Dr. Burman and weliow delegates ; At the outset I must convey my Scheduled Castes population are thanks to the "Registrar-General for being called upon to conduct sur• taking initiative to convene this veys to assess the living conditions Conference of Anthropological and felt needs of those groups. We S u r v e y of I n d i a a n d are also entrusted with the task of tribal r e s e a r c h b o d i e s determining the social status of in the country. It is for the first certain groups who put forward , time that, we are able to meet and their claims for inclusion in the discuss some vital and significant schedules. Besides these we are to matters of national importance. delve on various problems of-tribes The conference would be able to and castes confronting the Stages I evolve an outlook for the census administration. operation of 1961. Our Registrar• General for the first time has laun• During the first plan period there ched ,a bold venture, which will not was the first move to establish tribal only bring laurels to his organisa• research bodies in the States hav• tion, but will also provide the hall ing sizable tribal and other back, mark for scientific analysis of the ward population. In Orissa a "'"· multiple array of data which his Tribal Research Bureau was esta• organisation would handle during blished in 1953 as a semi-official , the next few years. In that respect organisation with 2 Research Scho• only 1971 census would definitely be lars and one part-time Secretary. ... unique and different from the pre• In 1954 Bihar took a lead to esta• ceeding operations. I shall fail in blish a full-fledged tribal research my duty if I donot thank my friend institute at Ranchi, Madhya Pradesh Dr. B. K. Roy _Burman, 0. S. D., started it the next year which was Handicrafts, etc., for catalysing this followed by West Bengal. There- process of active co-operation of re• after by and by Assam, Rajastan, search bodies in the country in the Andhar Pradesh, Maharastra and census operation of 1971. Those Gujrat have now established tribal of us who work among tribes refer research and training centres. to census data for various purposes. e Tribal Research bodies established NEF A had a research organisation in 9 States with sizable tribal and earlier under Dr. Wlwin. Most of ~ ! •••• ' 52 \ ADIBASI

"'-j- " ,,,,these institutes which started during pendence scholars both in the the First Plan period have now be• Universities and otherwise studied come regular part and parcel of the tribes and castes on scientific lines. respective, States administration. Their problems were analysed in Central assistance is provided for relation to the sweeping changes. It these bodies for expansion, etc., was thought that isolation and by the Department of Social Wel• segregation of a group of people ,.- _ fare. As being closely associated would automatically insulate them · with the first move for establish• from the outside contact _and they ment of these institutes, and actu• would not loose their nerves. In ally having the privilege to organise reality it was found that changes one at Ranchi in 1954 it could be take place in the community due to said, that the basic policy involved various factors. A standard of in establishing these institutions mobility is attended by different was to make comprehensive studies communities by visits to markets, of different groups of .trihal commu• relations, law courts, etc., migration nities, their customs and manners, to tea gardens provided a stimulus social values and cultural dynamics. for change. Establishment of army No doubt civil servants scholars camps in remote tribal areas during from different walks of life and world wars drastically changed the professionals had studied the outlook of the tribes. Thus it had various tribes in different parts of to be admitted that scientific studies the country, and did come out with of the tribes and their problems well illustrated publication. How-• were to receive serious attention of ever, the prevailing atmosphere in the administration after indepen• those days thwarted and objective dence. approach. The frame-work of the excluded and partially excluded In our country a lead was P,ro- - 1 areas with a separate type of vided by census organisation for the administration, different from the above purp?se. In 1881 census sub• general administration of the divisions of castes and tribes were country was aimed at segregation of enumerated. All those who inha• the tribes. Naturally those quaint bited hills and forests were taken customs and practices which could i as tribes. Risley in 1901 actually j I high-light inter tribal differences as provided the basic foundation for i ,, well as distinguish the tribes from recording the distinct groups. I the general population of the However in 1931 census under the country were documented. The able guidance of Hutton a fulf• Scheduled Castes who were un• ledged enquiry was instituted by touchables, and were actually census organisation. In fact for all suffering from virulent form ~ our basic data we have mostly to of social stigma had a different refer to the 1931 census. footing. When the national move• ment gained momentum our leaders were antagonistic to such studies, After independence and adoption because it was presumed that those of the Constitution in which we are were jneant for perpetuating the pledged in the Directives of State division of the nation. After inde- Policy to develop the Scheduled AN ADDRESS IN CENSUS CONFERENCE OF 1969 __/ SJ / Castes and Scheduled Tribes, plan• reaches the soft core of culture and ning their welfare programme be• seldom establishes itself in the hard came important. Most of the States core. Mobility is attainded by established separate Departments , .•. castes and tribes on the ;ace of ,,; for this purpose. With the launch• changed circumstances. But the .. ing of Five-Year Plans welfare occupational fixations do not give schemes for backward classes with any additional advantage to a contribution from the Central group which were traditionally Government under Article 275 were practising particular occupation to introduced in the States. The adopt improved techniques to deve• tribal research bodies were establi• lop their traditional practices. shed in pursuance of the decision to aid and advise planners and Shifting cultivation is an age old administrators to formulate and practice in the sub-continent. implemente these programme. Firstly, the backward tribes who Through various studies, the dia• live in mountain fastness have very mensio__n of Ute problems and little wet land. Secondly, they issues which involve the tribes have grow pulses, millets, oil seeds, to be revealed. When we adopted maize in hill clearings which are scientific planning for building our not possible to grow in wet land. ration, the advancement of tribes The presure of population and res• \ I could not be left to stereotyped trictions in forests seldom provide bureaucratic apparatus. In this opportunity for expansion of wet regard the role of tribal research cultivation. It has been found bodies is important. from a study that a backward shift• ing cultivating group like Kutia 2. We have certain presumptions Kondhs sometimes wean from wet .and pre-conceived notions which cultivation to shifting cultivation. permeate our thoughts and action Saoras who have immense skill in in relation to a tribe, a caste, a terrace building side by side prac• community or a social situation. tice shifting cultivation. This To briefly indicate a few the general shows that change does not always idea is that industrialization intro• mean change from other method of duces urban values and rapid cultivation to wet cultivation. changes. In process of that back• ward tribes shake off their Herdmen like Koyas who rear established traditions to adopt new large number of cattle but never values. A few studies have, milk them do not adopt this prac• however, shown that the growth of tice inspite of the demand for milk a large industrial complex, river created due to the establishment of valley project, rehabilitation pro• Dandakaranya Project. Hence it is gramme generate factors and not correct to always pre-suppose forces of change, but those do not change and concentualise sets of drastically change the entire pattern socio-culture change. of life of a tribe or _ a community. No doubt at the beginning there is 3. Introduction of Panchayat Raj an urge for change of occupation and democratic decentralisation l- !· !,~. but very often the stimulus only from 1961 was expected to provide '- ADIBASI ....• ~ the stimulus in rural and tribal one in other advanced countries. area for adoption of new values. Hence, we have to make effective I~. Studies. i~ different parts have studies of the different groups in shown that the statuary Panchayats relation to our own requirements. J seldom caught the imagination of Within a tribe there are different tribes and provided a stable base sections and divisions, which al• to introduce changes and mobility. though could be generically stated J .. as one have wide divergent customs I These references, therefore, fur• and practices. Kondhs are divided ther emphasises the basis for study into Dongria, Kutia, Yengo, Jatapu, of tribes and castes on scientific Kapu who are so widely different lines by competent persons. Studies from each other in dress, orna• are being however conducted by ments, customs and manners that individual scholars in the Univer• it becomes extremely difficult to sities as well as in research bodies. take them as a single tribe. Change But these are mostly confined to a of occupation in Juangs in Pallahara limited sphere or in relation to who became basket makers has specific groups. H is now time that changed their customs and prac• I 1 there should be integrated and tices. Juangs of Dhenkanal plains I broad based studies of these aspe• have many differences with the cts in a systematic manner in the hill Juangs of Keonjhar who are whole of the country. Only with hunters and shifting cultivators. that it will be possible to assess and Bhuiyas as agriculturists a n d gauge the fathom of occupational those who live on hills have widely ~J . mobility in relation to social and different customs. It is therefore, I cultural dynamism. From these essential that the tribal research studies conducted in different parts bodies being given the required of the country it would then 'be stimulus from the census orga• possible to ascertain cause and nization whould take up these direction of social change. It must studies in different parts of . the be admitted that during the past country. two decades we have been more charged by the concepts and ideas evolved in the United States of There are still quite a large America. No doubt in that country number of tribes in this country there is immense scope and pros• about whom there is no authentic pect for studies in social Sciences. account. It would have been the Our workers and scholars are more first task after independence to often charged with those concepts gather monographic a~ount in and theories in the same manner these groups in almost all parts of 1 · as we consider it a status symbol the country. Infact in 1959 resou• if we visit foreign countries. lation was approved in the central advisory board of Anthropology What is to be emphasized here is (now defunct) to study all these that the situation in our country is groups expeditiously and prepare totally diffierent. The mileu in authentic account. It has to be wli!ch our tribes and castes live admitted that neither the Anthro• and develop is divergent from the pological Survey of India nor the

1,. Y.••" "'y- ..• l AN ADDRESS IN CENSUS CONFERENCE OF 1969 /s_s tribal research bodies or univer• Chenchus, Kadars, Katu Naikans sities took steps in this directions. and Birhors_, etc., have continued to Problem oriented studies with live in hills and forests. "There are multi disciplinary approach are no not even first generation jit,erates • doubt useful, but how can we pro• among them. To improve ti,e situa• perly analyse the problems when tion it is essential that scientific we have no authentic basic data? assessment of the living conditions Are we to continue to refer to Ris• of the tribes and castes should be ley, Dalton, Thrustom and Hutton made and an objective classification for our basic data ? On one hand would thereafter be possible to we admit that sweeping changes retain only those groups which are have blown over the country and in need of special advantages. Then both social and societal change only their social and economic have taken place. On the other conditions could be improved hand we rely on the old accounts. within the limited resources availa• How can we reckon this ? Here ble for the purpose. The census the census organisation can give a organisation and the Registrar• lead and the Registrar-General can General may be able to give a lead g,ive to the nation something which in this direction. will be followed by the posteri• oritJ. Scientific planning for welfare would require data on the forma• Another administrative problem tion and combination of different which confronts the States as well groups arising out of cultural and I as the Central Government is to economic integration. The sour• determine the social status of diff• ces of change and the adjustment erent tribe and caste groups who to the change result in unfolding of claim to be included in the inherent potentialities. That is how Schedules. The list of Scheduled entrepreneurship emerges and those Castes 'and Scheduled Tribes were are actually to be tapped if we considerably inflated in 1956. want to succeed to push forward The concessions and advantages innovations among the backward incumbent on inclusion in the classes. The census organization Schedules are many. These allure can evolve the standardized pattern various groups to put forward their of study to cover the entire country claim to be included in the Sche• to measure these factors which dules. On the other hand the re• would be useful both in planning sources both at the central and and implementation of programme states level being depleated, it be• within the available resources. comes difficult to continue these More appraisal of innovations will concessions to all the members of not provide the required result. ~heduled Tribes and Scheduled ' " _, ·-· Castes. Studies have shown that At the end I again want to reite• more advanced and vocal sections rate my sincere gratitude to the from among the tribes and castes . Registrar-General who has provi• have derived the maximum benefits ded this opportunity for a forum from this concessions. The back• to discuss the various ma~r,, ward groups like Bondas, Kondhs, which will be tackled bY, the 1971 - ADIBASI

enumerators and other census " '-- ·census. The task is onerous. The personnel to carefully collect · the population of the cc"mtry has . . ., required information from the increased- considerably and the backward communifies. The dian:P.n~on of such studies has Registrar-General in course of his increased several folds. Neverthe• tour may come across various less these delibrations may help issues · and problems in different to provide a base for the first time states which could be discussed to add a pragmatic hue to our task with the standing panel. In my I would therefore, suggest that humble opinion this step may be certain follow up measures may useful. be required. To achieve the objective, the Registrar-General At last I shall again express my may consider to set up a standing gratitude to you Sir, for providing panel under his chairmanship, this opportunity for mutual under• with a representative from the, standing between Anthropological Anthropological Survey, 3 or 4 Survey of India an'tl tribal research heads of tribal research bodies bodies which even the Department and the 0. S. D. handicrafts. The of Social Welfare has not done panel may meet as frequently as during all these years. I am possible to aid and advice the Regi- sure that the Tribal Research strar-General on the above issues. Bureau will be glad to fully It could also device standardized co-operate with you in your ven• schedules to conduct different ture and assist you in this uphill social studies. It could also devise task during the next few years. curriculum for . training the

• .•. -"Jo-✓ i1/-,.,/ ,-1·P . . ,,. .,.,·~..· .., ( ~- r J ,. 1 ,,_. BRIEF" NOTES: SOCIAL ST A TUS OF" KHAJURIA. A group popularly known· as untouchables and higher castes 'Khajurias' inhabiting parts of maintain social distance with them. Angul around Chendipada and Tal• The origin of the word Khajuria cher in Dhenkanal d i s t r i c t is interesting. It is an adoption-•-. submitted a representation to the from the original caste name of Government that," although they 'Chamara' or 'Siyal' who are to be are actually 'Siyal' and they have taken as synonymous. Chamaras been deprived of the benefits as tie a piece of leather or 'Chama' S c h e du 1 e d Caste. In the around their waiste while tapping representaion, it is contended that toddy from palm trees. From the -· Siyal and Khajuria are one and use of Chama they were known as .... same caste without any distinc• Chamara. The caste has a pur- tion and there is no justification to anic o r ig i n as described in eprive them from the benefits. Nrusingha Purana. It is described that Parvati the concert of Siba The Tribal Research Bereau was once produced a human from her ailed upon to make an enquiry skin being agrived from the repri• nto the status of Khajurias vis• mand she got from Lord Siba. -vis whether they are synonymous She ordained this human from to o Siyal item No. 86 of Orissa live underneath the Siyali creeper cheduled Castes List of 1956. and was asked to collect the. juice his enquiry was conducted by a from the palm trees and live by roup of Investigators a r o u n t1 selling and trading in that. That hendipada, Talcher and near is how the descendants of this man known as Siyal. Siyal, however, as has been stated earlier are also village Chendipada proper known as 'Chamar'. Some of this hich is an important P.-S. of castemen migrated to Sambalpur hendipada village there are 500 and other parts. The caste which J,, milies with a population of 123 trade in skin and also e~ ..• 1,e~~ ~ are known as Khajurias. In known as Chamar in those parts. . \ hendapada village there are 50.) This naturally created abhorance I! :....-. ylies of different castes with a in their minds and in order to~ • tal population of 3,058, Khajurias distinguish th~ir status fr~m those ~ • ,re in a totally separate ward of of Chamars m the '"locality\. ~':Y __. e village. They are treated as called themselves Hlhajuria. · · 'c,; l . .'•\~8~ . , APIBASI Brahinins and · barbers do not: --~~ ~·_t.·'-e:'"f ~l1i.ey were identified --:•·-:: . serve them. Some one from J au ~y '!--_-., •.• Dl'_i'1'1e r~t e . ~',an. Siyal or tisha caste officiate in thei •, ia~r. - marriage and accept dry food i~ Dt\,:ing the survey t'.'.!tlement rice. Higher castes do not tak. -- water from them. They are no\ opera~s the amins who re~p_rded land rights took them as Khajuria admitted into temples and othe ...... •, .., without bothering about their public· places as any other original caste status, This has touchable caste. created contusion in the records-of• ., right. As a result of which Khaju• From this enquiry it is clear tha1i rias are not recognised by the unnecessary confusion has bee revenue officers as Scheduled created and the Khajuria who ar actually Siyal are deprived of th Castes. b~pefits. It may be necessary t-• From this inquiry it is clear that declare this gro1:p as cynonymo Khajuria is merely an adopted to Khajuria. In the meantime name of the group of people who notification may be issued from t are actually Siyal and Khajuria zre not a distinct a separate caste. department to explain to all There are the following Gotras cerned that Khajuria and Siyal a among the Khajuria as well as .• ynonymous and Khajurias shou1 Siyals. (1) Salasa, (2) Naga, (3) get all benefits as Scheduld: ~alakuta, (4) Mayura, (5) Kachha• Castes. Fa, (6) Varaha, (7) Kumbhira, etc.

•--~ ,.-, ' 1/ ', ~ .:~ # '-- a,~ .--7·-_,,,, ,·

,.; -~:-' , ~P---MP-11 (:. &R. W.) 3-1,000-28-7-1969

.f~ ,' ,J;,;':, ·" -.-,,.. 49 ' \ ~• . -~ _ _ . _ . ~- ,d to anthro- \ TheStatement abo~t owne!sh1~ and oth_er p~r!~' expedifr_i~ ly. newspaper entitled Adibasi as require · tef'1>e p~ _ lnot under rule 8 of the Registration/ f ewspaper . ~ti, _ , (Central) Rules, / 56 ) Yf~ / \)f FORM IV . . -.\·.~\:· · ·_ ·1. I Place of publication ; . Tribai Research Bureau, Bhubaneswar-I, district Puri.

2. Periodicity of its publication Quarterly

3. Printer's name Superintendent, Orissa Go• vernment Press, Cuttack.

Nationality Indian

Address Madhupatna, Cuttack-j

4. Publisher's name Director of Tribal Researqh~~ -'- - Bureau, Government &f1t\." Orissa. u

Nationality Indian

Address Bhubaneswar-I I ~. - 5. Editor's name ( I) R. N. Das, I.A.s., Director of Tribal Research Bureau-cum• Secretary to Government, T. & R. W. Department.

(2) N. Das, Assistant Director, Tribal Research ~~

,,. Nationality Indian - - --.. /

Address Bhubaneswar, Orissa (In(ja)~ J - ·\-_-_- - -_-- - ~/_"'Y_. __ - _v-.,,.. -✓ -0.. I.;' . I . 1 \ \: ~ - ~~;,t' f ~ . -----~ _ 5~" "l!;;!llla:i~:IIIDll:lllft!l)llft!ill\DWwnlilil!IDlffl~ uainr!ft//)IUftlDIJftlOFwaw~. ~~ '•\· , \, \ ,-' A D I B A S I · · ' .!.I ''-8'~f tlb.;_· · . ·. -'"\ '-';, ,", J - :...... 1 'l>,, tf~: ~' DP Ji\ *****"' ._ f\~. . -- f ~ / ,;:?.--;~~e, \ l.U3ti= ~~- quarterly p~dical published by the ll f 2!·.·.·I Trikl Research Bur. ea. u., B. hu. ba.. n· e.swa.r, O. ris·.s · .. a· 1·.l . :~ 7 every yes.~ in April, July, O~to~er and Janua~y. i:L · t It contains papers and findings on social. j 1 scien,ce, emphasizing tribal problems of Oris Sa" Ii I Adibasi invites contribution r-i;~m persons ,J 1I1 i~terested in _Anthropology, Socio:t~Y, Ethno- i~ rl history and tribal problems. <-,; . • i: \· I • I l I Manu_script_s sent for publication_ must _be lf ~. I typewritten in double space on one side of the~[l :(JI _paper. Ea.ch contributor will be given twenty- Ii I /~.. 1,,1} ,;.five copies of off-prillts .and Rs. 25 · 00 for·,\ ½~tj each standard article. 11 lts~{i(1::'." ~N;ew contr1bu~ors a~e r equdr ed to send manu- Ii frtii~de~cri.,pts along with their antecedent. I J . All correspond~nce should be addressed to l(t . I the Edi tors, Adiba~i, Tribal Research Bureau, lj ;_ Bhubaneswar, Qrissa. I.,~ I Annual subscription of the Journal: ,1:r ·I . . . - I Rs.16'00 Inland. I) I Rs. 20 · 00 Foreign. .I) § . (This is subject to revision) • Jl L Back Ls s ues are also available for sale I I ~~~\l~si is also supplied on exchange basis I :\ -~-<1 -· o-. . .· ~· I11J ~~lun~-,,mnan~11-_ , _ nii_U. _ _!fl m_.iiUtti1MuiiUtti!ll1MttluiiUttiLrnQ!!!lmQl!llffl!lilffllUiiU!flllnMtl!lffllllffl!lglllfflllllll! j

I '"'-' ' -is.12te~~ -6vernment · . . P~ Nladhupatna,'.' Cuttack-S / -i•. ·1 1~' .. ,, 6:.,-·, ~-\ I I ~ .

4"':_,.-__ ·'•--