The Aftermath of the Maria Hertogh Riots in Colonial Singapore (1950-1953;
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THE AFTERMATH OF THE MARIA HERTOGH RIOTS IN COLONIAL SINGAPORE (1950-1953; SYED MUHD KHAIRUDIN ALJUNIED (M.A., National University of Singapore) A THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (PHD) DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN STUDIES (SOAS) UNIVERSITY OF LONDON 2008 ProQuest Number: 10673117 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a com plete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. uest ProQuest 10673117 Published by ProQuest LLC(2017). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States C ode Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 ABSTRACT This thesis examines the genesis, outbreak and far-reaching effects of the first among a series of incidents of mass violence which determined the course of British colonial rule in post World War Two Singapore. I argue that the Maria Hertogh riots stemmed from British failure to address four crucial factors which shaped the Singapore Muslim community’s attitudes towards the colonial regime: the influence of radical ideas, the effects of socio-economic marginalisation, press sensationalisation of the legal controversy, and the ineffectiveness of the police force. The outbreak of the riots had a negative effect on the image and role of the British colonial administration in Singapore, which jeopardised diplomatic ties between the British Empire, The Netherlands and the Muslim World. In response, the British utilised a symbiotic combination of proscription, surveillance, self-criticism, reconciliation and reform. Through these strategies, they sought to redeem their tarnished image, mitigate the negative effects of the riots, and anticipate similar outbreaks arising from racial and religious dissent. The politics, resistance, collaboration and ramifications upon minorities in Singapore arising from each of these five strategies will be brought to the fore. This thesis contributes to the wider history of colonial Southeast Asia by initiating a shift beyond the study of the causes of riots towards an examination of the wide- ranging effects and crises faced in the aftermath. Secondly, it will illuminate the linkages between the British colonial administration in Singapore and policymakers and officials in the Home Government and other outlying colonies. Thirdly, a more nuanced 2 understanding of British management of mass violence in Southeast Asia will be provided. Fourthly, it proposes new ways of analysing forms of resistance that were employed by Southeast Asian communities in confronting colonial rule. Last of all, this study extends and refines the corpus of literature pertaining to religious minorities in colonial Southeast Asia. 3 CONTENTS Abstract 2 Contents 4 Acknowledgements 6 Abbreviations and Glossary 7 Dramatis Personae 10 List of Maps and Photographs 13 Chapter One Introduction 15 Historiography 16 Objectives and perimeters o f this study 20 Sources 28 Chapters 34 Chapter Two The Colonial Setting and Outbreak of Riots 39 Muslims in Singapore 42 The Maria Hertogh legal controversy 51 The Riots 59 Chapter Three Proscription 66 Instilling fear 66 Ideologues and perpetrators of violence 15 The use and abuse of law 84 To err is human, to forgive divine 91 Conclusion - Annus Hombilis 107 Chapter Four Surveillance 110 Moments o f anxiety 113 A year o f high drama 123 Mansoor Adabi and the Appeal Court case 130 Residues o f Muslim resistance 142 Conclusion — new threats and old enemies 147 4 Chapter Five Self-Criticism 151 A winter o f discontent 152 The politics o f enquiry 159 The battle o f words and wits 171 Villains and scapegoats 178 Conclusion — Shifting fates, shattered lives 190 Chapter Six Reconciliation 197 Restoring public confidence 199 Pacifying the Muslims 210 Three key challenges in reconciliation 218 The Martyr and the Prophet o f Islam 226 Conclusion — The return to normality 234 Chapter Seven Reform 236 The Police Force 237 Education 254 Marriage policies 262 Child adoption 272 Conclusion — in retrospect 276 Conclusion 278 Appendixes 285 Bibliography 288 5 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis is a product of a collective work, of which, would not have been completed without the generous support of institutions and individuals. I am most indebted to Professor William Clarence-Smith who has supervised this research with much patience, wisdom and enthusiasm. His cheerful disposition and intellectual rigour remains as a source of inspiration. My own family has helped me in countless ways, more so, on living a Life. Parents and siblings gave endless encouragement during tough times. Had it not been for Marlina who remained supportive of my endeavour, I would have given up hope. I do hope that Inshirah, Fatihah, Yusuf and Muhammad will derive some benefit from a work that has been written at various intervals when I was actually asked to read, play and sing. Funding for this research has been generously endowed by the National University of Singapore and the Tan Kali Kee Postgraduate Scholarship. I thank Tan Tai Yong (Dean of Arts and Social Sciences), Shaharuddin Maaruf (former Head of Department of Malay Studies) and the Scholarship committees for their assistance in this regard. Over the years, the staff members of various libraries and archives in Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia, the United Kingdom, Australia and United States of America have been most helpful in my search for sources. I would like to thank Maurizio Peleggi, Kamaludeen Mohd Nasir, Derek Heng, Syed Nazir, Loh Kah Seng, Sophiandy Sopali, Chng Nai Rui, Jan van der Putten and Omar Moad for reading initial drafts of the thesis and sharpening many of its arguments. Professor Anthony Stockwell, Joey Long, Carool Kersten and Azharudin Mohd Dali helped to obtain many important sources relevant to this research. Pak Jamal Tukimin devoted much of his precious time in helping me to regain my ‘rustyJawV . The families of Professor Mashudi Kader, Umar Ebrahimsa, Najib Yasin and Nazimdin Nasir were kind enough to have me stay at their homes with little notice. Daud Ali, Sujuandy Supaat, Faizal Razak, Rudie Asmara, Romyaldy, Harris Senin, Suryakenchana Omar, Taris Ahmad, Fuad Ali, Isaac Saney, Saqib Barburi, Salih An-Nahdi, Maureen De Silva, Chiara Formichi and Wan Faizah were the best of friends throughout the difficult months of writing and field research. Needless to say, I am responsible for any errors in this work. 6 ABBREVIATIONS AND GLOSSARY A Australia (Archival Record Code) Advisory Committee Established during the Malayan Emergency, the committee’s role was to consider the appeals of those who had been arrested by colonial administration and pass decisions on the validity of the appeals. API Angkatan Pemuda Insaf (Group of Awakened Youths) CAB Records of the British Cabinet Office CID Criminal Investigation Department CO Colonial Office CT Communist Terrorist Fatwa An Arabic word for ‘legal judgement’ or an explanation given by a Muslim scholar on matters pertaining to the understanding and practise of Islam. FO Foreign Office Imam An Arabic word for ‘leader’. It was used by the Malays to describe the leader of a prayer congregation or commander of a Muslim army. IRO Inter-Religious Organisation ISEAS Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, Singapore Jamiyah All-Malaya Muslim Missionary Society JMBRAS Journal o f the Malayan Branch o f the Royal Asiatic Society Kampong A Malay word for ‘village’ or ‘a cluster of settlements’ that was smaller than a town. 7 Kathi Also spelled as Qadi which means a Muslim judge. In Malaya, the kathis were entrusted with the registration of marriages and also arbitration of marital disputes. Legislative Council Consisted of twenty-two persons whose main function was to assist the Governor in the passing of laws of Singapore. The Governor however had veto powers over the Council. A majority of the Council’s members were nominated by the British. In 1948, there were only six elected members. The number of elected members was increased to nine in 1951. Lex Domicili The law of the place of a person’s domicile Locus standi Recognised position or acknowledged right to a given issue. In the realm of law, it refers to a plaintiff who has reasons to be a party to a legal case. Madrasah Islamic school Maulana An Arabic word for ‘our lord’ or ‘our master’. It was commonly used in South and Southeast Asia as a title for a respected Muslim scholar. MCP Malayan Communist Party MNP Malayan Nationalist Party (also known as the Pergerakan Kebangsaan Malaya Merdeka [PKMM, or the Malayan National Independence Movement]) MRLA Malayan Races Liberation Army Mufti A Muslim scholar who interprets Islamic laws. NACPM National Archives, College Park, Maryland at the United States of America NAS National Archives of Singapore Nikah Gantung A truncated marriage or a marriage that was deemed by Malays in the post-war period as valid from the perspective of Islam but incomplete for the reason that the customary rites had not been performed. Parang A large knife that was used by Malays to cut through thick vegetation and also for self-defence as well as violent crimes. PERAM Pemuda Radikal Melayu (Radical Malay Youths) PKM Panitia Kemerdekaan Malaya (or the Committee for Malayan Independence) PREM Records of the British Prime Minister’s Office. RAF Royal Air Force RG Records Group. These are files that are deposited in the Washington Archives in the United States of America. Special Branch A unit within the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) of the Singapore Police Force. Its main function was to acquire information to protect the public and the colonial state from subversive and extremist activities.