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Case Studies of Environmental Impacts of Sand Mining and Gravel Extraction for Urban Development in Gaborone

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CASE STUDIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SAND MINING AND GRAVEL EXTRACTION FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN GABORONE by TARIRO MADYISE submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF SCIENCE in the subject ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF S.J. MOJA OCTOBER 2013 i DECLARATION STUDENT NUMBER: 5066-598-7 I hereby declare that the study on ‘CASE STUDIES OF ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF SAND MINING AND GRAVEL EXTRACTION FOR URBAN DEVELOPMENT IN GABORONE’ is my own research work and that all sources that I have used are indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. SIGNATURE: ……………………………………………………………… TARIRO MADYISE (MRS) DATE: …………………………………………………………………… Copyright © University of South Africa 2013 ii DEDICATION This research is dedicated to my father, Mr Joseph Beka Ndanga for paying for my education, in remembrance of my late mother, Mrs Sophia Ndanga, all the Ndanga and Madyise families for their unwavering support throughout the study. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First and foremost, I thank the Lord God for His grace, peace and giving me strength to persevere in compiling data and writing my dissertation. The following people contributed a lot to the success of this research: My supervisor, Professor S J Moja in the Department of Environmental Sciences at UNISA for his encouragement, guidance and support from writing research proposal up to final dissertation. Mr Ofentse Malele for taking time off his busy schedule to help me with statistical analysis of data. Mrs Bongayi Kudoma for encouraging me in choosing a topic up to writing the dissertation. Department of Mines officers for willingly participating in the study. Kumakwane village leadership and residents for granting me permission to carry out this study in their area and risking to accompany me to dangerous mining sites. Lastly but not least, my family, particularly my husband, Freddy for accompanying and driving me to mining sites on weekends, my daughter Sheila and son Tafara for understanding my busy schedule and allowing me to finish the research. iv ABSTRACT Economic development is one of the main objectives of developed and developing nations worldwide. Development comes with growth of urban areas. Urban growth is achieved through sand and gravel mining for construction of modern, attractive and durable structures. The study examined positive and negative environmental impacts of the continuous removal of river sand, pit sand and gravel from sampled rivers and open areas surrounding Gaborone developing Central Business District, malls and private properties in city. Quantitative and qualitative research designs that is questionnaire survey, oral interviews, field observation and measurements were used to collect data from selected sampled points. Metsimotlhabe and Ditlhakane rivers were selected because they are nearer to Gaborone and most river sand is mined from these rivers. More points were sampled from open areas in Kumakwane, Kopong and Bela Bela farms where pit sand and gravel are mined. Convenience and purposive sampling methods were used to pick questionnaire survey respondents (175) from Kumakwane and Metsimotlhabe villages where people affected lives. Findings of the study highlighted that river sand was mined most from rivers near Gaborone compared to pit sand and gravel because of its multi uses. Mining is important for economic development, to construct durable, modern structures, employment creation and revenue collection but removal of river sand leads to deepening and widening of rivers. Artificial rivulets are formed as resource is extracted uncontrollably. Pit sand and gravel are extracted from open areas creating uncovered deep pits, which caused of accidents to children and livestock. Erosion and environmental degradation occur due to continuous mining. Miners dispose waste on open areas and riverbeds causing land pollution. Dust and noise pollution from tipper trucks ferrying sand and gravel are a cause of concern to villagers as the trucks move even at night, disturbing sleep. Solutions to uncontrolled mining include 24 hour security and regular raids on illegal miners. The author recommends that heavy penalties should be imposed to curb illegal mining. High level decision making forum involving all stakeholders is necessary to discuss problems of illegal mining and how to limit negative impacts. Department of Mines need to develop an Environmental Management Plan and a close monitoring program nationwide. v TABLE OF CONTENTS PAGE Title page i Declaration ii Dedication iii Acknowledgements iv Abstract v Table of contents vi List of tables x List of figures xi List of appendices xiii Acronyms and Abbreviations xiv CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Need for research/ Justification 4 1.3 Statement of the problem 5 1.4 Research goal 5 1.5 Specific objectives 6 1.6 Research questions 6 1.7 Study area and context 6 1.7.1 Introduction 6 1.7.2 Maps of study area 7 1.7.3 Topography, climate and soils 10 1.7.4 Economy 10 1.8 Limitations 11 1.9 Summary 11 CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 2.1 Introduction 12 2.2 Sand mining and gravel extraction in the world 13 2.3 Sand and gravel mining in Africa 17 vi 2.4 Positive environmental impacts of sand and gravel mining worldwide 21 2.5 Negative environmental impacts of sand and gravel mining worldwide 24 2.6 Solutions and mitigation measures to sand and gravel extraction worldwide 31 2.7 Summary 37 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction 38 3.2 Research designs 38 3.3 Sample and sampling procedures 39 3.4 Research instruments 40 3.4.1 Questionnaire Survey 40 3.4.2 Individual interviews 42 3.4.3 Field observations and measurements 43 3.4.4 Literature review and document analysis 43 3.5 Reliability and validity 3.5.1 Reliability 44 3.5.2 Validity 44 3.5.2.1 Internal validity 44 3.5.2.2 External validity 45 3.6 Ethical considerations 3.6.1 Ethics 45 3.6.2 Permission for study 46 3.6.3 Respect for human dignity 46 3.6.4 Freedom from harm 47 3.6.5 Anonymity, Confidentiality and Justice 47 3.7 Data presentation and analysis tools 47 3.8 Summary 48 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS, PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction 49 4.2 Demographic data of questionnaire respondents 49 4.2.1 Distribution of respondents by gender 49 4.2.2 Distribution of respondents by age 50 vii 4.2.3 Distribution of respondents by position in the village 51 4.2.4 Distribution of respondents by distance of homestead from mining area 52 4.2.5 Distribution of respondents’ homes by distance from gravel roads used by trucks 53 4.2.6 Visits to sand and gravel extraction sites 54 4.2.7 Activities of respondents at and around mining areas 55 4.2.8 Approximate number of trucks transporting sand and gravel passing through the village every day 56 4.3 Questionnaire respondents’ general views on sand and gravel extraction 57 4.3.1 Advantages (Positive impacts) of sand and gravel mining 57 4.3.1.1 Benefits to residents 57 4.3.1.2 Benefits to the community 57 4.3.2 Disadvantages (negative impacts) of sand and gravel mining 58 4.3.2.1 Respondents’ views on the activity 58 4.3.2.2 Negative effects of mining to people’s lives 59 4.3.2.3 Negative impacts of mining observed by respondents 60 4.3.2.4 Accidents reported during sand and gravel mining 62 4.3.3 Solutions and rehabilitation to sand and gravel mining 63 4.3.3.1 Solutions at community level 64 4.3.3.2 Solutions at district level 65 4.3.3.3 Solutions at national level 65 4.3.3.4 Rehabilitation programs to sand and gravel extraction 66 4.4 Interview respondents general comments on sand and gravel mining 67 4.5 Field measurements and observations 71 4.6 Environmental impacts of sand mining and gravel extraction 86 4.6.1 Positive impacts of sand and gravel mining 86 4.6.2 Negative impacts of sand and gravel mining 90 4.7 Summary 100 viii CHAPTER FIVE: SOLUTIONS, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction 101 5.2 Conclusion 101 5.4 Recommendations 102 5.4.1 Recommendations to decision makers 102 5.4.2 Recommendations to miners 104 5.4.3 Recommendations for further research 106 References 107 ix LIST OF TABLES TABLE PAGE Table 3.1 Layout of questions on questionnaire 41 Table 4.1 Distribution of respondents by gender 49 Table 4.2 Distribution of respondents’ homes by distance from gravel roads used by tipper trucks 53 Table 4.3 Activities of respondents 55 Table 4.4 Field measurements from sampled gravel extraction Site A 71 Table 4.5 Field measurements from sampled gravel extraction Site B 73 Table 4.6 Field measurements from sampled gravel extraction Site C 74 Table 4.7 Field measurements from sampled river sand mining Site A 76 Table 4.8 Field measurements from sampled river sand mining Site B 78 Table 4.9 Field measurements from sampled river sand mining Site C 79 Table 4.10 Field measurements from sampled pit sand mining Site A 81 Table 4.11 Field measurements from sampled pit sand mining Site B 82 Table 4.12 Field measurements from sampled pit sand mining Site C 83 x LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE PAGE Figure 1.1 Map of Kumakwane showing sampled points 8 Figure 1.2 Map of Metsimotlhabe showing sampled points 9 Figure 2.1 Land covered by mining pits in Michigan (Schaetzl, 1990) 14 Figure 2.2 Uses of sand and gravel in USA Industries (Draggan, 2008) 22 Figure 2.3 Nick Point formation (Kondolf, 2007) 25 Figure 2.4 Impacts of mining on active channels (Stebbins, 2006) 26 Figure 2.5 A typical example of borrow pit rehabilitation (Department of Mines, 2005) 36 Figure 4.1 Distribution of
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