c...

AN ACTOR 1 S PREPARATION FOR THE ROlE OF

JEAN PAUL MARAT DJ PETER WEISS 1

MARAT/SADE by

RICHARD FRANK GRABISH, B.S. in Ed.

A THESIS IN

THEATRE AR~~S

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of Texas Tech Uni vcr.:dty in Partial Fulfilh~nt of the Rcouirernents for· the Legree of

MASTER OF AP:rs

ApDroved

Accepted

- August, 1972 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I am deeply indebted to Professor Ronald Schulz for his direction of Marat/Sade and for his guidance of this thesis. I also wish tc express my gratitude to Dr. Sam Smiley and Dr. Larry

D. Clark for their inspiration.

ii TABIE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWIEOOMENTS • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • ...... ii INI'RODUCTION • • • • ...... 1 I. JEAN PAUL MARAT: A BIOORAPHICAL SKETCH. • • • • • • • • 5

II. PAR.AN'OIA • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • 35

III. A STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF JEAN PAUL MARAT •••••••• 56

CONCillSION...... 77 BIBLIOORAPHY. • ...... 78

APPENDIX. • • . • • • • ...... 81 A. NEHSP APER REVIEWS ...... 82 B • PROG RAl'll • • • • • ...... 86 C. PRODUCTION PHaiDGRAPH. • ...... 88

iii JNrRODUGriON

As one of the purposes of a research thesis is to instruct a student in scholarship and make him aware of the problems of good research, so the creative thesis in the preparation of an acting role should give the student actor experience in the analytic process of acting. The purpose of this thesis is to investigate this process of analysis for the role of Jean Paul Marat in Peter Weiss' The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul r'Iarat as Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the

Direction of the Man::Iuis I€ Sade (hereinafter referred to as IVIarat/ Sade) performed at the University Theatre, Texas Tech University.

In Creating a Role, Constantin Stanislavski referred to the process of analysis in this manner: Its purpose is to search out creative stimuli to attract the actor, lacking which there can be no identi­ fication ~nth a part; the purpose of the analysis is the emotional deepening of the soul of a part in order to comprehend the component elements of this soul, its ex­ ternal and internal nature, and indeed its whole life as a human spirit. Analysis studies the external circumstances and events in the life of a human spirit in the part; it searches in the actor's own soul for emotions common to the role and himself, for sensations, experiences, for any elements promoting ties between him and his part ; and it seeks out any spiritual or other material germane to creativeness.

l 2 Analysis dissects, discovers, examines, studies, weighs, recognizes, reflects, confirms; it uncovers the basic direction and thought of a play and part, the superobjective. . . . This is the material it feeds to imagination, feelings, thoughts, and will. 1

Although the stimulus to investigate the role of Marat corres from Stanis lavski, the method of analysis is derived from a multiplicity of experiences this actor has gone through. Acting is a personal venture. Consequently, an approach to a role is an individual one. The actor may be bombarded with information from acting classes, text books, and research material, but the eventual approach to the role, the analysis of the part the actor will have to play must be his own. According to Stanislavski, a character is the flesh and soul of the actor and is born of the union of all spiritual and physical elements of the role and the actor. 2 This thesis shall attempt to investigate and delineate the union of physical and spiritual elements this actor has with this particular role. The approach to a character is "the conception and birth of a new being-­ the person in the part. "3 Thus, the approach set forth herein is a manifestation of the union between actor and role.

1cons tantin Stanis lavski, Creating a Role, trans . by Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood, ed. by Hermine I. Popper (New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1961), pp. 151-52. 2sonia Moore, The Stanislavski System: 'Ihe Professional Training of an Actor (New York: Viking Press, 1960), p. 76.

3constantin Stanislavski, An Actor Prepares, trans. by Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood (New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1948), p. 294. 3 The investigation is divided into three basic sections. The first section deals with historical research on Jean Paul

Marat, the French Revolutionary ".friend of the people." Weiss states in the "Author's Notes on the Historical Background to the Play" that "IVT.arat' s words in the play corTespond in content and often almost exactly in expression with the writings he [Marat] left behind. 'What is said about the various phases of 4 his life is also authentic." An -~iderstanding of the historical figure is essential for an understanding of the dramatic character of :.1arat. rrhis first section presents research solely for the edification of the actor. It is in no way an attempt at an historical. biography of the eighteenth-century Frenchman . The second section on paranoia is stimulated by the fact that Weiss chose a paranoiac ·p~~:2nt to play the role of Marat. Again, no pretense is made to an in-depth study of the psychosis of paranoia.. :iather, this section is needed to enlighten the actor on th~ manifestations of paranoia and supply him with the necessary tools for an edequate representation of the psychosis on the stage.

'Ihe final section is a dramatic analysis of the character.

'Ihere are many methods of analysis and the method used here is

4Peter Weiss, The Persecution and P.ssassination of Jean-Paul Marat As Performed by the lnr:':ates of the Asylum of Cllarenton Under the Direction of the 1-'larquis I:e Sade, English version by Geoffrey Skelton, verse adaptation by Adr::an 1'-'Iitchell, with an Introduction by Peter Brook ~New York: Atheneum, 1966), pp. 107-8. not necessarily the best for every role. The approach to characterization used in this thesis is based on aTiethod of structural anal~sis created by Dr. Sam Smiley and on actor training under the direction of Dr. Larry D. Clark. The analysis provides the information needed to go into a rehearsal process with other cast members and create a role that is a credible and integral part of the total production.

Directorial decisions~ personal relationships~ and scenic elements which constitute the rehearsal and production process are not included in this thesis. The scope of the investigation involves only that process which is needed to enter into such a situation. This thesis sets forth a nersonal method of investiga­ tion and analysis which serves as the foundation for the portrayal of the character of Jean Paul Marat. 0

CHAPTER I

JEAN PAUL JVfARAT: A BI03RAPHICAL SKETCH

Simplicity was the key to JV!m-'at 's character, vvrote

Fabre d'Eglantine, the creator of the fanciful revolutionary calendar. riJarat, the revolutionary "friend of the people," defined his thoughts , words and actions . His insight accounted for deeds by their most natural causes, and his genius had re­ course to the most simple means. 1 Consequently, he appeared extravagant to men who were the slaves of habit and prejudice, followers of routine, submissive to social cant and the pre- valent humbug of the day. Truth and justice, r!Jarat repeated, were his earthly divinities, and he estimated men by their per- sonal aualities--not by success--resnecting vrisdom and admiring the notion of right. He convinced a multitude of his sincerity in these matters. His indi~ation against enemies, his pity for the onpressed, and his dramatic talents were imposed on 2 himself and on his contemporaries; and this led to his apotheosis.

1J. Mills Whitham, A Biogranhical History of the French Revolution (Freeport, New York: Books for Library Press, 1931), p. 264. 2Whitharn, A Biog-.,raphical History, pp. 263--64.

5 6 Jean Paul Marat was born into a lower middle-class home in Neuch~tel, Switzerland, in 1743. He was the oldest of six children. His father (who spelled his name "rwa") was a

Sardinian Catholic, who, having turned Calvinist at his rnarTiage, was forced to leave his native country and move to Switzerland.

He has been variously described as a monk, a doctor, a teacher of languages, and a designer of figures on cloth. Contemporary documents mention only the last two occupations.3 Whitham states that he "had considerable ability as a linguist and probably lived toward the end of a harried life as a teacher of languages." 4

His life story sets the atmosphere for the trauma that his son was to go through later in his ovm life. Marat' s father, pre- ferring the freedom of the world to a monastic life of restric- tions, ran away from the Sardinian abbey in which he had been raised. He eventually found himself in Switzerland where he married l.Duise Cabrol, a Genevan Calvinist, and moved to

Neucnatel. Louise Cabrol Mara bore six children. 'Jhe first of these was Jean Paul Mara, who later changed his narre to rlJarat, in order to appear more French. IVJarat 's mother greatly influenced her son's sensitivity to poverty and oppression.

3Louis R. Gottschalk, Jean Paul Marat: A Study in Radicalism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967), p. 3.

4Whitham, A Biographical History, p. 244. 7

Marat paid fulsome tribute to her in his rn:mhood, owing all that was humane in himself to her devotion and magnanimity, her intense syrrroathy with all unhappy creatures. . . . She endowed him with a sensitive spirj_t, a tempestuous character frank and tenacious, his heart open to heroic passions, above all to the love of glory and a hatred of cruelty, of all inflicted pain.5

As long as Jean Paul was living with the family, they seem to have lived in moderate circumstances. But, nevertheless, Marat said he received "a very careful education in his parental 6 home. " Until 1765, \•Then he emerged from a state of almost comolete oblivion and took up residence in England, alrrDst nothing is known about his life. Through lferat's own description of his childhood one may ascertain that he was a high-spirited youth who, having refused to go back to school when his teacher had humiliated him, had -iumped out of a window when he was locked up in his room for pu.nishment. This misadventure, he claimed, left a permanent scar on his forehead. 7 It may also be assumed that he was a precocious and ambitious youth when he states thirty years later that: ••• at the age of five he [r1arat] wanted to become a teacher, at fifteen a university professor, at eighteen an author, and at twenty a creative genius consecrating himself to glory, then sacrificing himself to his country. He said he had exhausted the whole range of human spirit, morals, philosophy, science, oolitics,

5whitham, A Biographical History, p. 244. 6aottschalk, Radicalism, pp. 2-3. 7Gottschalk, Radicalism, pp. 2-3. 8

extracting the best from all; that meanwhile he found his most tender pleasure in meditation, in those tran­ quil moods when the splrit admiringly contemplates the magnificent spectacle of nature, seeming to hear itself in the silence, weighing in the balance the happiness and the grandeur of humanity, piercing in its restless curiosity the sombre future, searching for Man beyond the tomb as far as eternal destiny.5

But at forty-five or fifty yo~th is likely to be viewed with a tender warmth that renders it difficult to tell only the truth.

The only positive fact that can be said about ~~rat's youth is that he seems to have left home at the age of sixteen; acted as a tutor in the house of Paul Nairac, a sugar refiner at Bordeaux who lat_er becam:; a deputy to the National Assembly; studied medicine for t\vo years at the University of Bordeaux

and then left to continue his education in Paris. ~nrat apparently petitioned Louis XV in 1760 for permission to accompany a scientist to Tobolsk to observe the passage of Venus over the sun. fuis , petition received no attention, however. 'Ihe next five years of Marat's career are a blan~. 9 In 1765, at the age of twenty-two,

he· was in England. \Vhile in England, Marat practiced medicine and was granted a degree fran St. Andrew's University in Edinburgh. Some historians f?ay this degree was purchased, but no conclusive

proof has been found to substantiate this claim.

8Whitham, A Biographical History, p. 263. 9aottschalk, Radicalism, p. 4.

----- ..

'. 9

During his stay in England, Marat began what was to be a long and prolific career as a writer. His first major work in England was "Essay on the Human Soul," an "anatomical and 10 mystical treatise," published in The Monthly Review in 1772. 'Ihis was followed by a larger treatise entitled "A Philosoohical Essay on Man." llie former was considered by critics to be superior to the longer treatise. However, both were reprinted as a chapter in Essay on Man, a book in which the author accepted the duality of body and soul and their reciprocal effects upon each other. lliis book was not well received in England. M3rat felt he was the object of adverse criticism dictated by ignorance and malice. llius, he undertook the task of propagating his theories (through Essay on ffJCm) on the continent. (llie book was translated into French in three volumes in England and published in Amsterdam (1775-1776).) Its reception on the con- tinent received even less favor than it had in England. It provoked "a sharp retort from Voltaire when translated by M3rat into French."11 fv'Tarat wished the entire French edition shipped to Paris for sale. llie shipment out of Amsterdam was delayed, however, by the customs officials. r,~at took this to be the work of rival scientists wanting to suppress the spread of his

10~fuitham, A Biographical History, n. 245. 11Whitham, A Biographical History, p. 245. 10 ideas. By "threats and persistence" he finally obtained a re­ lease of his book, but only, he said, "after some of them [the books] had been scattered in other countries."12 Such were the workings of Ma.rat' s mind. Whenever something went wro!\~, he donned the badge of a martyr and claimed unjust persecution by the enemies of his cause. It is this persecution paranoia that led Marat to the wild outcries of the Revolution and his eventual assassination.

In England H3.rat continued to nurture his reputation. In 1774, with the election of Parliament, Marat wrote The Chains of Slavery in the hope of arousing the civic duty of the populace. The Chains of Slavery was a study of the tactics employed by princes to make themselves more povrerful and despotic. The development and spread of despotism was, according to the author, a deliberate and conscious effort on the part of the rulers who conspire with one another, -vlith the clervJ, with the mi:t~istry, and with the legislature to "hoodwink the people and to keep them in subjection."13 By showing how this vast conspiracy had succeeded throughout the ages, ~~at hoped to rouse the British voters to the necessity of utilizing greater care in selecting their representatives in the general elections. It is in The

12aottschalk, Radicalism, pp. 5-6. l3Gottschalk, Radicalism, p. 19. 11

Chains of Slavery that the idea of sovereignty of the people is first introduced, the idea that Marat was to develop and expand into his watchword of the Revolution. Years later, r~at wrote of The Chains of Slavery that

• • . the clandestine and villainous attempts of Princes to ruin liberty were exposed, drew- the praise­ ful attention of English democrats, added political virtue to his [f.'Jara t ' s] equivocal fame as a savant , led to persecutions, if he [flfarat] spoke the truth . . . and much renown among the radical and workmen's Clubs in the north country.l4

After the publication of The Chains of Slavery and the receipt of the degree from St. Andrew's, the history of Marat in England becomes somewhat a mystery. There are historians who

~ identify flflrat with I.e IVai tre, or I.e Ms.ire or IV'Bra, a language master at the Warren Academy who went to Oxford, robbed the Ashmolean Museum of valuable medals, fled to Dublin and lived on the proceeds of his crime until his arrest. Sir John Fielding's

...... runners forcibly returned Le Maitre to Oxford where he was tried and sentenced to five years hard labor on the Thames hulks

A at Woolwich. I.e l'faitre was imprisoned at least one more time for debts. Although the connection is strong (the alias of the crirrdnal is the same as IV'Iarat's original name), the accusation is, at best, still only conjecture.

Given the will to believe in the identity of ~at and Le M3.i"" tre, evidence rrdght be gathered and arranged to make a plausible tale; but there were grave flaws

14 Whitham, A Biographical History, D. 245. 12

in the indictment, puzzling facts, and at least one letter utterly to smash the hypothesis unless that . .... ' letter Iwritten by rJfarat during the SO-·Called years of imprisonment] could be proved a forgery.l5

In 177~ Marat received an appointment as a doctor to the household of the Comte d'Artois in Paris. His position was Doctor of the Guards (medecin des gardes du corns) with an annual salary of 2000 livres. Some critics feel Marat owed his rank in the home of d' Artois to a Marquise "whom he had cured of an illness, and had oerhans seduced."16 However he secured his position, the ten years with the d'Artois household were snent building up a fresh reputation for the writer. He had achieved the reputation as a fashionable medical nractiuner, working 1. remarkable remedies of incurable diseases b:y means of a T'secret concoction (l'eau factice anti-nulmonique) which proved on analysis to contain little else but chalk and water. "17 Historian Thomas Carlyle, who writes of l\'Jarat with ci::.taste, sums uo Marat' s connection with d'Artois in this manner: Prince d'Artois also has his stud of races. ?rince d'Artois has withal the strangest horseleech: a moon­ struck, much-enduring individual, of Neuchatel in Switzerland, named Jean Paul r·'Iarat. A nroblematic

l5Whitham, A Biographical History, o. 245.

16Whitham, A Biograohical History, o. 246. l7J. M. Thomnson, The French Revolution (Oxford: B:lsil Blackwell, 1944), p. 301. 13 Chevalier d'Eon, now in petticoats, now in breeches, no less problematic in London than in Paris· and causes bets and law suits. Beautiful days of' inter- national corrmmion! Swindlery and b lackguardism have stretghed hands across the channel, and saluted nutually.l

Whether Marat resigned in a temper or was dismissed from the household no one knows. The connection between Marat and d'Artois is not rrentioned again until 1790. On June 24 of that year Marat wrote a letter to the editor of the Revolutions de la France et de Brabant in which he expressed criticism of his former employer:

We are at last being given, for all the underfed persons in the kingdom, fifteen millions taken from the estates of the Church, which had been taker:. away from the poor under the pretext that they were to be used in payment_ of the obligations of the StatP; this means, once they are paid, about thirty-five sous per head of the population; and yet, through one of your leaders, you appropriated nineteen millions for the purpose of paying debts of a scamp who happened to be born close to the throne, a shameful wastrel, whose ob­ scene dissipations are the least of his crimes, an enemy of our country, who has finall~r become a dis­ gusting conspirator, d'Pxtcis.l9 Between Marat's leaving d'Artois in 1783 and the outbreak of the revolution in 1789, little is known. Marat roamed Europe and devoted himself almost entirely to writing. He was trained for a career in medicine, but before the Revolution came to require all of his energies,

18'Ihomas Carlyle, The F.cench Revolution: A History, I (New York: A. L. Burt Company, 1929), 44. l9Jean Paul Marat, Writings of Jean Paul Marat, Voices of Revolt, Vol. II, with an Introduction by Paul Friedla11der (New York: International Publishers, 1927), pp. 68-69. 14

he had lvri tten, in addition to a few medical tracts , two novels, one volume on criminology, several scien­ tific works on fire, electricity, and light, two treatises on metaphysics, a panegyric of Montesquieu, and an historical inquiry into the nature and growth of despotism.20

His rejection by the Academy ~f Sciences was a direct result of one of these writings. Marat had translated Newton's Opticks into French. Brissot accused Marat of adding his own ideas to the translation and not giving a pure Newtonian examination of the work. This, according to scholars, is not true. Marat did translate Newton's work religiously but the condemnation by Brissot, who was a member of the Academy of Sciences, was enough to prevent Marat's initiation. • . . soon his inverterate habit of railing, and the beginnings of persecutional ~Enia, fouled his track. He fought orthodox science and the vested interests of the Academy [of Sciences], unable to tolerate even the least criticism, braving ridicule, yet sore, hypersensitive, nervously diseased, beating himself against impregnable defenses; for the scientific \valls of Jericho did not fall when he issued command.21

Ma.rat was of the middle-class, with middle-class ideals. He spoke highly of "good" monarchs and a government managed by the rich, by those who had the largest stake in the public arena. IVL::trat was an omnivorous reader. Consequently, he was exposed to most of the literature from the Age of Enlightenment--

20aottschalk, Radicalism, n. 2.

21Whitham, A Biographical History, n. 247. 15 Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire, Bucaria, and Diderot. With the exception of Montesquieu and Rousseau, these authors ~'3poke disparagingly of Marat and belittled his works, thus addir~

fuel to the fire of discontent. But Marat 's admiration for

Montesquieu and Rousseau was great and served as a source of

inspiration. Both Montesquieu and Rousseau attacked society,

and the reading of their literature agitated the spirit of Marat.

'lllrough the writings of these two men, Marat began to see that property tended to accUITDJ.late in the hands of a fevl, leavin[; the masses in poverty and hunger. "Since the lower. classes

really derive no advantages from society," he said, "they can- not be obliged to respect the laws of society. "22 fv'Jarat 's thinking became emphatic on this point. If society establishes and maintains the order of things, it should provide food, shelter

and clothing for the poor and unfortunate. Extending this

argument to j t~ logical extreme, Marat ca1112 to this conclusion:

llie est?.bl-:!.shme~t of public workshops and a redistribution of eccle&iastical property which would leave sufficient in the hands of the clergy to enable them to live an edi­ fying life. The re1nainder to be apportioned among the indigent in small lots. Free public schools, to be main­ tained at the expense of the leisure class. . . . If the worker after having been given a fair opportunity to work and a salary proportionate to his labor, should nevertheless refuse to engage in a use~3 occupation . . . he ought to be banished from the state.

22 Gottschalk, Radicalism, p. 23.

23aottschalk, Radicalism, pp. 23-4. 16

The end of 1788 found Marat judging the political s~tua- tion of Paris with uncanny foresight. He began a new series of poJemical writings. This second series, vmich was to continue to his death, was indifferent to science and the Acaderrw that had nearly destroyed him earlier. His first work in the new series of socio-political writings was a pamphlet, Offrande a la patrie (The Gift to the Fatherland) , which announced to the people of Paris that the privileged class was doomed. He spoke of impudent ministers decried for their ineptitude, eviled by their thievery, abhorred for their excesses, and now under the ban of an ignorant, long-suffering public; for they had been traitors to their master and to the country and had led the State to a verge of ruin. . . . A second broadside asked for union, and prudence; a third warned the people against the besetting French malady of infatuation. They must use severity in a choice of representatives for the States General, enlightenment and ~rtu~ being in­ dispensable qualities in a deputy. 1.Jp to the time of publication of Offrande a la patrie Marat had been, like many other rren of his day, a theoretical reforrrer. He had remained fo.i thful to the King and the States General. But no~·.r he began a change, a change that would lead Marat to becou.e a practical revolutionary who could no longer be decieved by the r:~l,li cal rhetoric of the governrrent. In early 1789, a large mass movement of the middle-class had already begun.

24Whitham, A Biographical History, p. 248. 17 The opposition of the financial and commercial bour­ geoisie, of the factory owners, the guild masters, as well as of certain strata of the intellectuals-­ to the ruinous autocracy of Louis YYI and the court nobility, together with the reverberations of the peasant insurrections, had an inflammatory effect on the great masses of the population of Paris, the artisans, petty traders, apprentices, wage laborers, domestic servants, the unemployed.25 Even though the interests of these diverse classes did not coin- cide in any way, they were united by one common demand: equal representation in the National Assembly and, thus, the oppor- tunity of presenting their grievances. This discontent made

its way to ~!Jarat' s ear and in the spring of 1789 he published

his Outline of the Rights of ~an and the Citizen. Here, r.'Ja.rat is taking a step in advance, in demanding universal suffrage (for men), equal political ri&hts for all citizens, recall of representatives by their electors. No doubt, Marat still accepts the basis of a guarantee of property, not of its abolition, but he does declare that great property differences ,ieoDardize derrocracy. 26

Through the pressure of this publication, the nobility and clergy capitulated and the "third estate" was formed. Simul- taneously, counter-revolutionary machinations were started by the court which resulted in the storming of the Bastille by the peasants on July 14, 1789. ~~at recognized that the revolution

up to this point had been of advantage only to the upper strata

25Marat, Writings of Jean Paul IV!arat, pp. 13-14.

26M3rat , Hri tiDGs of Jean Paul rJrara t , p . 15 . 18 of Parisian society, the bourgeoisie and the rich, and not to the masses of people. In addition to this, there was the threaten­ ing danger of the counter-revolution. Marat established on September 12, 1789, a periodical, first published under the name of Publiciste parisien. By September 16 ~he name had been changed to L' ami du peunle (The Friend of the People) with the motto: "Truth or D.:=ath." 'Ihrough this periodical Marat con- tinued to write on the wretchedness of the poor's existence. Sparked by the conditions of Paris, by the court and the clergy, and by the weak and inactive democracy of the moderates, I~at attacked the government and the National Assembly. He leveed charges against Necker, Mirabeau, and Lafayette, accusing them of treason to the Revolution through an alliance with the nobility and clergy against the people. In L 'ami du neuule JVBrat was the first to point out the fact that the National Assembly had done nothing to improve the public econany: "People without reflection!

• . • Wh y reJolce. . ?.... The state lies in its death throes; the workshops stand empty, factories are deserted, trade is at a standstill, the finances are demoralized .... "27 M3rat ad- vacated dissolving the National Assembly, full of aristocrats, to make way for a better, more representative government. ''VIe have wrested the power," wrote Marat, "from the nobles but to

27rlla.rat , Writings of Jean Paul r-'Iara t , p . 17. 19 place it in the hands of the moneyed class. What have we gained?

The people are still poor and starving. We need another revolu- t 1on.. u28 Dur.1ng thi s period when r1arat was castigating the National Assembly, he also continued his philippics against Necker (which were to culminate in Denonciation contre Necker and Denonciation nouvelle contre Necker). In these pamphlets Marat showed that the policies of Necker provided an easy avenue for grain profiteering and famine, favors to the traders and the rich, and aid to the counter-revolution. ~brat also leveed a series of tirades against the moderates of the Parisian town council, especially Bailly, the mayor. Marat attacked Bailly for assuming the manners and life style of the aristocracy and for opposing the rising democracy of Paris. On September 28, 1789, M::lrat was surrnmned to the legal bar of the Corrrnune to justify these attacks on the mayor. The legal body of the

Commune was called the Ch~telet, ... a body of privileged lavzyers, many of them young and ignorant, holding their places [in the courts] by inheritance or purchase , and charged 1·ri th what we rray call the police of the capital. They had formerly possessed (and it had not yet been abolished in detail) the power of arbitrary arrest. 29

28John S. C. Abbott, The French Revolution of 1789: As Viewed in the Light of Republican Institutions (2 vols.; New York: Harper and Brothers, 1859), I, 146. 29Hilaire Belloc, Danton: A Study (American ed. ; New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928), p. 118. 20

On the 6th of October, the Ch~telet issued a warrant for Marat's arrest, but social and political conditions were too critical for any action to be taken. 'IWo days later a second warrant was issued, but ~~at had fled to a hiding place on Montmartre. 30

From this strategic point ~arat issued pamphlet after pamphlet on his predicament and brought forth the boundaries of the en- suing confrontation. "Before belonging to the Convention," he wrote, "I belonged to the fatherland; I do not wish the

Assembly dissolved: I demand that it be purged of the traitors who seek to destroy the nation by restoring despotism."3l On December 12, l\'13rat was found arrl brought before a lower court (Comite de Recherches) to face charges. T1arat explained his publications on the grounds of his patriotic zeal and so con- fused the court that the prosecution was dropped and T~"Iarat marched triumphantly back to his residence at the Rue des Fosses St. Gerrnains . After Tlf.arat ' s victory in the lower court , he poured forth tirade after tirade conderrming Eailly, the moderates, and the Chatelet. This so enraged the court that a third arrest warrant was issued. This warrant had the backing of Lafayette who promised to support the warrant with three thousand National

Guard troops.

30Belloc, Dantan: A Study, p. 120. 3~rnest F. Henderson, Symbol and Satire in the French Revolution (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1912), p. 342. 21 The district governments of Paris had all agreed to protect their inhabitants from arrest, and l\1arat received that same protection. On the 22nd of January, lafayette's troops, arrred with the warrant, marched into the Quarter Latin district. There were three thousand militia, cavalry and in- fantry, plus no less than two cannon placed at the end of the Rue des Fosses St. Germains (lafayette wanted to insure no escape). The district offered no physical resistance. Rather, Danton emerged as the legal leader of the fifteen hundred men in the district to defend Marat rhetorically. He [Danton] appears as the friend of IVJarat, a ma.n for whom he felt no sympathy, to whom he was irrmeasur­ ably superior, and whom he had supported only because Marat's quarrel was a tactical opportunity against the fv'bderates.32

Danton received a group of delegates from the National Guard and allowed them to post sentries outside the door of r~at's house. He then accepted, for examination, the warrant for arrest. Slovenliness seemed to be the rule rather than the exception during this period of Parisian government and the Chatelet was no exception. They had neglected to issue a new warrant and, instead, served the warrant of October 8, 1789. During the month that the warrant was first issued, the Assembly passed several important changes concerning criminal law. One of these changes

32Belloc, Danton: A Study, p. 125. 22 was that "no warrant for arrest can be issued against a house­ holder save in case of those charges which, if proved, would lead to imprisonrnent."33 The Ch"atelet had obviously acted on the old principle of arrest and imprisonment without substantial proof. Add to this fact the right of the district councils to personally safeguard the legal rigpts of each inhabitant in said districts, and Danton was more than adequately armed for the battle. The Chatelet had committed a blunder and Danton affirmed the illegality of the warrant. The leaders of the Chatelet were confused, removed the sentries, and signed a proce- verbal which declared that, all circ~stances considered, they doubted the legality of the arrest. r1:lrat 's case "was so effec- tively championed that the Qnpopular court was discredited and destroyed" and M3.rat' s battle with the Moderates was won. 34 The French Revolution had entered unon a new stage. The King, who had established residence in Versailles, was forced by the National Guard to return to Paris. This started a period of counter-revolutionary machinations and threatened the power of the King. 'Ihe confidence that the "frierrl of the people" had placed in the King in the very beginning of the

Revolution endured for some time, and I.Duis YYI still had the

3~lloc, Danton: A Study, p. 123. 34Thompson, The French Revolution, p. 116. 23 love and respect of Marat. Even amidst the denunciations of

Necker and the other ministers of the government, Marat felt that

''his [Louis XVI's] presence would soon change the face of things," and he found words of praise for "the tender cares, the generous sacrifices of the Monarch to provide subsistence for his people. ''35 Marat Natched the aristocratic faction of the National Assembly and refused to believe the King was in League with them. He is precisely the man we need. Without schemes, without artifice, ui thout cwnin£\, without craft, and hardly formidable to political liberty, he would be a good prince if he had enough tact to choose wise ministers.36

It was only a matter of time, however, until Marat would grow suspicious of Louis. The King delayed in sanctioning the

D=claration of the Rights of rv1:m and other radical TIEasures of August, 1790, and IVBrat believed the King was now planning a counter-revolution, attempting to gain control of the army, and was preparing to leave France with protection from the emigres. Marat, the consistent democrat, recognizes that a (mild) terror is the sole means for safeguarding and expanding the work of the Revolution. He who 'could not bear to see an insect suffer,' wishes to prevent whole oceans of blood from being shed later, as a consequence of 'false notions of humanity, of a foolish consideration for the feelings of the bloodthirsty enemy,' and he prophesies the dreadful raging of the counter-revolutionists if they should ever again gain the upper hand.37

35Gottschalk, Radicalism, o. 65. 6 3 Gottschalk, Radicalism, p. 66. 37Marat, Writi~s of Jean Paul l'ft.arat, pp. 21-22. 24

The counter-revolutionary m3chinery was put into action. 'Ihe emigres stirred up the European monarchs against the revolution- aries in France. The King, the Right (moderate) section of the National Assembly, and the court were no1·1 in conspiracy with foreign monarchs to overthrow the revolution. 'Ihe King and his family made an unsuccessful attempt to flee the country leaving behind them a counter-revolutionary manifesto. Almost immediately after the flight of the King, Marat issued the fol- lowing statement to the populace of Paris:

People! behold the loyalty, the honor, the religion of kings. Remember Henry III and the Duke of Guise. At the same table with his enemy did Henry receive the sacrament, and swear on the same altar eternal friendship. Scarcely had he qu;it the table than he distributed poniards to his followers, summoned the duke to his cabinet, and there saw him fall, pierced with wounds. Trust then to the oaths of princes! On the morning of the 19th [June 19, 1791]; louis XVI, disguised in a priest's robe , fled with the dauphin, his wife, his brother, and all the family. He now laughs at the folly of the Parisians, and will soon swim in their blood. Citizens! this escqpe has been long-prepared by the traitors of the National Assembly. You are on the brink of ruin; hasten to provide for your safety. Instantly choose a dictator. Let your choice fall upon the citizen who has, up to the present, displayed most zeal, activity, and in­ telligence, and do all he bids you to do to strike at your foes. 'Ihis is the time to top off the heads of Bailly, Lafayette, and all the scoundrels of the staff, all the traitors of the assembly. A tribune A a mili­ tary tribune, or you are lost without hope.3°

3BAbbott, Revolution of 1789, I, 214. 25 :Marat was obliged to flee France and again take up residence in England where he issued statements against the corrupt government of Paris . His thinking became clearer and his opposition to the class-oriented "third estate" reached its zenith. rJiarat drew his strength from the lower strata of French society and geared his publications to the poor.

IVJy dear friends , your indigence is not the fruit of vices nor of idleness; you have a right to life, as good as Louis XVI. [sic], or the hanoiest of the country. vJhat man can say he has a right to dine, when you have no bread?39

Early in October, 1791, an election was held on the basis of a privileged suffrage right instigated by the Girondists and the wealthy. ~is election created the Legislative Assembly. This second Assembly was devoted to the exploitation of the poor and profiteering by the wealthy through hostility to the workers and higher prices on food. Marat fought this Assembly by agi-

tating the workers' sections of Paris. Through L'ami du oeunle he instructed the people of Paris on the ruthless tactics of the politicians. 'lhe Revolution has turned against the people and has turned out to be the people's greatest misfortune ...• From the very beginnin~ it was nothing but a continuous source of bribery and plots. . . . Nothing has changed but the decorations on the National Tribunal; but the actors, the masks, the intrigues, the distribution of parts--these have rer.lained the same. Nothing, ab­ solutely nothing, has changed in the vTorking of the

39Carlyle, The French Revolution: A History, I, 353. 26

poll tical machinery, and this 1'lill continue to be the case until the people will have attained mental clarity enough to spoil the game of the imoosters who are deceiving them, untii they have become ruthless enough to punish the criminals who hoodwink them .... 40

There was one more fruitless attemnt at a counter- revolution made by the court allied with foreign powers. As a result of this attempt, the populace stormed the Tuileries on

August 10, 1792, and ~de the King a prisoner of the people. 'Ihe old governing body v1as made imootent and a new Corrmunal Council was elected, and it proclaimed the Republic of France. 'Ihe overthrow of the royalty had been the work of a ver-J few men. The chief of these had been enrolled in the new council of the Commune v.hich now governed Paris. To all intents and purposes it also governed France. Its first act was to appoint a ne\·r ministry. It recalled several of those whom Louis A~ had dis­ missed. Roland, havifl:c~ Quitted his post of Minister of Justice with the nimbus of martyrdom, was nov1 given the post of I'·linister of the Interior. Claviere was made f·'Iinis ter of Finance. Danton took the impor­ tant position of ~'Ii~ister of Justice and, for a time, was the leading rran in :F'rance . Robespierre and H:ITat were members of the council and worked for the cause vlith voice and pen.41

Through the political power of the Canmune IVfarat found a - vehicle for his socio-political ideas and a method for putting them into action. As a result of his motion, a Vigilance

Co~ittee was formed to police and protect Paris, and IVarat vvas one of its members. This corrmittee, which also included Danton

40M3.rat, The Writirw;s of Jean Paul M:lrat, pp. 41-42.

41Henderson, Symbol and Satire, pp. 270-71. 27 and Robespierre, established a flying court to dispose of the most dangerous of the counter-revolutionaries. This action is now popularly called the "September Massacres."42 The Commune dissolved the National Assembly and replaced it with the National Convention of which Marat was one of the leading rrernbers. He changed the na.nE of L' ami du peuple to Journal de la republique fran9aise with a new motto: Ut redeat miseria, abe at front una superb is (In order that misery may be diminished, the property of the wealthy must be abolished). 43 'Ihrough the political arena of the National Convention, Marat leveed accusations against the moderate club of the Girondists. He claimed that they were the instigators of the decrepit lot of the poor and that they were political extensions of the old monarch. The Girondists tried to indict r·'Iarat and remove him from the Convention, but in vain. On September 25, 1792, (the 4th day of the Convention's existence), the Gironde submitted a comrni ttee report denouncing anarchy, dictatorship, and a cer- tain Journal de la republique fransaise:

••. and so thereupon there comes, visibn~ stepping up, visibly standing aloft on the tribune , ready to speak, the bodily spectrum of the people's friend

42IVIarat, 'Ihe Writings of Jean Paul Marat, p. 24. 43'Ihomas Carlyle, 'Ihe French Revolution: A History, II (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., 1929), 219. 44rn the Convention, each one who addressed the body ascended to a desY- on the platform called the tribune. 28 Marat! . • . 'It appears,' says Marat to the shreiking assembly, 'that a great many persons here are enemies of mine.' 'All! all!' shriek hundreds of voices: enough to drovm any people's friend. But Marat will not drown; he speaks and croaks explanation; croaks with such reasonableness, air of sincerity, that repen­ tant pity smothers anger, and shrieks subside, or even become applauses. • . . Whereupon he draws forth-- a pis0ol, and setting it to his head ... says: 'If they [the Convention] had passed their accusation decree, he the people's friend, would have blown his brains out. . . . C'est la mon avis [Such is my opinion] .•• no power on earth can prevent me from seeing into the traitors, and unmasking them .... ' An honorable member like thi_s friend of the people few terrestial parliments have had. 45

Marat was vindicated b2f\:Jre the enti~ Convention and the Girondists dared not pruceed against him. 'Ihroughout the next few months the Gironde continued its "bourgeois policy" and Marat continued to vociferously condemn them. On February 25, 1793, through the Journal de la republique franyaise in an article entitled "Guard Against Profiteers!" Marat leveed his strongest attack on the Gironde. It cannot be disputed that the capitalists, the brokers, the bureaucrats and former nobles are almost all of them props of the old regime. As I see no means of altering their attitude, I know of nothing else that can assure oeace to the State than a complete annihilation of these accursed conspirators. They are now redoubling their energies for the purposes of driving the people into starvation and misery by means of ~rices far in excess of anything we have seen before. 6

45carlyle, 'Ihe French Revolution: A History, II, 169-70. 46Marat, 'Ihe Writings of Jean Paul Marat, p. 58. 29 The Gironde proposed to decree an accusation against Marat

(decreter d'accusation) because of this public criticism of them. On April 16, 1793, by a roll-call vote, the Gironde act was carried out and Marat was called before the Revolutionary

Tribunal to answer these accusations. On Wednesday, April 24, Marat replied to these by swnmoning a mob of Parisians to his aid. They assembled in vast throngs and the Tribunal, overawed, after a trial of a few minutes, unanimously acquitted him. Marat was then carried shoulder-high through the streets of Paris, crowned with an oak garland, the wreath of victory. 47 The unsuccessful attempt by the Girondists to discredit Marat led the friend of the people on a campaign to oust the Gironde party from the Convention. By June 2, 1793, Marat had led a vote to place the most prominent Girondists under house arrest. Brissot, Buzot, Gaudet, Gensonne, and Barbaroux all left the Convention to live in their ovm homes under gendarme

guard. Thus, the Girondin fell by insurrection and becarre

extinct as a party. After the June incident with the Gironde, Marat was unable to attend the Convention. He worked twenty-one hours a day, receiving innumerable petitioners, unfortunate and oppressed

citizens.

47carlyle, The French Revolution: A History, II, 239-40. 30 His vitality had been as remarkable as his love of glory and his suspicion of all politicians: and it dwindled perceptibly, flickered·~ broke into smokey flame, relapsed again. The infection in his veins burst through all his pores, his shrunken little body was cankered, and he took to a bath shaned like a prodigious shoe to abate his torment, drenching corrupt flesh in medicated water hour by hour, a sheet drawn over his bare shoulders, a board in front of him, dining-table and writing desk; this in a room with a brick floor too small to crowd more than half a dozen visitors, scantly furnished, with a map of France, two pistols, a motto, 'La rJiort,' on the mildewed, papered walls, the light or semi-obscurity coming through the window from a narrow, dillf.Y court . Here he continued his work, gave instruction to his printers, read proofs; ~d here the ~rinted sheets were folded, the paper roles stored. 8 Although Marat was not now in public lippt, his influence was still felt in the political arena of France. Daily he sent messages to the Convention warning them to guard against the underground Girondists and their counter-revolutionary machina- tions. This hatred and rage against the counter-revolutionaries concentrated on rvJarat, and from Caen, in I.a Vendee, where the strongest opposition to the government was centered, the royalists sent their emisary to deal with rl13.rat--Charlotte

Corday. She was a young woman of twenty-five, an aristocrat by birth, but brought up in country simplicity. The heroic blood of the poet Corneille was in her veins, and his stoic precepts in her breast. caen was her Domremy: Raynal supplied her 'voices'. She came to imagine herself another Joan, called as a royalist

48 Whitham, A Biogra~hical History, DD. 259-60. 31 to avenge the death of her "Dauphin, ' Louis XVI, and as a patriot to rescve her dear France from its Jacobian oppressors.49

Early on July 13, 1793, Corday came to Paris with one purpose, to rid France of Marat. She purchased a butcher's knife at a shop in the Palais-Royal and set out for the Tuileries. She intended to murder Marat as publicly as possible but was dis- concerted to find that for the last month Marat had not been seen at the Convention. She took a cab to Marat's lodgings at Rue de 1 'Ecole de l'·Tedecine, No. 44 and sought admittance. She was refused but left this note saying she would return later: Citizen: I have just arrived from Caen. Your love for your country inclines me to suppose you will listen with pleasure to the secret events of that part of the Republic. I r::ill present myself at your house. Have the goodness to give orders :or my admission, and grant me a moment's Drivate conversation. I can point out the means by which you can render an important service to France. 50 At half-past seven that same evening, she again tried to gain an audience. Marat heard her speaking to the portiere and told them to let her in. "He questioned her about the Girondin Deputies at Caen [Barbaroux, Louvet, Petion, etc.], and took down the names of the rebel administrators of Calvados at Evreux, saying that 'they would all soon be guillotined in Paris.'"

49'Ihompson, 'Ihe French Revolution, p. 367.

50Abbott, Revolution of 1789, II, 338. 32

This statement hastened Marat's end. Charlotte drew her knife and stabbed him a mortal blow in the breast. M.arat cried, . ··:· ... ·- ...... "Amoi, ·rna chere ·amie; ·a moi" and died before he could be removed from his bath. 51.

Charlotte was arrested immediately and taken to jail. At her trial she maintained she had no accomplices. She rrade use of Barbaroux and Duperret only to gain access to the TUileries. She was tried, found guilty of murder, and executed on July 17, 1793.

The death of Marat and the subsequent execution of Corday did not stop the far-reaching effects of the 'i friend of the people." Wild as fvlarat 's words were, deeply as he was :irnnlicated in the "Septerrber l'Jiassacres," he had at least been sincere in his sympathy for the poor and in his denunciations of all whom he suspected of betraying them. It was this influence that the people of Paris remembered in their mourning. His funeral bestirred Paris from the Convention to the most draggled and sluggish of Sansculottes.52 The artist David had charge of theatrical ceremonies and civic po!11p. He designed a burial place in the garden of the Cordeliers Club suitable for an in­ corruotable republican who had died in an honourable poverty. The funeral procession began at five o'clock in the evening and went on till midnight: the bier, children holding cypress branches, the Convention,

5lThompson, Tne French Revolution, p. 368. 52Marat had become the leader of the Sansculottes, so named because they wore trousers and not breeches . This group comprised of lower artisans, unskilled workers and the lees of humanity became almost a Fifth Estate. 33 the Clubs and popular Societies, National Guards, sorrowing crowds . Guns were fired, chants intoned, and each section of Paris defiled bef~re the tomb and each President made an oration. A day or so after process1ons. escorted Marat's heart in an urn to the' C~rdeliers, where it hung suspended from the ceiling, like the hat of a defunct cardinal in a cathedral; and more ralk ensued, likening Marat to Jesus: '0 heart of Marat, 0 heart of Jesus! you have equal rights to our homage! ' his j oumalistic idiom having infected mourners; but mourning was genuine, national, and men ••. wept in their grief.53 Marat' s memory was long-lasting in the hearts and minds of his enemies as well. The counter-revolutionary Girondins slowly regained power i!'l the fiepilb lie. leaders of the Revolution, such as Danton and Robespierr-c, were criticized and eventually executed. By January, 1795, the Girondins were politically strong enough to close the Jacobin Club and discredit its heroes. On January 21, 1795, an effigy of Marat was burned in the courtyard of the 1 J acobin Club and the ashes thrown dovrtl the Montmartre sewer. Finally, on February 8, the Convention decreed that "no one Hho had been dead less than ten years was to have honor of Pantheoniza- tion." Marat 's body was taken from its place of honor and trans­ ferred to the Cemete1~ of the Clercs de Sainte Genevieve. 54 The role that Marat played in the Revolution could not be wiped out, however. He was a pioneer of the laboring masses of Paris and championed the cause of the working man. Although

53Whitham, A B~ographical History, p. 262. 4 5 Gottschalk, Radicalism, p. 192. 34 critics of the Revolution view I'v'Jarat as a bloodthirsty and insane fanatic of insurrection, it cannot be denied that it was through his influence that the Revolution took many advances toward the equality of all men.

M:lrat spoke of liberty and believed in eq_uali ty. The rich had suppressed the poor. Now the poor must bring the rich to their own level of hardship and want as an initial step to a flat social level of modest hap­ piness. He was a thwarted idealist; and in his failure to solve problems calmly and by reason, he stamped on them and roared, paradoxical, bizarre. He partly excused his gospel of violence, arguing that folk were brutalized by and saturated 'Hi th m_i_sery and would give ear only to extravagant council and gross invec­ tive; therefore as a good journalist he used the means likely to fix attention, thoug_h he confessed he would rather his hand withered than that the people should do as he bade them. He ~~ras occupied vlith the care of their salvation, prepa~ed to adopt any method whereby he could protect them from reversion to thral­ dom; and always he would be their incorruptible, brave defender.55

55whitham, A Biogranhical Rtstory, p. 250. CHAPTER II

PARANOIA

A major mental disorder involving the total personality of a person is called a psychosis. The patient, through severe disorganization of the personality (the ego), displays a serious loss of contact with reality. In a psychotic state the patient does not make a partial adaptation to his situation and environ- :rrent as in a neurotic state. Instead, he capitulates. His ego, which has the function of appraising the world, no longer ful- fills that function but ignores or is unable to perceive facts. The patient then reconstructs a reality of distortion and denial. 1

In addition to this marked distortion and denial of reality, the general characteristics of the psychotic patient's behavior may be described as follows:

1. His mental functions are so disturbed that he is incapable of carrying on his everyday activities. 2. His mental symptoms are of a severe nature, often in the form of delusions, hallucinations, stupor, incoherence, and violence. 3. His behavior may be injurious to himself or to others; he usually must be placed under guardian­ ship or in confinement (hospitalized).

~ulah Chamberlain Bosselman, M.D., llie Troubled Mind: A Psychiatric Study of Success and Failure in Human Adaptation (New York: Ronald Press Co., 1953), pp. 110-ll.

35 36 4. He usually lacks insight; he does not appreciate or realize the pathological nature of his symptoms and disabilities.2

Within the total personality of the psychotic the most common symptom of disorganization is his delusions. "A delusion is essentially a misinterpretation of experience. It does not, like an hallucination, entail a distorted registering of ex­ perience or a false perception of what is going on. n3 ~lusions are separated into two types: systematized and unsystematized. The systematized delusions are well organized and logical within themselves and present a coherent picture. The paranoiac psychotic evidences this type of delusion. Those delusions that are illogical, loosely organized, and markedly incoherent are classi- fied as unsystematized delusions. The psychosis knovm as schizophrenia evidences the unsystematized delusions. 4 All delusions, whether systematized or unsystematized, fall into three categories: delusions of grandeur, delusions of persecu- tion, or delusions of reference. Patients may feel they have great influence and power--thus delusions of grandeur. Other psychotics believe people are plotting against them and want to do them harm. These delusions are of a persecutory nature. Still

2Louis P. Thorpe, Barney Katz, and Robert T. Lewis, The Psychology of Abnorrral Behavior: A 1)\mamic Approach (New York: Ronald Press Co., 1961), pp. 374-75. 3Robert W. White, The Abnormal Personality (3d ed.; New York: Ronald Press Co., 1964), p. 524. 4Thorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnormal Behavior, p. 375. 37 other patients believe everything being said or done arOlmd them is related to them--delusions of reference.· These delusions are evidenced in the j ealo1 ~~ and erotic paranoiacs.

The psychotic with hallucinatory behavior invents and perceives things wholly imaginary. Typically, a hallucination is, like a perception, unitary, organized within itself. In other words, the subject hallucinates a something--a noise, a fog, a phrase, a design, a person, a scene, a cloud of insects, a warfare of beasts; the hallucination may be fantastic, but it is not chaos. Still, many a hallucination has conflict within it, and hallucina­ tions often compete and conflict with one another. Hallucinations may be agreeable, disagreeable, or indifferent to the person who has them. 'Ihe same hallucination may affect him [the natient] differently at different times, according to his mood. Among the insane [psychotics], hallucinations range from the torturous to the ecstatic.5 Hallucinatory behavior is found more often in the schizophrenic psychosis than in other psychoses. Nearly all psychotic patients nresent one or a corrbination of these behavioral patterns. The psychotic, however, is always identified with a loss of contact with reality. 'Ihis general symptom makes the psychotic patient much more severely 6 disturbed and disorganized than a neurotic patient. Clinically speaking, psychoses are differentiated by causative factors. The organic psychotic suffered some structural

5w. s. Taylor, Dynamic and Abnormal Psychology (New York: American Book Co., 1954), p. 374. 6Thorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnormal Behavior, p. 376. 38 alteration of the body, injury or disease. 'Ihe abnormality of this patient is evidenced after such an alteration. The functional psychotic has no physical alteration. This patient develops his psychosis without damage to the body or the brain and, thus, is "so well preserved that he [the psychotic patient] is often effective, whether for good or ill."7

'Ihe major functional psychoses are: schizophrenia, paranoia, manic-depression, and involutional melancholia. 8 This chapter will be concerned with the psychosis of paranoia-- its symptoms, types, causes, and dynamics.

The functional psychoses are difficult to delineate, categorize, and treat because their abnormalities stem from causes that have no organic peculiarities. The investigator has to look"deeply into the patient's background, homelife, and life style to find causes for the psychosis. In the world, there are cranks, fanatics, prophets, troublemakers, or madmen, according to what they offer and what the public will accept. This acceptance or denial, on a social level, is often times the only differentiating factor in diagnosing a paranoid character. According toW. S. Taylor, the cases diagnosed as paranoia or paranoid conditions are few; but their strange yet coherent ideas,

7Taylor, Dynamic and Abnormal Psychology, p. 599. 8 Bosselman, Success and Failure, pp. 110-50, passim. 39 arguments, and actions make them noticeable and create a need 9 for analysis. The most predominant characteristic of the psy- chotic disorder of paranoia is delusions. These delusions, although based upon bizarre and distorted premises, are systematized and logical. The paranoiac, despite this delusional system, still appears normal and reacts in a normal fashion to condi- tions outside his delusional system. 10 Paranoia seems to reflect some basic inadequacy or frustration, self--reference, suspiciousness, and ten­ dency to fixed and elaborated ideas. The affects are depressive, expansive, or varying, and in accord with the delusions. 1he delusions are persecutory, grandiose, or both. They focus upon one or more areas such as sex, ranance, popularity, power, wealth, invention, reform, revelation, and justice. The paranoiac finds evidence for his delusions eve~~here: in people's activities, gestures, facial expressions, words, letters, books, and other possessions .... 11 Within the area of delusions with unshakeable conviction the patient is psychotic; that is, he judges reality according to his syrr:ptom instead of judging his symptom according to reality. "'llie Paranoiac sets appart a certain delusional idea of perse- cution [or grandeur] which cannot be touched by his otherwise 12 normally functioning rrental process." Thus, aside from the

9Taylor, Dynamic and Abnormal Psychology, p. 597.

10'Ihorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnormal Behavior, p. 392. 1 ~aylor, Dynamic and Abnormal Psychology, p. 598. 12 Bosselman, Success and Failure, p. 13 8. 40 systematized delusions, there are no major mental symptoms in paranoia. According to Katz, the paranoiac usually evidences the following characteristics:

Well-organized and highly logical delusions Judgement impaired only in relation to delusional system Orientation correct Emotional responses adequate and in keeping 1dth delusional system Hallucinations rare, usually absent No distorted conduct except in keeping with delusional system Delusions sometimes grandiose, but more often per- secutory in nature Suspiciousness and sensitiveness marked Intelligence usually average or superior Tendency to blame others (projection)l3 The paranoid patient holds tenaciously to his fixed beliefs and convictions and refuses to compromise them. The paranoid person sees the world as a hostile place. His characteristic attitude toward his fellow-man is that of suspicion. The basis of difficulty, therefore, would seem to be a sense of isolation and rejection. He feels unloved. As a substitute for happiness in close personal relationships he has tended to emphasize success and dotnance, demanding in this way acceptance by the world.l fuere are several so-called types of paranoia. These types tend to generalize characteristics rather than show clear definitions. All paranoiac conditions begin with mild symptoms of suspiciousness, sensitiveness, stubborness, and in most cases 1 brooding. 5 As the paranoid condition develops, these general

l3fuorpe, Katz, and lewis, Abnormal Behavior, p. 392. 14Bosse~, Success and Failure, p. 142. l5fuorpe, Katz, and lewis, Abnorrml Behavior, p. 393. 41 symptoms take on more definite characteristics resulting in the following forms of paranoia: persecutory, grandiose, jealous , and erotic.

The most commonly observed type of paranoia is persecutory.

By definition, persecution is the predominant trait. The patient who suffers from persecutory paranoia is convinced that some person, or a group of people is plotting against him and maneuvering him toward his demise. Incidental remarks and casual glances are misconstrued and misinterpreted by the paranoiac to be evidence that someone is "going to get him." The paranoiac searches for hidden motives, he "reads between the lines" to find clues and signs of a plot. Noyes describes this persecutory pattern as follows:

Experiences are misinteroreted and ideas of reference occur; there is a hidden meaning in what goes on around; cryptic significances are read into casual remarks and events; slights and indignities are imagined; far-reaching significance is attac~6d to trivial details in the behavior of others. The reaction to these imaginary persecutors is manifested differ- ently, according to the individual patient. Some oaranoiacs respond passively, comolaining about persecution yet doing nothing about the persecutor. The active persecutory paranoiac will rrake detailed plans to deal V'Tith the enemy. This patient is often dangerous to himself and to others. His reactions can

16A. P. Noyes, r1odern Clinical Psychiatry (Philadelphia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1940), p. 489. 42 range from threatening letters (to the supposed persecutor) to legal action and acts of violence upon another human being.

According to Thorpe, Katz and Lewis, almost anyone or any group can constitute the persecuting agent to the paranoiac--"spouse, relatives, friends, acquaintances, strangers, church groups, fra- . 17 ternal groups, or a board of directors." Case Study: Persecutory Paranoia Systematized delusions of persecution with exoansive ideas extending over a period of five years. -Complete preservation of personality. Traveled from city to city to escape Dersecution. Planned one assault. Periods of observation in many hosoitals. Edna E., female, 38, single, admitted to P.G.H. May 21, same year. Onset of Present Illness: Four years before comrrdttal, complained that a certain minister was trying to poison her and to defame her character. Since that time, has wandered from citv to city to escape mir1ister. Has had nur.1erous nosi tions, but said she always lost them because Rev. Y. spread stories about her and tried to make her immoral. Rev. Y. is associated with B. who has a great deal of influence in :~~ssouri and the Southwest. 3. is, in turn, \vall Street's agent--and Wall Street is under the control of John D. Rockefeller. Because she will not surrender to their wishes, they are now causing her to have many bitter enemies. The:r have turned her sister and her two half-brothers against her and have made the physicians of the Bellevue Hospital give her codine in her food and put poisoned needles in her back. The Masonic Order and various newspapers are also against her. Patient's sister states that the patient has written numerous letters to complain about this scheme of persecution. On several occasions has written to the President and also the Attorney-General of the United States as well as many prominent municipal authorities.

l7Thorpe, Katz, and I..evlis, Abnormal Behavior, D. 393. 43 Personal History: Normal birth and development. At 14 began to have series of childhood disease in­ cluding diphtheria, scarlet fever, and measles. No sequelae. General Makeup: Patient's sister summarized general makeup of patient by stating that she was always extremely egotistical, ambitious, suspicious, and frequently misinterpreted a remark as applying to herself. Situation is interesting, as there has always been a marked antagonism between patient and her stepbrothers and stepsisters. Father had pre­ viously had 6 children, all of whom were well educated and have excellent positions. Family History: Father died at 62. Mother died at 45, of cancer. One full sister, 43, single, living and well. Of 6 children of first marriage, only 4 are now living. Cause of death in other children unknown. No history of mental disease alcoholism, drug addiction, epilepsy, or insanity. 18 The second type of paranoia is called grandiose. A patient suffering from this psychotic disorder believes himself to be another person, usually of some exalted rank or having great power. Cameron states: The manifest delusions range in complexity from relatively simple convictions that one is enormously talented, attractive, or inspired, all the '.'lay to the most intricately systematized convictions that one brings revolutionary conceptions to mankind, as a great inventor, scientist, or prophet.l9

The religious reformer, the inventor, and the social crusader are the three most frequently observed grandiose paranoid types.

18E. A. Strecker and F. G. Ebaugh, Practical Clinical Psychiatry (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1940), pp. 345-47. l9N. Carre ron, 'Ihe Psychology of Behavior Disorders (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1947), p. 526. 44 llie religious reformer paranoiac believes himself to be a messenger from God endowed with supernatural powers. These powers enable him to grant special dispensation, heal the sick, and save the world from sin and corruption. The inventor paranoiac creates fantastic machines that he believes can work miracles. The paranoiac will sometimes submit these machines to the United States Patent Office. When the patent is refused the paranoiac claims someone is trying, deliberately, to prevent the success of his investion--symptoms of 20 the persecutory paranoiac. The social crusader fashions himself a true revolutionary. He is convinced that through established political machinery or outright revolution he can establish a new and better socio-political structure. This last type of grandiose paranoiac is often also suffering from megalomania. Case Study: Grandiose Paranoia Physically ill-favored man, 50, claims he is 'more than a prophet.' (Asked) to give his name, (he replies) 'X the second,' the 'Savior,' and the ''Third Person of Trinity.' Wears a skull-cap with three paper gilt stars symbolic of his exalted posi- tion in Heaven. Decided over-growth of frontal bone due to repeated irritation of striking forehead against stone floor until it was bleeding and bruised during the days of his expiation. Displays many drawings showing crude artistic ability. They are drawings of visions he has seen and substantiate claim of divinity. Father, tailor, died of tuberculosis; mother died of pneumonia at 62. Older brother once tried to shoot patient, stating that he had ruined his daughter 'so she couldn't have any children.' Two sisters died of tuberculosis, one 28, other 32. A living sister was so cruelly treated by mother that priest intervened and had her removed from home. For 7 years she was

20 'Ihorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnormal Eehavior, p. 395. 45 patient in neurological ward of hosnital suffering from hysterical hemiplegia, hemianesthesia, and aphasia.

Has now a paranoid- osvchosis.- u . . . Into this murky background of family, personal hlstory follows like chanters of morbid novel. Was placed in orphanage. Was dull and incorrigible, tells us he was cruelly beaten. Enuresis recurred nightly and continued until 30. At orphanage says he learned many forms of sex perversion. He was both active and passive participant in acts of sodomy and fellatio. At 14 left orohanage, was apprenticed to baker, but ran away in a week. 'Ihen had many and various jobs; finally for 12 years worked steadily and satis­ factorily as radiator painter. Drank beer moderately; recently has not taken alcohol at all. In sex life became more and more addicted to per­ verted practices. Confirmed window and keyhole peeper and fetishist, frequently experiencing orgasm by kissing women's underclothing and stockings. Lived with common-law wife, and vij_ th her was sexually per­ verted. She was alcoholic and epileptic and died in a grand mal seizure. He felt there was something strange about her death and soon after began to evolve his delusional system. From story as related by patient, he led a life of 'sin,' then repented and did penance including the infliction of severe pain upon himself. Then, after some years, began to see visions of the 'god-head.' This was usually in shape of heart cro~med with roses, but there were rnny variations, the 'immaculate heart,' a heart-shaped face, the 'face of God,' etc. After several years these visions 'came closer and closer,' until finally his soirit was assumed into heaven (reborn 'irmnaculate' of the Virgin), his body remaining on earth. In heaven he is the Savior and the 'Ihird Person of the Trinity. For the sake of completion, we add that in this patient all physical examinations and serological studies have been negative.21 Overly jealous husbands, wives, boyfriends, and girl- friends usually comprise the third type of paranoia--jealous

21strecker and Ebaugh, Practical Clinical Psychiatry, pp. 460-65. 46 paranoia. 'Ihis type is as frequent as the persecutory paranoia.

All types of behavior, social and private, are interpreted by the psychotic as signs of infidelity. 'Ihe most innocent actions

(e.g. a telephone call, a shopping trip) are indications to the jealous paranoiac that a renedevous with some paramour is taking place. Many innocent people have suffered attacks and even death at the hands of a jealous paranoiac. 22

Case Study: Jealous Paranoia

Age 61. Occupation, housewife. Married 39 years. Chief compl8int: l'Jc::--.e--says came to consult psychia­ trist only because 'son wanted a report on my nervous state.' Family History: Tuberculosis, asthma, apoplexy, heart trouble; brother died of 'nervous trouble or food poisoning'--she does not know which. Sister died at 64 of pneumonia. Has 3 children one of whom has been in sanitarium recently for nervous trouble of sane kind. In the ancestry there is a record of sol'IE definite cases of insanity. 1 Personal ilistory: Troubled with fears, fatigue, insormia. Has been 'bilious' at times. Has mild attacks of asthma. Eleven years ago had uterus and ovaries removed. One year ago had tonsils removed. Clinical History: It appears from her sotry and that told by her son that 15 or 20 years ago she began to be over-suspicious of both her friends and her family. Within 5 years this paranoid tendency narrowed down to her husband. For about 15 years has been suspicious of husband, more and more convinced that he is untrue to her. For last 10 years this sus­ picion has been definitely crystallized around the idea that some blonde vampire is securing his sexual atten­ tion and has formulated plans to take h:im away from her. With passing years, this complex has enlarged to include gangs, racketeers, and others in large

22 'Ihorpe, Katz, and lewis, Abnormal Behavior, p. 396. 47 number who are organized for the purpose of ruining husband and, more recently, of destroying entire family. These conspirators are passing the house day and night . She knows them by the way they honk their automobile horns, and there is personal signi­ ficance attached to almost everything that transpires. l\1ental Examination: No sch:Lzophrenic tendencies. There is a history of nothing that could be called manic-depressive involvement. All intellectual opera­ tions, including memory, are clear. fuis woman is especially keen for an individual of her age. Re­ peated examinations elicit no deterioration or other mental vagary or emotional twist aside from systema­ tized delusions. No history of hallucinations. Physical Examination: Pyorrhea_. asthma. Labora­ tory data: Hypoch:::>rhydria. otherwise the research examination in this case is negative. Diagnosis: True paranoia. 23

The last type of this functional psychotic disorder is called erotic paranoia. An erotic paranoid suffers systematized . delusions of people being in love with him. 'Ihis in no way should be confused with those persons with personality.maladjust­ ments that manifest in sexu.al deviations, whether extrerre or moderate. The erotic paranoid uses delusions of love 3S a defense against -failure.

'Ihe deep and intolerable sense of failure against which the . . . [erotic] rl.elusion acts as a defense can in most cases be recognized as a failure in love. The person is unable to love and be loved. He may, to be sure, have a history of other defeating circum­ stances leading up to the breakdown. . . . But these difficulties may often be observed as the re~ult of his symptoms rather than the cause of them. 24

23w. S. Sadler, Theory and Practice of Psychiatry, (St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co., 1936), pp. 863-64. 24 Bosselman, Success and Failure, pp. 142-43. 48 The erotic paranoiac interprets another persons pleasantness toward him as an indication of love for the paranoiac. 25 'Ihe paranoiac may present his suooosed lover \v.ith gifts and letters of affection. When these gifts and letters are refused the patient interprets the action as either a test of his love, or a conniving plot on some person's part to prevent this love from flowering. The paranoiac can reach the point of forcing his affections upon the person who is supposedly enamored of him. Such advances can lead to sexual crimes. Case Study: Erotic Paranoia

Paranoia, litigious and erotic tyne. ~lJr. \Alhite, young lawyer, became associated with older lawyer, ~·'Ir. Jenkins, as a result of mutual interest in civic affairs. \Alhite made several social calls at Jenkins' home and fell in love with Jenkins' sister. Suit rejected for reason that Miss Jenkins was already engaged. This situation created suspicion in ~·lhite' s mind that Jenkins had prejudiced sister against him. Accordingly continued to pay court to Miss Jenkins, but advances were repulsed. Finally Miss Jenkins left Denver and went to Kansas . vJhi te followed her. She ~e 11 ill and v!as taken to hospital. White persisted in attemnts to see her. r1iss Jenkins died and white insisted on seeing the bcxly. Hospital authorities acquiesced; vrhen White expressed doubt that Miss Jenkins vias really dead, nurse turned to body and lifted arm in order that he might see it fall limp and lifeless on bed. After these experiences hhite returned to Denver, where he shortly expressed delusion that Jenkins had faked sister's illness and death, and that alleged corpse was a dwnmy. Averred he had heard arm squeak when nurse dropped it. Became more and more hostile toward Jenkins and finally threatened his life with a gun.

25Thorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnormal Behavior, p. 397. 49

Jenkins preferred lunacy charges against him, and \Vhite was tried before jury. Conducted his o~m defense, and in true oaranoid style repudiated delusions. Admitted he had said and done all that was charged against him, but explained that he had been overwrought, and that in his calmer judgement he no longer enter­ tained delusional beliefs from which he had formerly suffered. In this manner secured acouittal, but before he left the court, called one of the psychiatrists aside and insisted that he had in reality seen dummy corpse at hospital and had indeed heard arm squeak. Again began persecuting Jenkins, and much of procedure repeated itself. Second lunacy trial, second able defense by patient, second acquittal. White now went to California; failed miserably when he attempted to establish himself in practice of law; came to conclusion he was unable to succeed because of presence of Jenkins' emissaries. vlhile in California married woman who apparently was also paranoiac. Shortly the couple returned to Denver, where they filed a number of lm•!sui ts . Meanwhile "White continued to harass Jenkins ; rented room which overlooked Jenkins' yard across alley; would sit at window 1·rlth rifle in his hands. One day called Jen~ins'house apparently in peaceful mood, and demanded apology. Members of household called police; it \'Tas found that rllrs. \IJhite was carrying a revolver in muff. As a result of these episodes \Vhite appeared third time before jury to defend sanity. At this hearing his arguments were unsuccessful, and he was judged insane.~6 Schizophrenia is another functional psychosis that, although a categorized entity in itself, can bear traits of a paranoid condition. Most members of a schizoid type are unsociable, eccentric, sensitive, and excitable.

26c. s. Bluemel, The Trotlbled l\lind (Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Co., 1939), p. 421. 27werner Wolff The Threshold of the Abnormal: . A Basic Survey of Psychopatholog:y' (New York: American Book-Knickerbocker Press, Inc., 1950), p. 217. 50 The most predominant characteristic of schizophrenia is the hallucinatory system. The paranoid schizophrenic, however, is marked by the logical delusional system of the naranoid psychosis

in the beginning of the illness. As the illness progresses the

delusional system becomes increasingly illogical and bizarre--

the mark o f th e sch lZOp0 hrenlc 0 psych osls.0 2 8 In--~uese d e 1uslons 0 may reach the point of total fantasy.

Characteristic of the paranoid form of insanity is falsification of reality, not by means of hallucina­ tions or lack of reality perception but by misinter­ preting events. The naranoid ascribes imaginary functions to real neople or objects of his environ­ ment. The schizophrenic on the other hand dreams with his eyes open and psychologically no longer adapts himself to his surroundings. Lost in his dream-like hallucinations, the schizoohrenic senarates himself conTDletelv from realitv. The breakdown of ' ~ the inner reality is frequently projected uoon the outside and the schizophrenic believes he is witnessing ••• terrific catastrophes.29

In addition to the hallucinatory symptoms the paranoid schizo- phrenic also displays the incoherence, mannerisms, and marked

indifference of the paranoiac. 30 The condition of paranoid

schizophrenia, as in the functional types of the oaranoid psychosis,

can cause the patient to become dangerous to himself and to

others. Case Study: Paranoid Schizophrenia Jerry K., age 19, was admitted to the state hospital with the diagnosis of schizophrenia, paranoid type.

28Thorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnomal Behavior, p. 384.

29wolff, Threshold, p. 424.

30Thorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnorrral Behavior, D. 384. 51 He had been missing from home for three days and was found hiding in an empty house in the neighbor­ hood because he was afraid that the FBI would take him away. For a period of about six months he had been complaining to his parents that his room was wired, that there were faces peekin? into his room and that .. -' ' he heard FBI agents talking about him. 'lhe parents did not get along well when Jerry was young. There was much difficulty about finances and about rearing their son, an only child. Their rela­ tionship improved, however, and they were getting along quite well when Jerry entered his teen years. The father was a withdravm and bitter person. He had not been able to succeed in his vocation as a merchant and was in debt most of the time. Because of his inability to provide adequately, the mother was forced to go to work when Jerry was 3. He would be tal<: en to his maternal grandmother in the morning and nicked up at night. lliis continued until he ~;as 8 years old and in the third grade. He was then looked after by some neighbors. His mother was a hostile person who tried to domi­ nate her husband. As time went on the father became increasingly more passive in the home and the mother manipulated the home situation to suit herself. She was harsh in her discipline, often giving Jerry two or more 'lickings' a day. At the same time she was extremely overprotective with him. Her methods clashed with those of her mother, who vJould cater to JerTy when he was with her. Jerry was an extremely fearful child. He was afraid of the dark until he was 15 and had nightmares most of his life. He never did get along well with children because he always felt they did not like him or want to play with him. At eight he joined the cub scouts but quit after two weeks because he feared some of the other boys would gang up on him. He had difficulties in school because he could not concen­ trate on his courses. In high school he refused to go for a period because he believed a certain boy was out to get him. The parents moved to a new district because of this. Shortly after he graduated from high school Jerry began to lock himself into his room at night because he was afraid that someone would come and get him. He later refused to go_--, into his room because he believed it was wired by the FBI who wanted him as a spy. It was shortly after this that he was found hiding out in an empty house in the neighborhood. 52 He was taken to a psychiatrist who diagnosed his case as paranoid schizophrenia. 31 ·

Causes of a paranoid psychosis are theoretical at best. Some psychiatrists believe the paranoid conditions are caused by heredity. W. S. Taylor states that paranoid patients have more than the average percentage of psychotic if not paranoid relatives.32 other psychiatrists believe the environmental conditions of early childhood and adolescence contribute the strongest influence in the development of a paranoid psychosis. Katz feels severe, and often prolonged, frustrations and emotional conflicts in childhood and adolescence resulting in marked feelings of inadequacy and insecurity are the basic causative factors of paranoia.33 Cameron has described the personality background of the paranoiac in the following way: To begin with, the individual most vulnerable to paranoid psychosis is a tense, insecure, and usually fearful person, one who operates at high levels of anxiety. He easily becomes sus~icious and distrustful. He finds it difficult to confide in others, and if he does confide, ... he expects to be betrayed. If he has any close emotional relationships, they are likely to be limited to a very few individuals, and even these ties may not survive a personal crisis. Usually he is a person with lifelong tendencies toward secretiveness, seclusiveness, and solitary rumination, although these may be concealed behind a brittle facade of superficial social give and take.

3l'Ihorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnormal Behavior, P. 385.

32Taylor, Dynamic and Abnormal Psychology, o. 597. 33Thorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnormal Behavior, p. 398. 53 The world in which such a person lives is a dangerous world where one must always be on the look­ out for attack. People are unpredictable as ivell as untrustworthy; they must be watched.34

The primary basis of paranoid psychosis, however, seems to rest in the parent-child relationshin. During the child's formative years the relationship with parents may cause the child to feel insecure, unwanted, or uncared for. Katz states these feelings ma.y

. . . stem from parental discord or faulty parent­ child relationships. Parents who accuse or abuse each other, parents who make promises they never keen, and parents who threaten, scold, nag, condemn, and punish excessively create defects in the child's emotional relationships.35 Although the seed of a paranoid condition is sewn in the parental relationship the dynamics of paranoia manifest in the ego-defense mechanism of projection. The mechanism of projec- tion is an attempt on the part of the child to maintain his sense of personal security and adequacy. 36 The child, in order to protect himself from abuse or weakness (either real or imagined), transfers attention from himself to the undesireable motives and failures of others. Overholser and PQchmond mention •.• adolescents who are sulky and disagreeable; who are arrogant and self-imnortant, yet over-sensitive,

34cameron, The Psychology of Behavior Disorders, p. 512.

35'Ihorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnormal Behavior, D. 399 .

36'Ihorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnormal Behavior, o. 399. 54 quick to see slights where none were intended; who get on poorly with their associates and absolutely refuse to take any blame, always shifting it upon others. They insist that they are never understood. A certain rigidity about them makes compromise impos­ sible; one must always meet their terms.37

This rigidity in outlook and transferal of attention can even- tually lead to a persecution complex. Some individuals transfer inferiority and guilt by claiming others lack the capacity and. the intelligence to appreciate their talents and accomplishments. lliis type of transferal can lead to the grandiose type of paranoia. Another approach to the causative factors of paranoid psychosis is the psychoanalytic theory. Freud was the first to advance this theory as a cause of paranoia. Freud maintained the paranoiac held homosexual tendencies. The repression of these tendencies led to feelings of guilt, inadequacy, and unworthi­ ness.38 Concerning Freud's psychoanalytic mechanism in paranoia, Brown says: Freud states that delusions of persecution, delusions of erotic potency, delusions of jealousy as well as feelings of megalomania may well all be derived as reaction formations against the homosexual wish 'I love him,' which the conscious ego cannot accept. Thus the wish 'I love him' is changed by reaction formation to 'I hate him,' which in turn being un­ acceptable is projected in3~ the form of 'He hates rre and is persecuting me.'

37w. Overholser and W. V. Richmond, Handbook of Psychiatry (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1947), p. 150. 8 3 lliorpe, Katz, and Lewis, Abnormal Behavior, p. 400. 39J. F. Brown, The Psychodynamics of Abnonnal Behavior (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 1940), p. 334. 55 This theory, however, is not universally accepted. There are too many cases of total seclusion--derived from secretiveness and untrustworthiness--to warrant such a blanket causative factor.

In summary, the paranoiac develops highly logical and systematized delusions as a result of feelings of insecurity, inferiority, or guilt. In an effort to ward off these feelings about himself the paranoiac transfers these feelings and traits to other people. He blames others and eventually comes to fear them and to believe they are persecuting him. The paranoiac may also develop grandiose ideas about himself to protect and deceive himself into believing he is adequate and self-sufficient. CHAP'IER III

A STRUGrURAL ANALYSIS OF JEAN PAUL MARAT

Drama is an art chiefly concerned with the relationship of human character to human action. Characters in plays to some degree resemble human beings, but since a playwright composes them they are not human beings but man-made characters. Although a character in a play possesses some common features with a personality in everyday life, there are vast and vi tal differences between them. A personality exists in and of itself; a dramatic character can only reach full_actuality when blended with the personality of an actor. A personality is an individual living in an unlimited 1 milieu; a character exists in the delimited milieu of the play . Since personality implies selfhood and individuality in a human being, the actor can usefully approach the work of building a character by considering that character as a unique individual personage. To do so, the actor must develop ways to differentiate his character from not only the other characters in the play but from other human beings as well. The actor accomplishes this

1sarn Smiley, "Dramatic T.oeory and Criticism" (class lectures presented at the University of I.lissouri, Columbia, fJiissouri, September, 1969-January, 1970~ 56 57 differentiation through choosing, assigning, and analyzing traits of the character in question. The following six structural traits will be used to analyze the character of Jean Paul Marat in Peter Weiss' Marat/Sade. Biological Physical Dispositional Motivational Ie liberative Iecisive2

The analysis of these six character traits incorporated with the actor's own personality provide the basis for the creation of the role of Marat.

In preparing an analysis for Marat the actor must be aware of the basic given circumstances, that is, those unique circumstances and situations required by the playwright for the presentation of his drama. Marat/Sade is a play within a play. It is stated at the outset that the play performed at the asylum of

Charenton was written by the Marquis De Sade for the rehabilitation of the patients in the asylum and for the enjoyment of the French audience who has come to be entertained.3 Consequently, the role of Marat must be approached on two separate but not mutually exclu3ive

2sam Smiley, Playwriting: The Structure of Action, (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971), p. 84. 3Peter Weiss, ~he Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat As Perform::d t :.- the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the Marquis De Sade, English version by Geoffrey Skelton, -"·ers~ adaptation by Adrian Mitchell (Chicago: Dramatic Publishing Co., 1965), p. 8. 58

levels· The first level is that of a paranoiac patient in a French asylum in 1308. The second level is that of the paranoiac patient

playing Jean Paul Marat . This dual leve 1 approach poses a problem of identity for the actor at the outset of the analytical process. 'Ihe basis of dramatic character analysis is derived from three • sources: what the playwright has to say about the character, what the character himself says and does , and what the other characters in the play say about the character. 4 There is no mention either by the playwright, the character, or the other characters in the play as to the particular type of paranoia the patient playing r1arat suffers from. Also, it is not mentioned in these three sources how much the patient identifies with the role of rllarat. This paucity of concrete information necessitates that the actor make certain basic decisions at the initial stages of analysis, decisions that will solve this identity problem and guide the approach to characterization. The first concern is to decide upon the exact type of paranoia the patient manifests; this in turn will lead the actor to a knowledge of the patient's relationship with the historical figure of Jean Paul Marat. Through discussions with the director, • investigations of the historical Marat and of the psychosis of paranoia, and a careful reading of the script, I decided early in

the analytical process to adopt a grandiose paranoid state for

4 I.arry D. Clark, "Characterization" (class lectures on acting presented at the University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, January-May, 1968). 59 the patient. This patient would believe himself to be another person, a person with an exalted rank, a person with great power and insight-Jean Paul Marat, the "friend of the people." 'Ihe patient has lost what individual identity he possessed earlier in his life and has created an attitude and a life style consonant with that of the revolutionary Marat. (Identity alteration is a complicated psychological manifestation. Refer to the section on grandiose ~aranoia in Chapter II. ) The paranoid patient in the play, through this self-identification \ITith Marat, has established a pseudo-corrmunity. Hithin this corrmunity the patient ascribes i~nary attitudes and functions to the real people (the other patients and asylum workers) in his environment. His basic atti­ tude toward the other people in his environment then becomes: I am Jean Paul Marat, you may not think or believe I am Marat, but I know I am. The more this patient organizes this pseudo-community, the more it becorres necessary for him to take action in it. llius, when Sade approaches the paranoiac patient to play the part of Marat in his play (some time before Weiss' play actually begins) the patient willingly accepts the part--knowing that he will not have to play a role, merely himself. Marat and Sade never met in real life. Also, the philo­ sophies of the two men were diametrically opposed. Marat espoused revolutionary action through violence; Sade accepted the corrup- tion of the individual as a fact of life. Sade would like to have debated Marat, so he sets the stage for a dramatic encounter between individualism carried to the extreme and social and political 60 revolution carried to the extreme. If the premise of grandiose paranoia, with all its rarrdfications, is accepted the possibili­ ties for dramatic conflict are enhanced. The idea that Sade knows this patient believes himself to be Marat is logical, and the idea that Sade leaps at the chance to debate this Marat provides the stimulus for Sade's production.

After the decision about the basic given circumstances has been made, the interpretation of the character's role in the play depends upon analysis through the six structural character traits . As these structural traits progress they become hig,.~er, more complicated levels of characterization. These traits work simultaneously in affecting a course of action (attainment of a goal). They work together, complement each other, and enable the actor to create a unified role.

The biological traits are the simplest start to charac- terization. These traits establish the character as some identi­ fiable being--human or animal, male or female. 5 r/la.rat is a human male. This information comes from the playwright's preparatory 6 remarks on characters and costumes, and from the references made to and about Marat throughout the play by the other characters .

5Smiley, Playwriting: 'Ihe Structure of Action, p. 84. 6 weiss, Marat/Sade, p. 114. 61 Physical traits are any specific physical qualities such as age, size, weight, etc. Vocal qualities, habitual activities, and marmers uf moving are also considered. Finally, physical states of health are included in this category.7 Physical traits give the character visual and auditory distinctiveness. From the Herald's opening monologue many physical traits of Marat are identified. The patient playing IVL3.rat is fifty years old. The asylwn actor must also play a sickly man who, because of a skin disease, has to keep his "yellowed flesh:' bathed in Hater and covered (at least the head and shoulders) with bandages. The patient must also appear feverish and itching. 8 When f1arat moves out of the tub his movements are impaired by his sickly condition as witnessed when "IVT_arat gets out of the bath and stumbles around the arena as if about to faint y9 Tnrough these physical traits the character starts to take a dramatic shape. Dispositional traits reflect the basic bent of the character's delimited personality. A character has a prevailing mood controlled by his temperamental makeup. This mood, which denotes a life-attitude, manifests itself in the speeches the character says and the activities in which he is a participant. This mood or temperament provides the character with optimum

7Smiley, "Dramatic llieory and Criticism."

8weiss, Marat/Sade, pp. 9-10. 9weiss, Marat/Sade, p. 64. 62 credibility, probability, and unity on the dispositional leve1. 10

The character's mental attitudes and physical tendencies, as ex­ pressed and performed in the play, are more believeable to an audience as a result of this dispositional mood. Marat is an aggressive, self-righteous individual. He despises complacency and apathy and does everything in his power to rouse the people to action. He constantly strives to incite his captive populace of the asylum.

Don't imagine you can beat them without using force Don't be deceived when our Revolution has been finally stamped out and they tell you things are better now don't be taken in when they pat you paternally on the shoulder and say that there's no inequality vTorth speaking of and no more reason for fighting Because if you believe them they will be completely in charge in their marble homes and granite banks from which they rob the people of the world under the pretence of bringing them culturell

Marat believes himself to be a compassionate leader. No sacrifice is too great for the good of the Revolution and he chastises those who think only of themselves. When Sade espouses the philosophy of the individual and action responsible only to the self, Marat retorts by saying:

10 smiley, Playwriting: The Structure of Action, p. 85. 1 lweiss, Marat/Sade, pp. 61-62. 63 If I am extreme I am not extreme in the same way as you Against Nature's silence I use action In the vast indifference I invent a meaning I don't watch unmoved I intervene and say that this and this are vwong and I work to alter them and improve them12 Throughout his speeches and actions, Marat displays a basic temperament of aggressiveness. It is this aggressive force that provides the prevailing mood for his entire character. Motivational traits, unlike the dispositional traits, may be found in large nwnber in each character of a play. 'Ihe motiva- tional traits come forth as desires or objectives. These desires impel the character into action. 13 There are three levels of motivation. 'Ihe first level is comprised of subconscious needs, natural and unavoidable wants--instincts. These needs provide the basic drives that stimulate the character into activity. The second level of motivation is made up of semi-conscious desires--emotions. A character possesses goals. The mBnner in which he attains these goals is affected by the emotional relationship he has with these goals. The third level of motivation is conscious goals--sentiments.

Tills level appears as conc=-.~ete objectives. On this level, ethical and expedient thought is suggested, means arise, plans become

12weiss, Marat/Sade, p. 31. l3Clark, "Characterization." 64 important, and stakes or objectives become clear.14 Motivational traits ordinarily appear as spoken or implied reasons for activity.

Marat has, on the first level of motivation, basic instincts that may be labeled natural tendencies impelling him toward a certain pattern of behavior in order to attain specific ends. These instincts have the goals of all basic human instincts: food, shelter, warmth, reproduction, and the preservation of the ego. Marat requires Simonne, his "nurse," always to be close at hand to· supply more cold water, administer new bandages, or fetch im­ portant papers and people to his side. Through this activity f/Iarat satisfies his basic human instincts.

On the second level of motivation Marat displays two strong emotive forces: destruction and self-protection. A destructive emotion manifests in annoyance, anger, or rage. Marat wants the people to free themselves from the ruling hands of the bourgeoisie. He strives for the elevation of the common people and the suppression of the individual rights of the powerful few. In the striving for these objectives, Marat's emotive force is released, an intregal part of his being. When Sade challenges Marat's belief in the cause of the Revolution, it is an affront not only to Marat's philosophy of the rights of man but to his semi-conscious

14smiley, "Dramatic Theory and Criticism." 1 5weiss, Marat/Sade, p. 47. 65 feelings as well. As a result of this challenge Marat, in anger, turns violently to Sade and says "I believe only in that thing which you betray."15 Through Sade's persistence Marat is led to the second emotive phase--self-protection. A self-protective emotion manifests in timidity, apprehension, fear, panic, or terror. Sade bombards Marat with the idea that the masses will turn against him.

Once you attacked the authorities who turned the law into instruments of oppression }):) you want someone to rule you to control the words you write and tell you what work you must do and repeat to you the nev-T laws over and over 16 until you can recite them in your sleep

In the face of this bombardment Marat becomes scared; he fears not only his role in the Revolution but his own identity as well. Why is everything so confused now Everything I vJrote or spoke was considered and true And now doubt 17 Why does everything sound false The third level of motivation is a means to self-control. The objectives of a character depend upon his perception of a given situation, a lmowledge of that situation, his memory of past

15we1ss, . rJiarat/Sade, p. 47. 16w e1ss,. Marat/Sade, p. 93. 17weiss, Marat/Sade, p. 94. 66 experiences) and a basic intelligence to perceive the totality of the situation. In light of this perception he creates goals related to his personal needs. 18 The basis for this analysis of situation and the creation of objectives stems from a higher psychological system than merely the mind, soul, and super-ego. These objectives are the result of a conscious behavioral code consisting of opinions, beliefs, ideals, duties, and attitudes. This behavioral code is established or accepted by the intellect as

a result of environ~ental, educational, and physiological stimuli. The reason, as influenced by this behavioral code, sorts through

sentirrents and aligns them 1ri th instincts and emotions to form concrete objectives. The paranoiac in Marat/Sade realizes the situation of the Charenton asylum and his role, as Marat, in leading the patients to freedom. Through psychological association with the historical I·'Erat, the patient has an awareness of past experiences (the French Pevolution ended only nine years prior to Sade's play). Combining his realization of the asylum situation and his identifi- cation with the historical figure, Marat establishes objectives to meet the situation. The character holds the opinions of his historical counterpart (e.g. the need for revolution and the estab­ lishment of a socialist state through the suppression of the ruling bourgeoisie). The character feels, and accepts, a duty toward his fellow patients to free them from the ruling class of both the asylum and the political structure of France. 'Ihe sorting and

18 clark, "Characterization." 67 analyzing of the environment and the behavioral code within the environment serve as contributing factors in the creation of Marat's ultimate objective--to struggle for the Revolution. All his actions, activities, and intellect are bent toward the achieve­ ment of this objective. No person, philosophy, or object will stand in the way of the completion of this objective. In the play that Sade has created, the death of Marat ends the conflict of M:trat's objective and Sade's opposition. However, to sustain the characterization of Marat it must be believed that the conflict between Marat and Sade goes on after the play has ended. Without such a belief the play and the character of Marat have no ultimate goal, no purpose to sustain the drama of Weiss' work. When motives become conscious to the character and he begins to think about how to satisfy his desires or accomplish his goals, the next level of characterization becomes necessary. Deliberative traits refer to the quality of a character's thoughts. 19 The previous traits have described Marat as an identifiable being with certain physical features, basic needs, and drives which give him a certain attitude toward his envirorunent. lli liberative traits have to do with Marat thinking in this environment. Deliberations of a character functionally occur in the dialogue of a play as obvious reflection. When a character recognizes,

19Smiley, Playwriting: The Structure of Action, p. 86. 68 considers, evaluates, or weighs alternatives, he thinks. This thinking is a dramatic action in itself, i.e. through established motives the character plans, plots, remembers, determines, devises, imagines, suspects, meditates, reasons, etc. Deliberative traits may appear as two principal sorts of thought : expedient thought, considering how to do something; and ethical thought, weighing good and evil and reflecting about whether or not to do something. 20 Expedient thought is usually shorter in duration than ethical thought and ethical thought is the more significant in terms of character complexity. A character !'laY be capable of both types of deliberation but his major considerations and deliberations will be predominantly expedient or ethical. ~~at is an ethical character. He makes ethical considerations and ethical deliberations.

Marat' s first major ethical deliberation comes in Scene 8, "I am the Revolution." Simonne tells Iv'!arat to give up writing for the Revolution. No matter what the consequences, his w-riting "won't do any good. 1121 Marat, however, must go through an ethical evaluation of the situation; he must pit the good against the bad before reaching any decision. And what's a bath full of blood corrpared to the bloodbaths still to come Once we thought a few hundred corpses would be enough

20Smiley, "Dramatic llieory and Criticism." 2 lweiss, Marat/Sade, p. 20. 69 then we say thousands were still too few and today we can't even count all the dead Everywhere you look everywhere There they are Behind the walls Up on the rooftops Down in the cellars Hypocrites They wear the people's cap on their heads but their underwear's embroidered with crowns and if so much as a shop gets looted they squeal Beggars villians gutter rats Simolme Simonne my head's on fire I can't breathe There is a rioting mob inside me Simonne I am the Revolution 22 In this manner, Marat debates the merits and demerits of the Revolution within himself. His decision takes into account the ethical issues involved. As Marat recognizes both sides of the Revolution he is capable of evaluating the circwnstances on an ethical level. We've overthrown our wealthy rabble of rulers disarmed many of them though many escaped But now those rulers have been replaced by others who used to carry torches and banners with us and now long for the gocd old days It becomes clear that the Revolution was fought for merchants and shopkeepers the bourgeoisie a new victorious class and underneath them

22weiss, Marat/Sade, pp. 20-21. 70 ourselves who always lose the lottery23

Although the Revolution was initiated to stop oppression, the new rulers have created more oppression. Marat must evaluate this situation on an ethical level before he can judge rightness or wrongness. Marat weighs the alternatives of the political situation and reflects on the avenues of reprisal when he delivers this soliloquy on "Death' s Triumph" in Scene 11: Now it's happening and you can't stop it happening llie people used to suffer everything novl they take their revenge You are watching that revenge and you don't remember that you drove the people to it Now you protest but it's too late to start crying over spilt blood What is the blood of these aristocrats compared Hi th the blood of the people shed for you Many of them had their throats slit by your gangs Iv'Jany of them died more slowly in your workshops So what is this sacrifice compared with the sacrifices the people made to keep you fat What are a few looted mansions compared with their looted lives You don't care if the foreign armies with whom you're making secret deals march in and massacre the people You hope the people will be wiped out so you can flourish and when they are wiped out not a muscle will twitch in your puffy bourgeois faces 24 which are now all twisted up with anger and disgust

2~- . -'WelSS, Marat/Sade, pp. 47-48. 24we1ss, . Marat/Sade, p. 26. 71 Marat rerrembers the holocaust of the early Revolution. By this act of remembering he is establishing the deliberative groundwork for ethical decision. In his speech to the National AssembJy in Act II the deliberative qualitites of Marat's thinking process are again evident. As Marat pleads to the people of France to open their eyes and see the corruption of the state he presents the options of a free France for all people before himself and his audience.

Our country is in danger We talk of France but who is France for We talk of freedom but who's this freedom for Members CJf the National Assembly you will never shake off the past you'll never understand the great upheaval in which you find yourselves 25

It is this manner of deliberation, the wei8~ing of good and evil before making a decision, that makes l'v'f.arat an ethical character.

His total being is involved in the ethical question: In the face of such corruption, shouldn't something be done? This question and the ethical deliberation needed to answer it will lead ~Brat to his major ethical decision, his superobjective: to struggle for the Revolution and the freedom of the people no matter what the cost. The last category of this structural analysis--decisive traits--is the highest level of characterization. These traits

25 weiss, Marat/Sade, pp. 84-85. 72 appear in morrents of decision. The previous trait of deliberation shows Marat in dramatic crises, the ethical process of weighing good and evil. The decisions are the climax of those deliberations, the forming of opinions, and as a result of these decisions the creation of a superobjective. Decisive traits are the highest level of characterization for three primary reasons. First, decisive traits are composed of or are dependent upon all the other traits. llie other traits are material to the decisions that a character makes--the decisions serve as a form to the other traits. Secondly, decisive traits are the best way to know a person, i.e. to see a person make an important decision is the quickest and best way to know that person. The person (or character) reveals himself most in making a significant decision. Finally, the decisive traits show the greatest relationship of character to plot. Decisions--choosing or not choosing for a reason--are actions. Tnrough decisions, changes are forced upon the characters 26 in the play and their objectives. The plot of a play goes thrc-1;_~ a series of inflections and shifts because the characters in the play make certain decisions that eventually lead to some resolution. As in deliberations, there are two basic types of decisions: expedient and ethical. Expedient decisions have little to do with rigptness or wrongness. lliey are a choice of means (e.g. to use a knife or a pistol to commit murder). Ethical decisions show a

26 Smiley, "Dramatic 'Iheory and Criticism." 73 moral choice. They are concerned with specific ends (e.g. to 27 murder or not to murder). Ethical decisions, as ethical delibera­ tions, are a higher, more refined form of the trait. A character is the sum of his ethical decisions.

In viewing the totality of Marat/Sade it is evident that Marat makes both expedient and ethical decisions. 'Ihe impetus, however, for all decisions comes from his ethical nature, his ethical deliberations. Marat decided at the climax of his first major deliberation concerning the good and evil of the Revolution to accept the challenge of the Revolution. "I am the Revolution "28 ' I accept the responsibility of leading the people to freedom from oppression. Marat has made a moral choice, he now has a purpose and an objective. 'Ihis first decision serves as the imoetus for the remaining deliberations and decisions he will have to make; it establishes moral boundaries for his character. He will operate within these boundaries, reflect on them, and decide on expedient avenues within them to achieve his goals. In the first conversation between Marat and Sade (Scene 12, "Conversation Concerning Life and :ceath") Marat decides to use the expedient measure of active rebellion against the aristocrats as a retaliatory move to stop their machinations against the people. 29 Marat ethically chooses compassion for the poor and states a need for compassion by

27Smiley, "Dramatic llieory and Criticism." 2 Bweiss, Marat/Sade, p. 21. 29 weiss, Marat/Sade, p. 30. 74 everyone involved. When Sade challenges this compassion, Marat retorts by explaining his expedient decision to engage himself in active intervention against the indignities of the social structure.

Against Nature's silence I use action In the vast indifference I invent a meaning I don't watch unmoved I intervene and say that this and this are wrong and I work to alter them and improve them The important thing is to pull yourself up by your own hair to turn yourself inside out and see the whole world \'lith fresh eyes30 Marat not only explains the decision to act but he challenges Sade to make a similar type of conmi tment to the people and the Revolution. Another example of Marat's decisive qualities is found in his speech to the National Assembly. The major portion of this speech is devoted to a deliberation concerning the good and evil of the Revolution. 'Ihe conclusion of the speech, however, shows a clear demarcation from deliberation to decision that demands an active step toward fulfillment of ~~at's goal--the freedom of the people. What we need now is a true deputy of the people one who's incorruptible one we can trust 'Ihings are breaking down things are chaotic that is good that is the first step Now we must take the next step and choose a man who will rule for you 31

30Weiss, Marat/Sade, p. 87. 31Weiss~ Marat/Sade, p. 87. 75 This action not only displays Marat's sensitive spirit and heroic passion in the act of deciding, but it also points up an historical precedent when the historical Marat stated:

You are on the brink of ruin; has ten to provide for your safety. . . . Let you choice fall upon the citizen who has, up to the present, displayed most zeal, activity, and intelligence, and do all he bids you to do to strike at your foes. This is the time to top off the heads of . . . all the traitors of the Assembly. A trib~2' a military tribune, or you are lost without hope.

Through the initial ethical decision to enter into the socio-politi- cal fight of the Revolution for the freedom of the we:tS.ses, the ethical deliberations, and the expedient &1d ethica~ aecisions that reflect upon the initial decision, Marat displays a moral character . . Because of his ethical traits Marat now has an ethical purpose, an ethical objective.

Marat has a superobj ective. Stanislavski, in Creating A Role, describes superobjective in this manner: In the innermost center, this core of the role, all the ... objectives of the score converge, as it were, into one superobjective. That is the inner essence, the all-embracing goal, the objective of all objectives, the concentration of the entire score of the role, of all its major and minor units. The superobjective contains the rreaning, the inner sense, of all the subordinate objectives of the play. In car:0Jing out this superobjective you have arrived at something even more important, superconscious, ineffable, ..• the thing ... which inspires actors to act.

2 3 John s. C. Abbott, 'l~e French Revolution c·f 1789: As Vie:.r·c::d in the Ught of Republican Institutions (2 vols.; New York: Harper and Brothers, 1859), I, 214. 76 ...... The superobjective is the quintessence of the play.33

Just as all character traits converge on the decisive trait, all actions, objectives, and go~ls converge on this ethically decided superobjective. Once the decision to fight the rulers for the freedom of the masses has been made, all other deliberations, decisions, actions, and goals strive toward the attainment of this supreme objective. When deliberations and decisions take place they are influenced and guided by this objective. As Marat struggles for the right word to say or write, for the right emotion to plead, for the right avenue of action to take, he struggles to attain his superobjective--to struggle for his people. This ethical struggle is the entire basis for the character of l\'Jarat, the ethical man.

33constantin Stanislavski, Creating A Role, trans. by Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood, ed. by Hermine I. Popper (New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1961)~ pp. 77-79. CONCLUSION

Analysis connotes an intellectual process in literary, philosophical, historical and other types of research. In the preparation of a dramatic role in a play, analytical investigation allows the actor to become acquainted with his role by bringing various segments of the dramatic character within his comorehension. This thesis has investigated a particular approach to an analysis of a specific role leading to the rehearsal-production period of

Marat/Sade. As stated at the outset, this approach is neither universal, nor the best approach for every actor to take. The method set forth herein was consonant with this actor's needs.

As in any analysis of a character, this process cannot be the ultimate goal of the actor. The ultimate goal must be the per­ formance, which incorporates the actor's own personality and feelings as well as material gained by objective research and analysis. The analytical process was such an integral part of this actor's approach to creativity that it warranted clarification. This investigation provided the stimuli for the conception of emotions, impulses, spirits, and actions that manifested in the performance. It was a personal process that led to the creation and performance of Jean Paul Marat.

77 BIBLIOORAPHY

Abbott, John S. C. The French Revolution of 1789: As Viewed in the Light of Reoublican Institutions. Vols. I and II. New York: Haiper and Brothers, 1859.

Belloc, Hilaire. Danton: A Study. American ed. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1928.

Bluemel, C. S. The· Troubled Mind. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins Co., 1939.

Boleslavsky, Richard. Acting: The First Six Lessons. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1933.

BosseJman, Beulah Chamberlain, M.D. 'Ihe Troubled Mind: A Psychiatric Study of Success and Failure in Human Adapta­ tion. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1953.

Brown, J. F. The Psychodynamics of Abnormal Behavior. New York: 1vicGraw-Hill Book Co., 1940. "I Cameron, N. TI-le Psychology of Behavior Disorders. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1947.

Carlyle, Th ornas . 'llie French Revolution: A History. Vol. I. New York: A. L. Burt Company, 1929.

'Ihe French Revolution: A History. Vol. II. London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., 1929.

Clark, Larry D. "Characterization." Class lectures on acting presented at the University of Missouri, Columbia, Iv'lissouri, January-May, 1968.

Defrance, Eugene. Charlotte Corday ed la Mort de Marat. Paris: Mercure de France, 1909.

Gottschalk, Louis R. Jean Paul Marat: A Study in Radicalism. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1967.

Henderson, D. K., M.D. Psychopathic States. New York: W. W. Norton and Co., Inc., 1939.

78 79 Henderson, Ernest F. Symbol and Satire in the French Revolution. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1912, · ·

Johnson, fuuglas. The French ·Revolution. New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1970.

rtiarat, Jean Paul. ~!ritif1?S of Jean Paul r1arat. Voices of Fevolt, Vol. II. VJi th an Intrcx::luction by Paul Friedlander. New York: International Publishers, 1927.

Marovlitz, Charles. Stanislavskv and the r1ethod. Nevl York: Citadel Press, 1964.

~~sin, Jean. Marat. Paris: Le club fransias du livre, 1960.

r·1oore ~ Sonia. rfue Stanislavski System: 'lhe Professional Training of an Actor. New York: Vi:V~-Lng Press, 1960.

Noyes, A. P. Modern Clinical Psychiatry. Philadelnhia: W. B. Saunders Co., 1940.

Overholser, W., and Richmond, W. V. Handbook of Psychiatry. Philadelphia: J. B. Li~~=i~cott Co., 1947.

Rockv1ood, Jerome. 'Ihe Craftsmen of Dionysus : An Annroach to Acting. Glenvlev'l, Illinois : Scott , Foresman and Company, 1966. Sadler, W. S. Theory and Practice of Psychiatry. St. Louis: C. V. Mosby Co., 1936. Smiley, Sam. ,-'Dramatic Theory and Criticism." Class lectures presented at the University of ~lissouri, Columbia, Missouri, September, 1969-January, 1970.

Playvrritin~: The Structure of Action. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971.

Stanislavski, Constantin. An Actor Prenares. Translated by Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. New York: Theatre Arts Books, 1948. Creating A Role. T:canslated by Elizabeth Reynolds Hapgood. Edited by Hermine I . Popper. Ne\"l York : Theatre Arts Books~ 1961.

Strecker, E. A., and Ebaugh, F. G. Practical Clinical Psychiatry. New York: r·1cGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 191l0. 80 Sydenharn, M. J. The French Revolution. New York: G. P. ?utnam's Sons, 1965.

Taylor, W. S. Dynamic and Abno:::mal Psychology. New York: American Book Co., 1954.

Telford, Kenneth A. Aristotle's Poetics: Translation and Analysis. Chicago: Henry Regnery Co., 1968.

Thompson, J. M. The French Revolution. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1944.

Thornton, Nathaniel. Problems in Abnormal Behavior. Philadelphia: Blakiston Co., 1946.

Thorpe, Louis P. ; Katz, Barney; and Lewis, Robert T. llie Psychology of Abnormal Behavior: A Dynamic Approach. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1961.

Weiss, Peter. The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul Marat As PerforwEd by the Lnmates of tne Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the 1·:a...-rquis Ie Sade. English version by Geoffrey Skelton. Verse adaptatic~ by Adrian Mitchell. Chicago: Dramatic Publishing Co. , 1965.

' The Persecution and Assassination of Je~~-Paul Marat As Performed by the Inmates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the rr;arquis De Sade. English version by Geoffrey Skelton. Verse adaptation by Adrian Mitchell. Introduction by Peter Brook. New York: Atheneum, 1966.

White, Robert W. 'The Abnormal Personality. 3d ed. New York: Ronald Press Co., 1964.

Whitham, J. Mills. A Biographical History of the French Revolution. Freeport, New York: Books for Library Press, 1931.

Wolff, Werner. The 'lhreshold of the ftbnorrnal: A Basic Survey of Psychopathology. New York: American Book-Knickerbocker Press, Inc., 1950. APPENDIX

81 APPENDIX A

NEWSPAPER REVIEWS

·Lubbock Ava1anche-Journal

Saturday Morning October 9, 1971 "Sellout Audience Here Enjoys 'Marat/Sade' : Season Opener"

by Jack Sheridan Avalanche-Journal Staff

Texas Tech University's Production No. 104 nriJarat-Sade, n

ushered in the 1971-72 season for the University Theatre Frid~y night before a sellout crowd and a most distinguished opening nig..~t it was . The full title of the Peter Weiss play tells its story

in essence: "The Persecution and Assassination of Jean-Paul ~1arat as Performed by the Irun_ates of the Asylum of Charenton Under the Direction of the Marquis de Sade." This, then, is the idea. De Sade was actually an inmate in his last years and he \v.rote plays for the inmates to perform, to which the elite of Paris would come to see. The audience in this play is that supposed audience and the play is performed 82 •

83 with the Charenton director, his wife and daughter in the Napoleonic box at the side of the stage.

Weiss' play is imaginary and becomes an encounter and

conflict between De Sade and rlfarat, confined as an invalid in the

bathtub that is to be his deathbed as well. De Sade works for the absolute freedom of the individual, while Marat is concerned for the absolute freedom of man.

The inm~tes provide both a harrowing group of leading players as well as "extras" to background the leading protagonists and a chorus of four garishly-costumed "clowns" nrovide the singing and dancing "chorus" of corrrnentators . The play is a debate rather than a moving plot; it is a balancing and counterbalancing of ideas and notential solutions. The cast that director Ronald Schulz has assembled on the open-faced stage representing the Charenton bathroom area is quite something. Schulz's direction is cannv , wise and knovling and his blocking and pace is highly corrmendable. The choreography and musical direction by Troy Hest is outstanding and the scene design of the asylum room is ver"J well done by Clifford Ashby. The play is enhanced by the eerie and definitive electronic score composed especially for the production by Mary Helen McCarty.

'lhe production is repeated today, Sunday and I~onday. 84

The University Daily, Octob:r 12, 1971

"Psylurn Production Chills Audience:

A Review of 'Marat/Sade'"

by Bill Kerns Fine Arts Editor

What an opening nie::--.ht ! A sell-out crowd on a Dad's Day weekend complemented the splendid performance of MARAT-SADE at the University Theatre. The actual title of the play is "llie Persecution and Assassination

Of Jean-Paul Marat as Performed by the Inmates of the AsylUJ11 at [sic] Charenton Under the Direction of the IvT.arauis de Sade"--and this, in essence, is v.rhat the play is all abo:_~_t.

It is a knovm fact that de Sade, vrhile committed to an insane asylum outside Paris, used his fellow inmates to stage plays for the French upper class. Thus nr'Iarat-Sade" is a play- within-a-play. In it, writer Peter Weiss has Sade give his inter- pretation of Jean-Paul Marat's bathtub murder at the hands of Charlotte Corday fifteen years earlier. The script is written in a manner that allows Sade to actually meet and debate with fVTUJrat; this powerful rhetoric provides the contrasts on which the olay revolves. There is humor, yes, but it all comes back to Sade' s dragging down of r.'Jarat to an almost sub-human level through their arguing over ideological policies. 85

Rick G.rabish pl~s r!farat, who spends most of his time in a bathtub--but he is really exceptional during his monologues and political speeches. I cannot fault Richard Privitt as Sade; his movements, his facial expressions, the pain he illustrates when being whipped all co~e across tremendously. I would say the final surprising climax is made even more grisly because of Privitt standing over in the left wings "sadistically" laughing his head off. It just sends chills up your soine. There are no changes of setting for scene changes; the entire action takes place in the insane asylum. But director

Ronald Schulz has taken this si~~le setting and, blending it with some excellent make-up, performances, and a truly eerie use of r~J Helen McCarty's electronic music, created a play of high standards. I noticed no slip-ups other than a lack of timing during Charlotte Corday's (played by Sue Chesshire) hairlashing of Sade. But her performance, otherwise, was very good. Then again, I wouldn't say there was a bad oerformance in the bunch. Paul Garrison, as the inmate playing Duperret, gets by far the most laughs with his constant pawing of r;riss Chesshire, but is not able to steal the spotlight from the rest of the cast. Wade Parks, as the director of the asylum who brings his family to view his patient's production, must sit passively through most of the play, but is beautifully despicable when protesting contro­ versial segments of the script. APPENDIX B PROGRAM

86 ...

87

87 APPENDIX C

PRODUCTION PHOTOORAPH

88 89