Skeletal Biology of Belle Glade Mound (8Pb41)

DEFINING POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BELLE GLADE

CULTURE: SKELETAL BIOLOGY OF BELLE GLADE MOUND (8PB41)

Catherine Smith

A Thesis Submitted to the Faculty of

The Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

Master of Arts

Florida Atlantic University

Boca Raton, FL

August 2015

DEFINING POPULATION CHARACTERISTICSiii OF THE BELLE GLA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am still amazed at the overwhelming amount of support and guidance bestowed on me as a newcomer to the field. First and foremost, this project would not made it to fruition without an advisor, Dr. Clifford T. Brown, who cared enough to invite me into the program, talk me into this project as a career builder, support every ambitious effort to present the findings in both academic and public arenas, and painstakingly provide comprehensive edits to keep the work honest. Dr. Brown is intimidatingly brilliant, yet humble enough to invest in me in a very patient manner. I appreciate how Dr. Douglas

Broadfield invested hours in providing individualized osteological training—and answering hundreds of random and panicky questions with a smile and chuckle. There are no words to properly express my gratitude and appreciation for my mentor and third committee member, Christian Davenport, Palm Beach County Archaeologist, for constantly believing in me more than I ever believed in myself. His habit of “throwing me under the bus” with opportunities I hardly felt ready for resulted in building a network, reputation, and CV beyond my imagination. Warner Hutchinson, and his gilded touch on writing, spent more hours than he should have had to making my words sound like I wanted them to instead of their reality. Dr. Michelle Williams, Southeast Director of Florida Public Archaeology Network, enabled my internship to be research focused at the LEW Museum and so improving the broader understandings presented in the text.

Traveling to the Smithsonian Institution as a visiting researcher was one of the biggest honors I’ve ever been blessed with. The support in time, equipment, and

unspeakable amounts of knowledge so graciously shared by the staff of the Physical

Anthropology and Repatriation Departments was unexpected. I am particularly thankful for Dr. David Hunt for granting access to the collection and other resources, really going above and beyond in enabling my research even after my designated time came to an end.

Dr. Erika Jones graciously shared her own documentation and efforts made in inventorying and analyzing the collection—and for the detour with cabinet keys that was an unexpected boon. Dr. Christopher Dudar always provided immediate responses and support regarding Osteoware and the accompanying manual while in progress and even made introductions to others encountering the issues with fragmentary remains.

In addition to academic experts, the support of the Lawrence E. Will Museum, particularly Steve Weeks, Warner Hutchinson, and the other board members, allowed me to spend hours with both archaeological and archival material from Belle Glade Mound, giving me a platform to present from, linking me with local experts in the community, and finding resources and financial support for the research. The Stein family, especially

Stewart Stein, have been very supportive property owners and have endured countless questions and enthusiastic reports as well as granting access to the site. Other community support came from many organizations and individuals including the Southeast Florida

Archaeological Society, the Kissimmee River Valley Historical Society, and the Glades

Historical Society. Special thanks is given to the Belle Glade Rotary Club and Curtis

Thompson who funded a substantial portion of the travel expenses to the Smithsonian.

And last but far from least, I could never have achieved this without my archaeological

Fairy Godmother, Joanne Talley. Joanne voluntarily supported in a number of ways,

including finding a larger library of references than I could get through to include here—I will never catch up to her nose for research.

ABSTRACT

Author: Catherine Smith

Title: Defining Population Characteristics of the Belle Glade Culture: Skeletal Biology of Belle Glade Mound (8PB41)

Institution: Florida Atlantic University

Thesis Advisor: Dr. Clifford T. Brown

Degree: Master of Arts

Year: 2015

The prehistoric Belle Glade Culture, dwelling around Lake Okeechobee in interior

Florida, is one of the most understudied cultures in North America. The purpose of this study is to define population characteristics about this culture through skeletal analysis of the collected remains from the type site for the culture, Belle Glade Mound (8PB41). To address the confounding factors of fragmentation and commingling, recently developed methods, statistical analyses, and specially designed software for such analyses of confounded collections were used in undertaking this study. A biological profile was developed that includes age-at-death estimations, sex estimations, stature estimations, and ancestral estimations in order to create a paleodemographic summary that more adequately describes this unknown population.

vii

DEFINING POPULATION CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BELLE GLADE

CULTURE: SKELETAL BIOLOGY OF BELLE GLADE MOUND (80PB41)

LIST OF TABLES ...... xi

LIST OF FIGURES ...... xii

INTRODUCTION ...... 1

Purpose of Study ...... 2

Interpretive Value of Skeletal Analysis ...... 2

BACKGROUND ...... 5

Belle Glade Chronology ...... 5

Regional Context ...... 14

Previous Site Investigations ...... 16

1933–1934 Excavation by the Civil Works Administration ...... 16

1975 Excavation by Florida Atlantic University ...... 17

1977 Excavation by Palm Beach County and Broward County Archaeological

Societies...... 18

Previous Skeletal Studies ...... 19

METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH ...... 21

Osteometric Analysis ...... 22

viii

Sampling ...... 23

BIOLOGICAL PROFILE ...... 26

Age Estimation...... 26

Methods...... 27

Findings...... 29

Summary and Discussion of Age Estimation ...... 35

Sex Estimation ...... 37

Methods...... 38

Findings...... 38

Summary and Discussion of Sex Estimation ...... 41

Stature Estimation ...... 42

Methods...... 42

Findings...... 43

Summary and Discussion of Stature Estimation ...... 45

Ancestral Estimation ...... 46

Analysis of Macromorphoscopic Traits ...... 46

Methods...... 46

Findings...... 47

Assessment of Other Nonmetric Traits ...... 48

Supernumerary teeth ...... 48

Enamel pearls ...... 49

Dental crowding ...... 49

Other dental traits ...... 49

Summary and Discussion of Ancestral Estimation ...... 49

Paleopathology ...... 50

Deep Vascular Impressions...... 50

Dental Malocclusion ...... 52

Age/activity-related Bone Degeneration ...... 53

Missing Pathologies ...... 54

Summary and Discussion of Paleopathology ...... 54

PALEODEMOGRAPHIC SUMMARY/DISCUSSION ...... 55

REFERENCES ...... 59

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Belle Glade Chronology by Sears (1982)...... 9

Table 2. Radiocarbon dates from Belle Glade Culture-associated sites...... 11

Table 3. Age-at-death estimations for a sample of the 1933–1934 investigation...... 30

Table 4. Distribution of age categories by stratigraphic context...... 32

Table 5. Age-at-death estimations for the 1977 investigation...... 34

Table 6. Age-at-death estimation combined for 1933–1934 investigations...... 36

Table 7. Frequency distribution of age estimation by sex estimation...... 39

Table 8. Adult sex estimation from the 1933–1934 and 1977 investigations...... 41

Table 9. Formulas used for stature estimation (Bass 1994)...... 43

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Map depicting the location of the Belle Glade Mound site (star) and the

associated cultural region (area delineated by the oval line)...... 6

Figure 2. Map depicting the Belle Glade Culture sites along the former Democrat River

that are associated with the Belle Glade Mount site. The former river is now filled in

and used for housing, commerce, and agriculture...... 7

Figure 3. Profile and plan view of Belle Glade Mound from CWA excavation 1933–

1934, as included by Willey 1934...... 17

Figure 4. Age-at-death estimation for a sample of the 1933–1934 investigation...... 30

Figure 5. Comparison of percentages for age distribution between the sand burial layers. .. 32

Figure 6. Comparative line chart for distribution of age estimates between strata...... 33

Figure 7. Age-at-death estimation of the 1977 investigation...... 35

Figure 8. Age-at-death estimation for the combined 1933–1934 and 1977 investigations. .. 36

Figure 9. Distribution of age estimation across samples and strata...... 37

Figure 10. Comparing the percentage of males to females by age...... 40

Figure 11. Sex estimation for samples from the 1933–1934 and 1977 investigations...... 41

Figure 12. Histogram of male (blue) and female (red) stature estimations (in cm) with

normal curve applied...... 44

Figure 13. Box plots of the ranges of stature estimation (in cm) for males and females...... 45

Figure 14. Supernumerary tooth from Florida Atlantic University collection.

Photograph by author...... 48

xii

Figure 15. Femoral vascular impressions from the Lawrence E. Will Museum collection

archives. Photograph by author...... 51

Figure 16. Femoral vascular impressions from the Lawrence E. Will Museum collection

archives. Photograph by author...... 51

Figure 17. Malocclusion and alveolar resorption from the Smithsonian Institution

collection. Photograph by author...... 52

Figure 18. Ossified fracture of a humerus from the Smithsonian Institution collection.

Photograph by author...... 53

Figure 19. Arthritic tipping and osteoporosis of lumbar and thoracic vertebrae from the

Smithsonian Institution collection. Photograph by author...... 53

xiii

INTRODUCTION

In 2011, I provided consulting services regarding collections held at the Lawrence

E. Will Museum in Belle Glade, Florida . . . and encountered human remains. In pursuit of compliance with the Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act of 1990

(NAGPRA), I provided a skeletal inventory and analysis to the museum and the Florida

Division of Historic Resources for four different skeletal assemblages. One of those assemblages originated from the 1977 excavation of Belle Glade Mound (8PB41), type site for the little-known Belle Glade Culture. While analyzing this 1977 material, I became aware of the other institutions that also held skeletal assemblages from previous excavations of Belle Glade Mound (8PB41). Even in spite of holdings by multiple institutions, there was little published data regarding these collections. The existence of mostly ignored skeletal collections held in several institutions from a type site for a relatively unknown culture is an open invitation for study—especially in light of the advance of methods and technology developed in the years since they were collected that promises to yield new insights into this enigmatic culture.

The Belle Glade Culture is one of the most understudied prehistoric cultures of

North America. Yet, archaeological evidence suggests it had a significant role in

Florida’s prehistory. Skeletal analysis of the remains from the burial mound (8PB41) provides information not known previously about population characteristics specific to this site. Fragmentary and commingled remains have been a confounding factor in past research efforts. Logistical and statistical complications can result when osteometric data

and regression formulas are used to estimate population demographics. Poor, and even lost, documentation has also thwarted research efforts. In order to address these confounding factors, I applied recently developed skeletal measurements and new software that has been designed to improve the quantity and quality of information gleaned from fragmentary and commingled remains. Skeletal assemblages from three different excavations of Belle Glade Mound (1933–1934, 1975, and 1977) were included my research, with permissions from the three institutions housing them: the Smithsonian

Institution National Museum of Natural History, Florida Atlantic University, and the

Lawrence E. Will Museum. The information gathered from these skeletal collections has provided data about a little-known population.

Purpose of Study

The purpose of the study is to define population characteristics of the inhabitants of the Belle Glade site (8PB41) through skeletal analysis and to create baseline datasets for future comparative studies.

Interpretive Value of Skeletal Analysis

As Larsen posited, the best way to learn about a group of people is from the people themselves (Buikstra 1981). The first studies in anthropological osteology focused on the measurement of cranial and postcranial elements, followed by age and sex estimations for identification purposes. Transferring those methods to archaeological contexts, the concept of defining and describing culture from osteology has since expanded exponentially. This trend has continued as methods and comparative tables and formulas have developed to infer ancient health and disease, diet and nutrition, social status, pre- and post-mortem traumas, and other characteristics. Current researchers have

introduced several new ways of investigating and retrieving cultural and demographic information from osteological analysis.

The Biocultural Perspective introduced by Armelagos presents a theoretical model in which culture can be deemed to have influenced and even modified human biology. In bioarchaeology, the biocultural view holds that technology, social stratification, and belief systems can create biological events that are identifiable by means of osteological analysis (Armelagos and Van Gerven 2003:58). Examples include stress markers for activity, subsistence patterns, health/disease, and trauma. More specifically, it becomes possible to reconstruct with a degree of confidence the population demographics and other cultural aspects from skeletal analysis. “Human skeletons represent answers, and the goal of osteology is to frame the questions. There are important questions that ancient skeletons will not answer, and there are unimportant questions that they will.” (Armelagos and Van Gerven 2003:53). This study is an effort to begin the process of interpreting the population characteristics of the understudied Belle

Glade Culture by this theoretical premise.

Conversely, the Osteological Paradox (Wood, et al. 1992) presents a cautionary warning to osteoarchaeologists regarding the extent to which their interpretations mirror a formerly living population. The paradox is that interpretations are made for the living population from a sample that is clearly biased by death. Three major issues arise when drawing conclusions from skeletal data including demographic nonstationarity, selective mortality, and differential frailty (Wood et al. 1992; DiGangi and Moore, eds. 2013).

Demographic nonstationarity involves the fluidity of population size over time that contrasts the seeming “still life snapshot” found in burial contexts. To this end,

differential age-at-death distributions may be more representative of fertility than mortality. Selective mortality is a reminder that individual responses to disease may vary.

The weak may die before the disease affects the bone, whereas those evidencing pathology may be the healthier individuals who survived long enough for markers to appear. Finally, differential frailty refers to the inexplicable reality that individuals with the same disease will respond differently—some die and some do not—regardless of general health (DiGangi and Moore, eds. 2013:12). Although the paradox correctly notes that the biased sample explains more about how the population died than how they lived, the universality of death for a prehistoric population can also be assumed. Therefore, a sample skeletal assemblage can still provide valuable insights regarding populations across time and space. In this study, the Osteological Paradox does not devalue the data- driven conclusions drawn, but rather it places another layer of context to the results presented.

BACKGROUND

The Belle Glade Culture Area encompasses a large portion of central and south

Florida, including the Kissimmee River Valley and the Lake Okeechobee Basin, although researchers differ in their exact delineation of the boundary (Figures 1 and 2). The recent

2007–2009 excavation of Lake Okeechobee revealed artifacts made from exotic materials, signifying a previously unsuspected extensive trade network (Mount 2009).

There is comparatively little historical information regarding the Belle Glade people written by European explorers, since most of their journals and letters described coastal rather than interior cultural people and practices. Artifacts made from European materials, some of which bear Belle Glade motifs, are found in major Belle Glade sites, but, lacking substantive historic information, our understanding of the Belle Glade

Culture depends upon archaeological findings. Despite the indications of an individually unique and advanced culture, surprisingly few major studies have been completed regarding them.

Belle Glade Chronology

The original chronology for South Florida was developed by Goggin (1947) based on information from Willey. This chronology known as Glades included the Calusa and

Tequesta as well as the Belle Glade people based on similarities in environment and artifact assemblages. This was also based on some initial connections made between the

Belle Glade Site and Key Marco (Stirling 1935, Willey 1949). However, the recognition of Belle Glade Plain by William Sears (1982) as a distinctive cultural marker of the Belle

Glade people resulted in a divergent chronology and interpretation for the Belle Glade

Culture than initially posited by Willey and Goggin in 1949.

Figure 1. Map depicting the location of the Belle Glade Mound site (star) and the associated cultural region (area delineated by the oval line).

Figure 2. Map depicting the Belle Glade Culture sites along the former Democrat River that are associated with the Belle Glade Mount site. The former river is now filled in and used for housing, commerce, and agriculture.

The Belle Glade chronology (Table 1) as developed by Sears (1982) is based on his evaluation of ceramic seriation, earthwork and artifact assemblages, and carbon dates from Fort Center. Sears posited four periods for the Belle Glade Culture. The first period,

Belle Glade I: 1000/800 B.C.–A.D. 200, is distinguishable by the large circular-ditch

sites and interment in mounds. Similar circular ditches have been identified within

Hopwellian sites of the Southeastern United States (Sears 1982:192-194). In the second period, Belle Glade II: A.D. 200–A.D. 600/800, charnel ponds and ceremonial centers appear, and there is dual usage of the mounds for habitation and ceremonial/mortuary purposes (Sears 1982:194). Sears (1982:187,197) interprets the change in mortuary practice as an increase in social and religious complexity and the rise of a priestly class— who carried out ceremonial functions and were buried as a separate class in the charnel pond. His interpretations likely reflect the vacant ceremonial complex interpretations that were dominant at the time of publication. Sears (1982:197) asserted an association between the charnel pond and presumed ceremonial/mortuary practices with the burials found within the muck layer of Belle Glade Mound.

The third period, Belle Glade III: A.D. 600/800–A.D. 1200/1400, evidenced very little change from the second period. The final period, Belle Glade IV: A.D. 1200/1400–

A.D. 1700, is identified by the development of complex linear earthworks, which Sears

(1982) and Widmer (1988) associate with the coastal Calusa Empire as opposed to the interior Belle Glade Culture. Sears (1982:200) argues that these linear earthworks are adaptations of South American terraces used there—and by extension here in Florida—in the cultivation of maize. Despite the assertions of cultural change and the evidence of monumental earthworks and extensive hydrological engineering, Sears presents an unrealistically small population size surviving on daily marine subsistence throughout the chronology.

Table 1. Belle Glade Chronology by Sears (1982). Population Period Date Range Characteristics of the Period Size

Large, circular ditch earthworks (d=300–

1000/800 B.C.– 1200ft.) Belle Glade 1 1–2 families A.D. 200 Semi-fiber-tempered pottery

Interment in burial mounds

Trade wares from St. John’s and Crystal

River

A.D. 200– Sand Tempered and Belle Glade Plain Belle Glade 2 3–6 families 600/800 Pottery

Interment in charnel ponds and burial

mounds

Small groups A.D. 600/800– Very little change Belle Glade 3 of single 1200/1400 Belle Glade Plain, St. John’s wares families

Small groups Large linear earthworks A.D. 1200/ Belle Glade 4 of single European historic materials encountered 1400–1700 families Interment in burial mounds

However, there are issues with the Sears’ chronology and interpretation; some researchers have raised their concerns. Sears supported a strong focus on agriculture during this period based on maize pollen he encountered at Fort Center, but other studies have since contradicted this conclusion (Johnson 1996; Thompson and Pluckhahn 2011).

Johnson (1996) presents some issues with Sears’ chronology related to his bias toward

agricultural production, particularly maize. There is a noteworthy discrepancy between the small size of population characteristics described by Sears and the labor force that would be required to construct the extensive circular and linear earthworks and hydrological engineering achievements found throughout the region. Milanich (1994) states that the Belle Glade Culture would have to have had sufficient military and/or economic clout to have acquired the nonlocal goods encountered at associated sites.

Therefore, the description provided by Sears of scattered fishing villages of a few families continuously across the duration of cultural existence is glaringly inconsistent with archaeological evidence and should be reconsidered.

Several radiocarbon dates have been obtained from Belle Glade sites, including the type site of Belle Glade Mound (Table 2). These dates suggest a very late temporal range for the Belle Glade Culture. However, there are some hints at an earlier occupation at some of the Belle Glade sites. Sears (1982) mentioned evidence of an earlier occupation than ceramic seriation he accounted for. He also noted a few instances where structures such as the Fort Center Great Circle likely predated the dates obtained. Carr and Steele (1994) dated the earthworks at Tony’s Mound and Hilliard Brother’s Mound as A.D. 1000–1600, based on the preponderance of Belle Glade Plain with respect to the

Sear’s chronology. However, they also found evidence of an earlier occupation of Tony’s

Mound, predating the radiating earthwork there that remains uninvestigated (Carr and

Steele 1994). Thompson and Pluckhahn (2011) identified earlier dates than Sears at Fort

Center. The surface layer only of Belle Glade Mound was carbon dated. Carbon dating the basal layer would improve understanding of initial occupation and usage—especially given the unique context of both muck and sand layers within the same mound. More

investigation is needed to better establish a more functional chronology for the Belle

Glade Culture.

Table 2. Radiocarbon dates from Belle Glade Culture-associated sites.

Associated Radiocarbon Date Range

Site Feature Age (BP) (cal. B.C./A.D.) Reference

Belle Glade Top sand layer of Stojanowski and Mound burial mound 920 ± 40 A.D. 1090 ± 40 Johnson, 2011 (8PB41)

Carbon Residue Blueberry 370 ± 40 A.D. 1640 ± 40 Butler 2013 on sherd

Stojanowski and 410 ± 40 A.D. 1600 ± 40 Boynton Johnson, 2011 Burial mound Mounds 2140 ± 60 150 B.C. ± 60 Isçan and Kessel,

1590 ± 60 A.D. 400 ± 60 1988

Table 2 . Con’t.

Associated Radiocarbon Date Range

Site Feature Age (BP) (cal. B.C./A.D.) Reference

Surface of low

platform mound 1680 ± 115 A.D. 305 ±115

under Mound B

Mound A 1680 ± 110 A.D. 304±110

Mound B fill 1720 ± 100 A.D. 260±100

Midden B 1800 ± 100 A.D. 180±100

Circle junctions 1530 ± 105 450 B.C.±105 Sears, 1982 near river

Midden on base of

charnel pond—not 1900 ± 100 A.D. 80±100

properly cleaned Fort Center Mound 3, 0-6” 300 ± 75 A.D.1680±75

Mound 3, 6-12” 1350 ± 85 A.D. 635±85 —sampling error

Charnel Pond 1450 ± 50 A.D. 540-650

Mound associated 1660 ± 40 A.D. 340-540 with charnel house Thompson and Midden A Lvl 2 A.D. 1160– 830 ± 40 1280 Pluckhahn, 2012 Midden A Lvl 3 A.D. 1420– 440 ± 40 1500 800–720 B.C., Mound B 2530 ± 40 700–540 B.C.

Table 2. Con’t.

Site Associated Radiocarbon Date Range Reference

Feature Age (BP) (cal. B.C./A.D.)

Midden B 1690 ± 40 A.D. 250–430

Midden B 1920 ± 40 A.D. 10–210

Mound 3 1220 ± 40 A.D. 680–890

Midden outside of

Great Circle Lvl 1820 ± 40 A.D. 120–330

Midden outside of 750–690 B.C.,

Great Circle Lvl 2430 ± 40 660–640 B.C., Fort Center (con’t.) 16 590–400 B.C.

Midden outside of 750–690 B.C.,

Great Circle Lvl 2380 ± 40 660–640 B.C.,

18 550–390 B.C.

Great Circle Lvl 760–680 B.C., 2430 ± 40 19 670–400 B.C.

Great Circle Lvl 1530 ± 40 A.D. 420–610 18

Stojanowski and Horr’s Island 510 ± 40 A.D. 1500 ± 40 Johnson, 2011

Regional Context

Most of the archaeology of the Belle Glade Culture region was conducted in the

1920s and 1930s, the earliest phases of Florida archaeology. The Civil Works

Administration (CWA) conducted excavations throughout the state in order to survey and excavate sites for prospective development. The type site for the Belle Glade Culture and the subject of this study was excavated during this time as the focus then was on earthworks and burial mounds. Some literature was generated at the time regarding this culture, but only Willey (1949) and Goggin (1940; 1947; 1949) spoke at length regarding the culture and its related sites. At the Belle Glade site CWA, an early depression-era work program, provided the labor; the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History

(NMNH), the technical supervision. Most CWA excavations were executed at such a accelerated pace that many of these investigations did not result in comprehensive reports; nor did all artifacts and skeletal remains reach their intended NMNH destination.

This early loss is a profound factor in the lack of available information regarding this first investigation of then newly designated Belle Glade Culture and in the consequent paucity of engagement by investigators in the culture for several decades.

A few studies were conducted on some of the earthworks and other sites in the

1970s and 1980s. Yet, the lack of sustained involvement from academic institutions limited the rigor with which these findings were analyzed and published. Academic investment so far has centered on Fort Center, a well-known site with complex earthworks and a charnel pond (Sears 1982; Thompson and Plukhahn 2012). This level of focused interest has not, until recently, extended to other sites. The wealth of artifacts and the significance of the finds from the Boyer Survey of Lake Okeechobee from 2007-2009

(Davenport, et al. 2012) prompted a renewed interest in the Belle Glade Culture and its pivotal role in prehistoric Florida. In the course of that survey as well as during the years since, several new sites related to the Belle Glade Culture have been identified—but not investigated—on state and private lands near Lake Okeechobee. Despite the large geographic extent and site distribution of the culture throughout the Okeechobee watershed region (Figure 1), no contemporary major studies that employ contemporary techniques and procedures have been conducted on any newly identified or most well- known Belle Glade Culture sites.

Past excavations have revealed different burial patterns within and across Belle

Glade sites. Stirling (1935), Willey (1949), and Goggin (1949) all proposed that the burials of Belle Glade Mound were extended burials that were disturbed by a continual procession of later interments. However, several of the burial mounds encountered in association with the linear earthworks contain bundle burials (Sears 1982; Isçan and

Kessel, 1988). Whereas Stirling (1934), Willey (1949), and Goggin (1949) assumed interments occurred over periods of time related to occupational periods, Sears hypothesized a different type of temporal consideration. Sears (1982) proposed that remains from Fort Center, a Belle Glade-associated site, were exhumed from the charnel pond and reinterred as secondary burials in a burial mound, possibly in response to some sort of cultural or religious change. Widmer (1988) suggests that there was a cultural transition involved from his implied subjugation of the Belle Glade people by the Calusa.

Stratigraphy within the burial mounds suggests different periods of use but may be a single charnel event. According to the accounts of Spanish explorers, the Calusa buried leaders and their immediate family members in mounds along with others who died in

order to be interred along with them, indicating a single temporal event (Hann 2003). It is possible that war or disease may also prompt a single charnel event, so the lack of information regarding the decline adds to the benefit of skeletal analysis. Further exploration of mortuary practices and possible sources of decline, such as disease or internal/external conflict, can be achieved through skeletal analyses enabling a more strategic approach to securing dates for the site and biodistance studies. Without sufficient chronological and demographic data, the conclusions regarding social stratification and population size remain conjecture. Skeletal analyses may contribute additional information to interpretations by providing better demographic data to connect with the variations in interment.

Previous Site Investigations

The Belle Glade site, originally consisting of a midden and burial mound, is located on the southern edge of Lake Okeechobee at the mouth of the former Democrat

River (Figures 1 and 2). There have been three different excavations of this site.

1933–1934 Excavation by the Civil Works Administration

The first excavation of the Belle Glade site, including both the burial mound and the associated midden, was conducted during 1933–1934 by the Civil Works

Administration (CWA) as part of the relief effort to provide employment during the Great

Depression (Setzler and Strong 1936:301). The remains and artifacts were curated at the

Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History (NMNH). Willey (1949:21) includes the only surviving field notes from this excavation (Figure 3) in his monograph on sites of southeastern Florid—the profile and plan view of the burial mound with a description of the stratigraphy and related finds. The loss of the field notes has created

some significant challenges in reconstructing provenience as predicted by Stirling (1935) in a personal letter to his brother regarding the regret felt for the lack of detailed notes or report regarding all of the Florida excavations.

Figure 3. Profile and plan view of Belle Glade Mound from CWA excavation 1933–1934, as included by Willey 1934. 1975 Excavation by Florida Atlantic University

The next excavation of the burial mound occurred in 1975 when the property was being developed for housing. At least seven distinct burials were encountered and mapped.

Each burial appeared to be extended, but poorly preserved. The top five feet of the burial mound was excavated, and the material is curated in part by the Department of

Anthropology at Florida Atlantic University. Three other individuals are held by the

Florida Museum of Natural History. Additionally, some indeterminate volume, formerly

held by the Graves Museum, is held by the Palm Beach Museum of Natural History.

There were three intact crania recovered that are presumably at the Florida Museum of

Natural History. The collection at Florida Atlantic University consists of fragmentary and commingled remains that are likely unrelated to the seven identified burials. More archival information is needed to determine the size, scope, and location of the collections from this excavation.

1977 Excavation by Palm Beach County and Broward County Archaeological Societies.

The final excavation of the mound occurred in 1977 through a cooperative effort of the Broward County and the original Palm Beach County Archaeological Societies.

The remains and artifacts from the 1977 excavation were curated at the Lawrence E. Will

Museum, though some of the material has not been processed and is pending formal accession.

The 1977 investigation consisted of three shovel test pits and two test units. The results of these investigations were never filed with the Florida Division of Historic

Resources or the Florida Museum of Natural History. However, a human skeletal analysis was conducted in June 2012 on remains recovered from the 1977 excavations prior to repatriation (Smith and Davenport 2012). Current interpretations on the nature of the burial features are based on the photographs of the excavation. It appears that the bulk of the human skeletal assemblage was encountered as a layer of commingled bone within

Pit CA. Only a couple of elements are reported to have been recovered from a single elevation within Pit CB. The portion of field notes recovered does not specify at what depths the burial feature was encountered.

Previous Skeletal Studies

Willey (1949:23) notes that not even a record of the number of skeletons taken from the mound during the 1933–1934 excavation could be located. The Smithsonian accession records indicate the collection was accessioned piecemeal over several decades. The first accession from the 1933–1934 excavation occurred in 1941 and included at least 196 individuals. There was a second accession from this same excavation in 1973 that added 79 more individuals; a third accession in 1980 adding 33 more. Most of the skeletal remains from the 1980 accession had been set apart because they presented pathologies, according to a memo regarding this accession dated the day of accession.

Willey (1949) mentions in a footnote that T. Dale Stewart indicated in a personal communication that there were indicators of dwarfism among some remains, but there was never any formal documentation or report of this. Hrdlička used a sample of 45 crania from this excavation (Willey 1949:23) for his initial comparative studies in craniometrics. Willey (1949:23) described this as a small series that represented only a part of the individuals found buried in the mound. A recent study was conducted reevaluating Hrdlička’s results through replication of the study and radiocarbon dating.

This study focused on carbon dating, but without respect to stratigraphic context, using a cranium from the top sand layer representing a later period than the other layers

(Stojanowski and Johnson 2011). Stewart (1967) used the assemblage in developing osteometric methods for the postcranial skeleton, and Ortner (1976; 1981) used the pathological specimens in his groundbreaking studies on paleopathology and as a reference collection in the program he developed for paleopathological study. Yet despite

the pivotal use of the collection in landmark methodological studies, no formal interpretive studies have been conducted on the skeletal assemblage housed at the

Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History.

METHODOLOGICAL APPROACH

As the primary purpose of the study is to provide baseline datasets for comparative and interpretive use, it is essential to employ standards commonly used in osteological analysis. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains

(Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) was developed for this express purpose—to standardize the methods and techniques throughout the field as well as to guide analysts in acquiring meaningful data for each collection, especially those scheduled for repatriation. The inventory process in Standards for Data Collection “emphasizes structures that have high information value for the variety of topics accessible through the study of archaeologically recovered human skeletons: genetic relationships, health, cultural practices, and demography” (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994).

Although Standards for Data Collection (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) involves strategies and measurements for both articulated and commingled remains, many research projects in the intervening years have been invested in addressing specifically fragmentary and commingled remains. These research efforts have resulted in some new strategies and measurements that will enhance the quality and quantity of information that can be gleaned from the skeletal assemblages from Belle Glade Mound. The

Osteoware Manual (Wilczak and Dudar, eds. 2011), developed by the Smithsonian

Institution Physical Anthropology and Repatriation Departments as a guide for the use of software designed for cataloguing skeletal data, includes some of these new measurements and scores while still using Standards for Data Collection (Buikstra and

Ubelaker 1994) as the core. As the largest of the Belle Glade Culture collections is housed at the Smithsonian, using the same data collection methods and software is appropriate.

Osteometric Analysis

Osteometric analysis is used to gather measurements of specific elements in order to infer demographic data, as well as to estimate the minimum number of individuals

(MNI) and a minimum number of elements (MNE). This information also provides a dataset for comparison with comparable data from other populations. The Standards for

Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994) was used as the guideline and standards for collecting osteometric data for both the cranial and postcranial skeletal remains. Some additional measurements from other elements and/or specific features derived from recent research designed to address fragmentary and commingled collections and incorporated into the Osteoware manual used by the

Smithsonian Repatriation Office was also collected.

The 34 cranial measurements introduced by Moore-Jansen (1994) based on distances between key anatomical landmarks were used as expressed in Standards for

Data Collection (1994). MicroScribe equipment was used for gathering craniometric measurements on the intact crania from the collection at the Smithsonian National

Museum of Natural History (NMNH). The MicroScribe is a portable metrology tool that uses a robotic arm and laser sensing to obtain precise point-by-point digital data in three- dimensional space. Craniometric data obtained from using the MicroScribe can be sent directly to Osteoware for data storage and analysis. Use of MicroScribe and its

compatibility with Osteoware has significantly expedited the process of analyzing crania to maximize data collection within limited access time.

The 44 postcranial measurements presented in Standards for Data Collection originally developed by Moore-Jansen (1994) were used along with additional measurements introduced in the Osteoware manual. The additional postcranial measurements recommended by Mulhern (Wilczak and Dudar, eds. 2011:47) include vertebral body heights and ankle height as proposed by Fully (1956), metacarpal and metatarsal lengths, and other measurements on the long bones in order to increase the volume and quality of data gathered from fragmentary and commingled remains.

Dental measurements provided insights regarding heritage and craniofacial morphology, since the size and shape of teeth are hereditary. In fact, studies of migration and of cultural change from Archaic to Woodland populations have been charted through dental morphology (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:61). Three measurements were taken from each tooth: mesiodistal diameter, buccolingual or faciolingual diameter, and crown height. In addition to measurements, the Turner (1991) list of dental characteristics and observations was used to track patterns within the samples from Belle Glade Mound.

Sampling

A sample from each of three excavations of Belle Glade Mound was used in this study. The size of the collections varied. The largest collection is housed at the

Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History and likely includes at least

300 individuals when considering additionally commingled elements. This collection was too large to address fully in this study, so a sample of 35 curational boxes, which held a total of approximately 45 individuals, was used. Efforts were made to select some

material from each of the three burial layers. The second largest collection used is housed at Florida Atlantic University, including some of the assemblages from the 1975 excavation of Belle Glade Mound. As previously mentioned, two other institutions also hold skeletal material from this excavation; this material was not readily accessible, and so was not used in this study. The material from Florida Atlantic University included highly fragmentary commingled elements, so sampling from this collection was based on preservation and interpretive value. Data was already gathered from the collection held by the Lawrence E. Will Museum prior to repatriation, so all available data was used from this smaller collection of commingled elements, which included a minimum of 10–

12 individuals.

There were several sampling issues that complicated analysis. Two of the collections (Florida Atlantic University and Lawrence E. Will Museum) were likely derived from a disturbed context, thus inhibiting spatial-temporal interpretations. Though presumably from an intact stratigraphic context, the lack of field notes from the 1933–

1934 excavation made stratigraphic assignation difficult for the collection that is housed at the Smithsonian Institution. The collections housed at Florida Atlantic University and the Lawrence E. Will Museum were likely encountered in the top sand burial layer, whereas the collection housed at the Smithsonian Institution included at least some individuals from all three burial layers. The collections were dichotomous in organization as well. The collections at Florida Atlantic University and the Lawrence E. Will Museum were a mass of commingled elements, whereas the collection at the Smithsonian

Institution was organized by individuals with some commingled elements. Usually collections are analyzed by individual or elements, so the approach was tailored to

compare across both types of collections. Most importantly, South Florida collections are often poorly preserved due to the effect of the acidic sand in which they are found.

Degradation often results in fragmentation and missing elements that inhibit statistical analyses, especially by lowering the degree of confidence.

BIOLOGICAL PROFILE

Although there is a high volume of data that can be gathered and interpreted regarding the skeletal assemblages from Belle Glade Mound (8PB41), the starting point in analysis and interpretation was to develop a basic biological profile regarding the population interred. The four primary components of a basic biological profile include estimations of age-at-death, sex, stature, and ancestry. Once these baselines are established, more intensive research is facilitated including other analyses and cross-site comparisons. As previously mentioned, there are always some differences expected between modern and prehistoric populations that can affect the validity of the comparative data used, which is why these are held as estimations only.

Age Estimation

The age-at-death estimation assists in reconstruction of the age distribution and mortality rates within a society. Growth and degeneration rates may vary across populations based on environment and nutrition among other factors. The environment of the Everglades with its Lake Okeechobee lake-and-river system can be safely assumed to have provided a large variety and volume of both faunal and vegetative food supplies. It is certainly probable that the South Florida environment prompted rapid growth and development. However, some Native American populations have delayed fusion of cranial sutures, such as the metopic suture, which may persist into adulthood thereby influencing age estimations.

Methods

Cranial Nonmetric Analysis. During ontological development, the cranial bones gradually fuse together and the stage of fusion can provide general age brackets for estimating age at death. As these estimations are based on modern skeletal assemblages and do not reflect regional and idiosyncratic variation, some degree of caution is required with these estimations. As recommended in Standards for Data Collection (1994) and the

Osteoware manual, the scoring for cranial suture closures developed by Meindl and

Lovejoy (1985) was employed for both ectocranial and endocranial observations. Scores were taken at 1cm intervals at landmark points for ectocranial assessment and over the entire observable sutural area for endocranial assessment. There were limitations to accessibility for measurement of endocranial landmarks when working with intact or reconstructed crania in the Smithsonian collection. Meindl and Lovejoy (1985) indicate that lateral and anterior regions provide better predictability of chronological age than vault sites, so the accuracy of age estimation should not be adversely affected by inaccessible interior vault landmarks. Palatal suture scoring from Mann (1991) was used when available since the palatal bone can be rather fragile and was missing or too damaged for meaningful use on some crania.

Dental ontogeny, specifically the emergence and loss of juvenile and adult teeth as well as wear patterns that develop gradually, a method first discussed by Ubelaker

(1989), was used as another indicator of chronological age. One cautionary note regarding dental wear patterns is that they may be strongly influenced by diet, and therefore vary by environment. The Smith system for determining chronological age from occlusal wear patterns was used for incisors, canines, and premolars (Buikstra and

Ubelaker 1994:52). The Scott system was used for coding occlusal wear patterns on molars since the four quadrant system is preferentially treated by Standards for Data

Collection as providing more reliable and valid data than the molar scoring offered by the

Smith system (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:52).

Postcranial Nonmetric Analysis. The stages of fusion for each epiphysis and primary ossification center of the postcranial skeleton vary by element, allowing definitive brackets for the age at death to be determined. As with cranial sutures, these stages were simply coded as open, partial union, and complete union. Although stages of fusion are effective at discriminating between adult and juvenile skeletons and for determining the age at death of immature remains, different strategies are employed to narrow the age brackets with adult skeletal material.

The most reliable manner of determining the age at death for adult skeletons involves coding morphological changes on the pubic symphysis. Both the Todd (1921) and Suchey–Brooks (Brooks and Suchey 1990) systems first evaluate changes in the ridge-and-furrow system, dorsal margin, ventral rampart, ossific nodules, rim, and delimited extremities and then organize them into distinct stages that estimate age at death (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:21). The Suchey–Brooks system accounts for morphological differences based on sex. Another pelvic component that evidences morphological change in stages of adulthood is the auricular surface as developed by

Meindl and Lovejoy (1989). The scoring of the auricular surface can be more difficult to determine, yet this feature is more commonly encountered and often better preserved in archaeological collections than the pubic symphysis (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1989)—a

factor that is particularly advantageous with fragmentary elements as encountered with the assemblages from Belle Glade Mound.

The morphology of the sternal ends of ribs, presented in the Osteoware manual

(Madden in Wilczak and Dudar, eds. 2011) but not in Standards for Data Collection

(1994), offers a means of determining age brackets within both preadolescence and adulthood. This method developed by Ișcan (1984, 1991) involves scoring the morphology of the sternal end of the 4th rib and substituting a composite score of ribs 3-9 if the 4th cannot be used (Dudar 1993; Yoder, et al. 2001). One of the primary concerns in using this method is the fragility of the ribs. Therefore, its intended use in this study is confirmatory, as well as helping in identifying distinct individuals among commingled remains.

Findings

Smithsonian Institution Sample. Age categories could be estimated for 44 individuals from the sample of the 1933–1934 investigation. Composite data was considered since individuals were somewhat distinguishable within the commingled context. Caution should be used with respect to the age-at-death estimation summary below (Table 3; Figure 4) for two reasons: 1) this was a sample of the collection and may not reflect the population as accurately as the totality of the collection might have, and

2) not all individuals represented in the collection had features that could be assessed, so the results do not completely reflect the number of individuals examined.

Table 3. Age-at-death estimations for a sample of the 1933–1934 investigation.

Age Category (in years) Frequency Percentage

Infant (0-1) 1 2.27

Toddler (2-4) 0 0.00

Child (5-9) 0 0.00

Preadolescent (10-14) 4 9.09

Adolescent (15-19) 4 9.09

Young Adult (20-35) 20 45.45

Middle Adult (35-50) 13 29.55

Old Adult (50+) 2 4.55

Figure 4. Age-at-death estimation for a sample of the 1933–1934 investigation.

The age category most frequently represented were young adults from 20–35 years old (45.45%) followed by middle adults from 35–50 years old (29.55%) as indicated in Table 3 and Figure 4. Combined, these two age categories constitute three- 30

quarters of the sample. Only five percent of the sample was determined to be over the age of 50. The other twenty percent of the sample were rather evenly distributed between preadolescent- and adolescent-aged individuals, corporately ranging from 10–19 years old (9.09% for each) with one infantile individual.

In order to better ascertain population estimates, age categories were further separated by stratigraphic context to the greatest extent possible, given the fact that many field notes were lost or incomplete. The most recent burial context included the top sand burials. As previously mentioned, Stojanowski and Johnson (2011) obtained an absolute date of 920 ± 40 BP for a cranium from this stratigraphic layer. Age estimations could be determined for 23 individuals from this context within the sample (Table 4; Figure 5).

Infantile individuals were excluded for the purpose of calculating population growth.

Young adults aged 20–35 and immature individuals aged 5–19 were most represented within this context. The next burial matrix is another sand layer—presumably the individuals labeled by Roman numerals and referenced burial features—which can be relatively dated to Belle Glade I or II based on associated artifact assemblages. Age estimations could be determined for 16 individuals from this middle sand context within the sample (Table 4; Figure 5). Middle adults aged 35–50 were most represented within the sample. Only four crania from the bottom muck layer were included in the sample for the study. Although the individuals from this muck context were comprised of three young adults and one adolescent (Table 4), it should be noted that this distribution is likely the result of limited sampling.

Table 4. Distribution of age categories by stratigraphic context.

Top Sand Middle Sand Bottom Muck Immature (5-19) 6 2 1 Young Adult (20-34) 11 5 3 Middle Adult (35-50) 5 8 Old Adult (50+) 1 1 Total Count 23 16 4

Top Sand Middle Sand

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30

Percentage Percentage of individuals 20 10 0 <20 20-34 35-50 50+ Age Categories

Figure 5. Comparison of percentages for age distribution between the sand burial layers.

The distribution of age-at-death estimates seems to vary significantly between the two strata (Figures 5 and 6). The most represented age category for the more recent temporal context is young adults aged 20–34 whereas middle adults aged 35–50 are more represented in the earlier temporal context. To determine if this apparent trend could be signaling a demographic transition, 15p5 ratio of immature individuals within the sample population was calculated. The 15p5 ratio for the middle sand layer, likely Belle Glade I or

II, was 12.5%, whereas the 15p5 ratio for the top sand layer, likely Belle Glade III, was

26%. The increase in the percentage of immature individuals could indicate a rise in the

fertility rate within the population. The difference in proportion of immature individuals between the strata was pronounced (43.18%) using Fisher’s Exact Test.

Top Sand Middle Sand? 60

Percentage Percentage of Individuals 10

0 <20 20-34 35-50 50+ Age Categories

Figure 6. Comparative line chart for distribution of age estimates between strata.

Florida Atlantic University Sample. As already discussed, this collection

contained primarily fragmentary elements in a commingled context. Long bone midshafts

dominated the collection. These long bone shafts appeared to be long, thin and gracile,

indicating a strong possibility that this collection has a high concentration of juvenile

remains. The few elements that had features that could be assessed seemed to support this

hypothesis. However, though some conclusions can be drawn regarding the age and sex

from their gracile nature, these assumptions are only speculative, and no definite results

can be reported.

Lawrence E. Will Museum Sample. Age categories could be estimated for 32

individuals from the 1977 investigation. As set forth above, data gathered during the

earlier skeletal inventory was applied to this analysis. Effort was made to avoid

duplication of age estimates for a single individual through consideration of antimeres and articulated elements. However, the possibility of some duplication of age estimates as a result of the commingled context warrants noting and, again, a degree of caution should be used with respect to these estimates.

As also seen with the sample from the 1933–1934 investigation, the most- represented age category was young adults aged 20–35 (34.37%), followed by middle adults aged 35–50 (31.25%) (Table 5 and Figure 7). There was also a higher percentage of adults more than 50 years old (9.38%). Adolescents and preadolescents were again represented in this sample (15.62% and 9.38%, respectively). To determine the reliability of the 15p5 ratio of 26% calculated for the top sand layer portion of the Smithsonian sample, the same ration was determined for this sample from the same stratigraphic context. The 15p5 ration for this sample was 25%, which indicates a consistent result.

Table 5. Age-at-death estimations for the 1977 investigation.

Age Category (in years) Frequency Percentage

Infant (0-1) 0 0.00

Toddler (2-4) 0 0.00

Child (5-9) 1 3.12

Preadolescent (10-14) 2 6.25

Adolescent (15-19) 5 15.62

Young Adult (20-35) 11 34.37

Middle Adult (35-50) 10 31.25

Old Adult (50+) 3 9.38

Figure 7. Age-at-death estimation of the 1977 investigation.

Summary and Discussion of Age Estimation

Age categories could be estimated for 78 individuals from the samples of the

1933–1934 and 1977 investigations. Individuals from the 1975 investigation were not included in the summary since the previously mentioned inhibiting factors may have led to a misinterpretation of the overall data. Commingled remains present complications in determining age-at-death estimations, since different elements can vary slightly in their expression across populations and environments. To avoid skewing the presentation of the data, age-at-death estimations from elements likely associated were not duplicated in the summary of findings for each sample or in the overall summary. Antimeres and articulated elements were represented as a single individual throughout the study.

Once again, the most represented age category across collections was young adults aged 20–35 (44.74%), followed by middle adults aged 35–50 (30.26%) as shown in Table 6 and Figure 8. These two categories constituted three-quarters of the individuals

Table 6. Age-at-death estimation combined for 1933–1934 investigations.

Age Category (in years) Frequency Percentage

Infant (0-1) 1 1.31

Toddler (2-4) 0 0.00

Child (5-9) 1 1.31

Preadolescent (10-14) 6 7.89

Adolescent (15-19) 9 11.84

Young Adult (20-35) 31 44.74

Middle Adult (35-50) 23 30.26

Old Adult (50+) 5 6.58

Age-at-Death Estimation (Combined) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0

Figure 8. Age-at-death estimation for the combined 1933–1934 and 1977 investigations.

from the combined samples. Adults over the age of 50 were only minimally represented

(6.58%). Almost a fifth of the individuals were between the ages of 10 and 19, including the adolescent (11.84%) and preadolescent (7.89%) age categories. The combined data

seems to suggest that few individuals survive to old age, whereas many seem to die during what many consider the prime of life.

The 15p5 ratios for both samples from the top sand burial matrix were consistent

(1%). Both the top sand matrices from the 1933–34 and the 1977 investigations significantly varied from the middle sand land layer (43.18% and 45.97%, respectively).

The consistent degree of variation supports the notion of a form of demographic shift

(Figure 9).

Percentage Percentage of Individuals 10

0 <20 20-34 35-50 50+

1933-34 Top Sand 1933-34 Middle Sand 1977 Top Sand Poly. (1933-34 Top Sand) Poly. (1933-34 Middle Sand) Poly. (1977 Top Sand)

Figure 9. Distribution of age estimation across samples and strata. Sex Estimation

Sex estimation is often used to determine social distinctions and potential differential access to resources and or mortuary behavior (Moore in DiGangi and Moore, eds. 2013:91). Often these estimations center on the adult population since correctly determining sex in prepubescent individuals can be challenging. In this study, sex

estimations provide information regarding survivorship as well as comparing health and mortuary patterns.

Methods

Cranial Nonmetric Analysis. Most modern populations exhibit sexual dimorphism in which males are larger and more robust than females. However, it should be noted that several prehistoric populations in North America have features that present challenges to the standard morphology scoring methods. The scoring system for sexually dimorphic cranial features developed by Acsadi and Nemeskeri (1970) was used for sex estimation by scoring 1–5 for the robusticity of the nuchal crest, the size of the mastoid process, the sharpness of the supra-orbital margin, the prominence of the supra-orbital ridge/glabella, and the projection of the mental eminence (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994).

Postcranial Nonmetric Analysis. Pelvic morphology is often considered the most reliable way to determine the sex of an individual. Functionally different morphology develops ontologically in males and females during puberty. Attributes of the subpubic region scored include the ventral arc, the subpubic concavity, and the ischiopubic ramus ridge as originally developed by Phenice (1969). The greater sciatic notch tends to be larger in females than males and was scored from 1–5 on size and orientation. The preauricular sulcus appears more commonly in females than in males and so the absence or one of four positive expressions was recorded (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994).

Findings

Smithsonian Institution Sample. Sex estimations could be determined from 38 individuals from the sample from the 1933–1934 investigation. Males (n=20; 52.63%) were slightly more represented than females (n=18; 47.37%) as shown in Table 8 and

Figure 11. There was an insignificant difference (75.54%) in frequency between males

and females, thus yielding a rather even distribution. Yet, this was a sample of a sample,

and a more comprehensive analysis of that collection may yield different results.

Comparison of age and sex estimations was possible to a limited degree with individuals whose elements were already re-associated and somewhat segregated within the collection. There were 36 individuals that could be compared by age and sex— coincidentally 18 males and 18 females. The percentage per age category from puberty on compared males to females (Table 7 and Figure 10). The distribution of males had a pattern of a few dying young and a few old, with most in the middle two categories. The

Table 7. Frequency distribution of age estimation by sex estimation.

15-19 20-34 35-49 50+ Total

male 0 8 9 1 18

female 3 10 4 1 18

Percentage of Males to Females by Age 0.6

0.5

0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0 15-19 20-34 35-49 50+ -0.1

male female Poly. (male) Poly. (female)

Figure 10. Comparing the percentage of males to females by age. curve for females showed a subtle shift that indicated women were dying earlier than men. It is likely no coincidence that the modality shows women dying during childbearing years.

Florida Atlantic University Sample. The preponderance of highly fragmentary long bone midshafts made sex determination impossible for most of the collection.

Making assumptions based on presumed sexual dimorphism was thwarted by the apparent concentration of juvenile remains. The elements that were diagnostic were prepubescent, making sex determination extremely challenging and less reliable.

Therefore, this collection was not used for summarizing sex estimations.

Lawrence E. Will Museum Sample. Sex estimations could be determined from 13 individuals from the 1977 investigation. Females (n=7; 53.85%) were slightly more represented than males (n=6; 46.15%) in the sample from the 1977 investigation as shown in Table 8 and Figure 11. The difference in frequency is insignificant (75.54%),

indicating an even distribution. A comparative distribution of sex by age could not be determined for this sample, since the remains were too commingled to associate age and sex estimations from different elements.

Table 8. Adult sex estimation from the 1933–1934 and 1977 investigations.

Category 1933—1934 1977 Combined

Male 20 6 26

Female 18 7 25

0 1933-34 1977 Combined

Male Female

Figure 11. Sex estimation for samples from the 1933–1934 and 1977 investigations.

Summary and Discussion of Sex Estimation

Sex estimations could be determined for 51 individuals from samples of the

1933–1934 and 1977 investigations. When combined, the most represented sex was male

(n=26), followed by female (n=25), as shown in Table 8 and Figure 11. There has been

an insignificant difference between the sexes consistently represented in the samples as

determined by the Fisher’s exact test (75.54%). Therefore, there is no discernable

difference in interment or mortuary behavior between males and females for this burial

site.

Stature Estimation

Stature estimation can be the most complicated part of a biological profile since

there are so many influencing factors and an individual’s stature does not remain static

over time. However, the benefit in estimating stature lies in the ability to study

developmental trends, environmental stress, and genetic relationships with the data

gathered (Moore and Ross 2013:151). In this study, some hypothesis testing can occur.

The Florida people were described by the 16th Century Spanish observers as being

“giants”. Were those interred in Belle Glade Mound exceptionally tall? Two confounding

factors had to be addressed—fragmentation and commingling—in order to garner

relevant data. Also, it should be noted that there will likely be a larger degree of error in

estimating the stature of individuals from this site since the normative formulas for

estimating stature were developed on groups that are not closely related to the Florida

people. Yet, the formulas used in the study were the best available to address the

confounding factors.

Methods

Long bones encountered from the samples from all three of the investigations were fragmentary. Formulas for the estimation of stature require measurements of complete long bones, but these were rare in the Belle Glade collections. I did, however, find a few. Therefore, the number of individuals from whom stature was derived is not representative of the number of individuals examined in the study. Efforts were made to 42

use recently developed regression formulas designed for fragmentation, but without success. The estimations from the formulas from fragmentary measurements significantly varied from those derived from long bone lengths and, therefore, were not incorporated into the results. Only adult data was used since stature estimations for juvenile remains are more challenging and less reliable due to the constant change from growth— especially when the rate of maturation is unknown. There are no discernable distinctions in adult age categories (though osteoarthritis can be indicative of older adults) in a standalone long bone element. So, adjustments for the loss of stature for age were not included in this study. Both the 1975 and 1977 collections had too few intact femora for inclusion in stature estimation.

The regression formulas for Mexicans from long bone length endorsed by Bass

(1994) were used. Separate formulas were included for males and females to account for any sexual dimorphism (Table 9). Midshaft circumference (as described in Bass 1994) was used to estimate sex for comparative purposes. The commingled context was prohibitive of using more reliable sex assessments.

Table 9. Formulas used for stature estimation (Bass 1994).

Formulas

Males 2.26 x femoral length + 66.379 ± 3.417

Females 2.59 x femoral length + 49.742 ± 3.816

Findings

Two different formulas (Table 9) were used to determine stature from the sample of the 1933–1934 investigation. Samples from the 1975 and 1977 collections were not included as there were not sufficiently intact elements. As previously mentioned, the regression formula derived from the measurement of maximum length is considered the 43

most accurate and reliable with the lowest standard of error, enabling a small confidence interval. The regression formula derived from maximum length was applied to 12 individuals—seven males and five females (Figures 12 and 13). The mean stature for males was 164.236 ± 3.417 cm (5 ft. 4.7 in. ± 1.35 in.) and a median of 164.46 ± 3.417 cm (5 ft. 4.75 in. ± 1.35 in.) as shown in Table 8. The range for this sample was unexpectedly narrow, from 158.81 ± 3.417 cm (5 ft. 2.52 in. ± 1.35 in.) to 167.63 ± 3.417 cm (5 ft. 6 in ± 1.35 in..) for a range of 8.82 cm (3.47 in.). The mean stature for females was 161.682 ± 3.816 cm (5 ft. 3.65 in. ± 1.5 in.) and a median of 161.11 ± 3.816 cm (5 ft.

3.43 in. ± 1.5 in.). The range for female stature estimations was 159.56 ± 3.816 cm (5 ft.

2.82 in. ± 1.5 in.) to 164.09 ± 3.816 cm (5 ft. 4.6 in. ± 1.5 in.)—a breadth of only 4.53 cm

(1.78 in.).

Figure 12. Histogram of male (blue) and female (red) stature estimations (in cm) with normal curve applied.

Figure 13. Box plots of the ranges of stature estimation (in cm) for males and females.

Summary and Discussion of Stature Estimation

Stature for males varied from approximately 159 cm (5 ft. 2 in.) to 167 cm (5 ft. 6 in.), with the average male at 164 cm (almost 5 ft. 5 in). Females ranged from approximately 159 cm (5 ft. 2 in.) to 164 (5ft. 4in.), with an average of 161 cm (5ft. 3in.).

These stature estimations seem much shorter than anticipated with respect to the references to “Florida giants.” The concept of “Florida giants” seemed to be substantiated

(and overgeneralized) by Hrdlička’s (1922) assessment of mandibular size in his analysis of Florida crania. The publication that propagated the notion predates the investigations of Belle Glade Mound and Fort Center, but it does include analysis of associated Boynton

Mounds. Contrary to Hrdlička’s reported findings, Shaivitz (1986) found comparable stature estimations to those included in this study during her investigations of Fort

Center. Shaivitz reported the range of male stature to be 167.2 cm (5 ft. 6 in.) to 169.8 cm

(5 ft. 7 in.) with an average height of 168.1 cm (5 ft. 6 in.). Though often robust, it would not appear that the Belle Glade culture could be considered Florida “giants.”

Ancestral Estimation

Although the origin of the population interred in Belle Glade Mound is unknown, they should share many features with other Amerindian groups. Many of the methods and analyses developed for ancestral estimation were directed at identification of a single unknown individual, such as in forensic applications, rather than comparing features within populations. The riverine systems associated with the Lake Okeechobee watershed created extensive natural traffic patterns with the potential of incubating a multicultural crossroads. Ancestral estimation from morphology has been met with skepticism from some scholars since “common” traits are not “universal” and, therefore, not always reliable.

Analysis of Macromorphoscopic Traits

Methods.

Macromorphoscopic traits are often assessed in establishing ancestry (Hefner

2009). The variations among the bony structures of the face correlate to soft tissue

differences in living populations for facial reconstruction. Macromorphoscopic traits are

divided into five classes (Brues 1958; Hefner 2009): bone shape, bony feature

morphology, suture shape, presence/absence data, and feature prominence/protrusion.

The scoring system defined by Hefner (2009) was designed to establish consistent

scoring for both individual traits and their variable expression within a population, as

well as between populations. Employing the Hefner system, 16 traits were assessed for

the crania from the sample from Belle Glade Mound housed at the Smithsonian

Institution in order to explore possible patterns in ancestry.

Findings.

Macromorphoscopic traits were observed for 18 individuals from the sample of the 1933–1934 investigation housed at the Smithsonian Institution. According to Hefner

(2007:68-69), four traits significantly influenced by ancestry include inferior nasal aperture (INA), interorbital breadth (IOB), nasal aperture width (NAW), and the presence or absence of a post-bregmatic depression (PBD). Three traits are significantly influenced by sex, including the anterior nasal spine (ANS), Nasal Bone Shape (NBS), and

Supranasal Suture (SPS). The only trait that is reportedly influenced by sex and ancestry is the post-bregmatic depression, but only in black females (Hefner 2007:68). The ordinal scores for INA, NAW, and the absence of PBD from the sample all align with

Amerindian traits as expected.

There was some unexpected variation in IOB scores. Both narrow and intermediate interorbital breadths were observed at similar frequencies similar to both

Asian and Amerindian ancestry, though slightly more toward Asian. This pattern is not unusual since there can be variation within and across populations at this level. However, the difference appeared to be sexually dimorphic in pattern—unexpected since Hefner discusses this phenomena only with black females (Hefner 2007:68). This morphological pattern also seems associated with variation in expressions of the malar tubercle (MT) resulting in some variation of small, wide faces and thin, elongated ones. However, this could also reflect a temporal context since the sample crania from the basal layer were female. Ordinal regression would need to be done with a larger sample from this investigation or across sites to determine its true nature.

Assessment of Other Nonmetric Traits

Dental morphology is often used in ancestral research since variation is often hereditary in nature. Dental morphology can also be heavily influenced by environment and diet. Despite other influencing factors, dental traits potentially linked to ancestry are described below. Observed traits include the following:

Supernumerary teeth

Several individuals from both of the samples from the 1933–1934 and 1975 investigations housed at the Smithsonian and Florida Atlantic University, respectively, evidenced supernumerary teeth (Figure14). These extra teeth were usually very small and appeared around—usually in front of—the incisors on both maxillae and mandibles. In some cases, the socket was present though the tooth was missing. The individuals with supernumerary teeth also evidenced dental crowding.

Supernumerary Tooth

Figure 14. Supernumerary tooth from Florida Atlantic University collection. Photograph by author.

Enamel pearls

An enamel pearl was identified on a single tooth from the sample of the 1977

investigation, formerly housed at the Lawrence E. Will Museum. No further information

was available since the tooth was not associated with any other element and was

repatriated in 2012 (Smith and Davenport 2012). It is possible that the presence of

enamel pearls and supernumerary teeth are related by an overdevelopment of enamel.

Dental crowding

There was a dichotomy between highly crowded dentition causing sever

malocclusion in some individuals, while others evidenced a wide perfect alignment of

dentition across samples from all three collections. This pattern was not accounted for by

age or sex. There did appear to be a relationship between the crowded dentition and

differential occlusal wear. The individuals with crowded dentition experienced

significantly more occlusal wear, particularly on the molars and premolars. The dental

crowding may be hereditary in nature, given the number of individuals with

supernumerary teeth or related to craniofacial differences observed with the wide and

narrow faces. However, the relationship with occlusal wear patterns could also indicate a

link to mastication, possibly an effect of dietary behavior. More research is necessary to

determine the influencing factors.

Other dental traits

The author observed instances of shovel-shaped incisors. There were also individuals with bilateral winging—usually in association with crowded dentition.

Summary and Discussion of Ancestral Estimation

The origin and arrival to the region of those interred at Belle Glade Mound is unknown.

Speculations have varied regarding the paleomigration of this population as well as the 49

settlement pattern and biological distance with other Florida neighbors. The morphological traits observed align with Asian/Amerindian heritage, as expected, but more research is needed to compare common ancestry and traits with other Amerindian populations. There is some inter-site craniofacial variation, thin-and-elongated versus short-and-wide faces, as well as disparity in dental morphology that should be explored further as either hereditary or social distinctions.

Paleopathology

Paleopathology was not a focal point of this study since the scope of that topic warrants separate attention. However, some general observations are described below for possible association with the estimations addressed. According to accession records, some pathological elements from the Smithsonian collection were already documented and separated by Ortner for use in his foundational work on paleopathology. Random sampling was used, so only two of those individuals were included in the study. Yet, some reoccurring observations on the other individuals include the following:

Deep Vascular Impressions

Vascular impressions criss-crossed femora and tibiae throughout the 1977 assemblage. This same pattern occurred in the 1933–1934 assemblage, but with less frequency and much less pronounced. Vascular impressions were absent from the 1975 assemblage, yet this absence may reflect the nonrepresentational nature of this particular collection, namely gracile, likely juvenile remains. These deep impressions vary from other vascular impressions that occurred on arm limbs in a single line circumference around the midshaft in areas of bone inflammation. There are consistently three parallel grooves with the middle slightly more impressed than the other two with a consistent measurement of 5mm in diameter (Figures 15 and 16). 50

Figure 15. Femoral vascular impressions from the Lawrence E. Will Museum collection archives. Photograph by author.

Figure 16. Femoral vascular impressions from the Lawrence E. Will Museum collection archives. Photograph by author. Ortner (2003) attributed vascular impressions to a circulatory response to infectious conditions. Arteries enlarge in order to bring more infection-fighting cells to

the affected area. The bone itself swells and becomes more porous in order to improve the flow of these antibodies from capillaries into the affected area. This process can result in the arteries impressing on the swollen bone, leaving perimortem evidence behind.

Such deep impressions would seem to indicate a prolonged response to a serious infection.

Dental Malocclusion

As previously mentioned, there was significant malocclusion evident in some individuals, but not universally. The malocclusion (Figure 17) appeared to be linked to crowded dentition, disproportionately high degree of molar occlusal wear, and resorption of molar and premolar alveoli. Further research is needed to determine if the malocclusion is the result of supernumerary teeth and/or cranial morphology versus mastication and dietary patterns.

Figure 17. Malocclusion and alveolar resorption from the Smithsonian Institution collection. Photograph by author.

Age/activity-related Bone Degeneration

Most of the pathologies observed during the course of the study can be associated with age-related bone degeneration and activity-based stress. Arthritic lipping and fractures were most commonly found in arm/hand bones and the axial skeleton. Activities such as hauling and rowing canoes, casting and reeling in fishing nets, and spear throwing would create stress on arm limbs (Figure 18) and the vertebral column

(particularly the lumbar region with weight bearing bending as shown in Figure 19).

Figure 18. Ossified fracture of a humerus from the Smithsonian Institution collection. Photograph by author.

Figure 19. Arthritic tipping and osteoporosis of lumbar and thoracic vertebrae from the Smithsonian Institution collection. Photograph by author. 53

Missing Pathologies

Additionally, the absence (or rarity) of pathologies common in other prehistoric cultures, such as dental caries and enamel hypoplasias warrants noting as well. These phenomena likely reflect the environmental effect of the Florida wetlands on dietary selection and availability.

Summary and Discussion of Paleopathology

Most of the observed pathology was activity- and age-related bone degeneration.

Conversely, there was a distinct absence of nutritional deficiencies, such as dental caries and enamel hypoplasias. The same pathological observations of activity- and age-related bone degeneration were made by Echazabal (2010) regarding a burial feature of the

Miami One site (8DA11) that shares some similar South Florida environmental influences though an Archaic and later Tequesta ossuary. Echazabal (2010:37) also notes an absence of nutritional deficiencies, including an insignificant number of enamel hypoplasias and caries. The similarities in pathological observations about the samples are likely the result of common environment and dietary sources. The more thorough pathological analysis of individuals from Fort Center by Shaivitz (1986) closely resembles—indeed, practically mirrors—the observations made on the individuals of

Belle Glade Mound. Most of the pathologies observed were activity and age-related bone degeneration. There were few instances of dental caries (2.8%) and enamel hypoplasias

(2.1%). Schaivitz also notes significant infectious disease, specifically with regards to femora and tibiae. These femoral and tibial infections are also recorded in Wentz’s

(2006) analysis of the state of health in the Windover population—though this population predated at least the majority of the Belle Glade sample examined.

PALEODEMOGRAPHIC SUMMARY/DISCUSSION

According to Fontaneda and Sears (1994), the Belle Glade culture consisted of

small family groups who lived in the watershed region around Lake Okeechobee and who

evidenced very little change throughout the chronology. However, skeletal analysis in

this study has evidenced new and revised information regarding this population,

specifically those interred in Belle Glade Mound. Though the findings are presented with

a degree of generalization, especially since the subject of study is the type site for the

culture region, these findings are limited to a single site. More analyses from other sites

that would enable a greater level of cross-comparison would significantly strengthen

understanding of the Okeechobee culture region, as well as expand knowledge of the

interrelationships of prehistoric Florida. The biological profile developed for those

interred in Belle Glade Mound used the best available methods and analyses for

addressing the confounding factors of fragmentation and commingling. Yet caution

should still be used with conclusions drawn from this limited context.

The modality of age estimation for the top sand burial layer centered on young adults aged 20-35 (45.45% from 1933-34 and 34.37% from 1977). These results show a large representation of young adults among the interred, though not as strong a modality as Fort Center (76% for males and 61% for females) as reported by Shaivitz (1986:24-

25). The difference could be a result of local causal factors, such as disease or conflict.

There is an important difference in geographic location that may have played a role in the heightened percentage—especially males—represented at Fort Center. The Belle Glade

site is surrounded by a number of other large sites in close proximity, including the tree island settlements in the southeastern portion of Lake Okeechobee. According to

Jonathon Dickinson’s description (Davidsson 2001) of an area closely resembling the southeastern shore of Lake Okeechobee, there is a possibility that this area was a stronghold for this culture. Fort Center is located a distance from Lake Okeechobee, likely a “border town” near the Calusa. Though speculative, the difference in accounts between Dickinson and Fontaneda, along with the difference in percentages of young adults, could be attributed to a difference in the level and intensity of conflict. Shaivitz seems to report a higher number of fractures and related injuries than was observed in the

Belle Glade collections.

Both the results of this study and those of Fort Center evidenced a spike in the number of females aged 18–20. Both this author and Shaivitz (1986:18-20) note the relationship to childbearing years. Shaivitz reports a high number of juveniles, though an index is not provided. There was a definitive difference in 15p5 ratios between the top sand burials (26%) and the earlier middle sand burials (12.5%), as the proportion of juveniles doubled with the progression of time. Without more control for distance in time, it is difficult to determine how significant of a change this presents. The juvenility index, 15p5, reflects the fertility rate for a population (Bocquet-Appel 1996; 2002) and is, therefore, a good indicator of demographic changes. Doubling the percentage of juveniles represented in a collection across stratigraphy, with controls for differences in excavation strategies and curation, strongly indicates that a demographic transition, that is, a prospective increase in population size, has occurred.

The significance of a demographic transition between Belle Glade I/II and Belle

Glade III is twofold. First of all, the evidence conflicts with the interpretive aspects of 56

Sears’ chronology as he reports “little change,” yet there is evidence of a population spike. An increase in population size around 1090 A.D. would logically precipitate the construction of monumental earthworks, such as Big Mound City and Tony’s Mound, relatively dated from 1200–1400 A.D. One of the greatest barriers to the pursuit of more extensive scholarship of the Belle Glade culture has been the “low population” myth that was initiated by Fontaneda and propagated by Sears (1984). Nearly 300 individuals are on record for the collection at the Smithsonian Institution; the trench by the CWA excavated roughly 25 percent of the burial mound. By those estimates, the number of individuals interred in Belle Glade Mound might reasonably number 1200. However, my experience with the collections at the Smithsonian exposed more individuals in each curational box than the official record reflects. There are probably double the number of individuals as recorded, which, if fairly extrapolated, could mean that 2000–2500 individuals are interred in the mound. Either way, that is a large number of individuals, especially given the number of other prehistoric cemeteries in close proximity to the site.

Unfortunately, there is no control for time to adequately determine the population size of the community.

In addition to debunking the low population myth that inhibits the expanding of

Belle Glade scholarship, there is a relevant counterargument to the Neolithic Revolution that has dominated archaeological theory worldwide. According to Bocquet-Appel

(2002), the Neolithic Revolution associates stratified societies with the advent of agriculture. The concept was based on the rise in fertility rates among farmers in comparison with the low birth rates of hunter-gatherer populations. Bocquet-Appel and

Naji (2006:348-349) allow that sedentary settlement, with resources bountiful enough to meet the carrying load of a growing population, may be the causal factor, as opposed to 57

merely agricultural dependence. However, they have not been successful in identifying marine or riverine cultures that evidence this. The apparent rise in fertility rates at Belle

Glade Mound may reflect a wetlands environment that does in fact meet the criteria to evidence a demographic transition from sedentarism, as opposed to agriculture. The wetlands resources of Lake Okeechobee and the Everglades can certainly withstand a high carrying load. The lack of caries and enamel hypoplasias from Belle Glade sites such as Fort Center and Belle Glade Mound is further evidence of nutritional adequacy.

More cross-site comparative research would need to occur to generalize this phenomenon and test the sedentary hypothesis.

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