Cognitive Science

Have a question? ASK THE BRAINS Send it to [email protected] None of the above should one explaining the same thing indicate that all conspiracy repeatedly. It all makes sense, theories are false. Some may so you say, “Yes, yes, got it.” Why do indeed turn out to be true. But reviewing an explanation some people The point is that some indi- is not the same as being able believe in viduals may have a tendency to explain something yourself. to find such theories attrac- The flaw in rereading— conspiracy tive. The crux of the matter is failing to know if you have theories? that conspiracists are not real- learned the material—points —Thea Buckley, India ly sure what the true explana- to our first good study tech- tion of an event is—they are nique: self-testing. Self-testing simply certain that the “offi- may involve flash cards, it may cial story” is a cover-up. mean answering questions at Christopher French, a profes- will focus on such inconsis- the back of a book chapter or sor of psychology at Goldsmiths, tencies to bolster their claims. What are the it may be fielding questions University of London, explains: “Proportionality bias,” best and worst lobbed by a study buddy. our innate tendency to assume ways to prepare There are two main bene- Although conspiracy beliefs that big events have big causes, for an exam? fits to self-testing. First, in can occasionally be based on may also explain our tendency —Lola Irele, London contrast to rereading, self-test- a rational analysis of the evi- to accept conspiracies. This is ing offers an accurate assess- dence, most of the time they one reason many people were Daniel Willingham, a professor ment of what has been learned are not. As a species, one of uncomfortable with the idea of psychology at the University and whether one needs to keep our greatest strengths is our that President John F. Kenne- of Virginia and author of Raising studying. Second, scores of ability to find meaningful dy was the victim of a de- Kids Who Read: What Parents studies show that self-testing patterns in the world around ranged lone gunman and and Teachers Can Do, responds: is a great way to cement mate- us and to make causal infer- found it easier to accept the rial into memory. It is even ences. We sometimes, howev- theory that he was the victim So glad you asked! Scientists better than equivalent time er, see patterns and causal of a large-scale conspiracy. have a lot of practical infor- spent perusing the material. connections that are not there, Another relevant cognitive mation on this topic, but Another useful technique especially when we feel that bias is “projection.” People most students do not know is to periodically pause when events are beyond our control. who endorse conspiracy theo- about it. Research investigat- reading to ask why a statement The attractiveness of con- ries may be more likely to ing how students learn was in the text is true. We have all spiracy theories may arise en gage in conspiratorial be- first conducted at highly com had the experience of passing from a number of cognitive haviors themselves, such as petitive institutions such as our eyes over words but not biases that characterize the spreading rumors or tending the University of California, really thinking about what we way we process information. to be suspicious of others’ Los Angeles. Even students at have read. Pausing every few “Confirmation bias” is the motives. If you would engage these top schools used terri- paragraphs to ask, “Why does most pervasive cognitive bias in such behavior, it may seem ble strategies. that make sense?” prompts and a powerful driver of belief natural that other people For example, students thinking and learning. in conspiracies. We all have would as well, making con- commonly highlight what A third technique is to a natural inclination to give spiracies appear more plausi- they read, but research shows spread out study sessions in- more weight to evidence that ble and widespread. Further- that it does not help memory. stead of cramming. Much re- supports what we already be- more, people who are strongly Most students highlight as search shows that memory is lieve and ignore evidence that inclined toward conspiratorial they are reading text for the more enduring when material contradicts our beliefs. The thinking will be more likely first time, when they do not is reviewed days or even weeks real-world events that often to endorse mutually contra- know what is important apart. This is a practice that become the subject of conspir- dictory theories. For example, enough to highlight. teachers can promote by giv- acy theories tend to be intrin- if you believe that Osama bin Another ineffective com- ing more frequent assignments iStockphoto sically complex and unclear. Laden was killed many years prehension method is reread- and quizzes that require a re- Early reports may contain er- before the American govern- ing. Doing so makes the stu- view of material covered ear- rors, contradictions and am- ment officially announced his dent feel he or she is getting to lier in the course. Even brief biguities, and those wishing death, you are also more likely know the material better and memory refreshers can result to find evidence of a cover-up to believe that he is still alive. better. Rereading is like some- in big returns in learning. M CARROLLJAMIE 72 SCIENTIFIC AMERICAN MIND JULY/AUGUst 2015 miq415Brai3p.indd 72 5/4/15 10:35 PM.

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