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Insects As Food and Feed

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Insects As Food and Feed Insectsasfoodandfeed: environmentalimpact DennisG.A.B.Oonincx Promotors Prof.DrA.vanHuis PersonalchairattheLaboratoryofEntomology WageningenUniversity Prof.DrJ.J.A.vanLoon PersonalchairattheLaboratoryofEntomology WageningenUniversity Othermembers Prof.DrW.H.Hendriks,WageningenUniversity DrT.V.Vellinga,LivestockResearch,WageningenUniversityandResearchCentre Germany DrP.G.Jones,WalthamCenterforPetNutriton,MarsPetcare,Leicestershire,UK ThisresearchwasconductedundertheauspicesoftheGraduateSchoolof Insectsasfoodandfeed: environmentalimpact DennisG.A.B.Oonincx Thesis atWageningenUniversity inthepresenceofthe tobedefendedinpublic onTuesdayϲJanuary2015 atϰp.m.intheAula. DennisG.A.B.Oonincx PhDthesis,WageningenUniversity,Wageningen,NL(2015) Withreferences,withsummariesinDutchandEnglish Abstract thedemandforanimalbasedproteinisontheincrease.Tomeetthisincreased andaresuggestedtobeproducedmoresustainably. ammonia,aswellascarbondioxideemissionandaveragedailyweightgainof (expressedasCO2 ammoniaandeithercomparableorloweramountsofGHGthanpigs. ResultsfromChapterϯwereusedinĂLifeCycleAssessmentconducted animalprotein.ThischaptershowsthatmealwormsshouldbeconsideredĂmore sustainablesourceofedibleprotein,andthatĂlargepartoftheirenvironmental impactisduetothefeedtheyconsume. wereformulatedsuchthattheyvariedinproteinandfatcontent.Thesedietswere InChapterϲthesuitabilityofchicken,pig,andcowmanurewascompared asfeedforlarvaeoftheBlackSoldierFly,whichinturncouldbeusedasfeedfor vi Abstract onmoistenedmanure.Whereassurvivalwashighonallthreetestedsubstrates, topreventthisinordertomakeitecologicallysound.Furthermore,toimprove animalsareevaluatedbasedonbothliteraturedata,anddatagatheredinthis thesis.Furthermore,prospectsforinsectsasfoodorfeedareputforward, vii viii Tableofcontents Tableofcontents Abstract vi Chapter1 1 Chapter2 19 Chapter3 51 Chapter4 71 Ăhumanproteinsourceʹlifecycleassessment Chapter5 83 Chapter6 115 pig,orcowmanure Chapter7 Generaldiscussion 133 145 References 182 Summary 186 190 Acknowledgements 193 Curriculumvitae 194 197 198 ix Chapter1 D.G.A.B.Oonincx Chapter1 TheClassInsectacomprisesmostspeciesofalltaxaintheAnimalKingdom.The numberofdescribedspeciesisaboutonemillion(Ødegaard2000;Finlay,Thomas etal.2006).Fromthose,atleast1900insectspecieseatenbyhumanshavebeen documentedinliterature,andthetotalnumbercanbeexpectedtobewellover acrosstheglobe.InmosttemperatezoneslikeEurope,NorthAmericaandthe However,countriesinthetemperatezonelikeJapanandChinaarenotable predominantlycollectedfromnature.Therefore,theiravailabilityisinmanycases Imbrasiabelina (Westwood);Lepidoptera:Saturniidae)isavailabletwiceĂyear(IllgnerandNel 2000). derivedproductsareusedbyhumans.Thebestknown,andbestacceptedproduct 2010).Otherinsectproductsthatareeatenaremushrooms(Termitomycesspp.) emergingfromthefungigardenoftermites(vanHuis1996).Also,thesoilof termitemoundsiseaten,whichistermedgeophagy(Luoba,Geissleretal.2004). (Dominy,Davoustetal.2004).However,ithasalsobeensuggestedthatgeophagy Geissleretal.2004). asE120.Itismadefromcochineal(Dactylopiuscoccus(Costa);Homoptera: 2 1 History ThehistoryofentomophagybyhominidsstartsbeforetheexistenceofHomo sapiens madesuitablebytheearlyhominoidAustralopithecusrobustustŽdigintotermite . Basedontheanalysisofcoprolites,insectswereeateninNorthandMiddle insectsstemsfromthePaleolithicarea(approximately6000BC),whenHomohabilis evolvedtoH.sapiens InthegreatBasinareainNorthAmerica,theremainsoflargeamounts ofMormoncrickets(Anabrussimplex togetherwiththeremainsofotheringredientsof“Desertfruitcake”werefoundin feastfortheirking(Berenbaum1995).Romanaristocratsatetheirlocustshoneyed 3 Chapter1 ofinsectscomesfromĂplayofAristophanes(425BC),whowritesthatlocustswere Someyearslater,inhisHistoriaanimalium onwhenintheirlifecyclethetasteofcicadaswasthesweetest(Thompson1910). theBible.ForinstanceintheOldTestamentfoodlaws:“...youmayeatanykind honey.Around23AD,StrabodescribeshowAfricanpeoplecaughtlocusts:“The inhabitantscatchthembythrowingintotheravinesmaterialswhichcauseĂgreat accountsbyDioscoridesthattheLibyansconsumedlocusts(OsbaldestonandWood 2000).PlinytheElderwritesinhisencyclopediaonnaturalhistory(approximately larvae,whichlivedinoaktrees,asdelicaciesandthatthewealthyParthiansate whichpossiblyarethelarvaeorpupaeofXylophagus(Diptera:Xylophagidae)and ofPontustoeatĂlocust,andhewillthinkitscandalous.ForceĂSyrian,anAfrican, orArabiantoswallowworms,hewillhavethesamecontemptforthem”.Several 1995). Damiri,publishedatthedawnofthe15thcentury.Around1600,LeoAfricanus renewedinterestinentomologystartsinthelateRenaissance 4 th 1 thatthisspecieswaspoisonouspreventedthepeoplefromconsumingit(de thesewerethelarvaeofthedungbeetle(Copris(CatharsiusͿmolossus(Fabricius); Bombyx mori insects,forinstancePalmweevilsinthewestIndieswerealsoeatenbytheFrench Attheendofthe19th withother“odd”foodtypeswhichareconsidereddelicacies,suchaseel,seaslugs, asanargumentforentomophagyintheWesternworld(Howard1916;Holt1995). Piophilacasei(L.);Diptera:Piophilidae),whichare Entomophagyinnon-Westerncultures 5 Chapter1 KruseandKwon2004;vanHuis2005),andSouthandCentralAmerica(Ruddle Some500yearsago,theEuropeanscameintocontactwiththeindigenous Oryctesspp.(Coleoptera: RepublicofCongo,Ăsurveyindicatedthatduringthemainseason2.36kgof insectswasconsumedpercapita,permonth.Thisamountsto19.6gramsof surveysconductedatAmazoniantribesreportedthat2.6%and~6%oftheprotein 6 TheMopanecaterpillar,oneofthemostcommonlyconsumedinsectsin 1 asprocessedfoodandinrestaurants(Alloteyetal.2003),butitisalsoexported totheUSAandKorea(Mpuchane,Gasheetal.2000).similarexampleofinsects beingexportedasfoodtoĂWesterncountryarebeepupaefromJapansentto 1960).Also,theThaiGiantwaterbug(Lethocerusindicus pricesareaskedforantlarvaeandpupae,(Liometopumapiculatum(Wheeler); Hymenoptera:Formicidae)(200$/kg),whiteagaveworms(Aegialehesperiaris (Walker);Lepidoptera:Hesperiidae)(250$/kg),andlarvaeoftheredagaveworm (Xyleutesredtembacheri(Hamm);Lepidoptera:Cossidae)(200$/kg)usedinthe Elorduy1997a).Thepriceforthesecollectedinsectshasincreasedgreatlyinthe lastdecades;supposedlythepricefor“escamoles”was35$/kgandthepricefor increaseissuggestedtobetheincreasedwealthofMexicansthathavemovedfrom ruralareastotheUSA,andwhowishtoretaintheirculinaryhabits. Certainspeciesofinsectsareseenasacceptablefood;commoditygoods.Forthe 7 Chapter1 (Gonimbrasiazambesina͖Lepidoptera:Saturniidae),tofeedontheregenerated 2005). instance“Axayacatl”(Hemiptera:Corixidae),havebeenculturedinMexicobefore Anaphe infractaWalsingham( 50x50x50cmcage.Theauthorsconcludedthattherearingofthisspecieswould larvaeof InwesternAfrica,larvaeofthepalmweevil(Rhychophorousspp.; presentthere.Thebeetlesovipositindecayingpalmtreesfromwhichthelarvae Rhychophorousferrugineus etal.2013). Ifsustainableinsectrearingsystemsareestablished,theseaidtothe inthesustainableeconomicdevelopmentofĂregion(Illgneretal.2000).Another before,cochinealisusedasĂreddye.Itisculturedinseveralcountries,amongst 8 spp.;Cactaceae:Caryophyllales) 1 Besidesproducinginsectsforfood,theycanalsobeusedasĂfeed sourceforlivestock,forinstancepoultry(MunyuliBinMushambanyiandBalezi 2002).AnextensivewayofproducingtermitesforfeedisknownfromBurkina certaininsectculturesistheabilitytoconvertbiomaterialsthatwouldotherwise ofsuchĂsystemisthatitallowsforĂmorecontrolledproductregardingboth forbirds,lizardsoramphibians,whichissoldthroughthepettrade.Thistypeof businesshasbeenaroundforĂfewdecadesanditseemslikelythatfurtherprocess whicharethenplacedinĂseparatecageaccordingtoageorstageofdevelopment Insectrearing,whencomparedtoinsectgathering,hasthedisadvantage environment.Becauseinsectsdependonenvironmentaltemperatureforgrowth 9 Chapter1 Foodsafety al.2006). (Looyetal.2013).Furthermore,certainspeciesofinsectsnaturallycontaintoxins, usedasĂdefenceagainstpredators.This,however,neednotbeĂreasontodiscard themasfood.Forinstance,thelarvaeofCirinafordaWestwood(Lepidoptera: Abatanetal.2002).IntheWesternworld,whereinsectsarenormallyrearedrather Ăhammermill.InĂcontrolledenvironment,procedurescanbedevelopedto ofanimaloriginarethemostimportantsourceofzoonosis,andSalmonellaspp. andCampylobacter (Valkenburgh,R.vanOosterometal.2007).Sinceinsectsaretaxonomicallyand instanceEnterobacteriaceae(whichincludeEscherichiacoliandSalmonellassp.), similarlevelsasfoundinunprocessedplantbasedfoodstemmingfromagricultural Researchperformedonthelessermealworm(Alphitobiusdiaperinus(Panzer); thatbothlarvaeandadultsarecapableofharbouringEscherichiacoliforatleast 10 10days(McAllister,Steelmanetal.1996).Anearlierstudyreportedtheability ofA.diaperinustoharbour Wray1995).Inboththesestudiestheanimalswereinoculatedwiththepathogens, 1 apthostforthepathogen.similarstudyonturkeybroilersalsoindicatedthe possibilityofSalmonellaandEscherichiatransmissionbyA.diaperinus(Harein 1972). Althoughcockroachesaregenerallyseenasvectorsofdisease,ithasbeen cockroaches(Periplanetaamericana(L.),and (L.);Dictyoptera; etal.2007).InĂstudyonP.americanainMorocco,elevenspeciesofpathogenic studiesinFrance(Rivault,Cloarecetal.1993).ForP.americana͕itwasshownthat studyonthepresenceofprotozoaandhelminthsincockroachesindicatesthat summary,itcanbeassumedthatcertainpathogenscanbedistributedbycertain arepresentinedibleinsects,inordertodevelophygienicrearingprotocolsfor methodsinordertoguaranteefoodsafety. Reasonsforentomophagy hasnot froglegshavebeenaccepted(KiuchiandTamaki1990;Illgneretal.2000;Gullan andCranston2005).Foodchoiceisdeterminedbycultural,psychological,and 11 Chapter1 ofnewfooditemsisgreaterforproductsofanimaloriginthanforotherfood lowsocialstatusmightbeanimportantrestraintforWesterners(Nielsen2000).It entomophagy,theyaremoreinclinedtosurmounttheiraversion(Mignon2002;
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