november 2009 . Vol 2 . Issue 11

Combating Terrorism Center at West Point CTC Sentinel Objective . Relevant . Rigorous

Contents Lashkar-i-Tayyiba: FEATURE ARTICLE One Year After 1 Lashkar-i-Tayyiba: By Stephen Tankel One Year After Mumbai By Stephen Tankel

Reports 6 Success of the Meta-Narrative: How Jihadists Maintain Legitimacy By Akil N. Awan 9 AQIM and the Growth of International Investment in North Africa By Geoff D. Porter 12 Hizb Allah’s Domestic Containment and Regional Expansion Strategies By Benedetta Berti 16 Jihadist Radicalization and the 2004 Madrid Bombing Network By Fernando Reinares 19 The Past and Future of Deobandi Islam By Luv Puri 22 Maintaining the Message: How Jihadists Have Adapted to Web Disruptions By Manuel R. Torres Soriano An Indian soldier outside the Taj Mahal Palace & Tower Hotel on November 29, 2008 in Mumbai. - Photo by Uriel Sinai/Getty Images ne year ago, 10 gunmen from This article first examines the nature 24 Recent Highlights in Terrorist Activity Lashkar-i-Tayyiba (LT) laid of LT attacks against India, and then 28 CTC Sentinel Staff & Contacts siege to multiple targets in assesses the threat it poses to Western

India’s financial capital of targets in India and abroad.2 OMumbai over the course of three days. The group’s target selection revealed The Main Enemy: India a desire to strike not only at India, but LT’s leadership remains committed to an also at Western interests in the country. India-first approach.3 Peace with India The coordinated attacks killed 166 is antithetical to the group’s ideology. people, including 28 foreign nationals, It would also make LT irrelevant to among them Americans and a Briton.1 ’s government and military, About the CTC Sentinel While a strong anti-Western element has The Combating Terrorism Center is an always been present in LT’s ideology, the independent educational and research strikes represented the latest evolution 2 This article’s focus is on the form and function of pos- institution based in the Department of Social of a peripheral jihad against Western sible LT terrorist attacks and the different roles the group Sciences at the United States Military Academy, interests. might play in them. Variables that could trigger short-term West Point. The CTC Sentinel harnesses shifts in LT targeting priorities are not addressed, nor is the the Center’s global network of scholars and LT’s peripheral jihad began soon after group’s participation in the Afghan insurgency. This article practitioners to understand and confront September 11, 2001, and has expanded in also does not cover in any depth LT’s increased collabora- contemporary threats posed by terrorism and recent years. India remains the primary tion in Pakistan’s tribal areas with militants attacking the other forms of political violence. target for LT attacks, but the group now Pakistani state. clearly threatens the West as well. 3 Personal interview, member of JuD senior leadership, Lahore, Pakistan, May 8, 2009; Personal interview, high- The views expressed in this report are those of ranking JuD official, Lahore, Pakistan, May 6, 2009; Per- the authors and not of the U.S. Military Academy, the Department of the Army, or any other agency sonal interview, member of LT, Rawalpindi, Pakistan, May of the U.S. Government. 1 “Final Report: Mumbai Terror Attack Cases,” 37th Court, 13, 2009; Personal interview, member of LT, Faisalabad, Mumbai, India, February 25, 2009. Pakistan, May 13, 2009.

1 november 2009 . Vol 2 . Issue 11 which have played a historical role the Indian operatives responsible for Recent history suggests LT is more in supporting the group’s operations. attacks against India in recent years, likely to provide support to local actors Evidence suggests the group is prepared directing some of them while only for bombing attacks and to rely on to support attacks against the West, but supporting others.9 It is therefore more support from local actors for fidayin13 not at the expense of its war against useful to look at the group’s capabilities attacks perpetrated by LT operatives. India. For example, and how it accomplishes them. The former are intended to bleed India (formerly known as Daood Gilani)—one through a consistent campaign of of two Chicago men arrested in October LT began building networks in India coercion, manifested in attacks designed 2009 on suspicion of planning terrorist in the early 1990s to provide logistical to kill as many Indians as possible, attacks against the offices of Jyllands- support for sleeper cells, to recruit Posten in Denmark—trained with LT and Indians for training in urban terrorism “In the short-term, the had worked for the group since at least and to recruit local triggermen who 2006.4 LT willingly coordinated with could conduct attacks on their own.10 more likely threats from Headley on attacking Danish targets, It also constructed transnational LT terrorism to the West but when the opportunity arose to use networks—stretching from neighboring him to prepare new attacks in India, LT Bangladesh and Nepal to the Middle are two-fold: to Western suggested he shift focus to South Asia. East, Europe and the United States—to targets in India where the In other words, the group prioritized support attacks inside India.11 The result staging new attacks in India instead of is that LT is able to bring Pakistani, group may fold them into following through with planned attacks Indian and transnational resources terrorist attacks; and to in the West.5 The , to bear to train and support Indian for example, achieved both objectives: operatives who execute attacks as well Western countries where attacking India while also striking as mine indigenous Indian resources the group may facilitate against Westerners. to support Pakistani operatives who launch attacks in the Indian hinterland, or provide support for Since the 2008 Mumbai attacks, as was the case with the Mumbai attacks terrorist attacks.” militant infiltrations across the Line of in 2008.12 Control into Indian-controlled Kashmir 6 have escalated. According to Indian Contemporary South Asia 16:3 (2008). National Security Adviser Mayankote 9 For example, some of those recruited and trained in whereas the latter are intended to be Kelath Narayanan, however, the real LT’s camps went on to lead the Indian Mujahidin. For higher-profile operations, staged for 7 LT threat is to the Indian hinterland. more, see Praveen Swami, “The Indian Mujahidin and maximum political effect. This threat is two-pronged, coming Lashkar-i-Tayyiba’s Transnational Networks,” CTC Sen- from LT-supported and LT-directed tinel 2:6 (2009). A study by the Indian National Security attacks. It is difficult, however, to make 10 Personal interview, Rahul Bedi, journalist with Jane’s Guard indicated that bombings in a definitive distinction between support Intelligence Review, New , India, January 7, 2009; India increased in frequency and 14 and execution, since it is often unclear Personal interview, Praveen Swami, journalist with The geographic spread after 2003. Attacks when LT was providing direction for Hindu, New Delhi, India, January 8, 2009. were generally directed against soft 8 attacks. The group trained many of 11 Stephen Tankel, Storming the World Stage: The Story of targets such as trains, markets and, Lashkar-e-Taiba (London and New York: Hurst and Co- occasionally, tourist or religious sites. 4 Jyllands-Posten published editorial cartoons depicting lumbia University Press, forthcoming). LT’s involvement is suspected in the Prophet Muhammad. 12 According to Fahim Ansari’s interrogation report, a many of these attacks, primarily as a 5 U.S.A. v. David C. Headley, “Criminal Complaint,” copy of which is in the author’s possession, two Indians, financier, trainer and logistical supplier Northern District of Illinois, 2009. Sabahuddin Ahmed and Fahim Ansari, played a pivotal for Indians who selected the targets and 15 6 Hizbul Mujahidin, another militant group, appears to role in providing reconnaissance for the attacks. LT re- executed the attacks. In contrast, LT be contributing cadres who work closely with LT mili- cruited both of them earlier in the decade and each had tants to infiltrate across the Line of Control. For more, undergone training at LT camps in Pakistan. It is worth cently arrested for plotting attacks in Denmark and India see Praveen Swami, “The Red Hot Line,” Outlook India, noting that Ansari joined the group while living in Dubai, were also involved in providing reconnaissance for the September 4, 2009. and his route from there to an LT training camp in Paki- Mumbai attacks. 7 Siddharth Varadarajan, “ not ‘Litmus Test’ stan involved transit through multiple countries. In an 13 LT’s fidayin attacks involve small numbers of mili- but Pakistan Action Important: NSA,” The Hindu, Au- Indian interrogation report, Ansari admitted he met with tants storming a target using small-arms and grenades. gust 31, 2009. LT commanders in Pakistan approximately a year before The aim is not to be martyred immediately. These battles 8 For example, it is unclear whether LT provided direc- the Mumbai attacks, and they directed him to undertake often last many hours and sometimes more than a day. tion for the 2006 Mumbai railway bombings. It does, reconnaissance. Initially, he was shown Google Earth In some instances the attackers escape, whereas in oth- however, appear to have recruited some of the Indian maps of Mumbai and asked to note important places. In ers they do not. If the attacker dies during the operation, operatives involved in the 2006 Mumbai attacks and subsequent meetings, he was directed to return to Mum- it is because he fought to the death rather than dying by facilitated their transit into Pakistan for training as well bai and was tasked with surveilling a number of targets, his own hand, which LT maintains make these attacks as helping to stitch different Indian modules together including several attacked by LT fidayin in November distinct from suicide bombing operations. for the operations. For more, see Praveen Swami, “New 2008. Ansari is believed to have given a video and a map 14 Nishit Dholabhai, “New Bomber: Indian and Every- Proof on Mumbai Blasts,” The Hindu, August 1, 2006; of targets to Ahmed, who in turn passed the material to where,” Telegraph, February 25, 2008. Praveen Swami, “The Well-Tempered Jihad: The Politics LT commanders in Pakistan. Separately, Indian officials 15 Personal interview, Praveen Swami, journalist with and Practice of Post-2002 Islamist ,” are also investigating whether the two Chicago men re- The Hindu, New Delhi, India, January 8, 2009; Personal

2 november 2009 . Vol 2 . Issue 11 does not “farm out” fidayin attacks to Other LT members insinuate that action Afghanistan-Pakistan border. This local triggermen, but dispatches its own against the United States and its allies lebensraum carries with it a number of highly trained operatives.16 is partly a consequence of perceived benefits, but also serves as a leverage favoritism toward India. For them, point. Due to the risks involved in LT continues to devote significant India remains the primary enemy, prosecuting a major terrorist operation resources to the recruitment and but the United States is the primary in the West, plausible deniability takes support of local actors to strike targets impediment to waging LT’s jihad of on greater importance. International of opportunity within India while choice.20 In either case, the result is that pressure on Pakistan likely would have plotting high-profile fidayin attacks of LT has expanded its target set to include been far greater had LT launched the its own. Six known LT-driven terrorist Westerners. Mumbai attacks in a Western country. plots were foiled between the Mumbai attacks in November 2008 and July The question is not whether LT will be LT appears more risk averse with 2009, according to official Indian involved in attacks against the West, but regard to attacks in the West than in sources.17 The recent arrests of David rather the nature of that involvement. India. Indeed, David Headley expressed Headley and Tahawwur Hussain Rana It is important to distinguish between frustration in his e-mails to another in Chicago appear to have disrupted a operations such as the Mumbai attacks operative about LT’s preoccupation seventh. Among those arrested in India and those in which it plays a smaller with India at the expense of attacks in earlier this year is Abu Taher, an LT or supporting role. LT recruited and Denmark, accusing the group of having explosives expert. He allegedly was trained operatives specifically for the “rotten guts” and being too cautious tasked with establishing a network in when it came to Western targets.21 It India’s northeast and in the districts of is too early to assess whether recent West Bengal that border Bangladesh, “In exchange for retaining reports that LT operatives planned to where LT is increasing its presence.18 a primary focus on attack the U.S. Embassy and Indian The group is also believed to retain High Commission in Dhaka, Bangladesh strong networks in New Delhi, Mumbai, attacking India, being are accurate.22 Yet given the group’s Gujarat, Agra, Hyderabad and Uttar relatively inactive in targeting of Westerners inside India Pradesh. In short, the threat of LT- in the past, it is conceivable that they directed and LT-supported terrorism Pakistan and keeping a would strike Western targets in other against India remains high. historically lower-profile South Asian countries as well.

The Peripheral Jihad: Western Interests in al-Qa`ida’s global jihad, In part, LT’s India-first focus stems While LT’s leadership remains LT has been allowed to from the fact that this cause remains committed to an India-first approach, popular with Pakistan’s military some elements within the group operate more openly than establishment. Unlike other groups increasingly prioritize global jihadist other militant groups.” that flaunt their relationship with al- objectives. One member of the LT’s Qa`ida and the Pakistani Taliban, above-ground wing, Jama`at-ud-Da`wa LT avoids overt involvement even (JuD), admitted a number of cadres are as it collaborates covertly. Although motivated more by defending against Mumbai attacks, chose the targets, and it has provided episodic support for what they see as a “Western war against deployed other operatives to undertake operations in Pakistan to some of these Islam” than by the Kashmiri cause.19 reconnaissance. It was responsible for outfits—mainly in the form of safe every phase of the attack process and haven, reconnaissance and false identity interview, Suba Chandran, deputy director at the In- exerted control over all of the operatives papers—it remains one of the few stitute of Peace and Conflict Studies, New Delhi, India, involved. The group is less likely to groups that has not launched attacks in 23 January 5, 2009. be involved to this degree in an attack the country. In exchange for retaining 16 Sabahuddin Ahmed became the first Indian national to against a Western country and more a primary focus on attacking India, command Pakistani fighters when he led a fidayin attack likely to provide facilitation or support being relatively inactive in Pakistan on the Central Reserve Police Force camp in Rampur, Ut- to other groups or semi-independent and keeping a historically lower-profile tar Pradesh in 2008. By this time, Ahmed had been in- operators within its own networks. in al-Qa`ida’s global jihad, LT has been volved with LT for a number of years, having spent two allowed to operate more openly than periods of time with the group in Pakistan (2002-2003 This does not mean the threat of a other militant groups. and then post-2006). Before his arrest, he also provided purely LT-driven major terrorist attack vital support for the 2008 Mumbai attacks. in a Western country can be ruled out. 17 Kanchan Lakshman, “Cross-Border Terrorism: Paki- Yet LT leaders operate out of Lahore stan’s Complicity Uninterrupted,” Political and Defence and Pakistan-controlled Kashmir, 21 U.S.A. v. David C. Headley. Weekly 7:43 (2009). not from a hidden redoubt along the 22 “Bangladesh Police Arrest Three Pakistani Suspects,” 18 “LeT has Opened New Wing in N-E: Cop,” Times of Dawn, November 13, 2009. India, March 8, 2009; “Police Verifying Reports on LeT’s 20 Personal interview, member of JuD senior leader- 23 Personal interview, senior official in Pakistan’s secu- New Wing,” The Hindu, March 9, 2009; “Blast ‘Expert’ ship, Lahore, Pakistan, May 8, 2009; Personal inter- rity services, Pakistan, May 2009; Personal interview, on Hire Drive,” Telegraph-Calcutta, March 9, 2009. view, high-ranking JuD official, Lahore, Pakistan, May member of Pakistan’s anti-terrorism force, Pakistan, 19 Personal interview, high-ranking JuD official, Lahore, 6, 2009; Personal interview, member of LT, Faisalabad, May 2009; Personal interview, senior Western diplo- Pakistan, May 6, 2009. Pakistan, May 13, 2009. mat, Islamabad, Pakistan, May 16, 2009.

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The Pakistani security services have terrorist attack in the Indian hinterland, Pakistan’s government or military since cracked down on LT to different degrees but not the first time an LT-trained the group continues to operate. This does at different times, but as a means of operative attempted to do so. For not mean every attack inside India will controlling the group and not dismantling example, Riyazuddin Nasir (also known target Western interests, but the threat it. The degree to which such control still as Mohammed Ghouse), a resident of of such attacks must now be included exists is hotly debated, but it is fair to Hyderabad, trained with the LT for 12- within its wider targeting options. say LT is neither completely under state 18 months between October 2005 and Furthermore, the recently disrupted control nor has it totally slipped the July 2007.25 Although he later broke plot in Bangladesh and the group’s state’s reins. It will push the envelope contact with the group, Nasir claims presence in Afghanistan suggests this to the degree possible, but appears to that during his training he spoke with threat is regional.28 be more risk averse than other jihadist LT’s Operational Commander Zaki- organizations in the country. This could ur Rehman Lakhvi about setting off The Threat to Western Countries change if LT’s leadership believes it is a series of bombs targeting American Whereas LT is likely to be the lead agent being pushed too far and has nothing and Israeli tourists on Goa’s crowded in attacks that include foreign interests left to lose. Alternatively, if the group beaches over the Christmas-New Year in the Indian hinterland, the greatest believes it will suffer no consequences period in 2007. Police arrested Nasir in threat it poses to Western countries for its actions, this too could lead it the process of preparing the attacks.26 comes from the support it can provide to plot a terrorist attack in a Western to other actors both within Pakistan country and dedicate the necessary According to the confession of and internationally. resources for such an operation. Mohammed Ajmal Mohammed Amir Kasab, the lone surviving Mumbai LT’s training infrastructure receives The capabilities exist for it to do so. LT gunman, the fidayin were told that India’s more scrutiny than in the past, but has constructed transnational networks financial strength was in Mumbai, the group still operates more freely that enable reconnaissance as well as which was also a tourist destination. than other militant outfits in Pakistan. logistical and financial facilitation. Hence it was imperative to target places This makes it an appealing destination It also clearly has foreign operatives frequented by foreigners to hurt India for Western militants. A number prepared to undertake attacks in the economically. In the same confession, of foreigners known to have passed West, as well as the capability to recruit Kasab asserted that they were also told through LT’s camps received religious and train more fighters.24 Currently, American, British and Israeli citizens indoctrination and guerrilla warfare LT may consider these operatives must pay for the Muslim suffering training, rather than instruction in more valuable for the fundraising and caused by their countries.27 urban terrorism; however, Western logistical support they provide. This officials in Pakistan believe that there calculus could change, however. It is unclear at this time whether any have been instances when LT did provide elements within the or ISI such instruction.29 They also emphasize Short-Term Threats to Western Interests were involved in planning the Mumbai that LT trainers, similar to those from Despite these capabilities, in the short- attacks and if so whether they were other groups, sometimes provide their term the more likely threats from LT aware that LT was including Westerners expertise (mainly bomb-making) to terrorism to the West are two-fold: in the target set. No definitive evidence potential terrorists for money.30 to Western targets in India where the has come to light suggesting such group may fold them into terrorist involvement. The attacks, however, Western security officials continue attacks; and to Western countries where clearly did not constitute a red line for to worry that LT serves as a gateway the group may facilitate or provide to al-Qa`ida or other actors actively support for terrorist attacks. 25 K. Srinivas Redd, “Islamist Terrorists Planned Blasts seeking so-called “clean skins” from in Goa,” The Hindu, February 2, 2008; T.A. Johnson, the West to train for terrorist attacks The Threat to Western Targets in India “Muzammil, Lakhvi: Same Names, ISI Links in IISc At- The 2008 Mumbai attacks represent the tack Probe,” Indian Express, December 8, 2008. 28 “Bangladesh Police Arrest Three Pakistani Sus- first instance in which LT successfully 26 By the time of his arrest, Nasir was scared that LT pects.” included Westerners and Jews in a had assassinated a fellow operative in Karachi and 29 For example, Omar Khyam, who spearheaded the fer- might come after him. He broke contact with the group, tilizer bomb plot in the United Kingdom, and Dhiren Bar- 24 In 2003, LT dispatched a Frenchman named Willie but carried ahead with the attack. Local police in Kar- ot, who became an international operative for al-Qa`ida, Brigitte, who trained in its camps, to Australia to assist nataka arrested Nasir and an accomplice while stealing both trained with the group. David Headley (formerly local actors in attacking a number of targets. Brigitte lat- motorcycles, which they planned to use as the delivery known as Daood Gilani), who was arrested in October er claimed there was an LT cell based in Sydney formed mechanism for improvised explosive devices. Believing 2009 for planning terrorist attacks in Denmark, also ap- around Fahim Khalid Lodhi, who is also suspected of them to be part of a motorcyle-theft ring, local authorities pears to have entered the world of Pakistani militancy training with the group. Lodhi met Brigitte upon his ar- were about to release Nasir on bail when a member of In- through the doors of an LT training camp. rival and remained in contact with him until his arrest dian counterintelligence happened to see his name on the 30 Personal interview, Western diplomat, Pakistan, and deportation to France. Lodhi was arrested as well bail list while meeting a friend from the court for coffee. December 29, 2009. Regarding LT’s willingness to train and later convicted of plotting to blow up the Sydney Personal interview, Praveen Swami, journalist with The Westerners, also see Josh Meyer, “Extremist Group electricity grid. See Liz Jackson, “Program Transcript: Hindu, via phone, June 29, 2009. Works in the Open in Pakistan,” Los Angeles Times, De- Willie Brigitte,” Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 27 Transcript of confession by Mohammed Ajmal Mo- cember 18, 2007. Regarding the practice of hiring a train- February 9, 2004; Fahim Khalid Lodhi v. Regina, New hammed Amir Kasab before an Indian Magistrate, Feb- er, see Peter Bergen, “Al Qaeda-on-Thames: UK Plotters South Wales Court of Criminal Appeal, 2007. ruary 20-21, 2009, author in possession of hard copy. Connected,” Washington Post, April 30, 2007.

4 november 2009 . Vol 2 . Issue 11 back home.31 British Pakistanis remain while others were formed through of David Headley is illustrative of this particularly well placed to use what has recruitment or the provision of training phenomenon. Through an individual been termed the “Kashmir Escalator” in to foreigners. The result is that LT has associated with LT and Harkat-ul-Jihad- which they employ familial connections operatives in the Middle East, the United al-Islam (HuJI), Headley came in contact in Pakistan-controlled Kashmir to Kingdom, North America, Europe and with Ilyas Kashmiri, a HuJI leader connect with LT or Jaysh-i-Muhammad. possibly Australia, who could be used notoriously close to al-Qa`ida. When After procuring initial training, some of to facilitate attacks in the West. LT suggested prioritizing an attack these men are introduced to al-Qa`ida against India, Headley simply began operatives.32 In 2009, British security Circumstantial evidence suggests working more closely with Kashmiri to officials estimated that approximately LT provided logistical and possibly launch the attacks in Denmark against 4,000 people were trained in this way financial support via its networks in LT’s wishes.40 since 9/11 and accounted for three Paris to Richard Reid, the al-Qa`ida- quarters of the serious terrorist plots directed “shoebomber” who attempted Conclusion faced by the United Kingdom.33 to blow up American Airlines Flight Since LT’s infrastructure is #63 in 2001.36 LT operatives are also transnational, eradicating its presence While LT has maintained some distance suspected of providing some of the on Pakistani soil will not nullify the from the nexus of militant outfits financing for the plot to blow up 12 threat entirely and must be done in a waging war against the Pakistani state transatlantic airplanes using liquid way that avoids unleashing additional from the North-West Frontier Province explosives in 2006 as well as facilitating master-less militants on the region. This and the Federally Administered Tribal access for some of the alleged bombers is a cautionary note, however, and not an Areas, its collaboration with those to Jundallah,37 the group that brought excuse to avoid dismantling the group’s actors has increased in recent years. them to FATA for training.38 More military infrastructure. Unfortunately, Much of the cooperation focuses around recently, LT has increased its activity there is little hope Pakistan will do recruiting, training and infiltrating in Bangladesh, and there is concern its so in the near-term since the group militants into eastern Afghanistan to networks there could be used to move remains a potential asset to the state. fight against coalition forces, but LT terrorists out of and into Europe.39 LT has historically been Pakistan’s has also provided safe houses and other most reliable proxy against India and support within Pakistan. LT’s members Nodes within LT networks often have elements within the military clearly are not portable to the same degree multiple alliances, or at least connections wish to maintain this capability. as militants from other outfits, but to other groups. The overlapping nature connections do exist with other groups of these networks—inside and outside The result is that one year after Mumbai, at all organizational levels, which enable of Pakistan—enables LT to threaten the group remains intact. As long as LT’s foreign operatives and trainees the West, but LT is unable to enforce the LT’s military apparatus exists, so access to these groups. definitive control over the breadth of its too does the threat that it will be used networks. Once again, the recent case again. Internationally, LT’s transnational networks make it an ideal global 36 The LT operatives who are believed to have provided Stephen Tankel is an Associate Fellow at jihadist facilitator. LT operatives have this assistance were associated with the mosque of the the International Centre for the Study of been recruiting and fundraising in the Chemin Droit Association, which is the “representative Radicalization and Political Violence Middle East and the United Kingdom of the Jamiat al Hadith political party” in Paris, and were (ICSR) and a Ph.D. Candidate in War 34 since the 1990s. It expanded these linked to channels for sending volunteers from France Studies at King’s College London. His operations into Europe more recently, to training camps in Pakistan. This information is based Ph.D. research focuses on the evolution and has ties to the United States as on “Person’s Prosecuted: Ghulam Mustafa Ram, Hassan of jihadist groups at the strategic and 35 well. Some of its connections exist el Cheguar, Hakim Mokhfi, Kamel Lakhram,” a docu- operational levels. He is also the author of through Ahl-e-Hadith mosques as well ment from the Magistrate’s Court of Paris that is in the Storming the World Stage: The Story of as the expatriate Pakistani community, author’s possession. Lashkar-e-Taiba, which will be published 37 This refers to a Pakistani jihadist group that previ- early next year. 31 Personal interview, Western diplomat, Pakistan, De- ously fought in Indian-controlled Kashmir and is now cember 29, 2009; Personal interview, senior Western close to al-Qa`ida. It should not be confused with the diplomat, Islamabad, Pakistan, May 16, 2009; Personal People’s Resistance Movement of Iran (PRMI), which is interview, member of Special Branch at New Scotland also known as Jundallah, and claims to fight on behalf of Yard, date and location withheld upon request. Sunni Muslims in Iran from its base in Pakistan’s Bal- 32 Personal interview, Western diplomat, Pakistan, De- uchistan Province. cember 20, 2008. 38 Praveen Swami, “Evidence Mounts of Pakistan 33 In this case, Lashkar-i-Jhangvi was mentioned as the Links,” The Hindu, August 12, 2006; Dexter Filkins and other group of primary concern, although British offi- Souad Mekhennet, “Pakistani Charity Under Scrutiny In cials were also worried about Harkat-ul-Mujahidin and Financing of Airline Bomb Plot,” New York Times, August Jaysh-i-Muhammad. See Jeremy Page, “How Pakistan 13, 2006; “UK Police Probe Terror Money Trail: Investi- Can Help to Stop Terrorist Camps Training Britons,” gators Believe Alleged Plot Tied to Asian Quake Relief,” Times of London, March 25, 2009. CNN, August 16, 2006. 34 Tankel. 39 Personal interview, senior Western diplomat, Islam- 35 Ibid. abad, Pakistan, May 16, 2009. 40 U.S.A. v. David C. Headley.

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