ETB256 Nutrition and Feeding of Baitfish

Rebecca Lochmann Professor

Harold Phillips Research Specialist

Aquaculture/Fisheries Center University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff

A University of Arkansas COOPERATIVE EXTENSION PROGRAM, University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff, United States Department of Agriculture and County Governments Cooperating AUTHORS

Rebecca Lochmann, Ph.D., Professor and Harold Phillips, Research Specialist University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff Department of Aquaculture and Fisheries P.O. Box 4912 Pine Bluff, Arkansas, USA 71611 Phone: (870) 575­ 8124 Fax: (870) 575­ 4639 E­ mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Nathan Stone, Hugh Thomforde and Andy Goodwin provided valuable reviews for this manuscript. The aquaculture and agriculture industries in Arkansas and the southern region have been extremely supportive of baitfish research at UAPB. This work would not have been possible without the support of many students and summer workers over the years – we are extremely grateful to all of them.

The cover was designed by Robert Thoms and Richard Gehle. TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. INTRODUCTION 2

II. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL AND PREPARED DIETS 3

III. ENERGY­ YIELDING NUTRIENTS 5 A. Proteins 5 1. Amount 5 2. Source 6 B. Lipids (fats) 7 1. Amount 7 2. Source 10 C. Interactions Between Proteins and Lipids 11 D. Carbohydrates 12 1. Amount 12 2. Source 12

IV. VITAMINS AND MINERALS 13 A. Vitamin/Mineral Supplement 13 B. Vitamin C 14 C. Interactions Between Vitamins C and E 15 D. Additional Needs – Minerals 15

V. FEEDING PRACTICES 17 A. Practical Diets 17 B. Fry Diets 17 C. Broodstock Diets 18 D. Production of “Jumbos” 19 E. Feed Additives: Color Enhancement 20 F. Feed Additives: Prebiotics 21

VI. SUMMARY 23

VII. SOURCES OF INFORMATION 24

VIII. APPENDIX 1 26 NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 1

PREFACE

This is an updated version of manual ETB256, Nutrition and Feeding of Baitfish. Most of the studies included in this manual were conducted by scientists at the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff (UAPB), but many included collaborators from other southern states. New studies covered in this manual address vitamin nutri­ tion in golden shiner, color enhancement in goldfish, diets for fry, broodstock and “jumbos,” use of non­ fish sources of proteins and lipids, and dietary prebiotics.

Since the first manual was published, most of the additional studies conducted have included measures of fish health rather than just standard production data. This approach gives a more integrated picture of the effects of different diets and feeding regimes on baitfish. Baitfish must survive and remain in good condition well beyond harvest since they are marketed live. Therefore, the effects of diet on stress and immune responses have received more attention in recent research. The development of tools to assess these responses in small fish has also enhanced our knowledge of the interaction between diet and health in baitfish. 2 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH

INTRODUCTION

Small fish produced specifically piscivorous pets, and goldfish fish used as bait, “feeders” for anglers to attract desirable can be marketed as ornamental or ornamentals. food or game fishes are referred fish. Fathead minnow is widely to as “baitfish.” This review used as a toxicological and bio­ The known nutritional require­ addresses the nutrition and feed­ medical model in the laboratory. ments of baitfish species are simi­ ing practices for the three main Regardless of their ultimate use, lar to those of other warmwater species cultured in the U.S.: the the culture conditions for these fish that consume both animal golden shiner, Notemigonus three cyprinid species are similar and plant matter, such as channel crysoleucas, goldfish, Carassius when they are raised in outdoor catfish (Ictalurus punctatus) and auratus and fathead minnow, ponds in the southern U.S. The common carp (Cyprinus carpio). Pimephales promelas. Goldfish market value of these species is However, feeding practices for and the rosy red variety of fat­ determined primarily by size, bait and ornamental fish differ head minnows may also be which dictates production and from those of foodfish in several marketed as “feeder” fish, which marketing strategies. Small indi­ important ways (Table 1). are meant for consumption by viduals comprise the bulk of

Table 1. Factors that affect feeding and nutrition of baitfish and channel catfish in ponds.

Factor Baitfish1 Channel catfish2

Feed Cost 18% of total costs 50% or more of total costs

Fish Growth Desired rate depends on target Maximum rate is usually desired throughout market sizes production cycle

Natural Foods Supply 40% or more of nutrition for Contribution uncertain; may provide some non­ fry stages in intensive culture vitamins and minerals for non­ fry stages in when complete diets are used intensive culture when complete diets are used

Body Composition Large amount of body fat; fat does not Large amount of body fat reduces dressout reduce marketability/be an advantage percentage

1Includes golden shiners, goldfish and fathead minnows (Stone et al. 1997). 2Robinson and Li (1996). NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 3

RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL AND PREPARED FEEDS

Most baitfish producers encourage Table 2. The calculated contribution of seston1 to the weight gain natural food production by using of golden shiners fed isotopically distinct diets in ponds. appropriate fertilization and moni­ toring regimes. Natural foods are Diet Diet Mean individual Pond inexpensive sources of protein, number δ13C weight gain (g) contribution (%)2 energy and micronutrients com­ 1 ­ 24.4 1.01 40.4 pared to prepared feeds. However, 2 ­ 21.3 0.96 57.0 use of manufactured feeds greatly 3 ­ 16.3 0.93 83.1 increases baitfish production, even 1 Seston is suspended particulate matter, including plankton. when natural foods are present. 2 See Lochmann and Phillips (1996) for details.

Experiment 1 the end of the study, the change in feeding rate on use of foods by To estimate the relative contribu­ fish δ13Cs in combination with golden shiners in ponds was tion of natural and prepared foods weight gain were used to estimate examined in simultaneous eight­ to the nutrition of golden shiners, the relative importance of seston week feeding trials at the an eight­ week feeding trial was and the prepared diets to the nutri­ University of Arkansas at Pine conducted in 0.04­ ha (0.1­ acre) tion of the golden shiners. Even Bluff (UAPB) and Texas A&M ponds using stable carbon isotope when nutritionally complete feeds University (TAMU). Ten 0.1­ acre ratios, (δ13C) as nutrient tracers. were fed twice daily, the fish still ponds per site were fertilized with Fish and their food items (both derived 40­ 83 percent of their nour­ defatted rice bran and stocked natural and artificial) contain a ishment from the seston (Table 2). with golden shiners (initial indi­ “signature” δ13C. Over time, the This established the large contribu­ vidual weight =1.3­ 1.4 g) at a rate “signature” of the fish will most tion of natural foods to the nutrition of 300,000 fish/acre (UAPB) or closely resemble that of the food of golden shiners at a fixed stock­ 150,000 fish/acre (TAMU). Fish in item(s) that is/are most important ing density when the natural food five ponds per site were fed a in their diet. In this study, groups supply was uniform between treat­ nutritionally complete prepared of 150 golden shiners (initial indi­ ments. However, factors such as diet at 4 percent of body weight, vidual weight = 1.4 g) were stocking density and the quality while fish in the remaining ponds stocked into floating nets (0.13­ in and quantity of plankton blooms were not fed. mesh) in unfertilized ponds. The vary widely in commercial baitfish stocking density was comparable ponds. Some of this variability is Assimilation of natural foods by to an intensive level of 220,089 seasonal, but even within a season “unfed” fish was compared to that fish/acre. some ponds develop and “hold” a of fish fed the prepared diet at good bloom and some do not. each site. Standard production Three nutritionally similar diets data (weight gain, secchi depth, with a range of δ13Cs were pre­ Experiment 2 dissolved oxygen (DO)) was pared at UAPB. Each diet was fed When the amount of natural food compared to stable carbon isotope to fish in one net within each of per fish is reduced (either because ratio (δ13C) data as an index of four ponds at a rate of 4 percent there are more fish in the pond or fish performance (weight change body weight/day divided into two the natural food is scarce), pre­ or fish δ13C, resulting from feedings. The δ13Cs of the fish and pared diets may become a more assimilation of various food seston (suspended particulate mat­ important nutrient source for bait­ sources). Natural productivity ter including plankton) were meas­ fish. The effect of production vari­ (plankton) was consistently lower ured at the beginning and end of ables such as stocking density, at TAMU than at UAPB, while the study. The ratios of the pre­ natural productivity (measured by temperature and minimum DO pared diets were also measured. At secchi disk), dissolved oxygen and was similar between sites. Weight 4 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH gain of fed and unfed fish stocked This experiment highlighted the densities; and 2) there was greater at a lower density at TAMU was importance of two issues: 1) feed­ use of prepared diet by fish at the higher than that of fed and unfed ing fish a prepared diet more lower density, where natural pro­ fish, respectively, stocked at a than tripled growth rates at both ductivity was also low. higher density at UAPB (Table 3). The δ13C of fed and unfed fish at UAPB changed little during the Table 3. Performance of golden shiners in 0.1­ acre fertilized ponds stocked at different densities. Fish in half of the ponds at study, so stable isotopes could not each density were not fed, while fish in the remaining ponds were be used to provide any informa­ fed a 32%­ protein diet at 4% body weight once daily for 8 weeks.1 tion about their food sources. The δ13C of fed fish at TAMU Stocking density Average individual weight increase (%) approached that of the prepared (fish/acre) Unfed Fed diet, while that of unfed fish b a resembled that of the plankton 150,000 94 336 300,000 26b 272a and rice bran. Minimum DO, 1 Performance data are means of 5 ponds each. Individual fish averaged plankton isotope ratio, and the 1.3­ 1.4 grams initially. Means within rows with different superscripts are fed/unfed variables significantly significantly different (P<0.05) as determined by Fisherʼs least significant affected fish isotope ratio. difference test. NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 5

ENERGY­ YIELDING NUTRIENTS

Fish need energy to maintain basic Amount energy in the diet can also reduce metabolic activities and to support The total dietary protein require­ feed consumption and growth. growth, reproduction, activity and ment may be defined as the mini­ health. Proteins, carbohydrates and mum amount of protein that Experiments 1 and 2 lipids provide this energy, but produces best fish performance The total dietary protein require­ there are no estimates of available (e.g., growth, feed conversion) ment and the protein:energy ratio energy from different diet ingredi­ under a given set of conditions. of golden shiner and goldfish were ents for golden shiner, goldfish or The total dietary protein require­ examined in separate experiments. fathead minnow. Instead, available ment is most important economi­ Juvenile golden shiners and gold­ energy has been estimated mostly cally, since protein is the most fish (initial individual weight = from growth on particular diets expensive component of diets. In 0.2 g) in aquaria were fed semi­ under specified conditions. addition to total protein, the bal­ purified diets containing graded ance between protein and energy in levels of protein. Weight gain, sur­ Proteins a diet is critical. When more pro­ vival and feed efficiency of golden Fish require essential amino acids tein is added to a diet than is shiners and goldfish fed the diet in proteins for growth, tissue needed for growth and other bodily with 29 percent protein was simi­ repair, general health and reproduc­ functions, the excess will be lar to that of fish fed diets with tion. Protein source has a major metabolized for energy or used to higher protein levels (up to 34 per­ impact on diet cost. Therefore, both make energy­ storage products (e.g., cent) when fed at 4­ 7 percent of the amount and source of protein body fat). Other diet components body weight (Tables 4 and 5). must be considered when formulat­ (carbohydrate or fat) should be The ideal dietary energy:protein ing optimal diets for bait and used to supply energy because they ratio for growth of golden shiners ornamental fish. are usually less expensive. Excess and goldfish in aquaria was

Table 4. Performance of juvenile golden shiners fed diets differing in protein content for 8 weeks.1

Diet Dietary Initial group Weight Feed Protein Survival number protein (%) weight (g) gain (g) efficiency2 efficiency ratio3 (%) 1 21.2 5.3 27c 0.52b 3.3a 100.0 2 25.3 5.6 31bc 0.55b 3.0b 100.0 3 28.9 5.4 34abc 0.61a 3.3ab 85.7 4 31.1 5.5 39ab 0.64a 3.1ab 100.0 5 34.5 5.5 42a 0.65a 2.7c 100.0 1Values are means of three groups of 30 fish each. Means within columns with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05) as determined by Fisherʼs least significant difference test. 2Feed efficiency=final group weight+weight of mortalities­ initial group weight in grams. 3Protein efficiency ratio=grams gained/grams dietary protein fed.

Table 5. Performance of juvenile goldfish fed diets differing in protein content for 6 weeks.1

Diet Dietary Initial group Weight Feed Protein Survival number protein (%) weight (g) gain (g) efficiency2 efficiency ratio3 (%) 1 21.2 6.0 13c 0.49c 3.1abc 100.0 2 25.3 6.0 15bc 0.53bc 2.9bcd 99.2 3 28.9 5.9 19a 0.61a 3.3a 100.0 4 31.1 6.0 17ab 0.59ab 2.8bd 98.3 5 34.5 6.0 19a 0.63a 2.6d 98.3 1Values are means of three groups of 40 fish each. Means within columns with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05) as determined by Fisherʼs least significant difference test. 2Feed efficiency=final group weight+weight of mortalities­ initial group weight in grams. 3Protein efficiency ratio=grams gained/grams dietary protein fed. 6 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH

9.7 kcal of digestible (available) The fish fed the diet lower in pro­ carp, indicating that the essential energy per gram of dietary tein and energy might have con­ amino acid requirements are protein. Analysis of variance sumed more feed than fish fed the similar for these species. was used to analyze this data. diet higher in protein and energy, Different dietary protein estimates causing similar production Experiment 1 can be obtained if regression between the two groups. Feed A feeding trial was conducted with analysis is applied. However, intake was difficult to measure in golden shiner to address the observations from numerous this study because the two diets dietary lysine requirement, as aquarium and pond studies at differed in pellet flotation. lysine is the first limiting amino UAPB indicate that 29 percent However, most commercial high­ acid in many practical feed ingre­ protein is a valid estimate of the protein diets are more expensive dients. UAPB researchers used minimum dietary requirement for than low­ protein diets. Therefore, purified casein­ gelatin diets and growth of this species. if the fish eat more of the low­ pro­ crystalline amino acids and graded tein diet, the production costs of levels of lysine (0.0, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, Experiment 3 using either diet may be similar. 2.5, 3.0 and 3.5 mg/kg diet). Fish In ponds, natural foods contribute With food fish such as channel were fed twice daily to satiation to the total amount of protein and catfish, lower­ protein diets usually for 16 weeks, but the study was energy available to fish, so results produce undesirable increases in terminated due to very slow might differ from aquarium stud­ visceral fat. This will not be an growth and the absence of defi­ ies. Therefore, an experiment was issue with baitfish. Nevertheless, ciency signs that typically appear conducted to determine the effect economic analyses of the golden within a few weeks when fish are of different dietary protein:energy shiner data and additional studies maintained on diets deficient in ratios on production of golden with other species are required essential amino acids. Survival shiners in 0.1­ acre ponds. Golden before lower­ protein diets can be was good (94.8+0.6 percent) on recommended for standard use. shiners (initial individual weight = all diets, but growth was so slow 1.24 g) were fed diets similar in (178.5+5.2 percent growth energy:protein ratios but different Source increase) that no dietary effects Aside from total dietary protein, in total protein levels (22 or 28 were observed. The slow growth protein quality also affects fish percent) to satiation twice daily might be due partly to a limited performance. The amount and for 10 weeks. Weight gain of fish ability to use crystalline amino types of amino acids in a protein fed the diet with 28 percent pro­ acids. Alternative methods may be source determine its quality. The tein was higher after four weeks, needed to determine dietary amino quantitative amino acid require­ but by 10 weeks there were no acid requirements in golden ments of baitfish have not been significant differences in weight shiner, such as use of intact pro­ determined. However, the essential gain, feed conversion, gross yield tein sources with different concen­ amino acid patterns of whole­ body or yield of individual size classes trations of essential amino acids. golden shiners, goldfish and fat­ of fish (not shown) fed the two head minnows are similar to those In practical diets for baitfish, diets (Table 6). of channel catfish and common soybean meal is the main protein

Table 6. Performance of golden shiners in 0.1­ acre ponds fed diets with different protein levels but similar energy:protein ratios for 10 weeks.1

Mean Dietary Energy:protein individual Total yield Feed protein (%) ratio2 weight gain (g) (lbs/acre) conversion 22 11.5 3.5 754 2.5 28 11.2 3.9 635 3.1 1Performance data are means of four ponds each stocked at a rate of approximately 375,000 fish/acre. Individual fish averaged 1.24 grams initially. Means were not significantly different between treatments (P>0.05). 2Digestible energy values for channel catfish for individual feed ingredients (NRC 1993) and analyzed dietary protein data were used to calculate the E:P ratio. NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 7 source because its amino acid con­ (Table 7). Concurrent feeding provided in the diet. Some fish tent is well balanced, and it is trials were conducted in indoor also require a dietary source of widely available and less expen­ aquaria and outdoor pools to phospholipid such as soybean sive than other complete protein determine the effects of a diet with lecithin, especially at very early sources like fish meal. Several 5 percent fish meal or a diet with­ stages. Lipids must be present in studies with baitfish have shown out fish meal on growth, survival, the diet for normal absorption of that fish meal does not provide feed efficiency and condition fat­ soluble vitamins (A,D,E,K). any obvious benefits over soybean index of golden shiners. A combi­ They are energy dense compared meal as a dietary protein source. A nation of feed­ grade poultry by­ to proteins or carbohydrates and series of studies by Dr. Ann product meal and soybean meal may be less expensive than pro­ Gannam, regional nutritionist, supplied most of the protein in the teins, depending on current mar­ head of Applied Nutrition diet without fish meal. Fish were ket prices for different sources. Research Program, USFWS, fed to satiation twice daily for The potential to use dietary lipid Abernathy Fish Technology 10 weeks (pools) or 14 weeks to spare protein for growth may Center, found that there were no (aquaria). There were no differ­ be greater in baitfish, where differences in weight gain or yield ences in performance of golden increases in body fat associated of golden shiners in ponds fed shiners fed diets with or without with consumption of high­ fat practical diets with only vegetable fish meal in aquaria (without diets does not usually reduce proteins versus diets with 5, 10 or access to natural foods) or pools market value. 20 percent fish meal. The primary (with access to natural foods). The vegetable protein source for all combined results of aquarium, Amount diets was soybean meal. pool and pond trials indicate that Experiments 1 and 2 animal protein sources are not crit­ The optimal dietary lipid level for Experiment 2 ical in practical diets for growth of juvenile golden shiners and gold­ The relative quality of different golden shiners. protein sources was compared in fish was determined in a series of experiments. In separate feeding a seven­ week feeding trial with Lipids (Fats) practical diets fed to golden trials, golden shiners and goldfish shiners (initial individual weight = Fish do not require lipids specifi­ in aquaria were fed purified diets 0.2 g) in aquaria. Worm meal was cally, but they need and cannot with graded levels of a mixture similar to fish meal in its effect on make several components that (50/50 percent) of cod liver and growth of golden shiners, but are found only in lipids. These soybean oils. The lipid mixture growth of golden shiners fed the include the essential fatty acids contained fatty acids of the n­ 3 soybean­ meal diet with no animal (EFA). The EFA are required and n­ 6 families that meet the protein was as good as that of fish for normal growth, health and EFA requirements of most fish fed diets with animal protein reproduction, and they must be species. Weight gain of golden

Table 7. Performance of juvenile golden shiners fed diets differing in protein source for 8 weeks.1

Mean Mean Protein variable individual individual Survival Whole­ body (%) weight (g) weight gain (g) (%) protein (%) No animal protein (45% soybean meal) 0.23 0.61a 98 50.3ab Fish meal (5.0) 0.23 0.61a 100 49.9ab Worm meal (5.1) 0.23 0.47b 100 52.5a Fish meal (10.0) 0.23 0.71a 99 47.3b Worm meal (10.7) 0.23 0.70a 90 52.7a 1Values are means of three groups of 30 fish each. Means within columns with different superscript letters are signifi­ cantly different (P<0.05) as determined by Fisherʼs least significant difference test. 8 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH shiners fed diets containing 34 per­ Experiment 3 fish fed either diet with 13 percent cent protein and 7­ 12 percent lipid Golden shiners in aquaria fed lipid (Table 10). Thus, no protein­ was higher than that of fish fed practical diets with the same sparing effect was observed in this diets with lower or higher lipid amount of protein and total calo­ study. Net yield of fish fed the levels (Table 8). ries but either 4 percent or 13 per­ three diets was similar, implying a cent poultry fat for 7.5 weeks had higher survival rate among fish fed Survival of golden shiners fed similar growth. However, survival the diets with 13 percent lipid. diets with 4.6­ 14.8 percent lipid in was significantly higher in fish fed Whole­ body lipid of the golden aquaria was 92 percent or higher, the diet with 13 percent lipid. The shiners fed the diet with 13 per­ and feed efficiency was similar reason for the difference was cent menhaden fish oil was higher among diets. Weight gain and feed unknown. Trials using similar than that of fish fed the diets with efficiency of goldfish declined as diets in outdoor systems were con­ 4 or 13 percent poultry fat. This dietary lipid increased from 4.5 to ducted for comparison. implies a difference in metabolism 13.3 percent (Table 9). of poultry and fish oils by golden shiners, which needs further study. The highest lipid level (13.3 per­ Experiment 4 cent) significantly reduced weight Golden shiners (initial individual gain relative to fish fed diets with weight = 0.9 g) in ponds (0.1­ acre) Experiment 5 7.1 percent lipid or less. The high­ stocked at 686 lb/acre were fed Goldfish (initial individual weight est lipid level (13.3 percent) sig­ supplemental practical diets con­ = 0.9 g) stocked at 600 fish per nificantly reduced feed efficiency taining 4 or 13 percent poultry fat fertilized pool (1,069 gal) were relative to fish fed diets with 8.9 or 13 percent menhaden fish oil to fed practical diets containing 4 or percent lipid or less. Survival satiation twice daily for twelve 13 percent lipid as poultry fat or increased with dietary lipid level weeks. Weight gain of golden menhaden fish oil at 3­ 6 percent but was 93 percent or higher in shiners fed the diet with 4 percent BW for nine weeks. These supple­ all treatments. poultry fat was higher than that of mental diets contained 24 percent

Table 8. Performance of juvenile golden shiners fed diets with different lipid levels for 9 weeks.1,2

Diet Dietary Mean individual Mean individual Feed Survival number lipid (%) initial weight (g) weight gain (g) efficiency (%)

1 4.6 0.22 0.89b 0.69 98.3ab 2 7.1 0.22 0.97ab 0.74 98.3ab 3 11.2 0.2 3 1.00a 0.75 100.0a 4 12.1 0.21 1.03a 0.76 91.7b 5 14.8 0.22 0.88b 0.68 97.7ab

1Values represent means of three groups of 20 fish per group. 2Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05) as determined by Fisherʼs least significant difference test.

Table 9. Performance of juvenile goldfish fed diets with different lipid levels for 9 weeks.1,2

Diet Dietary Mean individual Mean individual Feed Survival number lipid (%) initial weight (g) weight gain (g) efficiency (%)

1 4.5 0.47 2.9a 0.80a 93.3b 2 7.1 0.47 2.7a 0.79a 97.3a 3 8.9 0.47 2.4ab 0.75a 97.3a 4 10.3 0.46 2.4ab 0.74ab 97.3a 5 13.3b 0.46 1.9b 0.68b 100.0a 1Values represent means of three groups of 25 fish per group. 2Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.06) as determined by Fisherʼs least significant difference test. NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 9

Table 10. Performance of golden shiners in 0.1­ acre ponds fed diets differing in lipid source and amount for 12 weeks.1

Mean Lipid Lipid individual Net yield Feed Whole­ body Amount (%) source weight gain (g) (lbs/acre) conversion lipid (%)

4 Poultry fat 6.3a 485 5.5 11.4* 13 Poultry fat 5.3b 595 2.9 10.6* 13 Menhaden fish oil 5.2b 529 3.7 14.3** 1Values are means of four ponds each stocked at a rate of 925,000 fish/ha (370,000 fish/acre). Individual fish weighed 0.9 grams initially. Means within columns with different superscript letters are significantly different at P<0.05. Means within columns with different numbers of asterisks are significantly different at P<0.10. Differences were determined by Fisherʼs least significant difference test. 24 percent protein, but the plank­ Table 11. Mean condition index and whole­ body protein and dry ton might have provided extra pro­ matter of golden shiners fed diets with 4 or 10% poultry fat (PF) tein, which was used for growth in pools for 10 weeks.1 since energy was provided by the Condition Whole­ body Whole­ body lipid in the prepared diet. Diet index (g)2 protein (%) dry matter (%) Experiments 6 Aquaria Basal – 4% PF 1.00 5.7x 80.0 (Aquaria) and 7 Basal – 10% PF 1.06 5.8x 88.0 (Outdoor Pools) Pools Concurrent feeding trials were Basal – 4% PF 1.00 5.7x 80.0 conducted in indoor aquaria x Basal – 10% PF 1.06 5.8 88.0 (29 gal) and outdoor pools 1Means within columns with different superscript letters are significantly (1,069 gal) to determine the different (P<0.10) as determined by Fisherʼs least significant difference test. effects of diets with 4 or 10 per­ 2 3 Fultonʼs K = (weight/length ) x 100, where weight is in grams and length is cent added lipid (poultry fat = PF) total length (cm). on performance of golden shiners. Table 12. Results of studies in aquaria and pools with golden Initial individual weights of fish shiners fed diets with 4% or 10% poultry fat (PF). were 1.4 g and 0.46 g for the aquarium and pool trials, respec­ Parameter Aquaria Pools tively. Fish were fed to satiation Weight gain and 4% PF = 10% PF 4% PF = 10% PF twice daily for 10 weeks (pools) feed conversion or 14 weeks (aquaria). There were no differences in weight gain, feed Survival 10% PF > 4% PF 4% PF = 10% PF conversion ratio or whole­ body Condition factor not measured 10% PF > 4% PF protein or ash between fish fed Whole­ body lipid 4% PF = 10% PF 10% PF > 4% PF diets with 4 percent or 10 percent and dry matter PF in aquaria or pools (Table 12). Whole­ body protein 4% PF = 10% PF 4% PF = 10% PF In aquaria, survival of fish fed the and ash diets with 10 percent PF was higher than that of fish fed the protein and no added vitamins or 4 percent lipid (Table 11). Lipid diets with 4 percent PF. In pools, minerals. Average individual source did not affect goldfish per­ condition factor, whole­ body lipid weight gain, feed efficiency, net formance. It is likely that the and whole­ body dry matter were yield and whole­ body lipid were improved performance of goldfish higher in golden shiners fed diets significantly higher in goldfish fed fed the high­ lipid diets was due to with 10 percent PF versus 4 per­ either diet with 13 percent lipid, protein sparing by the lipid. The cent PF. Differences in results compared to fish fed diets with prepared diets contained only between aquaria and pools are 10 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH due partly to the higher growth baitfish. Most notably, survival n­ 3 fatty acids found in oils like rate in pools and the presence of and whole­ body lipid were canola or soybean oil. Fish oil, natural foods. enhanced by high­ fat diets, which algae and some fungi also contain might improve the ability of the substantial amounts of long­ chain Experiments 8 fish to handle stress and periods of n­ 6 fatty acids from which bio­ (Aquaria) and 9 (Pools) fasting, such as during transport chemicals (e.g., eicosanoids) Two feeding trials were performed and retail display. Because higher involved in inflammatory with goldfish in aquaria or pools levels of lipid increase diet cost, processes, immune function, to determine the effects of diet economic analysis is needed to reproduction and other critical with 4 or 10 percent added lipid determine whether addition of functions are made. Freshwater and 0 or 2 percent dairy/yeast pre­ extra lipid to commercial diets fish can usually make the long­ biotic. These trials were conducted is justified. chain n­ 6 fatty acids from shorter to determine whether a combina­ n­ 6 fatty acids found in lipids like tion of extra lipid and prebiotic Source poultry fat or soybean oil. Both might enhance fish performance Studies have also been conducted the n­ 3 and n­ 6 fatty acids are more than either supplement in aquaria to determine the spe­ probably required for baitfish alone. In aquaria, there were no cific type (n­ 3, n­ 6 or both) of species. Results of studies to differences in weight gain or sur­ essential fatty acids (EFA) determine the EFA requirements vival among diets. In contrast, required by golden shiners fed of golden shiners are summarized goldfish in pools fed the high­ lipid purified diets. Different lipids pro­ in Table 13. diets with or without the prebiotic vide different types and amounts These trials have not consistently had better weight gain and higher of fatty acids. For instance, fish oil indicated a specific requirement for condition index than fish fed the 4 contains large amounts of long­ n­ 3 or n­ 6 fatty acids. Similar stud­ percent lipid diet without prebiotic chain n­ 3 fatty acids that originate ies with common carp, channel cat­ (prebiotic effects are discussed from algae. These fatty acids are required in the diet of most marine fish and tilapia also had conflicting later under “feed additives”). results. One study showed that and carnivorous fish. Freshwater growth and survival of larval gold­ Clearly, higher levels of dietary fish can generally make the long­ fish fed diets with cod liver or lipids provide some benefits for chain n­ 3 fatty acids from shorter

Table 13. Summary of studies at UAPB to determine the types of fatty acids needed by golden shiners.1,2

Study length/ Initial weight Lipid sources Main results3 9 wks/ soybean, rice bran, canola, No differences in WG or SURV by diet; whole­ body lipid 0.21 g cod liver, poultry was higher in fish fed plant versus animal lipids

11.5 wks/ soybean, rice bran, canola, No differences in WG or SURV by diet; SURV of fish 0.19 g cod liver, poultry, olive stressed with low DO was highest in fish fed SBO

6 wks/ soybean, canola, cod liver, WG of fish fed the SBO+CLO, olive, and SBO diets was 0.35 g soy+cod liver (50/50%), highest; no differences in SURV; composition of fish body olive FA similar to diet

34 wks/ Same as above No differences in WG by diet; Fish fed CAN had intact fins, 0.22 g skin and gill covers – those fed olive oil had obvious erosion in these areas; fish fed other lipids were intermediate in appearance 1Source: R. Lochmann and H. Phillips (2001b). 2Purified diets for all experiments contained 10% lipid, 34% protein and 10 kcal energy/g of protein from casein and gelatin. The different lipid sources were chosen because they contained a variety of fatty acids known to be essential for other fish. 3Abbreviations are: WG, weight gain; SURV, survival; DO, dissolved oxygen; SBO, soybean oil; CLO, cod liver oil; FA, fatty acid; CAN, canola NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 11

Table 14. Performance of juvenile goldfish fed practical diets supplemented with soy lecithin (LEC), soybean oil (SBO) and/or cod liver oil (CLO) for 6 weeks.1

Dietary lipid Initial group Weight Feed Survival Whole­ body supplement (%) weight (g) gain (g) efficiency2 (%) lipid (%) CLO (4%) 12.0 19.9c 0.45b 98.3 19.5 CLO (2%) + LEC (2%) 11.9 23.1ab 0.51a 100.0 22.0 SBO (4%) 11.9 22.1bc 0.50ab 98.3 23.1 SBO (2%) + LEC (2%) 11.9 23.1ab 0.51a 100.0 24.8 LEC (4%) 11.9 25.2a 0.55a 100.0 21.2 1Values are means of three groups of 40 fish each. Means within columns with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05) as determined by Fisherʼs least significant difference test. 2Feed efficiency=final group weight+weight of mortalities­ initial group weight in grams. canola oils was equally good, Table 15. Weight gain, condition index and survival of fathead indicating that a dietary source of minnow fed diets with or without animal protein sources and long­ chain n­ 3 fatty acids (such as different lipid sources for 5 months.1 those in fish oils) is not required. However, that study did not con­ Condition Index sider n­ 6 fatty acids. Eicosanoids (Fultonʼs K)3 Individual fish Survival derived from n­ 6 fatty acids stimu­ Diet weight gain (g)2 Males Females (%) late steroid (sex hormone) produc­ tion in goldfish, and courtship Anim­ PO4 0.48 1.07 1.03 78.5 behavior in fathead minnows. Anim­ MFO 0.43 1.11 1.02 85.5 Baitfish probably get substantial Veg­ PO 0.39 1.06 0.98 86.4 amounts of EFAs from natural Veg­ MFO 0.46 1.06 1.00 84.0 foods in ponds under most produc­ Two­ way ANOVA tion conditions. However, until the P (Protein source) 0.61 0.12 0.01 0.17 qualitative and quantitative EFA P (Lipid source) 0.90 0.17 0.77 0.32 requirements of baitfish are estab­ P (Protein x Lipid) 0.31 0.25 0.40 0.05 lished, dietary sources of both n­ 3 1Values are means of six replicate tanks per diet. P­ values are shown in and n­ 6 fatty acids should be pro­ parentheses below each pair of means. Means within columns were not vided to support normal growth, significantly different (p>0.10). 2Weight gain=final average individual weight­ initial average individual weight. health, appearance and reproduc­ 3Fultonʼs K = (weight/length3) x100, where weight is in grams and length is tion in these species. Of the fat total length (cm). sources readily available in 4Abbreviations are: Anim, animal protein; Veg, vegetable protein; PO, poultry Arkansas, poultry fat is a good oil; MFO, menhaden fish oil; ANOVA, analysis of variance. source of n­ 6 fatty acids but con­ tains very few n­ 3 fatty acids. of eicosanoids. Adult fish can syn­ Interactions Soybean oil and soybean lecithin (a thesize phospholipids, but larval or mixture of phospholipids) contain juvenile fish may benefit from hav­ Between Proteins 7­ 8 percent of the n­ 3 fatty acids ing a dietary source. Soybeans are and Lipids and are also high in n­ 6 fatty acids. the primary commercial source of Soybean lipids (oil and/or lecithin) feed­ grade lecithins (mixtures of Researchers measured growth, alone or blended with poultry fat phospholipids). Practical baitfish survival, feed conversion and should satisfy the EFA require­ diets supplemented with soybean response to low dissolved oxygen ments of baitfish for growth. lecithin enhanced growth but did of adult fathead minnow in not affect survival of juvenile gold­ aquaria fed practical diets with Phospholipids are important struc­ fish relative to diets containing animal (menhaden fish meal and tural components of cell mem­ lipid as triglyceride from either poultry by­ product meal) or plant branes. The EFAs from the diet are soybean or fish oils (Table 14). (mostly soybean) protein sources, incorporated into the phospholipids Phospholipids may improve lipid and either poultry oil or menhaden where they help regulate membrane digestion, absorption and trans­ fish oil for 12 weeks. Good weight permeability and serve as sources port in baitfish, as in other fish. gain (0.6­ 0.8 g) was obtained 12 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH either with vegetable­ protein or Table 16. Performance of juvenile golden shiners fed diets1 with animal­ protein sources (Table 15). different lipid and starch content for 8 weeks.2 Poultry oil enhanced growth rela­ tive to menhaden fish oil in diets Dietary Dietary Mean with either vegetable­ or animal­ starch source lipid3 individual Feed Survival protein sources. Mean survival of (amount) (%) weight gain (g) efficiency (%) fish fed the animal­ protein and Corn (15%) 15.0 0.89 0.70 97.0 vegetable­ protein diets was Corn (30%) 8.3 0.84 0.68 99.0 88 percent and 96 percent, respec­ Corn (45%) 1.7 0.89 0.70 98.0 tively, and was not affected by Rice (15%) 15.0 0.94 0.73 99.0 lipid source. Survival during the Rice (30%) 8.3 0.84 0.66 98.0 low­ oxygen stress test was high Rice (45%) 1.7 0.88 0.70 98.0 (≥90 percent) across diets, but sur­ 1Diets were formulated to contain equal amounts of protein and total energy. vival was lower in fish fed the 2Values represent means of three groups of 30 fish per group. Initial individual animal­ protein diet with poultry fish weight was 0.2 grams. Means were not significantly different (P>0.05). oil than the animal­ protein diet 3The lipid source for all diets was a 50/50% mixture of menhaden fish oil and with menhaden fish oil. Vegetable soybean oil. proteins and poultry oil are prom­ ising alternatives to more costly Table 17. Performance of juvenile golden shiners fed diets with diet ingredients in practical diets 15% soluble carbohydrate from different sources for 8 weeks.1,2 for fathead minnow. Dietary carbohydrate Initial individual Individual Survival Carbohydrates source weight (g) weight gain (g) (%) Unlike proteins and lipids, Dextrin 0.33 0.84b 98.9a carbohydrates do not contain Corn starch 0.33 0.97a 96.7ab c a specific factors known to be Glucose 0.33 0.64 98.9 Sucrose 0.34 0.61c 93.3b essential for fish. However, they 1 are valuable as inexpensive energy Values are means of three groups of 30 fish per group. 2Means with different superscripts are significantly different (P<0.05) as sources in the diet. The types of determined by Fisherʼs least significant difference test. carbohydrates that are readily available to monogastric (simple­ stomached) animals such as fish 27:1). The incorporation of differ­ of the carbohydrate: starch> are sugars and starches. Starches ent amounts of lipid and starch dextrin>sucrose=glucose are the main source of available carbohydrates from practical into the fish tissues (whole body) (Table 17). Results are similar to feedstuffs. was evident when the stable those for other warmwater omniv­ carbon isotope ratios of fish and orous fish. As stated previously, Amount dietary lipids and starches starches are the main source of Weight gain and survival of were compared. available carbohydrate in fish golden shiners fed laboratory feedstuffs. However, the availa­ (semi­ purified) diets differing in Source bility of carbohydrate energy from starch content (15, 30 or 45 per­ In another experiment, weight practical feedstuffs is likely to be cent) and lipid (15, 8.3 or 1.7 per­ gain of golden shiners fed different from that of purified cent) was similar (Table 16), dietswith 15 percent carbohydrate ingredients (e.g., corn starch), and indicating that they perform well from different sources improved this needs to be addressed in bait over a wide range of dietary car­ with increasing complexity and ornamental fish. bohydrate:lipid ratios (1:1 to NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 13

VITAMINS AND MINERALS

Micronutrients include vitamins include indices of health, such as Table 18. Composition of the and minerals. Vitamins are stress and immune responses. basal diet and vitamin/mineral organic compounds required in Early studies with baitfish did not supplement used in a pond study with golden shiners to small amounts for normal growth, include health indices, but vitamins determine whether supplemental health and function. They are and minerals such as vitamin C vitamins and minerals are classified as fat­ soluble (ascorbic acid) and zinc have required for good production.1 (A,D,E,K) or water­ soluble (B prominent roles in maintaining vitamins, C, etc.). Requirements health. It is important to measure a Diet ingredients (% ) vary with fish species, age, size wide range of performance vari­ Soybean meal 41.0 and physiological state (e.g., ables in baitfish during and after Cottonseed meal 10.0 Menhaden fish meal 5.0 stress, reproductive status). production using conditions that Yellow corn 15.0 simulate commercial scenarios as Wheat (hard red) 15.0 Fish fry reportedly can absorb much as possible. Wheat midds 14.0 or 10.6 some vitamins directly from the Vitamin C (Stay­ C)2 2 0.0 or 0.05 Vitamin/mineral premix 0.0 or 3.0 water, but natural foods rich in Vitamin­ Mineral Vitamin/mineral vitamins are also heavily con­ premix ingredients Amount sumed by baitfish fry. Obvious Supplement Copper 0.68 g/lb vitamin deficiencies are not com­ Iron 5.44 g/lb mon in pond­ raised baitfish of Weight gain and total net yield of Manganese 16.33 g/lb any size, probably due to the con­ golden shiners in 0.1­ acre ponds Zinc 15.65 g/lb tinued importance of natural fed diets with or without a combi­ Cobalt 0.14 g/lb nation vitamin and mineral sup­ Iodine 0.34 g/lb foods throughout the production Choline 40.68 g/lb cycle. However, the amounts and plement (Table 18) for eight Folic acid 200.00 mg/lb types of natural foods and their weeks did not differ (Table 19). Niacin 8.00 g/lb vitamin content vary seasonally Presumably, natural­ food con­ Pantothenic acid 3.20 g/lb sumption supplied sufficient Riboflavin 1.20 g/lb and over time. Also, the amount Thiamin 1.00 g/lb vitamins and minerals to maintain of natural food per fish is lower Vitamin B12 800.00 μg/lb at high fish densities (intensive overall fish production. However, Vitamin E 5.00 KIU/lb stocking densities). In addition, diet affected the yield of fish in Vitamin K 227.50 mg/lb Vitamin A 0.40 MIU/lb commercial baitfish diets contain one size class – there were signif­ icantly more fish measuring Vitamin D3 0.20 MIU/lb mostly plant ingredients since 1 3 0.91­ 1.07 cm in width (grader Diets were extruded as ⁄32­ inch floating they are cheaper than animal pellets containing 32% protein. size 23­ 27) from the ponds ingredients, but animal ingredi­ 2Stay­ C is a stabilized form of ents are better sources of fat­ solu­ receiving diet 2 (with the supple­ vitamin C produced previously by ble vitamins. These are valid ment) than in those that received Roche Vitamins, Ltd. reasons to supplement commer­ cial baitfish diets with the same Table 19. Performance of golden shiners in 0.1­ acre ponds fed diets types and amounts of vitamins with or without a vitamin/mineral supplement for 8 weeks.1 and minerals used in diets for channel catfish. However, studies Mean group with channel catfish have shown weight gain Net yield Feed Survival Diet2 (lbs) (lbs/acre) conversion (%) that some of the supplemental vitamins can be reduced or Unsupplemented 93.0 789.6 1.9 81.6 eliminated from commercial Supplemented 104.4 790.4 1.8 68.7 diets without reducing fish yield 1Values are means of four ponds, each stocked at a rate of 300 lb/acre. or quality. Individual fish weighed 0.6 grams initially. There were no significant differences between treatments (P>0.05). The criteria used to assess vitamin 2The unsupplemented diet contained no added vitamins or minerals. The and mineral requirements should supplemented diet contained 3% of a vitamin/mineral premix and 0.05% of stabilized vitamin C. 14 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH the unsupplemented diet. Some with 0­ 218.5 mg AA/kg diet for alternative complement activity vitamins (C, E, A) also affect the 10­ 16 weeks. Weight gain, sur­ were assessed and a subset of live immune system, and specific vival and gross deformities were fish from each tank was exposed indices of health were not meas­ assessed at 10 weeks. The to elevated temperature. Gross ured in this study. Performance of remaining fish were maintained deformities were clearly estab­ baitfish after harvest (during on the same diets from weeks lished in fish fed 0 mg AA/kg transport and marketing proce­ 11­ 16, then hematology and diet for 10 weeks (Figure 1). dures) also could be affected by dietary vitamin intake during pond production, and this has not Table 20. Weight gain, feed efficiency and instantaneous mortality been studied. of golden shiner fed casein­ or fish­ meal based diets containing 0 or 250 mg of ascorbic acid (AA)/kg diet for twelve weeks.1,2

Vitamin C Diet type Weight gain Feed Instantaneous mortality (AA level) (g) efficiency T=1 T=2 Experiment 1 Casein­ no AA 2.97 0.58 0.31 0.71 ** Baitfish cultured indoors presum­ Casein­ 250 AA 2.84 0.61 0.12 0.09 * ably need a source of vitamin C in the diet. An aquarium study was Fish meal­ no AA 2.47a 0.64 0.10 0.00 done to address this issue in golden Fish meal­ 250 AA 3.06b 0.67 0.12 0.04 shiners (initial individual weight = 1Values for weight gain, feed efficiency and instantaneous mortality (T=1) are 0.5 g). Diets with casein (milk pro­ means of three replicates (tanks). Each tank contained a group of 30 fish tein) or fish meal and either 0 or initially. The number of individuals per replicate used to calculate instantaneous mortality (T=2) varied due to differential mortality during T=1. 250 mg/kg (ppm) of vitamin C 2Treatment means were compared using an unpaired t­ test. Means within (Stay­ C, Roche Vitamins, Inc.) columns followed by different letters or numbers of asterisks were significantly were fed to golden shiners for different at P<0.05 and P<0.06, respectively 12.5 weeks. Weight gain was higher but survival of golden shiners was not affected by vita­ min C in fish fed the fish meal diets (Table 20). Conversely, weight gain was not affected but survival was improved by vitamin C in fish fed the casein diets. Fish fed the casein diet were also infected with Columnaris during part of the study. This unplanned challenge to their immune system might explain the difference in results between the fish fed the fish meal and casein diets, since vitamin C is known to A C stimulate the immune system. It was concluded that the dietary vitamin C requirement for golden shiner is influenced by diet Figure 1. Golden shiners composition and health status. exhibiting: A. Lateral spinal curvature (scoliosis); B. Experiment 2 Fractures of the vertebral Researchers determined the column; C. Dorsoventral spinal effects of different dietary con­ curvature (lordosis); after con­ centrations of vitamin C (ascorbic suming a diet with no vitamin C acid; AA) on the growth and for 10 weeks. health of golden shiners fed diets B NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 15

A 19.5 mg AA/kg diet was suffi­ cient to prevent the deformities and optimize survival, while growth did not differ among treat­ ments. Fish fed 40.3 mg of AA/kg diet had higher survival than fish fed 0 or 19.5 mg AA/kg diet after exposure to elevated temperature (°C). Alternative complement activity was highest in fish fed diets with 218.5 mg AA/kg. The A B results indicate that the dietary requirement of AA for golden Figure 2. Golden shiners exhibiting: A. Muscular atrophy and skin shiners increases in response to darkening; B, Abnormal pigmentation and disorientation, after consuming a diet with no added vitamin E for 10 weeks. heat stress, and that the alternative complement activity (one index of immune competence) was strongly out added vitamin E began to Additional enhanced in fish fed a diet with show vitamin E­ deficiency signs approximately 10 times the such as increased prevalence of Needs – Minerals amount of AA needed to prevent fish with darkened skin, muscular deficiency signs. atrophy and hemorrhaging in the Minerals are inorganic substances skin (Figure 2). required in small amounts for normal growth, health and func­ Interactions After 17 weeks the deficient fish tion. Mineral nutrition of baitfish Between Vitamins had lower vitamin E concentra­ has not been addressed in the C and E tions in viscera, lower whole­ UAPB lab. Presumably, it is simi­ body crude protein, total lipid, lar to that of other cyprinid fishes. UAPB researchers characterized dry matter, hematocrit, hemoglo­ The mineral content of practical the response of golden shiner fed bin, lymphocyte (percent), alter­ diets is based on requirements for one of eight purified diets with native complement activity channel catfish, but baitfish may either 0 or 38 mg α­ tocopherol (ACH50) and survival after expo­ have different requirements. (vitamin E)/kg diet, and one of sure to stressful water tempera­ Cyprinid fishes (including golden four levels of ascorbic acid (AA) tures (36­ 37°C) than those fed the shiner, goldfish and fathead min­ (23, 43, 98 or 222 mg/kg diet) in diets with added vitamin E. A now) do not have true stomachs a 2 X 4 factorial design. Growth, sparing effect of vitamin E on that secrete acid to enhance diges­ survival, signs of vitamin­ E defi­ vitamin C was evident. Elevated tion. Mineral availability from diet ciency and immune and stress dietary vitamin C reduced the ingredients may be reduced in responses were monitored in incidence and severity of vitamin fishes that lack acidic digestion. In groups of 30 golden shiners (ini­ E deficiency signs in a dose­ addition, commercial diets for bait tial individual weight = 0.79 g) dependent manner. The interac­ and feeder fish raised in ponds fed the diets to apparent satiation tive effect of vitamins C and E on contain mostly plant ingredients, twice daily in triplicate aquaria ACH50 activity and percentage and this trend is intensifying. for 14­ 19 weeks. The average of thrombocytes (platelets) was Minerals from plant ingredients individual weight gain was not also significant. Regardless of tend to be less bioavailable than affected by dietary vitamin E vitamin E levels, different vita­ those from animal ingredients. concentrations at 14 weeks, but min C levels did not influence the the survival of fish fed the diets concentration of vitamin E in vis­ Additional basic studies to deter­ with no added vitamin E was cera and other interactions mine both mineral and vitamin lower than that of fish fed the between vitamins C and E were requirements of different species diets with added vitamin E. After not evident. of bait and ornamental fish for 10 weeks, fish fed the diets with­ growth, survival, optimal health, 16 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH stress response and reproduction golden shiners in ponds fed a diet can acquire substantial amounts of are needed. Applied studies in out­ that contained 50 mg vitamin C/kg vitamin C from natural foods. door systems are necessary also diet for seven weeks. Golden shin­ However, natural foods vary in due to the reliance of these fish on ers in aquaria required more than quality and quantity and may not natural foods that supply many of 200 mg vitamin C/kg diet for 10 always supply enough vitamin C the micronutrients. For instance, weeks to accumulate about 78 per­ to meet the nutrient requirements the highest tissue concentrations cent of the amount of vitamin C of baitfish. of vitamin C that UAPB that was obtained in the pond­ researchers have observed were in reared fish. Clearly, fish in ponds NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 17

FEEDING PRACTICES

Practical Diets complete commercial catfish feed vitamins and minerals on the formulation with 28 percent pro­ stress and immune responses of Most semi­ intensive and intensive tein and 5 percent added fat (as baitfish during production and producers use nutritionally com­ soybean oil and/or poultry fat) post­ production processes. plete diets to double or triple pro­ should support weight gain and duction of baitfish. The fish health during growout. Feeding strategies for baitfish composition of diets used for dif­ change seasonally, although diet ferent stages of the baitfish pro­ Some phases of baitfish produc­ composition generally does not. duction cycle are similar to those tion and marketing are more Survival improves and condition for channel catfish. Soybean meal stressful than others, and baitfish of golden shiners during winter is (48 percent protein, solvent­ may benefit from diets with modi­ maintained by feeding at a rate of extracted) is the primary protein fied levels of vitamins, minerals or 1­ 2 percent body weight at after­ source in commercial baitfish other nutrients given for a short noon air temperature of > 45°F feeds, and very little (2­ 5 percent) period prior to events such as (7°C). Increased numbers of fat­ fish meal is used in diets for juve­ grading or transport. In one study, head minnows in good condition niles and adults. There is no there was no difference in the in ponds can be achieved with a research supporting benefits of fish stress response to crowding of feeding rate of 3 percent body meal in baitfish beyond that of golden shiners fed diets with dif­ weight per day (using a 32 percent other, less expensive protein ferent lipids. However, the feeding protein feed) from late summer to sources. In addition, the oil in period was short (four weeks) and winter. In summer, many produc­ marine fish meal is also more the results (cortisol data) were ers reduce feeding rates when prone to oxidation than other highly variable due to the diffi­ water temperatures exceed 86°F lipids. Fresh poultry fat (as indi­ culty of measuring cortisol in very (30°C). cated by low peroxide and small fish. Progress in this area of TBARS values) is frequently research will be facilitated by a Fry Diets whole­ body cortisol assay that was added to baitfish diets in Arkansas Commercial minnow meal con­ developed in UAPB’s lab. This due to the proximity of the baitfish taining 48­ 50 percent protein is procedure allows the measurement and poultry industries. Poultry fat applied to ponds containing appears to be palatable and has no of stress responses in small bait­ newly hatched larvae. Growth known anti­ nutritional properties fish fed diets with different ingre­ and survival of newly hatched for baitfish. However, baitfish may dients. One study using this golden shiner (1 mg) up to the benefit from a mixture of fats technique showed that bar grading small juvenile stage (0.6 g) in fer­ (such as poultry fat and soybean was the most stressful event that tilized ponds is affected by diet, oil), which provides a greater vari­ baitfish encounter routinely. The but performance of larvae fed ety of essential fatty acids than same study showed that tissue lev­ prepared diets differing in protein any single lipid source. els of ascorbic acid and zinc did composition has not been com­ not decline during potentially pared under simulated commer­ High­ fat (10­ 13 percent) diets stressful activities such as harvest­ cial conditions. Animal protein is have generated some interest ing, grading and ground or air presumably needed in diets of among baitfish producers. The transport. Ascorbic acid and zinc newly hatched fry, but this has cost of increased dietary lipid are both key nutrients in the not been documented scientifi­ may be offset by increased sur­ immune response, which is linked cally. Fry stocked into fertilized vival and hardiness of the fish to the stress response, and expo­ ponds consume natural foods, and during transport and retail dis­ sure to severe or prolonged stress a less expensive diet with only play, but the economics will might be expected to deplete these plant proteins may be sufficient depend on current market prices nutrients in the tissues. There is for good performance. Therefore, for different ingredients. Until the still a need to conduct research researchers determined growth, nutrient requirements of baitfish with known diet formulations to survival, feed conversion, total are defined further, a nutritionally establish the specific effects of yield, condition and response to 18 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH low dissolved oxygen of golden treatments. There were no differ­ Broodstock Diets shiner larvae in ponds where the ences in average individual larvae were fed 36 percent pro­ weight, relative weight, Fulton’s On commercial farms, baitfish tein practical diets with protein K condition index, total yield, broodstock receive the same diet as from animal and plant sources, or feed conversion or survival fish during growout, or one higher only plant sources. Newly between treatments (Table 21). in protein (36 percent). The num­ hatched fry were stocked at Post­ harvest survival of fish ber, size and quality of eggs and 1,000,000/acre in twelve 0.1­ acre exposed to low dissolved oxygen fry of other fish species (including fertilized ponds. Fish in six ponds at 68°F (20°C) in a laboratory carp) are affected by the nutrient per diet were fed twice daily at a test was not affected by diet. status of the mother. Some of the rate of 7­ 14 lb/acre for 12 weeks. Results indicate that diets with all nutrients that are important for suc­ Chlorophyll a was not different in plant­ protein sources are suitable cessful reproduction in other fish ponds with fish fed different for raising golden shiner from species are essential amino acids, diets, indicating that natural food first­ feeding larvae to small juve­ essential fatty acids (20­ and 22­ production was similar between niles in fertilized ponds. carbon fatty acids of the n­ 3 and

Table 21. Production parameters for golden shiner fry in 0.1­ acre ponds fed a commercial diet or a diet with all­ plant proteins for 12 weeks.1,2

Mean individual Total final weight Relative Condition yield6 Feed Survival Diet (g)3 weight4 index5 (lbs/acre) conversion7 (%) Commercial 0.59 114.4 0.88 1,006 0.85 79.2 All­ plant proteins 0.56 115.6 0.88 900 0.95 75.3

1Values are means of 5­ 6 replicate ponds per diet. 2Treatment means within columns were not significantly different (P<0.10) as determined by a 1­ way ANOVA test. 3Individual fry weighed approximately 0.001g initially. Weight gain=final average individual weight­ initial average individual weight. 4Relative weight (Wr)=[weight(g)/Ws] x 100; where log10Ws = ­ 5.593 + 3.302 log10TL (mm). 5Fultonʼs K= [weight(g)/length(cm)3] x 100. 6Total weight of fish harvested from each pond. 7Feed conversion=feed fed/total weight.

Table 22. Select fatty acid composition of eggs (% of total fatty acids by weight) of fathead minnow (FHM) and golden shiner (GS) fed diets with different lipid sources.1

5% SBO 5% LEC2 Fatty acid Species 10% SBO2 10% CLO2 +5% CLO +5% CLO 18:2n­ 6 FHM 8.8a 3.3c 6.8b 8.4a GS 10.6 8.3 8.4 9.9 18:3n­ 3 FHM 0.8 0.6 0.9 1.4 GS 1.6 2.0 1.5 1.6 20:4n­ 6 FHM 7.9a 3.3c 4.4b 7.9a GS 4.9AB 3.6C 3.8AC 5.0B 20:5n­ 3 FHM 1.9c 5.6a 4.2b 1.9c GS 2.8 4.2 3.8 2.3 22:6n­ 3 FHM 14.9c 24.9a 22.1b 16.0c GS 13.7 14.3 17.4 11.7 n­ 3/n­ 6 ratio3 FHM 0.8 4.0a 1.9b 0.9c GS 1.0 1.8 1.7 1.0 1Values are means of composite egg samples from two to three pools per treatment. Means within rows with different superscript letters are different (P<0.05). Data for FHM are in bold to enhance distinction from GS data. 2Abbreviations are: SBO = soybean oil; CLO = cod liver oil; LEC = soybean lecithin 3Total n­ 3 fatty acids included 18:3n­ 3, 20:5n­ 3 and 22:6n­ 3. Total n­ 6 fatty acids included 18:2n­ 6, 20:3n­ 6 and 20:4n­ 6. NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 19 n­ 6 families), vitamins (C and E) Experiment 4 than marine fish meals and oils, and carotenoids. Broodstock nutri­ In a subsequent trial, fathead which will reduce diet cost and tion studies have been conducted minnow broodstock in outdoor improve the profitability of fathead with golden shiner and fathead pools were fed practical diets minnow production. minnow at UAPB. containing 10 percent lipid as poultry fat (n­ 6 fatty acid source) Production of Experiment 1 or menhaden fish oil (n­ 3 fatty acid To guide diet development, the source) in combination with ani­ “Jumbos” chemical and physical characteris­ mal proteins (poultry + fish meals) tics of golden shiner eggs or plant proteins. Fish received the There is a good market for large were measured over time during diets for two months prior to golden shiners used as bait for a spawning season. The brood­ spawning, which began in late sportfishing, but they are difficult stock were fed a nutrient­ dense February. Egg diameter, hatching to produce in one year. Dr. Nathan diet with 40 percent protein and percentage, larval length and larval Stone, Extension specialist ­ 9 percent fat so that nutrition stress tolerance (exposure to ele­ section leader at UAPB, and would not be a limiting factor. vated pH) were determined during colleagues evaluated the effects Although egg volume declined the spawning season (seven sam­ of diet composition and feeding over time, the lipid and amino pling periods). Diet had no clear frequency on the growth and pro­ acid components of the eggs effect on egg number, hatching duction of golden shiners. Juvenile were stable, indicating that percentage or larval length. The golden shiners (initial individual normal embryological develop­ results of the pH stress tests were weight = 0.46 g) were stocked into ment was possible throughout highly variable and there were no 12, 0.1­ acre earthen ponds at a rate the spawning season. consistent diet effects. Poultry fat of 29,640 fish/acre. Fish were fed and vegetable proteins appear to be either once or twice daily with a Experiment 2 and 3 suitable feed ingredients for brood­ control diet or an experimental diet. Additional trials were conducted stock diets of fathead minnow, as The diets were similar in protein to determine the specific relation­ there was no measurable increase (42­ 44 percent) and lipid (9­ 10 per­ ship between diet composition, in the quantity and quality of eggs cent), but contained different ingre­ chemical composition of the egg and fry from fish fed diets with dients. The main difference was the and egg and fry quality. Golden animal proteins or marine fish oil. lack of fish meal in the experimen­ shiner and fathead minnow brood­ Poultry fat and many vegetable tal diet, which was designed to stock were fed practical diets with proteins are less expensive match the performance of fish fed different lipid sources (soybean oil, cod liver oil, soybean lecithin 600 or mixtures of these) in outdoor pools for two months prior to 500 spawning. The fatty acid profile of the eggs resembled those of the 400 diets (Table 22), confirming that Experimental two months of feeding a special­ 300 ized diet is enough to alter the Control fatty acid composition of the eggs Yield (lb/acre) 200 significantly. Furthermore, the fish were clearly capable of elongating 100 and desaturating 18:3n­ 3 and 18:2n­ 6 to n­ 3 and n­ 6 HUFA, 0 respectively. However, differences once tw ice in fatty acid composition of the Feeding Frequency eggs did not result in differences Figure 3. Yield of golden shiners stocked at 30,000/acre for in egg size, total number of eggs 80 days and fed either once or twice daily at 3% body weight with produced or the resistance of fry a 42% crude protein diet with fish meal (Control) or without fish to elevated pH. meal (Experimental). 20 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH the control diet but at a lower cost. rosy­ red fathead minnow in diet (2.8 mg astaxanthin/kg diet). The feed form was an extruded ponds. Typical commercial diets In Experiment 3, 50 juvenile gold­ pellet (slow sink). Fish were fed at used for pond culture of bait and fish with an initial individual 3 percent body weight per feeding, feeder fish are very low in total weight of 0.77 g were reared in 25 adjusted weekly based on an carotenoids (<7 mg/kg). Three 110­ L aquaria and fed the same assumed FCR of 1:1 and by sam­ feeding trials were conducted to diets as in Experiment 1 for 49 pling every two weeks. Ponds were investigate the effect of days. In Experiment 1, there were harvested November 19­ 20 after 80 astaxanthin or lycopene supple­ no differences in average individ­ days. Average fish weight and sur­ mentation of practical diets on ual weight gain, survival or color vival were estimated by weighing performance of goldfish. measures [lightness (L*), redness and counting five sub­ samples of at Lycopene – the carotenoid that (a*), yellowness (b*), chroma least 25 fish. Weights (g) and makes tomatoes red – is not found (C*) or hue (H*)] of fish fed dif­ lengths (mm) of a sample of at naturally in fish, but could be a ferent diets. In Sub­ experiments least 50 fish per pond were 2a and 2b, there were no differ­ measured to determine condition more sustainable dietary addi­ ences in change in lightness and size variation. Remaining fish tive to enhance fish coloration were bulk­ weighed. if it is effective. (ΔL*), redness (Δa*), yellowness (Δb*), chroma (ΔC*) or hue At harvest, there was no difference Experiments 1, 2 and 3 (ΔH*) after the washout study in yield (Figure 3), average In Experiment 1, duplicate groups period. In Experiment 3, there weight or survival due to diet or of 100 uniform juvenile goldfish were no differences in average feeding frequency. Yield averaged with initial individual weight of individual weight gain and sur­ 472 lb/acre, survival ranged from 0.38 g were reared in outdoor vival among treatments. However, 57 to 80 percent and mean weight ponds and fed diets containing 2.8, goldfish fed diets containing per fish was 10.2 g. Results 66.0 or 100 mg astaxanthin/kg 100 mg astaxanthin/kg had higher showed that feeding a diet with diet, or 50 or 100 mg lycopene/kg a* (red) than all other treatments fish meal did not improve yields diet for 71 d. In Experiment 2, (Table 23) while there were no over a comparable diet formulated goldfish from Experiment 1 were differences in other color parame­ with poultry by­ products, and that used to conduct an indoor washout ters. Data indicated that dietary feeding twice a day instead of study that consisted of two sub­ astaxanthin supplementation is once a day provided no benefits. experiments (2a and 2b). In Sub­ necessary for enhanced coloration experiment 2a, goldfish were fed of goldfish in the absence of natu­ Feed Additives: the same diet as in Experiment 1, ral foods. Lycopene was not effec­ while in Sub­ experiment 2b, the tive in enhancing red/orange Color goldfish were fed only the basal coloration in goldfish. Enhancement For feeder and ornamental fish, Table 23. Lightness (L*), redness (a*), yellowness (b*), chroma economical means of enhancing (C*) and hue (H*) of goldfish fed practical diets containing differ­ skin color are needed. The pri­ ent concentrations of astaxanthin (Astax) or lycopene (Lyco) for 1 mary pigment responsible for the 49 days. desirable reddish­ gold color of Diet L* a* b* C* H* goldfish is astaxanthin. This carotenoid pigment cannot be syn­ 2.8 Astax 77.07x 0.92x 25.73x 25.77x 88.05x thesized by the fish and must be 66.0 Astax 76.31x 1.59yz 24.10x 24.19x 86.19x x y x x x provided in the diet. Astaxanthin 100.0 Astax 75.70 1.78 25.21 25.31 85.96 50.0 Lyco 77.47x 1.30xy 23.77x 23.83x 86.89x is found naturally in algae. 100.0 Lyco 75.68x 1.21xz 23.70x 23.76x 87.09x However, when plankton blooms 1 are poor, supplementation of pre­ Data are means of five replicate groups consisting of ten individual goldfish. Diet descriptors indicate the concentration of pigment (mg/kg) in the diets pared feeds with carotenoids may followed by the type of pigment. Means with different superscripts in each prevent color loss or enhance column indicate significant differences among dietary treatments as deter­ color development of goldfish and mined by Fisherʼs least significant difference test (P ≤ 0.05). NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 21

Feed Additives: Experiment 1 (Aquaria) Experiment 2 (Outdoor Golden shiners (initial individual Pools) Prebiotics weight = 1.15 g) were stocked at The same diets as in Experiment 1 25 fish per 29­ gallon aquarium in Prebiotics are nonliving indi­ were fed to golden shiners (initial four aquaria per diet. Fish were gestible carbohydrates that can be individual weight = 0.46 g) stocked fed twice daily to apparent satia­ added to the diet to improve feed at 400 fish per pool (1,069­ gallon) tion and group­ weighed every two conversion, stimulate the immune for 10 weeks. The pools were fer­ weeks for 14 weeks. After harvest, response and sometimes improve tilized to stimulate plankton growth fish were fed the diets for two other functions. Researchers con­ before stocking. Natural food in the more weeks before they were ducted three experiments to deter­ pools was determined using exposed to bacteria that cause mine whether diets with a Secchi­ depth measurements (a Columnaris disease. After the prebiotic composed of dairy and measure of water clarity) and challenge, mortalities were yeast products could improve per­ chlorophyll a readings (an indica­ recorded twice daily for 10 days. formance of golden shiners. The tion of algae). Fish were fed twice Results are shown in Table 24. experiments were done in indoor daily to apparent satiation and There were no differences in systems with no natural foods, group­ weighed once a month to weight gain, survival or body and in outdoor pools and ponds. track growth. After harvest, a sub­ composition, but there was a slight In all experiments the diets were set of fish was moved to indoor decrease in FCR of fish fed the similar to a commercial formula­ tanks and the fish were fed the high­ fat diet with prebiotic. After tion (30­ 35 percent protein), same diets for two weeks while the feeding trial, researchers per­ except that low­ (4 percent) and they got used to the tanks. Then, a formed a bacterial challenge on high­ (10 percent) fat versions of bacterial challenge was performed golden shiners fed the standard the diets were compared in tanks as before, except that fish in half of diet (4 percent poultry fat), a 10 and pools. Half of the diets (one the tanks were stressed by crowd­ percent poultry fat diet or a diet low­ fat and one high­ fat diet) ing them in a small basket within with both 10 percent poultry fat contained no prebiotic, and the the tank before exposure to bacte­ and 2 percent Grobiotic®­ A. other two diets had 2 percent ria. Results are shown in Table 24. prebiotic, as recommended by Golden shiners fed the diet with There were no differences in the manufacturer. Grobiotic®­ A had higher survival weight gain or FCR among diets. than fish fed the other diets.

Table 24. Effects of a dairy/yeast prebiotic on standard performance and survival of golden shiner following exposure to bacteria that cause Columnaris.

Standard performance criteria Survival after Columnaris Trial type/length (*FCR = feed conversion ratio) (bacteria) exposure

Tank/14­ 16 wks No effect on weight gain, survival or body Prebiotic significantly increased survival composition; decreased FCR in high­ fat (no prior stress required) (10%) diet with prebiotic

Pool/10­ 12 wks No effect on weight gain or FCR; slight Prebiotic in unstressed fish: but inconsistent effects on survival and – No effect on survival condition index (“plumpness”) Prebiotic in fish stressed by crowding before exposure: – Significant increase in survival

Pond/7­ 9 wks No effect on weight gain, net yield or FCR. Prebiotic in unstressed fish: Condition index higher in fish fed the diet – No effect on survival without prebiotic Prebiotic in fish stressed by crowding before exposure: – Significant increase in survival 22 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH

The slight differences in survival stressed or fed the diet with prebi­ there were no differences in growth and condition index were not con­ otic before bacterial exposure. or survival of fish fed diets with or sistently related to the prebiotic without a prebiotic. However, in content of the diet. Overall, the prebiotic had limited outdoor pools the prebiotic effects on general performance of enhanced growth and condition Experiment 3 (Ponds) golden shiners. However, the prebi­ index of goldfish compared to fish Golden shiners were stocked (ini­ otic significantly improved survival fed the diet with no prebiotic. tial individual weight = 0.1 g) into of golden shiners exposed to the Goldfish from the aquarium and ten 0.1­ acre ponds (five ponds per bacterium that causes Columnaris pool trials were also challenged diet) at a rate of 87,700 fish/acre disease. In systems with natural with the bacteria that cause and fed a control diet (no prebiotic) foods (pools or ponds), it was nec­ Columnaris disease using the pro­ or the same formula with 2 percent essary to impose a stressor (crowd­ tocol described in Experiment 2. prebiotic. Both diets were custom­ ing) on the fish before exposure to Although clear signs of infection made 35 percent­ protein diets bacteria to get a statistically signifi­ were present in many of the fish extruded as 1.5­ mm pellets. Fish cant increase in survival of fish fed after several days, very little mor­ were fed to satiation twice daily prebiotics. However, it is probably tality occurred and diet differences (4­ 7 percent body weight) for not possible to avoid all potential were not observed. seven weeks. Subsamples of fish sources of stress in baitfish produc­ (100 per pond) were counted and tion (holding, grading, hauling, Although goldfish were more weighed every two weeks to track etc.), and the use of a safe product responsive to the prebiotic in terms growth. Due to small initial fish like prebiotic in the diet should be of weight gain and condition index, size and the relatively low stocking an effective method of improving no stimulation of the specific density, growth was very rapid and survival after harvest. In addition, immune response occurred, as the study was harvested early to the prebiotic was effective in indicated by survival after the avoid reproduction. After harvest, a golden shiners in ponds even at a bacterial challenge. Enhanced subset of fish was moved to indoor low stocking density, where natural immune response is probably more tanks and the fish were fed the foods typically have more impact beneficial for baitfish than rapid same diets while they acclimated to on fish performance than in indoor growth, so the dairy/yeast prebiotic the new tanks. Then, a bacterial systems. Based on a partial budget tested may have less practical challenge was performed as for the analysis of the pond data, prophy­ application for goldfish. However, pool trial. Results are shown in lactic use of the prebiotic should many other prebiotics and probi­ Table 24. There were no differ­ also be economically feasible for otics on the market have not been ences in weight gain, net yield or golden shiners. tested in baitfish, and a variety of feed conversion between diets. immune responses should be Condition index was higher in fish Experiments 4 tested for thorough evaluation of fed the control diet without prebi­ (Aquaria) and 5 their effectiveness in different otic. As in the pool trial, fish that (Outdoor Pools) baitfish species. had been fed the diet with prebiotic Similar trials with goldfish fed the had higher survival after crowding same diets as in Experiments 1 and stress and exposure to Columnaris 2 have been completed. In aquaria, bacteria than fish that were not NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 23

SUMMARY

Considerable information has although there is more information bait and ornamental fishes, as accumulated on the nutrient on golden shiner due to its domi­ some of them spend most of their requirements and practical diet nance as a bait species. Aside lives in ponds with access to live development for small cyprinid from actual nutrients, there is as well as prepared foods, while fishes (golden shiner, goldfish and potential to enhance performance others are confined to aquaria fathead minnow) used as bait, of these fish through feed addi­ where they are totally dependent “feeder” fish or ornamentals. Most tives such as prebiotics and probi­ on prepared diets. The nutritional of the research has focused on otics. Diets that increase resistance and economic considerations are macronutrients, but vitamin to handling and other sources of different in these scenarios, and research has begun, and mineral stress are potentially more signifi­ diets must be continually devel­ nutrition is an exciting area for cant for production and marketing oped and refined to address these future research. There appear to be of these fish than diets that maxi­ diverse needs. few differences in nutrient require­ mize growth. Multiple approaches ments among these species, are needed to study nutrition in 24 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH

SOURCES OF INFORMATION

Chen, R., R. Lochmann, A. Goodwin, Li, P., B. Ray, D.M. Gatlin III, T. Lochmann, R., and H. Phillips. K. Praveen, K. Dabrowski and Sink, R. Chen, and R. Lochmann. (2001a) Nutrition and Feeding of K.J. Lee. (2003) Alternative com­ (2008) Effect of handling and Baitfish. University of Arkansas plement activity and resistance to transport on cortisol response and Cooperative Extension Program, heat stress in golden shiners nutrient mobilization of golden University of Arkansas at Pine (Notemigonus crysoleucas) are shiner, Notemigonus crysoleucas. Bluff, United States Department increased by dietary vitamin C Journal of the World Aquaculture of Agriculture and County levels in excess of requirements Society, in press. Governments Cooperating. ETB for prevention of deficiency Liao, H., C.L. Pierce, D.H. Wahl, J.B. # 256, AFC­ 01­ 2. signs. Journal of Nutrition 133, Rasmussen and W.C. Leggett. Lochmann, R., and H. Phillips. 2281­ 2286. 1995 Relative weight (Wr) as a (2001b) Nutritional aspects of field assessment tool: relation­ health and related components of Chen, R., R. Lochmann, A. Goodwin, ships with growth, prey biomass baitfish performance, pp. 119­ 127 K. Praveen, K. Dabrowski and and environmental conditions. In: Lim, C. and Webster, C. (eds) K.J. Lee. (2004) Effects of Transactions of the American Nutrition and Fish Health. Food dietary vitamins C and E on alter­ Fisheries Society 124:387­ 400. Products Press, Binghamton, native complement activity, Lochmann, R.T., and R. Brown. New York, USA. hematology, tissue composition, (1997) Soybean­ lecithin supple­ vitamin concentrations and mentation of practical diets for Lochmann, R., and H. Phillips. (2002) response to heat stress in juvenile juvenile goldfish (Carassius Nutrition and feeding of baitfish, golden shiner (Notemigonus auratus). Journal of the pp. 402­ 412 In: Lim, C. and crysoleucas). Aquaculture 242, American Oil Chemists’ Society Webster, C. (eds) Nutrient 553­ 569. 74, 149­ 152. Requirements and Feeding of Lochmann, R., and S. Kumaran. Finfish for Aquaculture. CAB Davis D.A. and D.M. Gatlin III. (2006) Effect of practical diets International Publishers, U.K. (1996) Dietary mineral require­ with animal or vegetable protein ments of fish and marine crus­ Lochmann, R., K. Dabrowski, R. sources and poultry oil or men­ taceans. Reviews in Fisheries Moreau and H. Phillips. (2001) haden fish oil on adult fathead Responses of juvenile golden Science 4, 75­ 99. minnow in tanks. North shiners fed semipurified or practi­ American Journal of Aquaculture cal diets with or without supple­ Gannam A. (1992) Comparison of an 68, 281­ 286. all­ vegetable protein diet to a mental ascorbic acid. Journal of commercial golden shiner diet at Lochmann, R.T., and H. Phillips. the World Aquaculture Society moderate and high stocking den­ (1994a) Dietary protein require­ 32, 202­ 209. ment of juvenile golden shiners sities. Annual report of CSRS Lochmann, R.T., K.B. Davis and B.A. project ARK1437, University of (Notemigonus crysoleucas) and goldfish (Carassius auratus) in Simco. (2002) Cortisol response Arkansas at Pine Bluff, United aquaria. Aquaculture 128, 277­ of juvenile golden shiner, States Department of Agriculture. 285. Notemigonus crysoleucas, diets differing in lipid content. Fish Gatlin D.M., III. (1987) Whole­ body Lochmann, R.T., and H. Phillips. Physiology and Biochemistry amino acid composition and com­ (1994b) Vitamin and mineral 27,29­ 34. parative aspects of amino acid additions to golden shiners diet nutrition of the goldfish, golden tested. Arkansas Farm Research Lochmann, R., H. Phillips, S. shiner and fathead minnow. 43, 8­ 9. Dasgupta, D. Gatlin and S. Aquaculture 60, 223­ 229. Lochmann, R., and H. Phillips. (1996) Rawles. (2001) Stable carbon iso­ Stable isotopic evaluation of the tope ratios and standard produc­ Hertrampf J.W. (1992) Feeding relative assimilation of natural tion data as indices of golden Aquatic Animals with and artificial foods by golden shiner, Notemigonus crysoleucas, Phospholipids II. Fishes. shiners, Notemigonus performance in pond feeding tri­ Publication No.11, Lucas Meyer crysoleucas, in ponds. Journal of als. Journal of Applied (GmbH and Co.), KG, the World Aquaculture Society Aquaculture 11, 21­ 34. Hamburg, Germany. 27, 168­ 177. NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH ­ 25

Lochmann, R.T., T.D. Sink and H. NRC (National Research Council). Sink, T.D., R.T. Lochmann, A.E. Phillips. (2008) Effects of dietary (1993) Nutrient Requirements of Goodwin and E. Marecaux. lipid concentration, a dairy/yeast Fish. National Academy Press, (2007) Mortality rates in golden prebiotic, and fish and nonfish Washington, D.C., USA. shiners fed high­ fat diets with or protein sources on growth, sur­ without a dairy­ yeast prebiotic Robinson, E.H., R.P. Wilson and W.E. vival and nonspecific immune before challenge with Poe. (1980) Re­ evaluation of the response of golden shiners in Flavobacterium columnare. lysine requirement and lysine uti­ indoor tanks and outdoor pools. North American Journal of lization by fingerling channel cat­ North American Journal of fish. Journal of Nutrition 110, Aquaculture 69,305­ 308. Aquaculture, in press. 2313­ 2316. SRAC (Southern Regional Lochmann, R., N. Stone, H. Phillips Aquaculture Center). 2007 Feed and M. Bodary. (2004) Robinson, E. and M. Li. (2002) Channel catfish, Ictalurus puncta­ formulation and feeding strate­ Evaluation of 36%­ protein diets tus, pp. 293­ 318 In: Lim, C. and gies for bait and ornamental fish, with or without animal protein Webster, C. (eds) Nutrient pp. 7­ 10 In: Twentieth Annual for rearing tank­ hatched golden Requirements and Feeding of Progress Report. United States shiner fry in ponds. North Finfish for Aquaculture. CAB Department of Agriculture, American Journal of Aquaculture International Publishers, U.K. Cooperative State Research, 66, 271­ 277. Education and Extension Service. Robinson, E., M. Li and D, Oberle. Lochmann, S.E., K.J. Goodwin, R.T. (1998) Catfish Vitamin Nutrition. Stone, N., E. Park, L. Dorman and H. Lochmann, N.M. Stone and T. Bulletin 1978, Mississippi Thomforde. (1997) Baitfish Clemment. (2006) Volume and Agricultural and Forestry Culture in Arkansas: Golden lipid, fatty acid, and amino acid Experiment Station. Mississippi Shiners, Goldfish, and Fathead State, Mississippi. composition of golden shiner Minnows. Cooperative Extension eggs during a spawning season. Sink, T.D., and R.T. Lochmann. Program, University of Arkansas North American Journal of at Pine Bluff, United States Aquaculture 69,116­ 126. (2008) Preliminary observations of mortality reduction in stressed, Department of Agriculture and County Governments Mann, R.H.K. (1991) Growth and Flavobacterium columnare, chal­ Cooperating. reproduction, pp. 219­ 240 In: lenged golden shiners after treat­ ment with a dairy­ yeast prebiotic. Winfield, I.J., and Nelson, J.S. North American Journal of Thyparambil, S. (2004) Effect of (eds) Cyprinid Fishes: Aquaculture 70,192–194. astaxanthin or lycopene supple­ Systematics, Biology, and mentation of practical diets on Exploitation. Chapman and Hall, Sink, T.D., S. Kumaran and R.T. performance of goldfish London. Lochmann. (2007) Development (Carassius auratus) and sunshine of a whole­ body cortisol extrac­ bass (Morone chrysops x M. sax­ Nose, T. 1979. Page 145 In: Yoshida, tion procedure for determination atilis). M.S. Thesis, University of A., Naito, H., Niiyama, Y., and of stress in golden shiners, Arkansas at Pine Bluff, Pine Suzuki, T., (eds) Finfish Nutrition Notemigonus crysoleucas. Fish Bluff, Arkansas, USA. and Fishfeed Technology, Volume Physiology and Biochemistry 1. Heenemann, Berlin. 33,189­ 193. 26 ­ NUTRITION AND FEEDING OF BAITFISH

APPENDIX 1. WEIGHT CONVERSION CHART FOR MINNOWS

Lb/ Count 1000 #/lb Grams (g)

0.5 2,000 0.23

1 1,000 0.45

2 500 0.91

3 333 1.36

4 250 1.8

5 200 2.3

20 50 9.1

25 40 11.3

Common Conversion Factors (Metric to English)

1 mg/L = 1 part per million (ppm)

1 mg/kg = 1 part per million (ppm)

1 g/L = 1 part per thousand (ppt)

1 kg = 2.205 lbs

1 hectare (ha) = 2.5 acres

1 kg/ha = 0.882 lbs/acre

2.54 cm = 1 inch

25.4 mm = 1 inch Accredited by North Central Association of Colleges and Schools Commission on Institutions of Higher Education 30 N. LaSalle, Suite 2400, Chicago, Illinois 60602­ 2504 1­ 800­ 621­ 7440 / FAX: 312­ 263­ 7462

Issued in furtherance of Extension work, Act of September 29, 1977, in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Dr. James O. Garner Jr., Interim Dean/Director of 1890 Research and Extension, Cooperative Extension Program, University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff.

The Arkansas Cooperative Extension Program offers its programs to all eligible persons regardless of race, color, national origin, religion, gender, age, disability, marital or veteran status, or any other legally protected status, and is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer.