Colonial Rule in India and its Impact on Education of Muslim and their Poverty Level

Colonial Rule in India and its Impact on Education of Muslim and their Poverty Level

Syed Mohammad Raghib*

Abstract: The scholarly candid historical literature on the account of colonial rule in the united India, the most shocking thing comes outthat, since the War of Mutiny of 1857, Muslim has become marginalised in the colonial rule. In absence of Muslim power in the last 258 years, since the War of Plassey in 1757, the 190 years of colonial rule alone harmed Muslims a lot. India, which was ruled by Muslim rulers since 1206 till 1857 (Qutub-Uddin Aibak to Bahadur Shah Zafar), lost their social, political and educational glory, when the British took power from them. The discrimination started after the Plassey War. During the British rule the development of Muslims was not up to the mark, the Britishers restricted institutional and structural development of Muslim gradually. The British did not want to promote Muslims because they perceived a kind of threat from the Muslim as they took power from them. After the Independence, the Muslim of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh hardly achieved substantial development in the education and economic stability as a whole, despite having sizeable populations. Due to lack of literacy and poverty, Muslims appear to be overrepresented among day labourers and vendors and underrepresented in public sectors in India.

Keywords: Muslim, British, War of Mutiny, Colonial Rule, Muslim Power, Literacy, Development, Poverty.

Introduction

Islam firstly arrived in South India throughArab traders in the Western coastal state of Kerala, in in the early 7th century.The Arab traders had frequently visited Konkan, Gujarat and Malabar due to their trade route and had deep relations with people. The most significant historical fact is that, the first Mosque of India was Cheraman Juma Masjid. It is situated at Methala of Kodangallur, Thrissur district of Kerala in 629 AD and establishedby Malik Ibn Dinar. The second phase of Islam comes through the northern part of India, Sindh in 711 AD by the Muhammad Bin Qasim (an Ummayad General), who conquered the Sindh and other adjacent areas, when he was just sixteen years old, later died in 715 AD, when he was just 20 years.1

1 See the book which was written in Urdu by Akbar Shah Najibabadi and revised by Sufi-Ur-Rahman Mubarakpuri, (2001), History of Islam, Vol. 2, published by Darussalam.

* PhD Student, Jawaharlal Nehru University, Centre for West Asian Studies Correspondence: [email protected]

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This was the beginning of Islam through the Arab Ummayad rulers (711-750 AD) in the Sindh, later the Islam flourished in India by the contributions of Muslim Sufis and Saints2 along with rulers who propagated Islam by their own way. Abu Mansur Sabugtigin (977- 997 AD)3, Mohammad Ghauri and Mohammad Ghaznavi (These Afghani rulers attacked India and looted its royal wealth, Ghaznavi even attacked 17th times),4including one of the famous the Somnath temple in 1027 AD. The first Muslim king in India was Qutub- ud-Din-Aibak (1150-1210), who established the Slave Dynasty,and was a Turk slave. He was an intelligentand pervasive and set up his capital in Delhi (Near Mahrauli). He builds some historical architecture like Qutub-Mianr, Quwat-ul-Islam Mosque (Masjid), which considersbeing the first mosque of North India. A brief account of Sultanate period was mentioned in the book of Abraham Eraly “The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate”, in which he discussed the ground reality of the sultanate period in India.5 There were a number of Muslim scholars, who influence Indian society like Ali Tabari, Ibn Hazm, Ghazali, Ibn Taymiyya, and Ibn Rushd, by their ideas and books which are still very important and have a source of guidance.6

The Sultanate Period (1206-1526), was the initial stage of Muslim rule in India. Qutubuddin Aibak7 was the first ruler of Mamluk or Slave Dynasty (1206-1290), who ruled India till 1210 AD (Farishta, 2008:154).8Six other dynasties(Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty, Syyid Dynasty Lodhi Dynasty, and Sur Dynasty), ruled India during the Sultanate period. Sher Shah Suri (1540-45) was the first king of the Sur dynastywho defeated second Mughal King Humayun. There were three very popular and strong Muslim Dynasties (Safavid, Ottoman and Mughal) during the medieval period in the Islamic World.9 Mughal Dynasty (1526-1857) was established by the Babur. He was the first Mughal ruler, and Bahadur Shah Zafar was the last kingof the Mughal Dynasty, considered to be the last King of united India.The British forces took the power from Mughal and become ruler of India.

2 See the book by RaziuddinAquil (2012), Sufism, Culture, and Politics: Afghans and Islam in Medieval North India, New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 3 See book by Mohammad QasimFarishta (Translated in Urdu by Abdul Hai Khawaja),“Tareekh E Fa- rishta”, Lahore:Published by Al-Mizan, Vol.1, 2008, p.50-51. 4 Farishta, History of the Rise of Mohammedan Power in India, Volume 1: Section 15. Packard Humanities Institute. Retrieved 08-06-2015. 5 See the book of Abraham Eraly,The Age of Wrath: A History of the Delhi Sultanate, Penguin Books, 2014. 6 See the book by Professor Masudul Hassan, History of Islam, Vol. 2, (2009), New Delhi: Adam Publis- hers. 7 QutubuddinAibak was the Turk Slave of Subugtgeen. 8 See book by Mohammad QasimFarishta (Translated in Urdu by Abdul Hai Khawaja),“Tareekh E Fa- rishta” Lahore: Published by Al-Mizan, Vol.1, 2008, p.154-55. 9 Islamic world also called “Ummah”, which is rightly used by Thomas Patrick Hughes in his book”Dictionary of Islam. New Delhi: Cosmo Publications, 1978, p. 654.

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Company Involvement in India’s Business and Politics till theWar of 1857

After the death of Aurangzeb in 170710, the Mughal Empire becomes weak, control over the kingdom become tough.The majority of the ruler of the different provinces of India declared independence. The East India Company also took this opportunity; the company actively participated in the internal politics of India and established three more presidency towns of Calcutta, Bombay and Madras. In spite of these setups, the real power comes under the East India Company subsequent to the Battle of Plassey in 1757. The Company was granted, right to collect the revenue of Bihar and Bengal from the hand of Nawab of Bengal and finally took the power in their hand in 1773 furthermore established his capital in Calcutta. Till the end of the Mughal period, the education was at his climax, but gradually begins to decline due to the siege of Delhi by the British army. In fact the decline of the Mughal Empire was a historical setback for Indian Muslim. By the end of the four-month siege, Delhi was reduced to a bat- tered, empty ruin, and Zafar was sentenced to exile in Burma. There he died, the last Mughal ruler in a line that stretched back to the sixteenth century” and he also further said that, Zafar’s death may have marked the end of a great ruling dynasty 350 years old (William Dalrymple, 2006:474).11

Rise of British Rule and its Implication on Education

In 1848, Lord Dalhousie was appointed Governor General of India. He was ambitious enough, within his eight years of rule, he secured more land for the British, his period called greatest period of British rule. He started a policy of Annexation against the rul- ers. But when Dalhaousie annexed Oudh (Awadh) in 1856, it becomes a mass resent- ment against the British. Muslims elite realized that the British wanted to destroy the Muslim power and their next target will be Delhi, where Mughal was also not in a condition to defend. In such annexation policy by the Britishers, some Muslim, though that, India would be lost as a Darul-Islam.12

In1773, Warren Hastings becomes Governor General of Bengal. He was not an aca- demician, but he did many extraordinary works for educational development. He founded Madrassa Aliya or Mohamdan College of Calcutta in 1781, it was the first foundation by the Britishers in the education field, and he also founded the Bengal Asiatic Society, with the help of Sir William Jones, a great academician at the contem-

10 Aurangzeb (1658-1707), was the last Mughal King, who ruled the whole united India, till his death in 1707. 11 Ibid. P.474. 12 For details see the Fatwa by MaulviKaramat Ali Jaunpuri, published by the Mohammedan Literary Society, Calcutta.

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porary time. The Alia Madrasa was elevated to university after 227 years, in 2008. This Madrasa was not only educational centre, but, a hub of cultural learning as well, where Arabic and Persian was taught. Hastings was also had knowledge of Sanskrit and Persian. Mohammedan College of Calcutta was endowed with lands, which were after- wards commuted for annual money payment of 30,000 rupees (Syed Mahmood, 1805: 18)13 and separate Madrasa English class sanctioned 4800 rupees (Lynn Zastoupil and Martin Moir, 2013:35).14 One of the other significant change comes up during the time of William Bentick (1828-1835), there was a significant change reported replac- ing Persian with English as the official language of government (Lynn Zastoupil and Martin Moir, 1999:23).15

Struggle for Education for Muslim in Post 1857

The Great Mutiny of 1857 startedwithin most of the North India against the British rule, in which most of ruler accepted the leadership of last Mughal King Bahadur Shah Zafar.16 The moment when the great mutiny started in 1857, a large number of the Muslim Ulema participated, supported and contributed a lot at all levels against the Britishers (Fringhis).17

Meanwhile, the major chunk of Muslim Ulema was against the British education system,18 especially English medium of teaching. Their perception and concerned was that these Britishers trying to destroy Muslim culture and identity. A big move- ment was started against the English education system. Despite all these ups and down, many other Muslims scholars like Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-99) were in favor of English and modern education. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was not only taught by his own mothers Azizunnisa Begum (A woman in Purdah) who spoke and read Urdu and Persian and had studied the Quran also but, others contemporary scholars also got the same knowledge though their mothers (Jacqueline Suthren Hirst and John Zavos 2011:177).19 Sir Syed was aware that if the Muslim will not adopt this modern

13 Syed Mahmood,A History of English Education in India, Aligarh, 1805, p. 18. 14 See the Book “The Great India Education Debate: Documents Relating to the Orientalist-Anglicist Cont- roversy, 1781-1843”, Edited by Lynn Zastoupil and Martin Moir. 15 Ibid p.23

16 See the work ofChristopher Hibbert’s The Great Mutiny; India 1857,provides valuable insights into the genesis and causes of Gadar (Great Mutiny of 1857) the massive uprising. 17 This is the irony of India that Neo-nationalist historians rarely mention the contribution of Muslim heroes of this first war of India’s independence except Bahadur Shah Zafar 18 See this book by Metcalf, Barbara D., (2004), Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900, New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 19 See the book by Jacqueline SuthrenHirst and John Zavos (2011),”Religious Traditions in Modern South Asia”, London: Routledge publication.

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education system, the community will be insecure and backward. He was reluctant to oppose Ulema, but he ignored them, and adopted the English education system for the people. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan started his milestone educational work when he visited Ghazipur, after 2 years, he started a printing press there in 1862. He also set up an English Medium school (Victoria School) in 1863; another good initiative by him was establishment of Scientific Society in 1864.20 Finally, he started an institution Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College in 1875 in Aligarh, later in the process of expan- sion, he also opened a girl’s school in 1907, later altogether it becomes Aligarh Muslim University in 1920. He also helped to set up a new educational institution, not only in Aligarh, but Bombay, Lahore, Patna, Dhaka and other places.

British administrations came to admire the institution for their ability to combine an Islamic ethos, religious teaching and trying to put some sort of wider sense of social responsibility in Muslim students. In the chaining of that the Anjuman-i-Islam of Bombay established a school in 1874 for Muslims, which later comes under the University of Bombay. In Patna also, a school, the Mohammedan Anglo-Arabic School flourished as an institution combining Islamic education with a European style scien- tific and literary course. They also established schools for Muslim girls in the country, where middle class and predominately urban Muslim elites played the pivotal role.

In early 1880s, some organization like Anjuman-i-Himayat-i-Islam of Lahore and Bombay established girls schools and colleges for female student in Lucknow and Aligarh. In Hyderabad which was a semi-independent Muslim state also adopted the advance female education as one of its goals. All these efforts not only built confi- dence in the modern Muslims, but in the result of that first graduation of a Muslim woman took place from the University of Calcutta in 1922.21 This was a major revolu- tion in the field of education of Muslim women in colonial India, despite the division of Bengal in 1905, by Lord Curzon. In Indian freedom movement, Muslim participated in large numbers along with the majority of Ulema who were prosecuted in 1857 and they hate Britishers more than anything else that was natural, because they also tor- tured Ulema and Maulavidue to their engagement in the anti British movement and helping rebellion in Delhi, Kanpur and Lucknow.

This is also one of the fact that, in colonial India, many British officials similarly sus- picious of Muslim schools, and they did not want to get them educated properly, because they had some sort of fear psychosis that Muslim will get their power from the hand of Britishers. In this debate the British educationalists lauded Muslim schools

20 See theProceedings of the First Meeting of the Scientific Society, Ghazipur, January 9, 1864, published in Fikr-o- Nazar, April (1963), Aligarh, pp. 8-11. 21 See the book of Dr. Robert Ivermee (2015), “Secularism, Islam and Education in India, 1830-1910”. Dr. Ivermee did his doctorate in the centre for colonial and postcolonial studies at University of Kent.

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for the moral and ethical values among Muslims. Some state managed institutions in which the teachings of religious subjects were banned. Muslims schools, they rec- ognized a holistic education and focused on more than intellectual development. By the end of the 19th century, Muslims were encouraged to opt for the British system of education, which open the door to economic and social advancement (M.K. Akbar, 1997:242).22

Impact of the British Rule in Muslim and their Education System

The beating of the Mughal Empire was a great shock event for Muslim and British brutality and insensitive behavior also. The British used more suppressive technique against the whole Indian, but the Muslim was in special case, which prosecuted more due to religion and as a power threat. British create a kind of terror psychology among Muslim masses, so they never come up from that psychology. In the response of that Muslim, even avoided joining police and other jobs, because they don’t want to serve the Britishers, and a kind of mentality that force them that how a ruler could be under British service. But some intellectual and elite figure among the Muslim took a step and come out of that ghetto of sickness. As a result of this biased and discriminating policy of the British, the Muslims were forced to live in shabby conditions. Hence the community was deliberately excluded from the Civil Service. The British adopted a policy of discrimination in various levels, especially less representation of Muslims in the British Indian Services (gazette officers post) in comparison to the Hindu during (1860-70), out of 1028 total officers Muslims were only 83, British 551 and Hindus were 394.23 So such shocking statistics showed how much Muslims were far behind the Hindu majority.

In such circumstance, the pioneer ulama of the time such as Shah ‘Abdul-’Aziz, Syed Isma’il Shahid, Muhammad Ishaq, Syed Ahmad Barelvi, Haji Imdad-ullah Muhajir Makki, Maulana Qasimi Nanautavi, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan in Northern India and in Bengal Haji Shari’at-ullah, Titumir, Karamat ‘Ali led the movement to teach and preach Islamic traditions and values amongst the Muslims. They devoted themselves to bring about a drastic change in the sphere of education.

Apart from this political and educational departure of power, Muslim was facing a religious threat also, many Christians missionary were involved in to conversion, and in due to such huge pressure many Ulema and intellectual was confronted. In response to that Maulana M Rahmatullah Kairanvi written a book “Izhar-ul-Haqq”

22 See the book by M.K. Akbar, Pakistan from Jinnah to Sharif (1997). 23 See the book ofHunter, W.W, The Indian Musalmans, Delhi, 1969, p. 60.

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(Truth Revealed)24, actually this book was originally written in 1864 in Arabic, later translated into English and Urdu. Rahmatullah Kairanvi wrote the book in response of the Christian offensive against Islam in British India and specifically to counter the subversive attack made by the Rev. C.C.P fonder, who had written a book in Urdu entitled “Meezan-ul-Haq” and his open intention was to cast doubts in the mind of the Muslims about the authenticity of the Quran and Islam. Such attempts by the Britishers continue till the end of 1947, in order to create confusion in the Muslim mind and masses. Rahmatullah asserted that he would convert to Christianity if he failed to answer the questions of the missionary who also made the commitment to accept Islam if he was defeated.25

Current Educational Scenario of Muslim in South Asian Region

After the independence of India in 1947, the consequences of partition have beencom- munal violence,massacre, destructions of human life and property,and the migration of people from both sides was the highest mass migration of human history. Partition left 10 million people uprooted and more than half a million Muslims, Hindu and Sikhs died in a riot and massacre. The legacy of British continues in the new shape of the modern state. Muslim fragmented in three areas, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh and their development also decentralised. Post partition priority was security, but not education. India was doing well in this regard, but Pakistan did not initiate much to fulfil the gap of educational disparity. A kind of fear and security concern has always beenan inherent part of the life of Indian Muslim,due to the lack of power, education, fewerpopulation and due to partition. Some, Muslim Ulema against the English and modern education, due to the effect on their religious structure and Christianity was one of the reasons. Overall the whole Deoband movement26 was against British and they were part of the freedom struggle.

A Muslim is 13.4 percent of India total population, yet hold fewer than 5 percent of government posts. The literacy rate among Muslims in 2001 was 59.1 percent. This is far below the national average (65.1 percent). 27 Some of the very disturbing fact about the Muslim after the Sachar Committee, a body set up to examine the plight of Indian

24 See the Book by SeemaAlavi,Muslim Cosmopolitanism in the Age of Empire,(2015), Harvard University Press. 25 Actually Sultan Abdul-Aziz Khan invited ShaykhRahmatullah to Constantinople, where he held a great celebration for him, and requested him to write a book on the the debate. He wote the book, The Great Debate, which later became known as “The Truth Revealed (Izhar-ul-Haqq) in 1864. 26 See this book by Metcalf, Barbara D., (2004), Islamic Revival in British India: Deoband, 1860-1900, New Delhi: Oxford University Press. 27 Sachar Commission report, Government of India, 2006, p. 52.

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Muslim as per the committee given its report in November, 2006. In that report which said that only 8 percent of urban Muslims are part of the formal sector as against 21 percent of all Indian city dwellers. On the issue of poverty it says that, 31 percent of Muslims live below the poverty line, close to the 35 percent for Dalits and Adivais.28In terms of Income, Muslim is falling; it was 77.5 percent of the average Hindu earning in 1987 compared to 75 percent in 1999. (Source: Sachar Committee Report, 2006:151- 153).29In the current scenario, where the Western World is spending over 5 percent of its total GDP on education, India is 3.8 percent (in 2012) but Pakistan is spending only 2.5 percent (2013) of its total GDP on education (World Bank Data).3031 The situation of Bangladesh is so pathetic, where in 2009 the total GDP spends on education was 2.23 percent in 2009.32

According to the survey 55th Round of the NSS (1999-2000) Muslims participation in higher education in urban and rural areas in 1999-2000 was 3.9 percent and 0.8 percent, respectively, whereas the Hindus participation rate was 11.5 percent and 1.8 percent respectively. The right to education, especially at the primary level is mandat- ed by the Constitution, yet over six decades after Independence less than 50 percent of Muslim women in India are literate. Compare this with other women from other minorities: 76 percent literacy among Christians, 64 percent among Sikhs, 62 percent among Buddhists and a whopping 90 percent among Jain women.

After the independence of Pakistan, and when the first census was carried out in 1950, the overall literacy rate of Pakistan was 14 percent, including East Pakistan.33 The Pakistan population as per 2013 is 182.1 million and its GDP is $232.3 billion (2013),34 and as per 2012 literacy survey shows that 58 percent of the population (aged 15-24 years and above) of age literacy rate is79.1 percent for males and 61.5 percent for females.35In a very shocking report of the Pakistan Economic Survey 2013-14, more

28 Dalit and Adivasis (Schedule Caste and Schedule Tribe, SC&ST) consider being very lower in Indian caste system hierarchy. 29 Also see the report on Pakistani Newspaper, Dawn, (Dawn, Decline of Indian Muslim) http://www. dawn.com/news/791827/the-decline-of-indian-muslims 30 As per Data of World Bank http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.XPD.TOTL.GD.ZS 31 Also see the articleof Asif Saeed Memon on the current GDP expenditure on education which was published in DAWN Newspaper on 4th June, 2015, http://www.dawn.com/news/1185965/the-4pc- challenge 32 As per the data collected regarding Bangladesh total GDP expenditure on education in 2009, http:// www.tradingeconomics.com/bangladesh/public-spending-on-education-total-percent-of-gdp- wb-data.html 33 Bangladesh got separated in 1971 and become a sovereign country. 34 Sources as per World Bank Data (2013), http://data.worldbank.org/country/Pakistan 35 Some data showed as per Pakistani news English paper Siasat, http://www.siasat.pk/forum/showt- hread.php?241706-Literacy-Rates-in-Pakistan-1947-2014

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than half of the Pakistani exists below the poverty line.36 Due to such data the overall development couldn’t achieve. This is the main reason of the under developed condi- tion of Muslims in South Asian region.

Similarly, at the time of independence of Bangladesh in 1971, the literacy rate was 16.8 percent. 37Now, after the 40 years, when the state population is 156.6 million (2013),38GDP is $ 150.0 billion (2013), where the as per literacy survey shows that 57.7 percent (2011 estimate) of the population (aged 7 years and above) of Bangladesh is literate39 in both genders, and percentage of males and females are 60.15 percent 54.84 percent respectively.40Bangladesh is also one of the poorest countries where the poverty rate is 31.5 percent (2010 EST.),41people live below the poverty line and hardly earn more than $2 dollar a day.

Conclusion

In the process of culmination all these historic events, Muslim lost almost all fronts, the power education and social front as well. The 700 years of Muslim rule have been vanished totally. The British took the whole power and treating Muslim as an enemy of their throne. The Muslims also loosed their grip over the political, social and edu- cational field and now facing discrimination at all levels. Some Muslim educationalist and thinkers took the initiative even in an adverse atmosphere. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and some other religious Ulema took the initiative to secure religious institution and Muslim culture. The divide and rule policy of the British created the chaos in the mind of people. It also communalised the brainiest of people, which come out in the shape of dividing India into two parts in 1947. That was the unparalleledtragedy and huge loss for Muslims. Even after the Independence nothing changed in ground level in India and Pakistan for Muslim. The educations were badly effected in India as well as in Pakistan due to enmity with each others, so their first target was to stand as a military power. In the early 1950-60, Indian Muslim leadership did a lot, but later in 1970-80, the leadership becomes corrupt and failed to uplift the community. In 1971 War with Pakistan and India’s military help to Mujibur Rahman for their freedom movement

36 See the Pakistan leading news paper, dated June 3rd, 2014, http://www.dawn.com/news/1110248 37 As per UNESCO Report, http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/ED/pdf/Bangla- desh.pdf 38 Sources: World Bank Data (2013), http://data.worldbank.org/country/Bangladesh 39 Term literacy is defined in Bangladesh is which can write a letter for communication. 40 Bangladesh Literacy Survey 2010, Source: Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Planning, Bangladesh. 41 CIA Data on Bangladesh poverty, https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ geos/bg.html

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for the creation of Bangladesh in 1971 was also becoming a tragedy. Bangladesh isa densely populated country and most of the people is poor due to lack of industry and infrastructure. The education is also not up to the mark due to the limited resources of the state, growing population andhigh poverty rate.

So, to look the entire things its show that Pakistan hardly did enough after the last 68 years in the field of education and poverty, but militarily strong and the newly created state of Bangladesh is also not emerged as a stable state, where education can be a symbol of dignity. Both these countries are badly divided on sectarian, politi- cal and religious line and doing nothing concrete to achieve the highest standard in the field of education. This is also one of thetruths that Indian Muslims are politically sidelined and not given their due in some sectors and top post of bureaucracy, Army, law enforcement agencies and the military establishment. And continue communal violence, killing of people and damaging their economy badly across the country slow their development in education and economical field. But all that ups and down, Indian Muslim also not doing well, but in comparison to these two separate Muslim countries. After the new liberal economic liberalization process in the country Indian Muslims are well represented in private sectors.

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