The role of the RSPO in ensuring sustainable industry and reducing tropical deforestation

Module: Natural Resources and Global Governance

Katharina Happel M.Sc. Global Change Student no. 5027873

Justus-Liebig-University, August 2015 Table of contents

1. Aim of this paper ...... 2

2. Introduction: The palm oil issue and its link to tropical deforestation ...... 3

3. The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil ...... 4

3.1 The RSPO represents a particular form of global governance ...... 5

3.2 RSPO Principles and Criteria ...... 5

4 How effective is the RSPO? ...... 7

4.1. Analysis of dependent variable 1: Growth of the sustainable palm oil industry ...... 7

4.2. Analysis of dependent variable 2: Deforestation ...... 8

4.3. Weaknesses in RSPO criteria ...... 10

4.4. Problematic of RSPO supply chain options ...... 11

4.5. Options for improvement ...... 13

5. Conclusion ...... 14

6. References ...... 15

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1. Aim of this paper

In this paper, I will discuss the problematic of growing palm oil demand and examine the role of the Roundtable of Sustainable Palm oil (RSPO) in supporting a sustainable palm oil industry. The central research question I aim to address is: Do RSPO measures guarantee a sustainable palm oil market and in line with this help decreasing tropical deforestation?

Based on this research question, I proposed the following two hypotheses: 1: The measures of the RSPO are not effective enough for ensuring a sustainable palm oil industry. 2: The consumers cannot rely on sustainable palm oil certification.

Aim of this work is to analyze and integrate available literature and data which is necessary to either corroborate or disprove these hypotheses. This includes information on the palm oil issue in general, RSPO progress and measures, involved stakeholders as well as spatial data of certified sustainable palm oil (CSPO) growth and deforestation as a result of palm oil production. In this context, the independent variables are the RSPO measures, principles and criteria. These variables are the basis for (1) the (mighty) increase of the sustainable palm oil industry and the (2) degree of tropical deforestation, representing the two dependent variables.

In my study I will narrow the regional scale and focus mainly on data concerning oil palm cultivation in Indonesia and Malaysia. These countries are the two main providers of global palm oil demand and therefore reflect the global palm oil conflict as well as the development of sustainable palm oil industry in an appropriate way. However, it needs to be mentioned that there are also regions in Africa and Latin America affected which are dealing with similar issues.

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2. Introduction: The palm oil issue and its link to tropical deforestation

Tropical rain forests play a major role for humanity and the maintenance of our planet, as they provide important provisional and regulating ecosystem services, including carbon cycling, climate regulation or biodiversity. However, tropical forests are declining constantly due to deforestation, whereby the major threat is not forestry but the conversion of forest to agricultural land (Laurance et al. 2010). This results in severe social and environmental consequences, as all services that are provided by this ecosystem get lost by its clearance. In this context, the palm oil industry plays an increasingly important role (Laurance et. al. 2010) due to the growing global demand of palm oil, which is used for various food products and cosmetics. Approximately 50 % of all packaged items that can be found in supermarkets contain either palm oil or derivates, including margarine, instant dishes, chocolate, ice cream, detergents or shampoo. In fact, palm oil accounts for 65 % of all internationally traded and represents the most widely used vegetable oil on a global scale (WWF 2013). Palm oil (gained from the pulp) and oil (gained from the kernel) is extracted from the fruits of the African oil palm, a plant that grows best in tropical areas. From an economical perspective, palm oil is very beneficial in comparison to other crops like for example rape seed or soy. It is a very productive crop with the highest average yield (amount of oil/ha/year), resulting in less land is needed for its cultivation. The production costs are also relatively cheap plus it is versatile oil that is suitable for various products as mentioned above. Furthermore, it creates employment for smallholders in the growing areas (WWF 2013). However, there are several downsides of palm oil. As oil palms naturally grow on wet tropical areas, its cultivation is accompanied with clearance of tropical forests and peatlands, which has devastating environmental and social consequences. The conversion from tropical forests to agricultural land results in biodiversity loss, pollution of air, water and soil, land degradation and climate impacts (Pastowski et al. 2007). Many endangered species, which are dependent on tropical forests, including orangutans, elephants and tigers, has been already driven close to extinction. Indigenous people lose their land and suffer from pollution and smoke resulting from fire clearances. But the impacts are not restricted to a regional scale. The land conversion significantly contributes to climate change, as intact tropical forests and peatlands are huge carbon sinks and CO2 is released into the atmosphere after destruction. In defiance of all negative impacts, the palm oil industry is still rising in line with an increasing human population (WWF 2013). Palm oil production has already increased dramatically in recent years, reaching currently 61.59 million tons (mt), whereby the main producers and exporters are Malaysia (with 18 mt in 2014/15) and Indonesia (33 mt 2014/15) (USDA 2015). Taken together,

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Indonesia and Malaysia produce 86% of all palm oil (figure 1). The rest is produced in other tropical countries in Asia, Africa and South America. Largest importers are India, China and the European Unio (WWF 2013).

Figure 1: Global production and import of palm oil. While palm oil production takes only place in tropical countries, with Malaysia and Indonesia accounting for 86 % of global palm oil production, the main importers are India, China and EU. (RSPO Impact report 2014).

3. The Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil

Despite the far reaching consequences caused by oil palm expansion, national government intervention was not available and international regulation could not be mobilized (Nikoloyuk et. al. 2010), resulting in a highly critical situation far away from sustainable ecosystem management. In order to address the negative impacts of the palm oil industry, a global, non- governmental, multi-stakeholder initiative on sustainable palm oil has been founded in 2002, known as the Roundtable on Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO). Members of this partnered governance organization include stakeholders from seven sectors involved in the palm oil industry: oil palm growers, processors and traders, consumer goods manufacturers, retailers, investors as well as environmental and social non-governmental organisations (NGOs) (RSPO 2010). The aim of the RSPO is to transform the market towards sustainable palm oil cultivation and use via actor cooperation, whereby standard setting is used as a key mechanism. This includes the definition of criteria for 4 sustainability (considering social and environmental issues) and certification for sustainable palm oil. Certificates can be bought by manufacturers and retailers to support sustainable palm oil production (RSPO 2010, GreenPalm 2010). First palm oil certifications had been awarded by the RSPO in 2008 (Nikoloyuk et. al. 2010). The RSPO currently is the best available international initiative dealing with the problematic of palm oil and aiming to establish a sustainable market. In order to evaluate the actual impact of the RSPO on the palm oil industry, it is necessary to understand its structure as well as the way it operates.

3.1 The RSPO represents a particular form of global governance

The RSPO is an example of a relatively new governance model, the partnered governance, seeking to enhance sustainable development (Nikoloyuk et al. 2010). Thereby, according to the definition in the Brundtland report (Our Common future), sustainable development means the ‘development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs’ (WCED 1987). Partnered governance involves the cooperation of different actors in a certain sector. Usually these are business players and other stakeholders, increasingly NGOs who represent interests of ecology, and affected populations in this sector. Driving forces of the emergence of this concept include the globalization of business activities connected with higher risks of control and quality decrease as well as reputation aspects related to ecological or social responsibility (Nikoloyuk et al. 2010). The partnered governance model overlaps with or rather includes the concept of multi stakeholder initiatives (MSI), which is relatively broadly defined as ‘interactive processes in which business, civil society organizations and possibly other stakeholder groups interact to make business processes more socially and/or environmentally sustainable’ (Huijstee 2012).

3.2 RSPO Principles and Criteria

The RSPO aims to change the palm oil industry towards sustainability. However, sustainable palm oil is a matter of definition. It requires a clear specification of which standards actually need to be fulfilled during plantation and production processes to guarantee a sustainable end product. This standard setting is specified in the ‘RSPO Principles and Criteria for the Production of Sustainable Palm Oil’, consisting of eight principles and 43 criteria (RSPO P&C 2013).In general they seek to ensure basic rights of indigenous people and smallholders, minimization of environmental impacts and prevention of further clearance of primary forests and other high conservation value (HCV) areas (RSPO P&C 2013). Thereby, HCV refers to a biological, ecological, social or cultural aspect of particular importance (HCV Resource Network 2005–2015).

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The eight principles, as defined in the latest RSPO Principles and Criteria catalogue (RSPO P&C 2013), include:

1. Commitment to transparency 2. Compliance with applicable laws and regulations 3. Commitment to long-term economic and financial viability 4. Use of appropriate, proven and exemplary practices by growers and millers 5. Environmental responsibility and conservation of natural resources and biodiversity 6. Responsible consideration of employees, and of individuals and communities affected 7. Responsible development of new plantings 8. Commitment to continuous improvement in key areas of activity or when using agrochemicals.

In order to evaluate the impact of the RSPO on sustainable palm oil with regard to areas used for plantation and tropical deforestation, there are in particular two principles which need to be considered in this study, namely principle five and seven. The ‘environmental responsibility’ stated in principle 5 builds on certain criteria, including the identification of environmental impacts and mitigation plans (principle 5.1), Identification and, if necessary, maintenance of endangered species and HCV habitats, possibly affected by plantation (principle 5.2) or avoidance of fire (principle 5.5). ‘Responsible development of new plantings’ defined in principle 7 is based on the introduction of environmental impact assessments prior establishing or expanding planting (principle 7.1), a prevention to replace primary forests or HCV areas by new plantings since 2005 (principle 7.3) as well as avoidance of extensive planting on fragile soils including peat (principle 7.4). Additionally, principle 1 (Commitment to transparency) is also important, as it should ensure an open availability of relevant information and management documents, which is basically the premise for a realization of all other standards (RSPO P&C 2013). A full description of all RSPO Criteria can be viewed in the correspondent RSPO document.

At this stage I already would like to note, that there are some weaknesses in the RSPO criteria, which actually restrict an appropriate and trustworthy transformation towards a sustainable palm oil market. This issue will be discussed in detail in section 4.3.

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4 How effective is the RSPO?

The aim of this work is to evaluate whether RSPO measures ensure a sustainable palm oil market and hence, help decreasing tropical deforestation. For this purpose, the change of the dependent variables in correlation with the emergence of the RSPO needs to be analyzed, which are (1) Growth of the sustainable palm oil industry and the (2) changes in tropical deforestation. This requires the consideration of several factors. The first part includes the analysis of how the sustainable palm oil industry has been developing in terms of (i) the amount of Certified Sustainable Palm Oil (CSPO) that has been produced (ii) the amount of land harvested for CSPO and (iii) the amount CSPO which has been actually sold on the global market. The second part requires investigation, whether the RSPO had any positive effect on reducing deforestation attributed to palm oil production.

4.1. Analysis of dependent variable 1: Growth of the sustainable palm oil industry

According to the RSPO, the proportion of land attributed to the cultivation of certified sustainable palm oil has increased constantly since the first certification was awarded in 2008 (RSPO 2015). Further data up to 2013 indicate that land used for CSPO has increased up to approximately 11% (Figure 2, table A) (RSPO 2015, FAO 2015). Consequently, 90 % of the land used for palm oil cultivation still does not show any sustainable management. As no official targets of the amount of CSPO land had been set, it is difficult to say, whether a 1:9-ratio is successful or not. Currently, the total amount of CSPO production area represents 2.65 million hectares (RSPO 2015)

Figure 2: Development of the sustainable palm oil industry since 2008. Table A: data of the area used for CSPO in comparison to total palm oil area (in ha). Table B: data of the physical amount of produced CSPO in comparison to total palm oil production (in tonnes). Table C: Comparison between CSPO produced and CSPO sold on the global market (in tonnes). Data was obtained from either the RSPO 2015 (for CSPO values) or FAO 2015 (for total palm oil values).

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Similar to the CSPO production area, the actual amount of CSPO produced (in tonnes) has been increased constantly since 2008 (RSPO 2015) and in 2013 CSPO represented approximately 18% of the total amount of globally produced palm oil (Figure 2, table B) (RSPO 2015, FAO 2015). The discrepancy between the proportion of CSPO production area (only 11 % of global land used for palm oil production) and CSPO as an end product (18 % of global palm oil) could be explained by the reason, that within the RSPO, palm oil production is probably more efficient resulting in less land is needed to produce a certain amount of palm oil. However, if comparing the total amount of CSPO produced and the total amount of CSPO sold, it becomes clear that the amount of CSPO sold has lagged greatly behind production. Obviously, supply does not meet demand. Currently, only approximately 50 % of CSPO entering the market is bought (Figure 2, table C). This indicates that there are not enough manufactures and retailers that make the commitments to use RSPO certified products, likely because it is not credible for companies to invest in fully sustainable practices.

4.2. Analysis of dependent variable 2: Deforestation

In order to address the question whether the RSPO had any positive effect on reducing deforestation attributed to the palm oil industry, it would be necessary to access data that show possible changes in deforestation in the palm oil sector prior and after the establishment of the RSPO. However such datasets are not provided by the RSPO nor is it available from any other organisation in a sufficient extent. Hence, in the following I will provide some spatial information, mostly concentrating on Malaysia and Indonesia, that gives at least a rough idea about the dimension of deforestation connected to the palm oil industry. Figure 3 is based on interactive maps provided by globalforestwatch.org and shows the contribution of palm oil plantations in tree cover losses around South East Asia. The upper part of figure 3 shows the total tree cover loss in Indonesia and Malaysia from 2001 to 2013, together with the relatively few remaining areas of intact forest landscapes in 2013. It can be derived from the middle part of this figure, that a significant amount of deforestation can be attributed to the palm oil sector. The proportion of RSPO certified plantation in this context is rather small (fig. 3 lowest part). However, it cannot be judged from this figure whether the RSPO certified palm oil plantation took place on already degraded land or if any clearance had been undertaken. Also, if considering the extensive amount of forest loss due to palm oil industry and the sparse areas of intact forest remaining, it is difficult to record any success in terms of decreased deforestation as a response to RSPO standards.

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Figure 3: Tree cover loss in Indonesia and Malaysia and the role of palm oil plantations. Top: Total Tree cover loss from 2001-2013 combined with remaining intact forests. Middle: Total Tree cover loss from 2001-2013 overlaid with total palm oil plantations. Bottom: Total Tree cover loss from 2001-2013 overlaid with CSPO plantations. Maps were obtained by using the interactive map tool provided by globalforestwatch.org.

Precise total numbers of tropical forest losses in total or due to palm oil plantations are difficult to find due to insufficient transparency in this sector and different estimates depending on the reference. According to RSPO assessments, around 3.5 million hectares of forest in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Papua New Guinea was converted for oil palm plantations between 1990 and 2010 (Butler 2013). Indonesia, the world’s largest producer of palm oil, experienced a more than 15 million ha loss of gross forest cover between 2000 and 2012 (Hansen 2013). Based on areas identified by

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Greenpeace spanning the period from 2009-2011, the palm oil sector was the largest driver of deforestation, with identified concessions accounting for 300.000 ha forest loss (which is equivalent to approximately one quarter of total deforestation in that period) (Greenpeace International 2013). The fact that deforestation in Indonesia and Malaysia, general and connected to the palm oil sector, has been increasing constantly over the last years, makes it very difficult to determine any positive effect the RSPO might had on deforestation.

4.3. Weaknesses in RSPO criteria

The RSPO is accused to have profound weaknesses in criteria, mainly based on lacks in defining sustainable standards, implementation difficulties as well as inefficiencies in processes. This condition led to the situation that (mainly external) NGOs, like Greenpeace or Friends of the Earth, lost faith in the RSPO (Nikoloyuk et. al. 2010). Weaknesses became apparent in e.g. insufficient forest and peatland protection, fire prevention, missing limits on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and lacks in the RSPO supply chains. Furthermore, consequences for partners who disobeyed regulations are unsatisfactory and often delayed in implementation (Greenpeace International 2013) Although RSPO members are committed via principle 7.3 to assess for and not plan new plantings on forests identified as primary or HCV areas (RSPO 2013), there is still ongoing clearance of forests not categorized as those. However, as there is not much tropical forest area left, it would be important for climate and biodiversity to also protect such secondary or degraded areas (Greenpeace International 2013). A similar lack of protection can be observed with peatlands. RSPO criteria do not ban clearance or drainage of peatland forests for the expansion of plantations, although peatlands are carbon stores and crucial for climate regulation. Directly linked to that issue, is the incapability of the RSPO to ensure adequate fire prevention. Despite the fact that the RSPO prohibits the use of fire for clearance (RSPO 2013, P&C 7.7), it promotes wildfires by allowing peat drainage, as the dry carbon-rich soil catches fire very quickly (Greenpeace International 2013). Also, the RSPO does not set any limits on GHG emissions that can be associated with the land use change for palm oil cultivation. It only includes voluntary guidelines to report emissions (Greenpeace International 2013). Another critical point is that the RSPO obviously responds insufficiently to partners who disobeyed regulations and also do not pursue complaints immediately, as it has been shown for example in case of Duta Palm or Herakles Forests. The palm Oil producer Duta Palm, although a previous RSPO member, has been known for its destructive and illegal operations since 2007, including clearance of deep peat, HCV forests and fire use (Greenpeace international 2007). However, the RSPO did not react on these operation nor did it respond appropriately to complaints against Duta palm by NGOs and local people submitted in 2009 (Atus et al. 2009). As a result, Duta

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Palm was not dismissed before May 2013 (RSPO 2013). A similar situation appeared in connection with the US-based company Herakles Farms in Cameroon, which subsidiary SG Sustainable Oils Cameroon joined the RSPO in 2009 (Greenpeace International 2013). Complaints against the company were released by NGOs in 2012, in which it was accused of not following procedures for a ‘responsible development of new plantings’ (RSPO Grievance 2012) as well as of insufficient and inadequate HCV assessments (HCV Resource Network 2012). A subsequent request of the RSPO that Herakles should stop its clearance activities (RSPO 2012) was ignored by the company. In August 2012, RSPO membership was abolished, but from the site of the company itself (Farnan 2012). The companies’ dubious operations in Cameroon continued until its sudden abolishment end of May 2015, whereby the local workers did not receive any compensation (Forest peoples 2015). However, Herakles Farms still claims to ‘meet growing global demand for food by developing sustainable and environmentally benign projects with full support of the local people’ and to follow RSPO principles (Herakles Farms website 2011).

4.4. Problematic of RSPO supply chain options

Apart from weaknesses directly connected to forest conversion, there are problems regarding the RSPO trading scheme as variations in the supply chain do not guarantee a 100 % sustainable end product. In order to meet different customer requirements, the RSPO offers different supply chain options for RSPO member companies, including Segregated, Mass Balance and GreenPalm Book and claim variant (Parulian and Beamish 2012). The different types of supply chain are depicted in figure 4. In the segregated version, the sustainable product originated from the RSPO certified oil palm plantations is separated from non-certified products all way through the supply chain. Separated transport systems, mills and refineries prevent any contamination with fruits from uncertified plantations. Consequently, the product at the end of this supply chain contains 100% CSPO (Parulian and Beamish 2012). In contrast, the mass balance supply chain allows mixing between CSPO and non- certified palm oil, in order to avoid the costs needed to keep both separately. This system allows selling certified mass balance palm oil in an amount equal to the proportion of CSPO which had previously entered the refinery. As a result, the certified end product does not consist of 100% CSPO. However, the mass balance supply chain still supports certified sustainable palm oil through mixing (GreenPalm 2015). The cheapest RSPO supply chain version is the GreenPalm Book and Claim certification system. Companies can buy so called GreenPalm certificates from RSPO certified oil palm growers for each tonne of palm oil (or ) they use and sell on the market. Thereby they support RSPO certified plantations instantly and independently of segregation systems.

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However, it does not guarantee that the endproducts fed by these companies contain CSPO at all (GreenPalm 2015).

Figure 4: The different RSPO supply chains. The RSPO offers different options in their supply chain. Top: In the segregated supply chain the sustainable produced palm oil is constantly separated from the non-sustainable one, enduring transparency and 100% CSPO in the end product. Middle: The Mass Balance System allows mixing of sustainable and non- sustainable oil. Bottom: Book and Claim Systems supports RSPO certified plantations via GreenPalm certificates that can be purchased from customers for each tonne of palm oil they sell (sustainable or not) (Greenpeace International 2013).

Each supply chain option has advantages and disadvantages. The segregated one is for sure the most transparent and sustainable one as it guides the market towards 100% sustainable palm oil. However, it is also the most expensive option since companies need to invest in separated mills, refineries and transport systems. Some stakeholders cannot effort such costs, for example local smallholders, and for others it is likely just not convenient enough as long as cheaper options are available. One major problem is the surplus of CSPO availability, as it was mentioned in section 4.1. As long as the demand of CSPO does not meet supply, most stakeholders do not see any economic benefits in switching towards a fully segregated supply chain (Parulian and Beamish 2012). Consequently, the Mass Balance and Book and Claim System represent more attractive options, for smallholders who do not have the financial possibility to support CSPO at a fully segregated level, but also for bigger companies, which basically just want to improve reputation. 12

In fact, the RSPO standards provide a space within which certified stakeholders can choose to operate. Although this flexibility is for sure necessary for certain aspects, e.g. in order to provide smallholders and independent producers the chance to enter a sustainable palm oil market, it also allows companies to become part of the RSPO that show minimum level of engagement.

4.5. Options for improvement

Mostly originating from weaknesses in standards, implementation or good governance, but also due to the lack in CSPO demand, the RSPO is facing a number of challenges. These were stated in the previous section. In order to address the problems and to improve the current situation, changes need to be done, not only at the level of the RSPO panel, but also on all stakeholder levels. Firstly, RSPO standards needs to be strengthened and reformed, including for instance the ban for clearance of high carbon stock forests or peatlands (which are not considered as HCV) or obligatory documentation on GHG emissions. In the next step, it has to be ensured that standards and procedures are also applied in an appropriate way in order to prevent corruption and green washing. This requires the introduction of measures for monitoring member operations and a proper and immediate investigation strategy of any complaints against members. Furthermore, the development of fully traceable supply chains as well as an encouragement and support of independent smallholders represent important aspects for improvement (Greenpeace International 2013). Since the RSPO represents a partnered governance model, it can only operate in a best possible way, if all stakeholders undertake action and responsibility. For changes on all levels, the member companies would need to take own leadership and go beyond RSPO standards (Greenpeace International 2013). While growers should define lands potentially suitable for expansion and assess, report and reduce GHG emissions, palm oil traders and processors can ensure sustainability via mapping all suppliers to reach an entire traceable supply chain and assessing suppliers against sustainability criteria (Greenpeace International 2013). Consumer companies should aim to move towards segregated supply chains as soon as possible and retailers should go beyond ‘own-brand commitments’. And finally, as supply is always based on the demand of individual consumers, those should shop from companies that have committed to and are using CSPO only (WWF 2013). However, as a premise to push people towards buying CSPO, it is crucial to 1) increase the common awareness about the palm oil issue via addressing it in public media and 2) make certification labelling on products obligatory, that individuals can directly see what they are buying.

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5. Conclusion

In this work I aimed to evaluate whether RSPO measures can ensure a sustainable palm oil market and in line with this, have a positive effect on reducing tropical deforestation. After investigating the principles of the RSPO and its role in moving the palm oil market towards sustainable standards, it seems that certain components of the dependent variables (increase of CSPO produced palm oil, land used for CSPO production) indeed show a positive development. The proportion of land attributed to the cultivation of CSPO has increased up to approximately 11 % and the produced total amount of CSPO even accounts currently almost 20 % of the total palm oil market, indicating a relatively high production efficiency under RSPO standards. However, this positive outlook is offset by an on-going deforestation occurring in line with the constantly growing demand for palm oil as well as the lack of consumer demand for CSPO. The rising palm oil demand is, to my opinion, the most critical aspect; as such levels of consumption could never be maintained under sustainable standards only. Although addressing this fact seems to be avoided in all sustainable management plans, it does not need any assessments to understand that there is a limit of the CSPO amount that can be potentially produced, as plantation is restricted to a few areas. Besides this rather general problem of excessive consumption, the RSPO shows weaknesses in standards, decision making and precision, which need to be refined. Despite all problems, the RSPO still remains the most credible international standard available and it provides a good basis for promoting a sustainable palm oil market. However, in order to improve the situation, companies need to take leadership and go beyond RSPO standards. Furthermore, there is urgent need to enhance the public concern and awareness about the palm oil issue, in order to increase interest and investment in CSPO containing products. As a conclusion it can be stated, that the RSPO currently cannot guarantee a 100% sustainable palm oil cultivation or trade. It requires a profound improvement of criteria and implementation as well as enhanced monitoring of RSPO members. As the RSPO is a multi- stakeholder initiative, where every member takes responsibility, action must be undertaken on all levels. Furthermore, a positive effect in regard to reduced deforestation cannot be evaluated appropriately, which is due to lack of good data and the fact that the non-sustainable palm oil market is still leading.

Consequently, the hypotheses defined in the beginning of this work can be approved. So far, the measures of the RSPO are not effective enough for ensuring a sustainable palm oil industry and the consumers cannot rely on sustainable palm oil certification.

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6. References

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Pastowski, A., Fischedick, M., Arnold, K., Bienge, K. (2007). Sozial-ökologische Bewertung der stationären energetischen Nutzung von importierten Biokraftstoffen am Beispiel von Palmöl. Studie im Auftrag des BMU. Wuppertal Institute, Wuppertal.

Pro Wildlife, Save Wildlife Conservation Fund, Rettet den Regenwald, Korup Rainforest Conservation Society (2012). RSPO grievance against the US Company Herakles Farms and its national subsidiary SGSOC. Available at: http://www. save-wildlife.com/downloads/save_the_forest/rSpo_grievance.pdf

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Butler, A.R. (2013). 3.5 million ha of Indonesian and Malaysian forest converted for palm oil in 20 years. Mongabay.com. Available under: http://news.mongabay.com/2013/11/3-5-million-ha-of-indonesian-and-malaysian-forest- converted-for-palm-oil-in-20-years/ 15

RSPO Website, (Last updated: 31.07.2015). Available at: http://www.rspo.org/about/impacts [Accessed: 12.08.15]

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Others:

Logo used for frontpag: http://www.sustainablepalmoil.org/files/2012/09/RSPO_Trademark_Logo.png

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