5 Editorial 75 Ghiyasuddin Tughlaq 6 Age : From 750 A.D. to 1200 A.D. 75 Mohammad-Bin-Tughlaq 6 Origin of and Prominent Rajput 77 New Political Policies and Administrative Dynasties Principles of State under Mohammad 7 Rashtrakut Dynasty Tughlaq 8 Pratiharas 77 Firoz Shah Tughlaq 8 Pala Dynasty 78 Feroz Shah Tughlaq’s—Religious Policy and Public Works 9 Tripartite Struggle 79 Indian Kingship and the Effect of the 11 Other Prominent Rajput States Disintegration of Sultanate 15 Political Condition of the Rajputs 79 Nature of State : Political Thought and 17 Political Views and Institutions Institutions 22 Trade and Commerce 81 Impact of Islam on Indian Culture 24 Agriculture and Land System 82 Economy of Thirteenth and Fourteenth 25 Art, Religion and Philosophy Century 27 Religion and Philosophy 83 Caste System and Slavery During Sultan- 27 Education, Literature and Art of Rajput ate Period Period 84 Change in Technology 28 Shankaracharya 84 Architecture of Early Sultanate Period 30 The Chola Empire 86 Important Facts to Remember 32 The Chola Rulers as Builders and Patrons 91 Vijaynagar Empire of Art 99 Bahamani State 32 The Chola Administration 101 Religious Movements of 15th and 16th 35 Indo-Arab Relations Centuries 37 Invasion of Mahmud Ghaznavi of India 101 Sufism of Mysticism 39 Alberuni’s Description of India 102 Bhakti Movement—Nature and Relevance 40 Invasion of Mohammed Ghori of India of the Saints of the Bhakti Movement 105 Role of the Vaishnava Revivalists and 41 Memorable Facts Their Work 42 Objective Questions 106 Emergence of Regional States in Fifteenth 58 Medieval Period : From 1200 to 1707 and Early Sixteenth Century 58 Historians of Medieval India and their 108 Foundation of Mughal Empire in North Historical Texts India 61 Foundation of Delhi Sultanate in North India 123 Jahangir 66 Circumstances and Causes for the Estab- 125 Shahjahan lishment of Muslim Rule 127 Aurangzeb 68 Muslim Impact on Indian Society 148 The 71 Khalji Empire 161 Memorable Points 74 Tughlaq Dynasty 167 Objective Questions

Medieval India / 3 NurtureNurture GoodGood ThoughtsThoughts

state is considered to be the gift of We seldom realise that our thoughts affect not only those the best cultural and political thought with whom we come into contact, but also the nature of the modern age. The Indian outside. Though vibrations have immense potential of thinkers have visualised the welfare creating bad or good outside environment, thoughts do state as Ram-Rajya, which has been deeply affect our nervous system. Our evil thoughts will beautifully described by Tulsidas in cause harm to us first, somebody else later. In order to Ramcharitmanas. have a healthy life, we should nurture good thoughts. We The effect of good thoughts is must at all cost stop thought pollution which does no good not limited to human life but also it to anybody, but harms one and all. All of us like to live in affects the outer atmosphere and the an atmosphere free of the negative thoughts like jealousy, behaviour of nature. cunningness, fraud, deceit, treachery, malice, distrust and We want to solve these pro- fear. Let us inculcate healthy and positive thoughts so as blems on political and social levels, to make the environment livable to all. while they are concerned with moral aspect or formation of ideas. Evil These days environmental pollu- the other side can be understood with thoughts induce evil behaviour. On tion is a subject of universal concern the help of the example given here examining the hearts of cunning among the thinkers. Various maga- below. Once a king went in a garden people we will find a sea of fraud, zines and journals are full of material to take rest. Without introducing tricks and cunningness. The psycho- concerning the subject. The main himself he asked the gardener to logists after examining minutely the idea behind it is that the danger give him some water to drink—The human behaviour have come to the posed by environmental pollution is gardener plucked a pomegranate and conclusion that the thoughts greatly more damaging than that of the presented its juice in a tumbler to the affect the behaviour and health of the atomic blasts. Out of the discussions king. The king was surprised to see person. We know it too well that the idea comes up that the human life that the juice of a pomegranate had anger makes the man lose himself pollutes the environment. The trees filled the whole tumbler. The king and even makes him mad. Jealousy purify the environment. The environ- made up his mind that he would levy makes a man very narrow–minded. It mental pollution affects adversely suitable tax on this garden as these is said that thoughts of Jealousy and both human life and trees. fruits must be a source of a great anger even adversely affect the flow of blood and emotions of malice and While talking of environmental income. hatred make the man intolerant and pollution we centralise our thoughts After some time the king called bad tongued. Hundreds of years ago on the physical life and the things the gardener and said, “give me one the Upanishads declared that the which create pollution. Subtle world more tumbler of juice.” The gardener negative thoughts destroy the power or subtle causes of pollution are often was surprised to see that this time and potential of the person. ignored. We miss the point that the juice of the fruit could fill only half our thoughts affect environment on a the tumbler. He immediately ques- The Australian thinker Bishop wider scale. We often read such con- tioned, “Are you a king and have an Lead-Beater in his book, ‘Thought clusions of research that the milch evil eye on my garden ?” The king forms’, has dealt with thought forms animals yield more milk and trees go had to say yes. The king silently went at length in the book. Persons coming better in an atmosphere replete with from there. into our contact leave some effect without uttering a word. But why ? It music and trees also give more fruits. Do we ever think that our pollu- is due to the thought forms created by Even then we remain indifferent to- ted thoughts may be behind the them. wards thought pollution. whirlwind, storms, accidents and Thought motivates all actions other disturbances of nature. Our evil Evil thoughts create bad effect and also determines the outline of all thoughts take us to the evil actions. and healthy thoughts create healthy activities. And for our evil actions they create effect. Our young men will do well to Our personality is formed accord- desired atmosphere also. Jealousy, realize the power of thought forms ing to our thought so much so that malice, hatred, classstruggle etc. which are our life and blood and they our physical body is deeply affected have created the painful atmosphere will always try to have healthy by our thought power. of plunder, murder, terror, insecurity thoughts. This would make them Thoughts create vibrations in the etc. The government full of goodwill lovable and dear to all those who atmosphere which affect other per- and without economic inequalities is come into their contact. sons. How the thought forms affect called the welfare state. The welfare ●●●

Medieval India / 5 RAJPUTRAJPUT AAGEGE

(From 750 A.D. to 1200 A.D.)

by the fact that Rajputs of Origin of Rajputs and Prominent Bundelkhand originated from the Gonds. The famous queen Durgawati Rajput Dynasties belonged to this Gond tribe. The modern historians do not give any importance to this theory although The mid of the 7th century A.D., There in the early years of the sixth there are many supporting proofs. present a changing scenario and century A.D. These Khazars were 4. Origin from Fire (Agni- carves out certain amaging facts. The known to the Indians as ‘Gurjaras.’ kund) suzerainty of Harsha Vardhan over 2. Theory of Descent from the entire North India was a land Kshatriya Heroes This theory was propounded by mark in Indian history. The way he Chandbardai in his book ‘Prithviraj Some Indian scholars do not brought under his sway, different Raso’. According to this theory some agree to the theory of foreign origin states to establish one organised state Rajput clans believe that their fore- of Rajputs. They assert that the origin was remarkable feast but in the fathers were born from the holy fire of Rajputs came from Suryavanshi absence of able and worthy succes- burnt on the Abu Mountains. Accord- and Chandravanshi Khashtriyas. The sors, the entire north India was divi- ing to it when Parshuram killed all main protagonist of this theory are ded into small estates and it remained Kshatriyas and there remained no Vaidya and Ojha etc. They assert that divided till 12th century. In the Kshatriya on the earth to protect the Anthropology, Totems and other meantime, many small estates sprang Brahmins, the Brahmins burnt holy factors emphasize upon the fact that up in western India. All of these fire on mount Abu and performed the origin of Rajputs has been from estates were called ‘Rajput estates Yajna for forty days. They prayed to the indigenous heroes and not from and the main region where the Rajput God to grant them for their security a foreign races. They have supported dynasties ruled was, in course of heroic race. Ultimately their prayer time, designated as Rajasthan. The their views as under— yielded results and four heroes were Rajputs were brave, fearless and self- (i) Many traditions of the Rajputs born of the Agni Kund (fire place). respecting people. It is difficult to resemble the Aryan traditions. These four heroes founded four line- trace as to who were the Rajputs and age of , Chalukyas, Parmars how did they rise to power. The (ii) The physical constitution of Rajputs is like Aryans. and Pratihars. Some historians do not historians have propounded a number agree to it. They assert the possibility of theories regarding their origin. (iii) The rulers of Mewar, Jaipur of a big Yajna performed on mount Main principle theories of their origin and Bikaner etc. feel proud on their Abu for converting the foreign races which can be relied on are as under— Aryan ancestry. They consider them- to Hinduism. No proofs have been 1. Foreign Origin selves as Suryavanshi or the descen- available to support this view. And so dant of Ram. the origin of Rajputs is still a contro- There as occasional reference to (iv) The fire worship among the versy. the ‘Gurjaras’ in the record of the Rajputs came from the Aryans and early period which enable us to trace not from the foreign races. The 5. Most Plausible Theory of their existence as from the latter part Indian literature refers to fire worship Mixed Origin of the sixth century A.D. According among the Aryans before the rise of to Cunningham they were the des- Buddhism. It was not a tradition Though all the above mentioned cendents of the Kushans or Gushans. exclusively among the foreigners. theories have some truth, still no AMT Jackson propounds another single theory completely satisfies the theory about their origin. He points (v) Likewise the traditions of historians. Historians like V.A. Smith out that a tribe known as the Khazars Sacrifice and Yajana existed among conclude that, “Rajput is a mixed lived in South Armenia and Media in the Aryans. race.” Some Rajput castes were the the fourth century A.D. The Arab 3. Theory of Descent from descendants of foreign aggressors writers believed that the Khazars Original Inhabitants of like Saka, Kushans and Huns and were Geo-regions. A Georgian tradi- some were the descends of ancient tion relates that the Georgian king India Kshatriya clans who could wield Vakhtang (469AD–500AD) led an Some scholars hold that the sword efficiently and fought in the army to India. About this time the castes of Rajputs who mainly lived battle field with extraordinary cour- white Huns also invaded India. It near Vindhyachal mountain, have age, began to be called as Rajputs seems that the Khazars along with originated from the original inhabi- transformed into a social group were the Hun poured into India and settled. tants of India. This theory is supported the Rajputs.

Medieval India / 6 In the words of V. A. Smith, ‘the Kirtivarman II and thus brought the wars were against the Pratiharas and term Rajput is used for such a social end of Chalukya empire. Encouraged Eastern Chalukyas. He wanted to put human group who had no reference by this, he defeated the Gangas who his grandson on the Chola thron but to caste and blood relations. They are were ruling in Mysore. Southern all in vain. known only as a war loving race who Konkan was also conquered. Great Indra III possess sovereignty and the Brahmins conqueror, Krishna was equally great designate them as Kshatriyas.’ as builder. He got a magnificent Grandson of Krishna II, he ruled According to V. A. Smith, the Rajputs temple of Shiva constructed at Ellora. from 940 AD to 968 AD. He un- were born of various races and castes. The temple is considered to be a successfully attacked Cholas in 943 marvel of architecture. AD but the attempt was foiled. But he defeated them in the battle RASHTRAKUT Govinda II DYNASTY of Takkolam and marched upto Worthy son of Krishna I, Rameshwaram. He also marched into The southern neighbours of the Govinda II was a fun loving king and Bundelkhand. He led an expedition Traikutakas were the Rahtrakutas he practically left the whole empire to Malwa. He usurped a large part of who rose into prominence during the to the care of his younger brother Chola Kingdom. last quarter of the 4th century A.D. Dhruva. Kotting Their original home was Lattalura, Dhruva modern Latur in the Osmanabad dis- During his reign, Parmara king trict of Maharashtra. The founder of Dhruva, served his elder brother Singaka reached Malked, in Rashtra- the dynasty is said to be Nannaraja Govinda II faithfully as a governor of kuta capital. he imperial capital was whose rule extended from 630 AD to Nasik and Khandesh. But his ambi- completely ransacked. 650 AD. He selected the eagle as the tion compelled him to seize the Karakka II throne for himself. He ruled from 780 insignia of the family, which was Taila II, who was as feudatory of by his successors. Nanaraja AD to 793 AD. He wanted to rule accepted the Rashtrakutas revolted in 973 AD was succeeded by Dantivarman, over the entire Northern India. He and defeated Karakka II In 975 AD. who ruled from 665 AD to 700 AD. defeated Vatsaraja, the Pratihara It was under these circumstances that Dantivarman ws succeeded by his ruler. He also defeated Dharmapala the Rashtrakutas disappeared from son and grandson. His grandson was of the Pala dynasty. The ruler of the history. succeeded by his son Karkkaraja Vengi was humbled. He brought the from 700 AD to 715 AD. He was Rashtrakuta power to its zenith. ADMINISTRATION staunch Vaishavite. Indra, the son of Govinda III Dantivarman was highly amitious Central though he remained feudatory of Like Dhruva, he was also an The head of all the administra- comtempory Chalukya emperor, he ambitious ruler like Dhruva. He tive affair was the king. It was extended his principality north wards, defeated Nagabhatta II to put his own hereditary and the crown usually which included the majority of the nominee on the throne. Govinda III passed to the eledest and sometimes Marathi speaking districts of Madhya advanced as far as the Himalayas. He to the ablest one. A group of minis- Pradesh. he forcibly married a was unrivalled in courage general- ters, consists of Prime Minister, Chalukya Princess, named Bhava- ship, statemanship and marital exp- Foreign Minister, Revenue Minister, naga. loits. Treasures, Chief Justice, Commander Dantidurga Amoghavarsha in Chief and Purohita, helped the king in the performance of his Son of Indra, Dantidurga began Govinda III was succeeded by administrative duties. his carrier as a feudatory of Chalu- his son Amoghavarsha who ruled kyas. He was very strong and laid the from 814 AD to 878 AD. There were Provincial foundation of lasting empire. He was dissensions in the royal family and The Rashtrakuta empire was given the title of Prathvivallabha. consequently there was a lot of trou- divided into several Provinces or He destroyed the Gurjara Kingdom ble. But he won a decisive victory Rashtras, which were further divided of Nandipuri. He led an expedition over the Eastern Chalukyas in a into Vishyas or districts, which in into Malwa. He brought eastern battle of vengavalli. He then turned turn were divided in bhuktis. The Madhya Pradesh under his control. his attention to the Gangas and bhuktis were further divided into Ultimately he became the master of crushed them. His reign was long but small groups of 10 to 20 villages. central and southern Gujarat, whole lacked vigour and brilliance of his The provinces were headed by of Madhya Pradesh and Berar. By father and grandfather. In his later Rashtrapati. He was also an incharge defeating the Chalukya ruler Kirti- life he was attracted towards Jainism. of revenue administration and were varman II became the master of He was devotee of Mahalaxami. responsible for the tax collection. whole of Maharashtra. Krishna II Vishyas were headed by Vishya- Krishna I He succeeded his father Amogh- pati and Bhogapati at Tehsil level. He ruled from 758 to 773 AD. varsha and ruled for 32 years from They performed their duties of He defeted the reorganised forces of 878 AD to 914 AD. His important revenue collection.

Medieval India / 7 Village administration was carr- Nagbhatta I was the first signifi- The Arabian author writes about ied on by the village headman and cant ruler who started this dynasty. Bhoj that, “This king keeps a big the village accountant. The headman He defended the western India from army. No king had such a best cavalry was responsible for maintaining law the onslaught of the Arab invaders. as his. No other state in India was safe and order. The headman had a local He captured the Gurjar state of and secure from the dacoits as his militia at his disposal. Nandipur. He gave to his successor a state.” Military mighty empire in which Malwa, After him, his son Mahendrapal I Rajputana and Gujarat were included. ruled from 885 to 910 A.D. He con- The Rashtrakutas were very After Nagbhatta I, Kakkuk and ambitious and no wonder they did all quered a large portion of Bihar and Devraj ascended the throne but they Bengal. It seems that he suffered a that they could to make their military were not very influential rulers. The machine powerful and effient. The defeat at the hands of the king of son of Devraj named Vatsaraj became Kashmir. maintained big and powerful armies a powerful king and he ascended the fulfil their aspirations. throne in 778 A.D. He included After Mahendrapal, his son Revenue Malwa and Rajputana in his empire. named Bhoj II ascended the throne, Vatsaraj seized the kingdom of the but his step brother Mahipal deposed In Rashtrakuta empire, there Bhandi people, which was perhaps him. Mahipal ruled from 912 to 944 were many sources of revenue. included in Kannauj. He defeated the A.D. During his tenure, Indra III Jeudatories contributed their share in ruler of Bengal named Dharampal and destroyed Kannauj. The Pala rulers the form of tributes. Besides, land tax seized even his crown. took the advantage and extended, brough in a huge amount of money. their kingdom on the east bank of It was me-fourth of the praduce. Taking advantage of the time, the Rashtrakut ruler Dhruva invaded river ‘Son. ’ Yet Mahipal again estab- Taxes on fruits, vegetables etc. were lished his stronghold over his empire. also collected. upon Vatsaraj and defeated him. He was forced to take refuge in the After Mahipal’s death, Rajyapal Religion(s) Desert. Nothing is known about successfully ruled his kingdom since The worship of Siva and Vishnu Vatsaraj after he was defeated by 948 A.D. He was the last famous king was popular Besides, many Brahma- Dhruva. Possibly, his empire re- of Pratihara dynasty. When the army nical sacrifices were performed mained centralized in Rajputana. of Mahmud Ghazni entered the city during this period. Temples were The son of Vatsaraj, Nagbhatt II of Kannauj he fled away out of fear. constructed to instal images. The ruled from 805 to 833 A.D. He tried Ghazni not only plundered the city only important temple of this period to reinstate the lost glory of the but also destroyed beautiful buildings is Shiva temple at Ellora. Jainism Pratihar dynasty. He was defeated by and temples. This act of cowardice was patronised by Amoghavarsha I, the Rashtrakut ruler Govind III. offended the Rajputs who killed him but Buddhism had witnessed a steep Nagbhatt II defeated Chakrayudh of and enthroned his son Trilochanapala. fall during this period. Kannauj. He captured the hill forts of He too was defeated by Mahmud Ghazni. Yashopal was perhaps, the Art the kings of Aavert, Malwa, Kirat, Vatsa, Matsya and Tumshka. It is said last ruler of this dynasty. The Pratihar The Rashtrakutas made a that Nagbhatt II went in hybernation kingdom was divided among the splendid contribution to the Indian due to fear of Govind III. The Pala Chalukyas of Anhilwara, Chandels art. The rock-cut shrines at Ellora and rulers got an opportunity to extend of Jaijakbhukti, Chedi of Kalchuri, Elephanta belong to this period. The their empire. Rambhadra, the son of Parmars of Malwa, Guhils of eastern temple of Kailasa at Ellora is the Nagbhatt II ascended the throne after Rajputana and Chauhans of Shakam- most extensive and sumptuous. The him. bhari. sculptured panels of Dasavatara, The son of Rambhadra named Bhairava, Ravana shaking. The Mihirbhoj ruled from 836 A.D. to PALA DYNASTY mount Kailasa, dancing Shiva, 885 A.D. During the reign of king Vishnu and Laxmi listening to music Bhoja, the Pratihara dynasty was at It is significant that the Palas do are superb. the zenith of its glory. Within a few not trace their descent from any years he strengthened the empire and ancient hero. We merely learn from GURJAR PRATIHARAS established his suzerainty upto the an inscription discovered at Khalum- region of Himalaya. Later, he thought pur that the Pala dynasty, so called The Pratihars, to which Nag- of taking revenge with Devpala but because the name of all its members bhatta 11 belonged, appears to have his pride was shattered away by had the termination—Pala, sprang been of foreign extraction. Indeed the Devpala. Then, Bhoja changed the from one Dayitavinsu, whose son Phrase “Gurjara—Pratiharanvayah” direction of his expeditions towards i.e. Partihara clan of Gurjaras occur- south. He subjugated the regions of was Vapyata, Probably this shows ing in the line four of the Rajore Narmada. In 867 A.D. he was defea- that the family rose from humble stone inscription indicates that they ted by the Rashtrakut ruler, Dhruva II. beginnings, and had no illustrious were a branch of the famous Mihirbhoj had to wage war upon ancestry. Later on, however, attempts Gurjaras. One of these central Asian Krishna II and the struggle continued were made to connect it with sea or tribes poured into India. for a long time. the Sun.

Medieval India / 8 The foundation of Pala dynasty In this battle, Dharampal was defeat- the Kalchuri ruler Karnadev. But the about the middle of the 8th century ed. Nagbhatta, after some time, was Professor of Vikramshila Deepankar A.D. marks a new epoch in the defeated by Govind III. So Dharampal Shri Gyan gave shelter to Karna. The history of Bengal. After the death of did not bear a heavy loss. In ruler of Kosala, Mahasiv Gupta also Shashank about a century, there was Swayambhoo Puran, it is referred had to face Nepal’s invasion. lack of a central authority in Bengal that Dharampal conquered Nepal and During the time of Vigrahpal III, for Political instability continued. adopted the title of ‘Parmeshwar, clashes between the Pals and the Due to political uncertainty there Param Bhattarak’ and ‘Maharaja- Kalchuris became the order of the prevailed anarchy in entire Bengal. It dhiraj’. Dharampal founded the day. Karnadev again invaded the Pal was urgently felt in Bengal that a Vikramshila University and built the ruler but he himself was defeated. He central authority was required. The Sompur Vihar. He established the married his daughter, Yovanshree to people selected Gopal through a Odantpur Buddhist Vihar which Vigrahpal III. In 1068 A.D. the ‘Sabha’ (Great meeting) and en- earned great reputation. Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya VI throned him as king. Gopal removed After Dharampal, his son Devpal defeated Vigrahpal III who died in all anarchy and successfully ruled ruled from 810 to 850 A.D. He 1070 A.D. After him three rulers— over Bengal from 750 A.D. to 770 extended his empire and established Mahipal II, Sukhpal and Rampal A.D. He became the founder of Pal his power in north India. He con- became kings, but Sukhpal ruled only dynasty in Bengal. He was a quered Pragjyotishpur and defeated for two years and Rampal was the Kshatriya. His empire was extended the Gurjar and Dravida rulers. His last successful ruler of this dynasty. in eastern Bengal. The historian brother Jaipal and other family He had defeated the leader of Kaivert Lama Taranath writes that Gopal members were his main supporters. named Bhim. He had also invaded built the famous monastery or Rambhadra, the son of Nagbhatta II upon Kamrup and Kalinga. Yadav ‘Vihar’ of Odantpur. and Amoghvarsh, his grandson were Verma tried to secure his protection. Dharampal who succeeded Gopal defeated by Devpal. He was a great Rampal jumped into Ganges and was a brave and illustrious king of patron of Buddhism. He provided died. Pala dynasty. He ruled from 710 to shelter to the Buddhist monks. He Kumarpal succeeded Rampal. 810 A.D. He had to his credit many donated five villages for the mainte- His minister Vidyadeva suppressed achievements. He sent military expe- nance of Vihar constructed by the rebellion which ocurred in Kamrup ditions to some foreign countries. Balputradeva. Devpal built a number of Vihars and temples of Buddha. and then established his independent During his time, the Rashtrakuta and Kingdom there. All rulers were in- After Devpal, Vigrahpal ascend- Pratihar rulers were busy in consoli- capable and weak after Rampal. The ed the throne. He abducted the throne dating their strength and expanding rise of feudal lords into independent their kingdom. It was quite obvious after three or four years and became a rulers and the emergence of Vijay Sen Sanyasi. After him, Narayanpal be- that both of them had to clash with limited the Pala dynasty. The last of came the king and ruled about fifty Dharampal. Dharampal invaded the Pala rulers was Govindpal whose years. The kingdom faced many ups Kannauj and defeated Indrayudh. He reference has been found in an and downs and at a time his kingdom had enthroned Chakrayudh on the inscription of 1175 A.D. throne of Kannauj. His suzerainity shrunk to the region of Bengal only. was acknowledged by Bhoj, Matsya, In his later years, he reconquered the Bhadra, Kuru, Yadu, Yavan, Avanti lost territories. In 908 A.D., just be- TRIPARTITE and Gandhar states. Dharampal estab- fore his death he established his STRUGGLE lished his power in north India. He is power in Bihar and Bengal. called ‘Swami’ of north. Yet he could After Narayanpal, three kings In the early decades of 8th not rule peacefully. The Pratihar king ruled upto 988 A.D. They were century, Kannauj was ruled by Vatsaraj defeated him in the Doab of Rajpal, Gopal II and Vigrahpal II. Ayudh rulers. They were too weak in Ganga and Yamuna and Vatsaraj took Mahipal I, the son of Vigrahpal ruled comparison to their contemporaries away the royal insignia—Rajchhatra. from 988 to 1038 A.D. In his like Gurjar Pratihars, Palas and the Vatsaraj was defeated by the kingdom, the states of Divajpur, Rashtrakuts and they were bound to Rashtrakut ruler Dhruva. He had to Muzzaffarpur, Patna, Gaya and bow before them. All of them had a run away to the Desert for taking Tibwera were included. He conquered tempting eye on Kannauj. It led to refuge. Afterwards Dhruva defeated north Bengal. In Sarnath inscription, regular conflict between the three Dharampal II. However, he could not it is referred that Mahipal built powers. The conflict has been desig- do much harm to Dharampal. When Gandhkuti. During his rule Rajendra nated by the historians as Tripartite Dhruva returned to south, Dharampal Chola invaded north India between struggle. This struggle continued for again established his power in north 1021 and 1025 A.D. He defeated about a century in an uncommon and India. Govind Chandra and Mahipal. In last interesting manner. Kannauj was After some years, Dharampal had days of his rule, the Kalchuri ruler sometimes under one authority and to face the Pratihar ruler Nagbhatta Gangeydev invaded upon him and sometimes under the other. After who conquered Kannauj. Near defeated him. about a struggle of hundred years, Moongher, a fierce battle was fought After Mahipal, Nayapal ruled ultimately the Gurjar Pratihars suc- between Dharampal and Nagbhatta. from 1038 to 1055 A.D. He defeated ceeded in conquering Kannauj.

Medieval India / 9 Yet, only the ascendancy of from them. For this, they could not in his place. The ascendancy of Kannauj was not the reason of this find a better and safer place than Kannauj went to Pal rulers. long struggle. In fact the ambitions of Kannauj. They were impatient to The Gurjar Pratihars could not the three great powers clashed with occupy this prosperous region. It may bear it. They defeated Chakrayudh each other and all of them were be remembered that Malwa was under under the leadership of Nagbhatt, the desirous of being known as the the Gurjar Pratihars. The southern son of Vatsaraj and occupied Master of north India. So they used to quarrel mutually . limits of Malwa state touched the Kannauj. It was a great challenge for Rashtrakuta kingdom. The Rash- Dharampal and he accepted it. He During Harsha’s time, Kannauj trakuts were already interfering in the made preparations and fought with occupied an important reputation in politics of north India. They had be- the Gurjar Pratihars near Moongher. north India. In Gupta age, the impor- come very powerful. This also gave Dharampal was badly defeated. How- tance of Patliputra was supreme and the reason to Gurjar Pratihars to ever the success of Nagbhatt was the same status was occupied by occupy Kannauj. short lived. Hardly the Pratihar king Kannauj in this era. It was the symbol The tripartite struggle started could celebrate his victory, the of prosperity and culture. It was situ- with the defeat of Indrayudh and Rashtrakut ruler Govind III attacked ated besides the Ganga and from the Kannauj at the hands of Vatsaraj. The and badly defeated him breaking their river-trade point, it was very impor- Pal ruler, Dharampal was also dream of occupying the ascendancy tant place in between north and desirous to extend his suzerainity to of Kannauj. An inscription of central India. It was very fertile due north India. This led to the compu- Rashtrakuts tells that Dharampal and to its situation in the midst of Ganga lsion of a struggle between Dharam- Chakrayudh invited the Rashtrakut and Yamuna. So the Gurjar Pratihars pal and Vatsaraj. In the meantime, king Govind III against their enemy and Palas were restless to occupy it. the Rashtrakut king Dhruva also Nagbhatt II. After this conquest of Rashtrakuts, keen to unfurl their invaded north India. He first defeated Govind III against Gurjar Pratihars, conquest flag in north India, used to the Gurjar Pratihar and drove Dharampal and Chakrayudh both fight with these two powers. It there- Vatsaraj to Rajputana. Afterwards he surrendered to the Rashtrakut king fore assumed the shape of a tripartite defeated Dharampal in the plains of just to win his sympathy. Gobind III struggle. It is notable that by partici- Doab, situated in the midst of Ganga attained this victory about 809 and pating in these wars, Rashtrakuts and Yamuna. For the ascendancy of 810 A.D. became the first southern power to Kannauj, a long struggle thus started. interfere in the politics of north India The interference of the Rash- After the defeat of Nagbhatt II, and the first southern power to attack trakuts in the politics of north India, the Pratihar power degenerated for north India. They played the same proved of immediate benefit to some time. When Govind III went role as later was played by the Dharampal because after the defeat back to south, Dharampal and his son Marathas in 18th century. of Gurjar Pratihars at the hands of Devpal seized the opportunity to To establish their ascendancy Rashtrakuts had led to a fall in their recapture the north India. After the upon Kannauj, the Gurjar Pratihars prestige and power. When the death of Dharampal, Nagbhatt II were very keen and restless. The Rashtrakut ruler Dhruva returned to again cultivated the desire to conquer Rashtrakuts had become all powerful south India after his conquest of Kannauj. After capturing it, he made and were hammering regulary on the north, Dharampal snatched the oppor- Kannauj as the new kingdom of the Gurjar Pratihars. So they decided to tunity to invade Kannauj. He defeated Pratihar empire. The changed cir- establish themselves at a distance Indrayudh and enthroned Chakrayudh cumstances favoured him. The Rashtrakuts were facing internal Tripartite Rulers trouble due to mutual conflict in their state and external dangers. Amogh- Pala Rulers Pratihara Rulers Rashtrakuta Rulers varsh, their king was not a good commander and conqueror like his 1. Dharampala 1. Vatsaraj 1. Dhruva father. He was a peace loving ruler. (780-815 A.D.) (783 A.D.) (779-793 A.D.) The Gurjar Pratihars had occupied 2. Devapala 2. Nagabhatta 2. Govinda III Kannauj and had become the (815-855 A.D.) (815 A.D.) (793-813 A.D.) supreme power in north India due to 3. Vighrapala 3. Rambhadra 3. Amoghavarsha the exit of Rashtrakuts from this (855-860 A.D.) (814-877 A.D.) struggle and due to the Pal ruler’s 4. Naryanpala 4. Bhoja 4. Krishna II adopting Buddhism. However, their enemity did not end and the struggle (860-915 A.D.) (836-885 A.D.) (877-914 A.D.) continued. As a result of this strug- 5. Mahendrapala gle, Pratihars ultimately assumed (885-910 A.D.) power in the north India.

Medieval India / 10 Virasena. Senas, as they are termed as Brahma-Kshatriyas which signi- Other Prominent Rajput States fies that the Senas were at first Brahmans, but subsequently adopted the military profession and became Chandelas of Jijakbhukti Kshatriyas. There is no definite view accep- Besides being a great ruler and Vijayasena—Grandson of Sa- ted by mall the historians regarding conqueror, Bhoja was a great poet, manta sena, brought the family into their origin. Different theories pro- scholar and a lover of art and liter- prominence during his long reign of pounded about their origin are as ature. He has been described as over sixty two years. Vijayasena follows : Kavirai. His wife Arundhati was also drove out the Palas from Northern a great scholar. He accorded patron- Bengal. He extended his authority 1. Inscriptional evidence describe age to scholars like Dharampala, over Eastern Bengal also. He defea- them as the Kshatriyas of Chandra- Solhara and poetess Sita. After Bhoja ted a number of his contemporaries, vansi. According to Chandbardai, many rulers succeeded him but all the chief among them being Nanya- they were born out of a Brahmin girl were weak and incapable. In 1135 deva of Tirhut and the kings of Hemavati and Moon. According to A.D. Malwa was captured by the Kamarupa and Kalinga. V. A. Smith they were mixture of Chalukya ruler, Jai Singh Siddhraj. Vallalsena Gonds, Bhars and Gahadvals. Till 1155 A. D. Malwa remained —He succeeded his under Chalukyas. But Vindhya son, Vallalasena, whose mother was 2. The original home of the vilasadevi, a princes of the sura line Chandellas were Khajuraho, Chhat- Verman of the Parmar clan defeated the Chalukya king Moolraj II and of western Bengal. Traditions affirm tarpur, Mahoba, Kalinjar, Rajgarh etc. that he introduced Kulirism and re- Nannuka was the first ruler of this captured again the region of Malwa. At the time of the invasion of organised the caste-system in West dynasty. The other important rulers of Bengal. this dynasty includes Vakapati, Jaya- Muhammed Ghori, Vindhya Varman ruled over Malwa. He died in 1193 Lakshmanasena—Lakshmana- sakti, Yasovarman, Ganda, Vidhya- sena or Rai Lakhmaniya was the last , Vijaipal etc. Parmardi was the A.D. In the thirteenth century, Malwa came under Muslim rule. important member of the dynasty. He last important ruler of the Chandellas is credited with extensive conquests. who was defeated by Prithviraj Chalukyas of Anhilwara But if the Moslem historians deserve . The Chalukyas are also called as any credence, he must have been 3. Chandella dynasty immensely Solankis dynasty. This state of extremely cavern hearted man, for he contributed in the field of Art and Chalukyas had much significance be- fled, as has been told, from the back architecture. Jaganika’s composition cause the foreigners (Muslims) ruled door without offering any resistance, of ‘Alaha-Udal’ is a famous book over the north-western regions of this at the approach of Mohammad ibn written during the reign of Parmardi. state. The bravest and ablest ruler of Bakhtyar Khilji. After his death, the The Chandellas are chiefly known for this dynasty was Jai Singh Siddhraj Senas continued to exercise authority the temples of Khajuraho. Fort of who ruled from 1094 to 1142 A.D. in eastern Bengal, for almost another Kalinjar, palace of Mahoba etc. He successfully tried to extend the half a century when it ultimately frontiers of his empire. After him in passed into the hands of the Moslims. The Paramaras 1143 A.D., Kumarpal became the In fact the Senas were generous In the beginning, the Pratihars king of Chalukyas. He defeated the and devout Shaiva. They took many possessed Malwa but after their king of Konkan named Mallikarjuna. tasks for the welfare of the common downfall, the Parmar dynasty cap- He also conquered the ruler of Ajmer being. They excavated an artificial tured it. Vakpati II and Bhoja were named Arnoraj. He captured lake, and built a splendid temple of two prominent kings of Parmar Saurashtra. After him Ajaypal ruled Pradyumnesvara Siva at Deopara. dynasty. Vakpati II ruled from 973 from 1173 to 1176 over this region. Besides, vallalsena was also Shaiva to 996 A.D. During his period, the His son Moolraj II, succeeded him as and he is said to have compiled two military strength of Malwa increased ruler of Anhilwara. During his time well known works, the ‘Danasagar’ much and lot of development took Mahmud Ghori attacked on India. and the Abhutasagara. Under the place in cultural field. The bound- Moolraj defeated him in a war. After guidance of his preceptor. On the top aries of his empire spread far and his death Bhim II succeeded him. He of everything, Laxman encouraged wide. After Vakpati II, Sindhuraj bravely faced the invasion of the cultivation of literary hands. ruled for some years. After Sindhuraj. Qutubuddin Aibak and forced him to Among the literary ornaments of his Bhoj became the king who was go back. court, Dhokiya, who wrote the Pavan-duta and Jaidev, the celebrated the most powerful king of this Senas author of the Gita Govinda deserve dynasty. He ruled from 1010 to 1055 The Senas, who gave the death special mention. Laxmanasena A.D. i.e., about 45 years. During his blow to the Pala power in Bengal himself was something of a poet, time, he fought many wars and con- were probably of Southern origin. because he is credited to have com- quered Chedi, Karnad, Laat, Turushk The founder of the dynasty, Saman- pleted the Adbhuta-Sagara, begun by etc. Bhoja fought throughout his life. tasena, is described as descendent of his father.

Medieval India / 11 / 2 Gurjar Pratiharas rulers and some facts about them 1. Nagbhatt I — He was the founder of the Gurjar Pratihar state. During his time, the Arabs invaded upon India. The Gwalior inscription tells that he defeated the Arabs. 2. Kakkuk — He was nephew and successor of Nagbhatt. 3. Devraj — He was younger brother of Kakkuk and a follower of Vaishnav Cult. 4. Vatsaraj — He extended the empire and conquered Rajputana and Kannauj. He conquered Dharampal. He was defeated by the Rashtrakut ruler, Dhruva. 5. Nagbhatt II — He changed the capital from Ujjain to Kannauj. He subjugated Andhra, , Vidarbh, Kaling, Malwa, Turusp and Vatsa. He was defeated by Gobind III in 802. He defeated Dharampal in Moongheyr. 6. Raj Bhadra — He was the weak successor of Nagbhatt II and many kingdoms declared their freedom. 7. Mihirbhoj — He was son of Rambhadra and he succeeded him. He adopted the title of Adi Varah and Prabhas. He defeated Bundelkhand, Guhil and Kalchuris. He conquered southen Rajputana and Saurashtra. Gunambodhideva was a feudal lord of Mihirbhoj. 8. Mahendra Pal — He was son and successor of Mihirbhoj. He defeated Pals and captured Bengal. He conquered the Rashtrakutas. He gave patronage to the poet Raj Shekhar. 9. Bhoj II — He ruled from 910 to 912 A.D. 10. Mahipal No important event occured and after him no worthy ruler occupied the throne. 11. Rajyapal — During his time, Mahmud Ghazni invaded Kannauj. He ran away and was killed by Chandela ruler Vidhya Dhar. 12. Trilochanpal — He was appointed the king under Vidya Dhar. He had to face the invasion of Mohammad Ghori.

Sindh—In 8th century the Arabs north it spread upto Peshawar and most powerful ruler of this dynasty conquered Sindh. After them Mahmud Sialkot. In 1186 Mohammad Ghori was Govind Chandra who defeated Ghazni occupied it. Later, the Sumra invaded upon the capital of Punjab the Turk aggressors. His great grand- rulers of the Shia sect captured it. i.e. Lahore and occupied it. The local son was Jai Chandra, who was the ruler Malik Khusrau was imprisoned ruler of Kannauj when Mohammad Multan—In north of Sindh, and he died in 1192. Ghori invaded India contemporary Multan is situated in western Punjab. historians have described him as a In 12th century, the Karmathian Theories of Rajput Origin powerful king of north India. He was Muslims established their kingdom in 1. Foreign Origin the last ruler of Kannauj. He was Multan. They were also Shias. When defeated by Mohammad Ghori in the Ghori invaded India, they 2. Kshatriya Origin Mohammad battle of Chandawar. were ruling over Multan. 3. Indian Origin Chedi—Kalchuris ruled over 4. Agnikul Origin Prominent Dynasties and their Chedi and their capital was Tripuri. Founders 5. Accepted view of Mixed Origin Its founder was Vamrajdev. Gangey- dev and Lakshmi Karna are consi- Parmar dynasty — Vakpati Munj Nepal—In the early 11th century, dered to be powerful rulers of this the feudal lords had become very Gahadwal dynasty — Chandra Dev dynasty. Gangeydev not only im- powerful. There were a few powerful Pala dynasty — Gopal proved his administration but ex- nobles who made their capital in Patan tended the frontiers of his state. He Sen dynasty — Vijay Sen and Bhatt villages and Kathmandu. captured Prayag and Banaras and Shahi dynasty — Kallar But in the last decade of 11th century, conquered Orissa. According to Rewa Kalchuri dynasty — Vam-Rajdeo the ruler of Tirhut, Nanyadev occu- inscription, with the blood of ele- pied Nepal. After his death the rulers Mall dynasty — Arimall Deo phants killed by the soldiers of of Nepal ruled under the suzerainity Lohar dynasty — Sangram Raj Gangeydev, the whole region of sea of Tirhut. After some years, the Mall coasts turned into mud. This state- Karkot dynasty — Durlabh Varman dynasty ruled over Nepal. It was ment testifies to the cruelty of Utpala dynasty — Avanti Varman founded by Arimalldev. Gangeydev. He died in 1041 A.D. Gurjar Pratihar — Nagbhatt I Kannauj—The Gahadwal Raj- After him, Lakshmi Karna became (Ujjani branch) puts ruled over Kannauj. In the the ruler who ruled upto 1072 A.D. beginning their state extended upto Lakshmi Karna followed the policies Punjab—Mahmud Ghazni occu- Banaras, Awadh, Allahabad and of his father and conquered many pied Punjab and since then it was an Delhi. The rulers of Gahadwal dynasty states. He was even more powerful integral part of his empire. The were brave and powerful. They con- than his father. Many other Kalchuri boundaries of Punjab were vast. In quered a number of states and ex- kings ruled after him. During the the north-east it spread upto Jammu. tended their frontiers far and wide. invasion of Mohammad Ghori, In south and south-west the frontiers They were counted as the most Vijaysingh Kalchuri ruled over often increased and decreased. In the powerful kings of north India. The Chedi.

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