Anthropology Now

“Symbolism and Resilience in the Aftermath of a Destructive Volcanic Eruption”

Samuel Weeks, M.A., Ph.D. College of Humanities and Sciences Thomas Jefferson University [email protected]

The following is the proofs version of the article. Here is the citation of the published article:

Weeks, Samuel and Vítor Popinsky 2016 “Symbolism and Resilience in the Aftermath of a Destructive Volcanic Eruption.” Anthropology Now 8(2):57-68.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19428200.2016.1202582 https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19428200.2016.1202582

1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 features volcano on the island of Fogo in the West 63 6 African republic of Cape Verde. Awful news 64 7 65 reached us via social media: After 19 years 8 66 of being dormant, Fogo’s volcano had started 9 Symbolism and Resilience 67 to erupt. 10 in the Aftermath of a 68 11 During the coming days, we followed 69 12 Destructive Volcanic intently the reports of the evacuation efort1 70 13 and the whereabouts of the expanding lava 71 14 Eruption 72 feld. Initial hopes that the fow would not 15 73 16 Samuel Weeks and Vitor Popinsky AQ1 damage the village and its surrounding farm- 74 17 land were quickly dashed. A week into the 75 18 eruption, lava submerged the recently inau- 76 19 n the afternoon of November 23, 2014, gurated headquarters of the Fogo National 77 20 we were working on tasks related to the Park and was threatening to engulf Portela, 78 21 O 79 feldwork we conducted in Chã das Caldeiras the larger of Chã’s two neighborhoods. After 22 80 23 from 2006 until 2013. Commonly known as a day of cautious optimism, during which the 81 24 “Chã,” this community is located inside the spread of the lava had slowed considerably, 82 25 crater of the Pico do Fogo, the 2,829-meter the village’s inhabitants confronted a horrible 83 26 84 27 85 28 86 29 87 30 88 31 89 32 90 33 91 34 92 35 93 36 94 37 95 38 96 39 97 40 98 41 99 42 100 43 101 44 102 45 103 46 104 47 105 48 106 49 107 50 Figure 1. The 2014 eruption. The neighborhood of Bangaeira before the recent eruption. Courtesy 108 51 Vitor Popinsky n. Courtesy Greta Frick/Nos Ku Nhos Association. 109 52 110 53 111 54 Samuel Weeks and Vitor Popinsky Symbolism and Resilience After Volcanic Eruption 1 112 55 113 56 Anthropology Now, 8:000–000, 2016 • Copyright © Taylor & Francis Group, LLC 114 57 ISSN: 1942-8200 print / 1949-2901 online • DOI: 10.1080/19428200.2016.1202582 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 63 6 64 7 65 8 66 9 67 10 68 11 69 12 70 13 71 14 72 15 73 16 74 17 75 18 76 19 77 20 78 21 79 22 80 23 81 24 82 25 83 26 84 27 85 28 86 29 87 30 88 31 Figure 2. The neighborhood of Bangaeira before the recent eruption. Courtesy Vitor Popinsky. 89 32 90 33 91 34 92 reality: A new lava fow had picked up force our understanding of why people initially <{{Image 1 goes here Figure 1. 2014 erup- 35 93 tion.}}> 36 and was headed squarely in the direction of decided to settle in this seemingly hostile 94 <{{Image 2 goes here Figure 2. Neighborhood 37 both Portela and Bangaeira, which is Chã’s place. We will compare a previous eruption 95 before eruption.}}> 38 other neighborhood. By December 7, 2014, in 1995 with the one in 2014 in order to dis- 96 39 this entire village — previously home to cuss the bond that exists between the people 97 40 some 700 inhabitants — had been destroyed. of Chã and the volcano. We also will attempt 98 41 99 From the beginning of the eruption, a se- to characterize how residents and commen- 42 100 43 ries of questions began to emerge in the news tators have conceptualized and explained 101 44 and on social media. People asked why res- the reasons behind the recent eruption, us- 102 45 idents would stay in Chã if they knew that ing information presented in the news and 103 46 disaster was imminent, how they coped and on social media. Finally, we will consider 104 47 made sense of the eruption and whether they the likelihood that most residents currently 105 48 106 would return to Chã now that the volcanic displaced from Chã will disobey government 49 107 50 activity had stopped. In an efort to address orders and return to living inside the crater. 108 51 these and other questions, we will share We believe that fguratively picking through 109 52 110 53 111 54 2 anthropology Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 the embers and rubble that now make up before the eruption begins. The testimony of 63 6 Chã is a necessary step to further compre- a long-time inhabitant of Chã refects local 64 7 65 hending how victims of this disaster come to sentiment when he notes that “the volcano is 8 66 9 understand the misfortune they face. more a friend to man than man is his friend 67 10 … He [the volcano] warns us before the 68 11 eruption, so we can get out of Chã.”4 69 12 “The Volcano — It’s Our Friend” 70 13 71 14 72 15 Chã das Caldeiras, the region inside Fogo’s The 1995 Eruption and Its Aftermath 73 16 active volcanic crater, was still unpopulated 74 17 at the beginning of the 20th century, even Such a warning did, in fact, precede the 1995 75 18 though it was long known that the area pos- eruption, which began on April 2, an other- 76 19 sessed reliable water sources and rich soil, wise normal day. Later that night, lava be- 77 20 78 two rarities in arid Cape Verde. The greatest gan to spew from Pico Pequeno, a smaller 21 79 22 obstacle to settlement in Chã was undoubt- crater adjacent to the main volcano. After 80 23 edly the fear of eruptions, which had oc- residents had removed as many belongings 81 24 curred regularly since the settlement of Fogo as they could from their modest homes, a few 82 25 in the late 15th century. From the mid-19th remaining inhabitants witnessed the eruption 83 26 to the early 20th centuries, however, the vol- from an elevated point nearby. Firsthand ac- 84 27 85 cano remained unusually dormant, which counts describe the event with mixed feel- 28 86 29 reduced the fear of eruptions among the in- ings, as something both magnifcently beauti- 87 2 30 habitants of Fogo. A few pioneering fami- ful and awesomely destructive. Adding to the 88 31 lies with no frsthand knowledge of previous drama during the eruption was an ofcial de- 89 32 eruptions settled in Chã in order to graze cree announcing that the government would 90 33 their livestock and grow crops in the fertile commence building houses for the people of 91 34 92 volcanic soil. Chã outside of their crater home. This worri- 35 93 36 While these frst residents undoubtedly some ruling notwithstanding, the end of the 94 37 knew that they were vulnerable to potential 1995 eruption reportedly brought relief, even 95 38 eruptions, they persisted in living inside the elation. The Portela and Bangaeira neighbor- 96 39 crater. One local explanation for this paradox hoods were spared destruction, though some 97 40 is that the volcano is “like a friend.” Accord- property owners did see their agricultural 98 41 99 ing to this line of thinking, even if eruptions lands covered by lava.5 42 100 43 destroy homes or farmland, in the end the As time passed and the lava cooled, evac- 101 44 volcano always “gives more than it takes,” uees from Chã became eager to return to 102 45 as Chã native Teodoro told the newspaper A their homes, felds and livestock. They were 103 46 Semana.3 This personifcation of the volcano shocked and angry when the Cape Verdean 104 47 as a benevolent friend seems to be reinforced government further declared that the people 105 48 106 during eruptions. The Pico do Fogo is a low- of Chã could not go back to living inside the 49 107 50 intensity Strombolian-type volcano, meaning crater. To compensate, the government hast- 108 51 that local residents will have some warning ily constructed houses for residents in two 109 52 110 53 111 54 Samuel Weeks and Vitor Popinsky Symbolism and Resilience After Volcanic Eruption 3 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 63 6 64 7 65 8 66 9 67 10 68 11 69 12 70 13 71 14 72 15 73 16 74 17 75 18 76 19 77 20 78 21 79 22 80 23 81 24 82 25 83 26 84 27 85 28 86 29 87 30 88 31 89 32 90 33 91 34 92 35 93 36 Figure 3. A local guide 94 37 with tourists climbing the 95 volcano, the 2,829-meter 38 96 Pico do Fogo. Courtesy 39 Vitor Popinsky. 97 40 98 41 99 42 100 43 villages outside the volcano. Left with few ury tourist resort. These allegations prompted 101 44 alternatives, many moved into these homes, a few intrepid locals to fout the government 102 45 but they quickly realized that this new life decree and return to their homes and felds 103 46 would be nearly impossible as they would in Chã. When the remaining population 104 47 have no access to farmland or pasture areas. followed suit, the government relented on 105 48 106 To make matters worse, rumors swirled alleg- its ban. 49 107 50 ing that the government wanted to relocate Against all odds, the post-1995 lives of 108 51 Chã’s population in order to construct a lux- Chã’s residents began to improve. In this re- 109 52 110 53 111 54 4 anthropology Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 gard, the volcano was again 63 6 their “friend.” The end of the 64 7 65 1990s and the beginning of the 8 66 9 new century brought the de- 67 10 velopment of new economic 68 11 activities, namely tourism and 69 12 viniculture. In the process, Chã 70 13 became one of the most rec- 71 14 72 ognized places in Cape Verde. 15 73 16 The 1995 eruption provided 74 17 the two elements necessary to 75 18 develop these industries: infra- 76 19 structural improvements and 77 20 international visibility. As the 78 21 79 number of people visiting the 22 80 23 crater increased, local families 81 24 began adding rooms to their 82 25 homes in order to accommo- 83 26 date tourists, who hailed pri- 84 27 marily from France and Ger- 85 28 86 many. The more adventurous 29 87 30 of these visitors came to hike 88 31 the volcano, with its spectacu- 89 32 lar views of the crater wall, sur- 90 33 rounding areas and the nearby 91 34 92 Island of Santiago. Accord- 35 Figure 4. Three locals pruning grapevines. Courtesy Vitor Popinsky. 93 36 ingly, young men and a few 94 37 women from Chã became the 95 38 village’s frst guides, leading 96 39 tourists up the treacherous trail to the summit Perhaps the most signifcant post-1995 97 40 of the volcano. Another signifcant post-1995 addition to Chã was the Fogo National Park 98 41 99 development was the construction of a new headquarters, inaugurated in March 2014 to 42 100 43 cooperative wine cellar. Aided by Italian spe- great fanfare, including a visit from the prime 101 44 cialists, this project helped to commercialize minister of Cape Verde. A team of Portuguese 102 45 local wine-making and, as a result, prompted architects designed the headquarters, pay- 103 46 the farmers of Chã to increase their cultiva- ing homage to the U-shape of the crater. Lo- 104 47 tion of vines. At harvest time, the grapes were cals constructed it using — in what would 105 48 106 <{{Images 3 and 4 go here}}> bought by the cooperative and made into become a tragic irony — volcanic materials. 49 107 50 export-quality wines to sell throughout Cape Sadly, this majestic building was the frst to 108 51 Verde and abroad. be destroyed in the recent eruption. 109 52 110 53 111 54 Samuel Weeks and Vitor Popinsky Symbolism and Resilience After Volcanic Eruption 5 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 63 6 64 7 65 8 66 9 67 10 68 11 69 12 70 13 71 14 72 15 73 16 74 17 75 18 76 19 77 20 78 21 79 22 80 23 81 24 82 25 83 26 84 27 85 28 86 29 87 30 88 31 Figure 5. Trying to save belongings from the lava fow. Courtesy Greta Frick/Nos Ku Nhos Association. 89 32 90 33 91 34 92 35 93 canic events that merely skirted the residen- 36 Local Understandings of the 94 <{{Image 5 goes here Figure 5. Truck with 37 2014 Eruption tial parts of the village. Efectively, the people 95 belongings.}}> 38 of Chã have become “landless, homeless and 96 39 The 2014 eruption of the Pico do Fogo has jobless at once.”6 97 40 amounted to an acute existential challenge To focus attention on how Chã’s residents 98 41 99 for the residents of Chã das Caldeiras. The (and others) are making sense of a calamity 42 100 43 lava fows were signifcantly larger and stron- that has brought them such anguish and suf- 101 44 ger than during previous volcanic activity. fering, we will highlight themes that have re- 102 45 The newly paved road leading into the com- curred in responses to the eruption by locals 103 46 munity and dozens of acres of prime farm- and observers alike, as documented in press 104 47 land were destroyed. More devastating, the accounts and on social media. The people of 105 48 106 densely populated Portela and Bangaeira Chã know very well that there is a geologi- 49 107 50 neighborhoods are now submerged under cal basis for volcanism, but they also bring 108 51 three meters of lava, in contrast to earlier vol- notions of causality rooted in spiritual, alle- 109 52 110 53 111 54 6 anthropology Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 gorical and symbolic realms to bear on their stated that she did not blame the volcano for 63 6 understanding of volcanic phenomena. The destroying her home because such events 64 7 65 men and women we know from the village, “are simply a part of nature.”9 While on the 8 66 9 some of whom are speaking out publically one hand residents cast the eruption as being 67 10 today, negotiate numerous understandings of wild and uncontrollable, on the other they 68 11 the recent tragic events that point to a long- stressed how this act of “nature” is somehow 69 12 standing entanglement of scientifc and sym- necessary to foster human life and culture in 70 13 bolic explanations for volcanic activity on Chã. A striking example of this sentiment is 71 14 72 Fogo. found in a June 2015 posting on the Face- 15 73 16 As noted by researchers of other volcanic book page of Alcindo, a well-known local 74 7 17 eruptions, the descriptions of victims com- guide: “I am from Chã and I discovered that 75 18 monly feature analogy, which helps survi- in my veins is lava that fows and in my heart 76 19 vors to contextualize these extraordinary and is fre10 (fame) that makes me get out of bed 77 20 calamitous occurrences. Likewise, employ- every morning.” 78 21 79 ing metaphor, personifcation and even the Combining these two characteristics, jour- 22 80 23 supernatural sets the events apart from the nalist Nicolau Centeio spoke of the volcano’s 81 24 happenings of everyday life. In the case of nature to both remove and provide culture: 82 25 Chã, volcanic fows became frentes (pha- “The volcano gives, the volcano takes away 83 26 lanxes), lava veias de fogo (veins of fre) and … It gave the soils in which one of Cape 84 27 the eruption site a colosso (colossus). Water Verde’s richest agricultural and tourist areas 85 28 86 symbolism was also common, particularly fourished. [But it also] took away everything 29 87 30 when used to describe the destructive move- in recent hours, consuming slowly infrastruc- 88 31 ments of lava: torrente (gushing), corrente (a ture, houses and farmland. We should all re- 89 32 current), ondas (waves) and mar (a sea). member that before Nature we are nothing”11 90 33 More systematic were a number of frame- (emphasis added). From these examples, one 91 <{{Image 6 goes here Figure 6. Contemplat- 34 92 works providing not only descriptions of the can see how those implicated in the eruption ing nature.}}> 35 93 36 recent tragic events but also some explana- have in part removed “nature” from blame, 94 37 tions for them. The two most notable of these citing instead its vital role in sustaining the 95 38 resonate with the binary oppositions “nature “culture” of Chã das Caldeiras. 96 39 versus culture” and “destruction versus re- The second explanatory framework of 97 40 building.” These are indicative of the struggle note, destruction versus rebuilding, depicts 98 41 99 among Chã’s residents to situate the eruption in an alternating fashion the volcano as ei- 42 100 43 — an incident challenging both experience ther a destroyer or a creator. As understood 101 44 and comprehension — within a conceptual by survivors and national media observers 102 45 system that can provide some “reasons” for alike, the 2014 eruption represents one of the 103 46 its occurrence.8 dividing lines that periodically mark the end 104 47 Regarding the frst framework, survivors of one era in Chã and the beginning of an- 105 48 106 and commentators immediately cast the vol- other. After the total destruction wrought by 49 107 50 canic activity as a “natural” phenomenon. the recent eruption, the people of Chã have 108 51 Speaking to A Semana, Chã native Carla now begun to “rebuild” their lives — at frst, 109 52 110 53 111 54 Samuel Weeks and Vitor Popinsky Symbolism and Resilience After Volcanic Eruption 7 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 63 6 64 7 65 8 66 9 67 10 68 11 69 12 70 13 71 14 72 15 73 16 74 17 75 18 76 19 77 20 78 21 79 22 80 23 81 24 82 25 83 26 84 27 85 28 86 29 87 30 88 31 Figure 6. Confronting “nature.” Courtesy Greta Frick/Nos Ku Nhos Association. 89 32 90 33 91 34 92 through speech acts. Seemingly every verb Appearing in the newspaper A Nação, 35 93 36 we found in media accounts was preceded a profle of Chã hoteliers Marisa and Mus- 94 37 by the prefx “re.”12 In a posteruption inter- tafa poignantly titled “To Be Born Again 95 38 view with A Semana, poet José Luís Tavares [Renascer] from the Lava” features similar 96 39 97 spoke of Chã’s plight precisely in these terms: “rebuilding” imagery. “[The couple] lost ev- 40 erything in the November 23 eruption. The 98 41 “There is … an uncommon tenacity in those 99 wrath of the lavas took from them [their only] 42 people of Chã and, at the same time, and in- 100 two guesthouses … Nevertheless, Marisa and 43 fnite innocence that leads them to believe 101 44 Mustafa do not want to turn their backs on 102 that however destructive nature can be … 45 Chã das Caldeiras or its people. They have 103 46 there will always be strength and motives for made up their minds: they want to return 104 47 a new fresh start [um novo recomeço]. That to investing in Chã”14 (emphases added). In 105 48 106 is why [you have] the recurrence of certain these and other examples, destruction and 49 107 motives … such as renewal [renovo]”13 (em- 50 rebuilding oscillate in a dialectical fashion; 108 51 phases added). one is thought to give way to the other, and 109 52 110 53 111 54 8 anthropology Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 vice versa. Even as the recent eruption has mented by other researchers,15 such motifs 63 <{{Image 7 goes here Figure 7. Moving to 6 resulted in utter devastation for Chã’s resi- are common in the aftermath of destruc- 64 higher ground.}}> 7 65 dents, reconstruction is very much on their tive volcanic activity, a metaphoric way of 8 66 16 9 minds. So the cycle continues. “bounding uncertainty.” Accordingly, the 67 10 The fnal noteworthy trope we found in use of such devices refects the work of sur- 68 11 personal and journalistic responses to the vivors to transform an unknowable, unpre- 69 12 eruption can be referred to as supernatu- dictable disaster into a mythical fgure pos- 70 13 ral personifcation. In the case of Chã, the sessing human characteristics as universal as 71 14 72 erupting volcano has been called a gigante rage, vengeance and authority. To quote A 15 73 16 (giant), a Homem Grande (Big Man) and a Semana: “And the volcano wakes up again, 74 17 colosso (colossus), all uncontainable fgures almost two decades after [its last eruption, in 75 18 who have “consumed houses,” “swallowed 1995]. It awoke practically without providing 76 19 the school and a hotel,” “cleansed an en- a warning, bringing with it the fury [a ira] of 77 20 tire line of dwellings” and “climbed to the a giant who has at its feet a fragile and needy 78 21 79 other side of the village.” As has been docu- village”17 (emphasis added). Thus, evading 22 80 23 81 24 82 25 83 26 84 27 85 28 86 29 87 30 88 31 89 32 90 33 91 34 92 35 93 36 94 37 95 38 96 39 97 40 98 41 99 42 100 43 101 44 102 45 103 46 104 47 105 48 106 49 107 50 108 51 Figure 7. Residents moving their belongings to high ground. Courtesy Greta Frick/Nos Ku Nhos Association. 109 52 110 53 111 54 Samuel Weeks and Vitor Popinsky Symbolism and Resilience After Volcanic Eruption 9 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 63 6 64 7 65 8 66 9 67 10 68 11 69 12 70 13 71 14 72 15 73 16 74 17 75 18 76 19 77 20 78 21 79 22 80 23 81 24 82 25 83 26 84 27 85 28 86 29 87 30 88 31 Figure 8. The sleeping giant awakes. Courtesy Greta Frick/Nos Ku Nhos Association. 89 32 90 33 91 34 92 35 93 36 measures to foretell its coming, the giant — the 1995 eruption. Thus, we are confdent in 94 <{{Image 8 goes here}}> 37 like the erupting volcano — arrives only to making some predictions about what might 95 38 vanish quickly thereafter, leaving in its stead take place in the near future. Even as the in- 96 39 the near-total destruction that the people of junction against people returning to live in 97 40 Chã must now confront. Chã remains in force, inhabitants are already 98 41 99 trickling back into the crater from the miser- 42 100 43 able nearby “evacuation centers” in order to 101 44 The Outlook for Chã harvest crops, feed livestock and build new 102 45 overnight dwellings in their remaining felds. 103 46 Only time will tell whether the people of Chã This return is akin to the situation in 1995. 104 47 will return to living inside the crater. As we Although there is still no consensus on the 105 48 106 see it, however, what has happened in Chã outlook for Chã, the government has been 49 107 50 since late 2014 resembles the maneuvering foating plans about building a new commu- 108 51 and civil disobedience that took place after nity at the edge of the crater for the displaced 109 52 110 53 111 54 10 anthropology Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 residents. While some have expressed sup- THAT THE AUTHORITIES STOP FRIGHT- 63 6 port for this option, others are explicit and ENING THE POPULATION AND LET US 64 7 65 adamant about their desire to return to the GO IN AND OUT OF CHà WHENEVER 8 WE WANT. 66 9 heart of the crater, near the now-submerged 67 10 village of Chã. Recent evidence on social 68 11 media sites and from other media is strongly 69 12 inclined toward this position. An example of Acknowledgments 70 13 this sentiment can be seen in the trailer to 71 14 72 the upcoming documentary O Regresso dos We thank Christine Weeks, Nancy Levine and 15 73 João Vasconcelos for their careful edits and sug- 16 Filhos do Vulcão (The Return of the Volcano’s 74 gestions for the piece. We dedicate this to all those 17 Children). “[Chã residents] must return to re- 75 in Chã who have lost homes and livelihoods: du 18 build their houses on top of the lava,” pro- 76 sta ku nhos. 19 claims a local woman.18 The ban in 1995 did 77 20 not stop the people of Chã from returning to 78 21 79 their beloved crater, the narrative goes, and 22 80 Notes 23 accordingly there is no reason why this can- 81 24 not happen again. “The way things are going, 82 25 it will not be long until Chã das Caldeiras 1. This process was a “success” in that there 83 26 returns to being populated by people and would be no loss of life from the eruption. 84 27 2. Cláudio Fonseca, O Processo de Ocupação 85 houses, in a rewriting of history from 1995,” 28 e Povoamento de Chã das Caldeiras (Praia, Cape 86 asserts Nicolau Centeio in A Semana.19 29 Verde: Instituto Superior de Educação, 2002). 87 To conclude, we cite a December 2014 30 3. Nicolau Centeio, “‘Homi grande’ sem mi- 88 31 message that the guide Alcindo wrote on his sericórdia sobre Chã das Caldeiras,” A Semana, 89 32 90 Facebook page, which refects the intimate December 3, 2014. 33 91 and steadfast bond that the residents of Chã 4. Vera Alfama, Alberto Mota Gomes and José 34 92 have toward their volcano home: Brilha, Guia Geoturístico da Ilha do Fogo (Coim- 35 93 36 bra, Portugal: Department of Life Sciences, Uni- 94 37 Today we went to feed our animals in Chã, versity of Coimbra, 2008), 55. 95 38 so that they don’t starve to death. 5. Information about the 1995 earthquake 96 39 was collected in Chã by the authors from 2006 97 40 Why is it now that when we enter Chã we to 2013. 98 41 are considered terrorists, or that we are to 6. Graham A. Tobin and Linda Whiteford, 99 42 blame for the volcanic eruption? “Community Resilience and Volcano Hazard: The 100 43 Eruption of Tungurahua and Evacuation of the Fal- 101 The children of Chã are living a difcult mo- 44 das in Ecuador.” Disasters 26, no. 1 (2002): 39. 102 45 ment but we keep our heads up. We know 103 7. E.g., Katharine V. Cashman and Shane J. 46 that today we are [outside the crater], but 104 Cronin. “Welcoming a Monster to the World: 47 we are hoping to return to Chã tomorrow. 105 Myths, Oral Tradition and Modern Societal Re- 48 106 49 We thank all of you for the moral support sponse to Volcanic Disasters.” Journal of Volcanol- 107 50 you have given us, but we just want some- ogy and Geothermal Research 176, no. 3 (2008): 108 51 thing that is simple and easy: 407–18. 109 52 110 53 111 54 Samuel Weeks and Vitor Popinsky Symbolism and Resilience After Volcanic Eruption 11 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116 1 59 2 60 3 61 4 62 5 8. Cliford Geertz, The Interpretation of Cul- Schlehe, Judith. “Anthropology of Religion: Disas- 63 6 tures (New York: Basic Books, 1973), 220. ters and the Representations of Tradition and Mo- 64 7 9. Nicolau Centeio “‘Homi grande’ sem mi- dernity.” Religion 40 (2010): 112–20. 65 8 sericórdia sobre Chã das Caldeiras,” A Semana, 66 9 67 December 3, 2014. 10 68 10. Note that the Portuguese word for “fre” 11 Samuel Weeks is a doctoral candidate in socio- 69 (“fogo”) is also the name of Fogo, the island in 12 cultural anthropology at the University of Cali- 70 13 Cape Verde where the volcano and Chã das Cal- fornia, Los Angeles (USA). From 2006 until 2008, 71 deiras are located. 14 he served as a U.S. Peace Corps volunteer in Chã 72 11. Nicolau Centeio, “O vulcão deu, o vulcão 15 das Caldeiras (Fogo, Cape Verde). After winning 73 16 tirou,” A Semana, November 25, 2014. 74 an Ambassadorial Scholarship from the Rotary 17 12. C.f., Susanna M. Hofman, “The Monster 75 Foundation, Weeks completed a master’s degree 18 and the Mother: The Symbolism of Disaster,” in 76 19 Catastrophe and Culture: The Anthropology of in social anthropology at the Institute of Social 77 20 Disaster ed. Susanna M. Hofman and Anthony Sciences, University of Lisbon (Portugal). He was 78 21 Oliver-Smith (Santa Fe, NM: SAR Press, 2002), the 2013 winner of the Eric R. Wolf Prize from 79 22 80 133. the Society for the Anthropology of Work. For the 23 81 13. Teresa Sofa Fortes, “José Luís Tavares lança 2015-16 academic year, Weeks was a visiting 24 82 ‘Coração de Lava’: Testemunho poético de uma 25 researcher at the University of Luxembourg on a 83 26 Chã das Caldeiras que já é passado,” A Semana, Fulbright/IIE fellowship. 84 27 December 17, 2004. 85 28 14. Gisela Coelho, “Renascer das lavas,” A 86 Nação, May 13, 2015. 29 Vitor Popinsky is a doctoral candidate in social 87 30 15. E.g., Cashman and Cronin, “Welcoming a 88 anthropology at the Institute of Social Sciences, 31 Monster to the World.” 89 University of Lisbon (Portugal). His dissertation 32 16. Hofman, “The Monster and the Mother.” 90 research took place in Chã das Caldeiras (Fogo, 33 17. “Vulcão do Fogo: O despertar de um gi- 91 34 gante,” A Semana, November 24, 2014. Cape Verde) and addresses topics such as kinship 92 35 93 18. See Agência Cabo-verdiana de Imagens, and family organization, land ownership and use, 36 94 “O Regresso dos Filhos do Vulcão — Teaser.” the reproduction of domestic groups and issues 37 95 YouTube video, 1:47. May 18, 2015, https://www. surrounding “race.” Popinsky has also carried out 38 96 39 youtube.com/watch?v=wO4eo1m_AjA. research in Mozambique on the HIV and AIDS 97 40 19. Nicolau Centeio, “Famílias regressam a epidemics and on the National Reserve of Gilé as 98 41 Chã das Caldeiras,” A Semana, March 2, 2015. part of his work in development studies at Lund 99 42 University (Sweden). In 2005, he won an award 100 43 from the Ruth Landes Memorial Fund (USA) to un- 101 44 102 Suggestions for Further Reading dertake feldwork in Brazil on the social responses 45 103 46 to the droughts that devastated parts of the country 104 Hofman, Susanna M. and Anthony Oliver-Smith, 47 during that year. 105 48 eds. Catastrophe and Culture: The Anthropology 106 49 of Disaster. Santa Fe, NM: SAR Press, 2002. 107 50 108 51 109 52 110 53 111 54 12 anthropology Volume 8 • Number 2 • September 2016 112 55 113 56 114 57 115 58 116