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Home , Biosphere, Boa (genus), Masked hamlet, Porites porites

Within the seaflower biosphere reserve

by Marion W. Howard1, Valeria Pizarro2 and June Marie Mow1

Declared the SEAFLOWER Biosphere for the of the strategies for its sustainable use, people must Reserve by the UNESCO program “Man Archipelago of San Andres, Old Providence, be seen to be a major part of the solution and the Biosphere” (MAB) in 2000, the and Santa Catalina Islands, CORALINA, is rather then being regarded as the problem. Archipelago of San Andres, Old Providence the regional government authority within the Biological diversity resulted from the and Ketlina is part of the Network of national system of environmental manage- processes of natural selection and Biosphere Reserves. ment responsible for encouraging sustain- to the realities of the physical environment -- Of the total area of the archipelago, 1,600 able development and implementing envi- , , and seascapes, and square kilometres are dedicated to conserva- ronmental policies for the archipelago. sources, etc. In the same way, cultures tion (core zones); 73,900 square kilometres Within the context of CORALINA, as in any adapted themselves in appropriate ways to are dedicated to conservation and programs environmental protection agency throughout survive and thrive within their environments. of low-impact sustainable use (buffer zones); the world, of paramount importance to our It is significant to keep in mind that homo the rest of the SEAFLOWER Biosphere work is preservation of the diversity of sapiens is the only land-based biological Reserve (approximately 224,500 square natural within the region -- in both , either or , that in kilometres) are dedicated to the development biological and ethnic terms. every terrestrial geographic and climatic region of cooperative environmental management found on . Humankind accomplished this activities that give rise to an alternative Ethnic diversity within the remarkable feat of single species adaptation sustainable development model (cooperation Archipelago Biosphere through the development of ethnic diversity. In or transition zones). Reserve human development terms, therefore, ethnic The archipelago of San Andres, Old Provi- a. The Convention on , which variations can be seen as comparable to an dence, and Santa Catalina is located in the ratified in the congressional expansion of biological diversity in other western Caribbean and covers approximately law 165 of 1994, stimulated the United species of the natural kingdom. 350,000 square kilometers of marine area. Nations Environment Program and the Global Recognition of the reality and significance Related to the Antilles in historical and Environment Facility to commission the of ethnic diversity is of the utmost importance ethnocultural terms, it has been an important Assessment (GBA) because part of the solution to the dilemma and strategic Colombian territory since the which was completed in 1996. The GBA of how to achieve sustainable development 1800s and gained the status of Colombia’s repeatedly emphasizes that the main impacts is contained within the traditional knowledge only oceanic department in article 309 of the on biodiversity are caused by human use of local ethnic groups. In addition, since National Constitution of 1991. The actual and management. This study, now a seminal environmental problems must be solved by landmass consists of three major islands, reference on the topic of biodiversity, also people, in order to mobilize local communi- five atolls to the north of the major islands, emphasizes that in questions of how to protect ties to act towards this goal, their societies and two atolls to the south. The Corporation biodiversity and develop socio-economic must be united around a common vision of

San Andres Archipelago

1 has a Ph. D in Marine from the University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston, . A former Executive Director of the Institute of Jamaica, she has been representing Jamaica at the international level in the area of Biodiversity since 1994 and chaired the national committee responsible for developing the country’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. She is currently the Chair of Jamaica’s CITES. Scientific AuthorityHope Road, Kingston 5, Jamaica, E-mail: [email protected]. 2 has a Ph. D in Marine Ecology from the University of the West Indies, Mona, Kingston, Jamaica. A former Executive Director of the Institute of Jamaica, she has been representing Jamaica at the international level in the area of Biodiversity since 1994 and chaired the national committee responsible for developing the country’s National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. She is currently the Chair of Jamaica’s CITES.

108 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ISLAND AFFAIRS 109 environmental protection and sustainable actualities, such as: of other English-speaking West development which grows out of a shared • the importance and meaning of land within Indian islands, the natives of the archipelago understanding of the cultural and ethnic reality the culture; have nonetheless developed a particular of their past, present, and future situations. • the system of property rights and actual ethnic identity within the Caribbean region as One of the first worldwide programs to land ownership; a result of adapting to specific environmental explicitly incorporate the concept of ethnic • religion -- particularly in regard to beliefs circumstances. Predominant among these diversity was the UNESCO Man and the about humankind’s designated role in the defining factors are: Biosphere (MAB) program. The World natural world, the creation, and sabbath or • the small amount of landmass within the Network of Biosphere Reserves protects holy day practices; archipelago (San Andres has 25 square both biological and ethnic diversity. Indeed, • methods of raising and gathering food kilometres, Old Providence has 20, and the a cornerstone is the belief that sustainable and ; entire archipelago has approximately 52.); development can best be realized by combin- • systems for handling water, , and waste • the islands’ geographic isolation within ing traditional ethnic responses to the environ- products; the Caribbean; ment with appropriate new technologies, • ways that overall lifestyle have balanced and • scarcity of ; understanding that local programs of sustain- restrained use and consumption. • the high rate of terrestrial biodiversity able development and conserva- Not only will people respond better and relative to the smallness of the land area; tion need to be rooted in the realities and become more committed to programs which • access to a wealth of marine biological traditions of the local people. The Seville directly emerge from and appeal to their variation; Strategy for Biosphere Reserves of 1995 ethnic situations, but such programs, by being • an actual location to the southwest of the has as goal I: “Use biosphere reserves to based on tangible and practical realities, are major Atlantic hurricane path. conserve natural and cultural diversity.” far more likely to succeed. When a culture has emerged from a colo- This goal is further elaborated in objective nialist New World heritage (rather than being I.1 which reads: “Improve the coverage of b. The Environmental Action Plan for Latin indigenous per se), clearly its ethnicity has natural and cultural biodiversity by means of America and the Caribbean, adopted in also been profoundly affected and formed the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.” 1990 by 35 countries in the region including by outside cultural pressures and historical With the acceptance that the dominant Colombia, says: factors. Many such factors contributed to the quantitative growth model of development In Latin America and the Caribbean, there specific acculturation of the islander people. is not environmentally sustainable and that are at least 480 ethnic groups that have remark- Especially significant were the proximity development criteria must vary depending ably adapted to their natural surroundings and to ’s Miskito Coast, the on the specific environmental conditions, have traditional agrarian cultures endowed historical reality that the society of the the realization has come that much of the with precise knowledge of natural resources, archipelago did not grow out of a Caribbean damage done to environments, particularly consumption patterns, suitable work and, plantation society, and the fact that the island in this century, has resulted from the failure to above all, a concept of the environment that culture was left to develop on its own for acknowledge that local cultures have the know- is not antagonistic. The deterioration of this several hundred years with minimal outside how to manage local . For example, invaluable cultural heritage is resulting in political interference or direction. since indigenous peoples unconsciously enormous ecological costs. These environmental and cultural realities functioned within natural boundaries, vital The Action Plan seeks to tap the environmen- contributed to forming a society that was still information relative to what we now call tal knowledge and management capacity that characterized as recently as 1960 by: carrying capacities can be found within the some ethnic groups of the region have achieved, • a high level of self-sufficiency and inde- collective knowledge of ethnic cultures. which could serve as a basis for the design of pendence; In the process of designing both sustain- local environmental management projects. • a particularly egalitarian and democratic able development projects and appropriate Within Colombia, one of the main ethnic class structure; environmental education programs for a minorities is the native islander of • virtually no technological development; region, environmental problems and methods the archipelago of San Andres, Providence, • a productive and sustainable agrarian and must be analysed in the perspective of cultural and Santa Catalina. Close in heritage to the subsistence fishing economy; • a system of measuring wealth in terms of “real” goods, especially an abundance of food and an amount of land and/or animals, rather than in monetary terms; • an exceptionally high quality of (and actual standard of living within the region); • functional conservation practices -- par-

110 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ISLAND AFFAIRS ticularly in the management of scarce soil • environmental education programs based in the humid tropics. Endemic and freshwater resources and in the small in ethnic realities; are present in less quantity, making them amount of garbage and contamination • organizing at the grassroots more vulnerable to human activity. Indeed, generated. level; any alterations in ecosystems can produce Development policies of the last three • increased local autonomy and community transformations, and the resulting changes decades have resulted in massive environmen- participation in environmental conservation are unpredictable in the majority of cases. tal degradation, especially in San Andres, and development planning; Also, because of the limited and and a growing loss of ethnic identity. The • management plans which integrate local isolation of certain oceanic islands, scientists environment and culture of Old Providence interactions between the community and have theorized that they are particularly and Santa Catalina have remained more intact the environment, traditional resource use generative places for species specialization. but the possibility of large-scale development and development, and appropriate native The importance of locally protecting spe- by outside forces remains a reality of the technologies; cies diversity and is clear since current situation. The people of the archipelago • development of programs which allow access the islands serve as both crucibles and are confronted by the same threats that are to sustainable alternative technologies; microcosms of the great ecosystem that is destroying ethnic and biological diversity • a strong land-use plan and territorial our biosphere. throughout the world -- overpopulation, ordering process based on traditional use urbanization, increasing pressure on natural and research on carrying capacities; resources and ecosystems, poorly planned • special regulations to restrict immigration development, and the resulting loss of ethnic and construction; responses, self-reliance, and cultural identity. • openness about and enforcement of local, However, as one of the least environmentally national, and international norms that degraded areas remaining in the Caribbean protect biological and ethnic diversity; region, these tiny islands could serve as models • preparation for and application to join the of small island development and recuperation UNESCO World Network of Biosphere if their biologic and ethnic diversity could be Reserves. protected, respected, and allowed to flourish in future development planning. With these goals Biodiversity within in mind, current general strategies to encourage the Archipelago conservation and sustainable development both The biodiversity of small islands like San environmentally and culturally include: Andres, Old Providence, and Santa Catalina • special management plans for significant is obviously limited when compared to the ecosystems; abundance of continental zones, particularly

Terrestrial guinep (Melicoccus bijugatus), and assorted • Mountains: with a maximum of San Andres has residual in only a citrus. about 360 meters, these are located few areas because much of the The islands of Old Providence and Santa in the centre of the islands and are was converted to coconut plantations Catalina are the only islands in the archi- characterized as rugged and craggy. years ago, and a growing amount of pelago where a true tropical forest ecosys- • Hills: with maximum of about wooded area has been sacrificed to tem developed. This forest was not studied 100 meters, these are found surround- make space for the massive immigration, until recently, but current research has ing the mountains and are rounded, primarily from the , that has produced valuable information. As the having resulted from erosion of the occurred since 1960. Nevertheless, in general environmental conditions of these mountains. the patches of native vegetation which islands supported the growth of the tropical • Plains: these include beaches and remain are still found representative forest with its resultant species diversity, it alluvial valleys which are of either forestal trees including cedar (Cedrela is of value to briefly present some of these marine or alluvial origin. odorata), matarraton (Gliricidia sepium), conditions. The islands are surrounded by a well- kapok or cotton tree (Ceiba petandra), Old Providence and Santa Catalina are developed barrier reef, especially to the stinking toe (Cassia grandis), birch gum mountainous islands with respective land north-northeast or windward side. This (Bursera simaruba), guacimo (Guazuma areas of 20.8 and 1.3 square kilometers. coral reef system covers approximately ulmifolia), hog plum (Spondias mombin), According to geological studies, the islands 255 square kilometers and encloses and june plum (Spondias purpurea). originated as an atoll 80 million years an extensive lagoon which is rich in Many yards in the native sections of San ago (Miocene). The present topography sea grass beds. The coastal areas have Andres are well-planted with ornamental resulted from later eruptions which took the mangrove swamps necessary to flowers and fruit trees which are also place approximately 30 million years ago. complete a highly intact reef ecosystem found in the wooded sections. Especially Many researchers suggest that the two which can be characterized as very abundant are breadfruit (Artocarpus alti- islands were connected at one . Techni- productive. lis), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), mango cal studies made by CORALINA in 1997 The precipitation cycle is monomodal - the (Mangifera indica), guava (Psidium isolated 23 geomorphological units that can first season is dry (February through April guajava), almond (Terminalia catappa), be grouped into three main types: with May considered to be transitional)

110 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ISLAND AFFAIRS 111 and the second season is described as (Byrsonima crassifolia), and Faramea for example, the species known as “lobo wet (June through December with Janu- occidentalis are common in the forest. The pollero” in San Andres. Detailed studies ary transitional). The heaviest occur mean base area for the trees is 22 m/ha, need to be made on both the precise in October and November. However, the with an average of 17 meters in height and impacts of these introduced species and distribution of is far from regular; a density of 0.1 ind/m;, which indicates on the group in general. out of a total mean annual rainfall of that this forest is not primary but is in good An important class of land animals on approximately 1,600 mm, more than 70 condition and is growing towards climax. the islands are the land crabs percent usually falls in a period of a Shrubs are the most abundant vegetation of which there are several species; two few days. This situation causes frequent type, covering 1,444 hectares (70 percent). of these are particularly important for water shortages, little possibility of The most dominant species of this type their food and commercial value, black replenishing wells or (which of vegetation is the cockspur tree (Acacia crab (Gecarcinus ruricola) and shankey are consequently not an important human collinsii) which can grow in dense thickets, (Gecarcinus lateralis). These species water source on these islands), and sometimes monospecifically. Many acacias are wide-spread in both the forest and irregular and intermittent strong gully or are especially adapted to dry conditions coastal zones. Annually these crabs stream flows During the years when the and are common invaders of grasslands effect a massive migration to the sea to amount of rainfall is particularly low and and shrubby . This shrub has . Each black crab deposits around air temperatures are correspondingly a symbiotic relationship with a species of 40,000 eggs, which grow for two months higher (for example, during periods influ- stinging ant (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea) in the form of marine plankton before enced by EL NIÑO), natural regeneration that protects the tree from encroachment returning to land. CORALINA is in the of the forest does not occur because of by other vegetation and human or animal process of studying the black crab and the water deficit. use; the exception being several species developing regulations to insure its As would be expected under these envi- of resident birds that nest in the cockspur. sustainable use, particularly by protecting ronmental conditions, the vegetation Other significant shrubs include: Cordia it from vehicular traffic in its annual in the islands has been classified as collococca, Cassearia sylvestris, Randia migration to and from the sea. tropical dry forest. At the present time, glumeri, Croton glabelus, and Pithecellobium 374 species have been identified which dulce. Additionally, many fruit trees are Birds are distributed between 93 families found in both mature forest and shrub The most important class of terrestrial ver- and 7 pteridophytes (Lowy, 1994). The ecosystems. tebrates is birds including land, marine, main plant families are Euphorbiaceae, At the present time on Old Providence, 425 and migratory species. Approximately Fabaceae, Compositae, Rubiaceae, hectares have been converted to pasture 98 species of birds have been identified Malvaceae, and Caesalpinaceae. Seventy for grazing cattle. Annually more shrubs, in the islands, the majority of which are percent of the species are considered and occasionally forest, are cleared to migratory. Only about 18 are resident to be native and 23 percent to have make grasslands. Besides posing a major with 2 endemic species known in San been introduced. There are several threat to the future of the natural flora, Andres and several endemic subspecies species represented that have been cattle-raising increases the amount of soil found in Old Providence. Some of these found elsewhere only in Jamaica; for erosion, destroys the process of natural species are found on the major islands, example, the species of palm Cocotrinax regeneration, and is not an important and some marine species are found only jamaicensis. Complementary other spe- food source for the islands. To protect on the north and south cays. cies are widely distributed throughout the terrestrial biodiversity of the island, Among the most important resident spe- the New World. CORALINA is working with the 80 or so cies are the doves: wild pigeon (Zenaida These species show an affinity with the persons who are raising an estimated 400 asiatica), Caribbean or ground dove flora of the Antilles and Central America head of cattle with the goal of developing a (Leptotila jamaicensis), and balley or as well as with that of northern South sustainable solution to this problem. bald pate (Columba leucocephala). Other America. Reknowned botanist, Alwyn H. resident birds of primary importance Gentry, remarked in his notes on Terrestrial are the grass bird (Tiaris bicolor), wish Old Providence that: Less is known about the fauna of the islands. wish (Coereba flaveola), god bird or Floristically the forest is very Antillean.... There are a number of resident and endemic hummingbird (Anthracotorax prevostii), (However,) the forest is very diverse reptile species which include two species banana bird or Jamaican oriole (Icterus by Antillean standards; with ca. 60spp. of -- silver snake (Leptothyphlops leucopteryx), nightingale (Mimus gilvus), >=2.5cm dbh in 0.1ha. This compares albiprons) and Coriophanes andrensis -- and Caribbean elaenia (Elaenia martinica), with an average of 43 in Greater Antillean abundant lizards such as the iguana (Iguana and several species of warblers (Dend- moist forest and 46 in dry forest. It is also iguana), penny lizard (Anolis pinchoti), roicae) and vireos (Vireonidae). The old unusually well preserved for the Antilles.... brown lizard (Anolis concolor), jack lizard man bird or rainbird (Coccyzus minor), Overall evaluation: An interesting mix of (Ameiva ameiva), blue or green lizard an endemic subspecies of cuckoo, is mainland and Antillean flora, but more (Cnemidorphorus lemniscatus), and snake- a favorite bird and the subject of local related to the latter and thus of great waiting-boy (Mabuyo mabuyo). Geckos and legends on the islands that is in danger conservational significance. salamanders are represented by Aristelliger of extinction as its chosen is georgeenis and Sphaerodactylus argus. frequently mangrove swamps. The mature forest occupies 148 hectares Two species of land turtles are found: (7.22 percent of the island’s area) and hikiti (Geochelone carbonaria) and the San Mammals is found in the mountains, relatively far Andres’ swamp turtle, locally called “swanka.” The sole terrestrial mammals found are from human settlements. CORALINA The only registered amphibean is a species several species of bats, including Natalus field studies report 145 species, with the of endemic toad (Leptodactylus insularis). brevimanus, Artibeus jamaicensus, and most diversity in the sector known as In addition, the reptile group includes more Molossus molussus. Marine mammals Freshwater. Species like the kapok or introduced species than does any other have occasionally appeared on the cotton tree (Ceiba petandra), first stick group; of special significance are the boa beaches, some of which have been rare (Chlorophora tinctoria), strangler fig or woala () and the lizard species. Although whales are not com- (Ficus sp.), promenta (Pimenta dioica), known as ishillie (Ctenosaura similis). Some monly seen in the coastal , they trumpet tree (Cecropia peltata), birch of these have become abundant enough are intermittently sighted. gum (Bursera simaruba), crabwood to disturb the islands’ ecological balance;

112 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ISLAND AFFAIRS Coastal and marine resources area of approximately 255 km2. This reef for queen conch and spiny lobster in the Coral reef structure is characterized as the second largest true southwestern Caribbean. Corals are widespread throughout the barrier reef in the Western Hemisphere archipelago and the reef formations are (Geister, 1997). The coral reef system Serrana is an extensive reef complex particularly complex as a result of their surrounding these islands is divided into of around 36 km in length and 15 km oceanic location and the heavy wave 4 units: fore-reef terrace, windward barrier wide, including the insular platform. There action and turbulance to which they have reef, lagoon with patch and fringing reefs, is an extensive lagoon with numerous adapted. The reef formations can be and leeward and outer shelves. Identified seaweed patches and sea grass beds divided into three large complexes: 1) species include Millepora spp., which are highly productive. There is barrier reefs and sections lying north, astreoides, P. porites, P. furcata (var), P. a secondary barrier, long and narrow, northwest, west, and southwest on the clavaria, Diploria strigosa, D. labyrinthiformis, with the predominant Acropora palmata shelf, 2) reef sections and patches in the D. clivosa, Agrarcia agaricites, A. crassa, creating a calm system, with reef patches lagoon behind the barrier reefs, and 3) Acropora palmata, A. cervicornis, Colpophyl- (Montastraea) covering 60% of the coral communities and reefs on bordering lia natans, Favia fragum, Dichocoenia stock- bottom. Other plentiful coral species ledges to the west. esii, Montastraea annularis,M.cavernosa, are Agaricia agaricites, Porites spp., M. faveolata, Dendrogyra cylindrus, Steph- Mycetophyllia ferox, Diploria spp., and San Andres Island is surrounded by a anocoenia michelini,Isophyllastrea rigida, Siderastrea siderea, among others. complex reef system on the insular shelf Siderastrea siderea, and S. radians. The area made up of a variety of coral formations: also includes black corals, fire corals, and Roncador is an elongated atoll of approx- barrier and fringing reefs, patches, and lace corals as well as zoanthids. Because imately 15 km in length and 7 km width. associated lagoons. The windward barrier of huge populations of the masked hamlet, The windward peripheral ref is almost reef located on the eastern edge of the this specie received the name: continuous for 12 km and breaks surface shelf is composed of a series of calcare- providencianus; and is on the IUCN Red in calm . The lagoon, which is ous terraces covered with well List. shallower than the others in the region, developed coral communities (50% live is exposed at low . Dense patches of coral) including a wide diversity of hard Albuquerque Cay (South-Southwest Cay) Montastraea almost reach the surface, corals, octocorals, and sponges. This Is the only reef complex that resemble a with thickets of Acropora cervicornis reef, although not unbroken, runs from true atollon, being nearly circular with a growing along the crest. In the southern the extreme north to the south end of the peripheral reef to windward that extends part of the lagoon, reef patches cover island and is 15 km long and 60-80 m along the north, east, and southeast sides 70% of the bed. Other significant coral wide, providing effective breakwaters and for close to 6 km. In shallow waters reef species are Acropora palmata, Diploria a large lagoon. The coral reefs found in the crest is barely submerged, and composed spp., Agaricia undata, A. lamarcki, Mon- waters surrounding San Andres are made by a combination of Millepora-Palythoa- tastraea franksi, Mycethophyllia aliciae up of approximately 40 identified species Porolithon. The lagoon has two well defined and M. reesi. The Gorgonians are numer- including: Millepora spp., Porites porites, P. depths: 9 m and 15 m, were well developed ous, and therefore it is presumed that the astreoides, P. furcata, P. divaricata, Diploria sea grass beds and a significant quantity massive mortality that devastated this strigosa, D. clivosa, D. labyrinthiformis, of hard corals, octocorals, patches of Mon- species in other areas of the Caribbean Acropora palmata, A. cervicornis, Montas- tastraea and peripheral reefs of Acropora had little effect here and on Serrana. traea annularis, M. cavernosa, Sideratrea palmata can be found. siderea, S. radians, Agaricia spp., Favia Mangroves fragum, Isophyllastrea rigida, Dendrogyra Bolivar and Courtown Cay resemble a There are twelve mangrove lagoons cylindrus, Stephanocoenia intersepta, kidney-shaped atoll that has a diameter on San Andres, Old Providence, and Madracis decactis, M. mirabilis, Leptoseris of a little over 13 km. The windward reefs Ketlina, made up of red, black, white, and cucullata, Meandrina meandrites, Colpo- developed towards the northeast, east and buttonwood mangroves. The mangrove phyllia natans, C. amaranthus, Dichocoenia southeast. Strong waves and currents, stands show classic zoning pattern with stokesi, Mycetophyllia spp.,and Eusmillia turbulences, and an intricate system of tidal height, with red mangroves in shal- fastigiata. Other corals commonly found caves have created a unique and unusual low water, black mangroves in intertidal include antipatharians, gorgonians, Sty- reef environment (Geister, 1997). The mud flats, and white and buttonwood laster roseus, Zoanthus sociatus and northern part of the lagoon is covered with growing higher still. Old Providence Palythoa spp. dense patches of reef, predominantly hard and Ketlina has six major mangrove The coral communities and reefs border- coral of the such as Millepora, Diplo- swamps: Oyster Creek, Manchineel Bay, ing the western ledges show the most ria, Montastraea, Porites. and Acropora. Southwest Bay, Old Town, Jones Point, influence of human activity. Coral Few years ago there was abundant queen and Ketlina. San Andres has seven main mortality here reaches levels between conch and spiny lobster on both cays. mangrove swamps, only three of which 5% and 100%. The most affected spe- are in direct contact with the sea (Honda cies is Acropora cervicornis which is Queena is the most extensive atoll of Bay, Hooker Bight, Cove Seaside). practically extinct; other species including the Archipelago, although it is commonly Several mangrove lagoons on these A. palmata, Agaricia agaricites, and described as a half atoll with 60 km in length islands were destroyed by development. Colpophylia natans are also affected. and between 10 and 20 km wide. It has a However, current law strictly protects This deterioration is explained by mac- windward reef that extends more than 40 km existing mangroves from any human roregional processes and by the effects and includes shelf areas. Although it doesn’t activity. of anthropogenic agents (sedimentation, have terrestrial area, the bank is shallow contamination, boat traffic, and tourism). and partially exposed at the low tide. The Seagrasses reef is mainly composed of Millepora spp., Seagrass beds in the Archipelago are The Old Providence and Santa Catalina and Acropora palmata that is common in the found primarily along the shore of the reef complex is regionally unique because leeward area. Irregular patch reefs, exhibiting larger islands. Beds are made up primarily it surrounds the only high altitude volcanic both ribbon and knoll configurations are of turtle ( testudinum) and island found on the MesoAmerican shelf. plentiful. This is one of the least studied manatee (Syringodium filiforme) grass. The barrier reef is 32 km long and varies areas of the Archipelago, in spite of being A third species, Halodule wright is also from 50-200 m in width, covering a total considered one of the most productive sites found in waters around Old Providence.

112 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ISLAND AFFAIRS 113 The seagrass beds appear to be produc- Beaches are narrow, with low profiles and Of the identified fish species, 131 species tive and healthy in the areas where they no dunes. from 46 families have been recorded in still occur. Nevertheless, they continue to Old Providence and Ketlina has 5 principal San Andres coastal waters. One of the 2 face threats from , development, beaches - Manchineel Bay, Southwest Bay, endemic species, Gambusia aestiputeus, and boating activity in shallow water. Most Freshwater Bay, Allen Bay, and Old John Bay is found in the Hooker Bight mangroves. of these threats are currently regulated - with a number more in isolated coves; carefully by local law. the sand is of coral composition. Although Sea Turtles Only one research study has been done small and regionally unexceptional the Four identified sea turtle species use on sea grasses within the archipelago intactness of their natural settings, the lack beaches in the Archipelago for nesting. which was realized from February to Sep- of development or pollution, the quality of Loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) are tember of 1997 (Angel and Gonzalez). It white sand, and their relative privacy are the most common nesters, particularly on reached the following conclusions: associated aspects that greatly enhance the Seranilla Bank in June and July. Hawksbill • Two registered species are found value of these beaches as a tourist resource. turtles (Eretmochelys imbricata) also nest around San Andres Island -- Thalassia Sea turtles used to nest frequently on the frequently, with Serrana and Roncador testudinum and Syringodium filiforme, islands and nests are still regularly found at Banks the most common place and August the latter forming a small structurally several of the more isolated beaches, espe- the most common time. Green (Chelonia homogeneous monospecies patch to cially those on the uninhabited north coast mydas) and leatherback turtles (Dermo- the west of the island. of Ketlina. One of the major environmental chelys coriacea) have also been seen • Three registered species are found problems on the islands is sand- nesting. It is also possible that the Archi- near Old Providence Island -- Thalassia which seriously threatens the quality and pelago is home to Kemp’s and olive testudinum, Syringodium filiforme, and size of most beaches. ridley turtles (Lepidochelys kempii and L. Halodule wrightii. Two species are found Native beach vegetation is trees like sea olivacea) but these species have not yet near Ketlina -- Thalassia testudinum grape (Coccoloba uvifera), seaside mahoe been described. All of these sea turtles and Syringodium filiforme. (Thespesia populnea), coconut palm (Cocos receive international protection. Each is • The beds of H. wrightii are situated nucifera), and West Indian almond (Ter- listed in appendix I of CITES, reserved for in shallows and near mangroves and minalia catappa); shrubs including sea rare or , and is listed are separate from T. testudinum and purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum), bay as critically endangered (hawksbill and S. filiforme. cedar (Suriana maritima), beach bean Kemp’s ridley) or endangered (all others) • The sea grass beds are structurally (Canavalia maritima), marigold (Complaya on the IUCN Red List. Beaches on the heterogeneous as shown by high fluc- trilobata), wild plantain (Canna indica), and northern banks and southern atolls play tuations in density, , and mor- sea lavendar (Tournefortia gnaphalodes); a particularly important role as nesting phometry. grasses like saltgrass (Disticlis spicata) and habitat for these species, although histori- • In shallow zones, boat traffic, anchors, shoregrass (Stenotaphrum secundatum, S. cally they also nested on the main islands. and multiple coastal effluents are some kuntze), and trailing vines, especially beach Sporadic nesting still occurs in San Andres of the anthropogenic causes of sea morning-glories (Ipomoea pes-caprae, I. along with regular nesting at several spots grass deterioration around the islands. alba) and coral vine (Antigon lectopus). in Old Providence, most notably Old John Large amounts of algae also wash up and Mona Bays on the northern coast Beaches on north and east facing beaches, espe- of Ketlina. The sea grass beds of the The most important beaches in San cially Sargassum sp. and Dictyopteris sp. southern cays are particularly important Andres are: Sprat Bight, Coccoplum Bay, (CORALINA, 2000). feeding grounds for immature species Rocky Cay, Sound Bay, Smith Channel, particularly. and Elsy Bar. Other popular tourist Fish destinations include the nearshore cays, Two hundred seventy-three species of Sea Birds which are visited by an estimated two- associated reef fish have been identified 76 species of migratory birds, together thirds of all visitors: Johnny Cay, Haines within the Archipelago. These include two with 18 resident species including 2 Cay, and Rose Cay. described endemic species: Gambusia endemic and some endemic sub-species, Beaches in San Andres are made of aestiputeus and Hypoplectrus providen- have been detected in the Archipelago materials from offshore, with fine white cianus. In addition to these endemic spe- (Bond, 1980 and Hilty and Brown, 1986). sand of predominantly organic cies, several other species are listed on The majority are to be found in the origin. The load of land-based sediments the IUCN Red List, including: the cotuero, mangroves, cays and coastal areas. The into the shallow lagoon enclosed by the whitespotted, whitelined, retuiclated, and information on marine birds is scarce, reef system to the north and east of the splendid toadfish (Batrachoides manglae, but the most abundant species are the island is small, allowing corals and sea Sanopus astrifer, S. greenfieldorum, S. man o’ war (Fregata magnificens), the grasses to remain relatively healthy in reticulatus, and S. splendidus); hogfish laughing gull (Larus atricilla), the tern spite of threats posed by other factors (Lachnolaimus maximus); mutton and (Sterna spp.), and the red-foot and brown such as improper waste disposal and cubera snapper (Lutjanus analis and L. foot booby. over-extraction of species. Beaches are cyanopterus); rainbow parrotfish (Scarus The northern banks are also an important replenished by the breakdown of corals guacamaia); bigeye tuna (Thunnus obesus); nesting area for sea birds, particularly and other animal and plant species on the jewfish, marbled, Warsaw, and Nassau red-footed and brown boobies (Sula dac- coastal shelf (Kielman, 1999). This sand (Epinephelus itajara, E. inermis, E. nigritus, tylatrea, S. sula) and laughing gulls (Larus is moved by wave action and currents. and E. striatus); red porgy (Pagrus pagrus); atricilla). Magnificent frigate birds Fregata( queen triggerfish (Balistes vetula); and the magnificens) terns (Sterna fuscata, S. smalltooth and largetooth sawfish (Pristis maximus.), and puffins (Puffinus puffinus, pectinata and P. perotteti). All of these P. griseus) nest in the region, and are com- species are listed as vulnerable except: the monly found throughout. Many other shore Nassau , red porgy, and smalltooth and sea birds pass through the region sawfish are listed as endangered; and the during migrations as the Archipelago is at jewfish, Warsaw grouper, and largetooth the edge of the western flyway. sawfish are listed as critically endangered.

114 INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ISLAND AFFAIRS