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WNT Signaling in Melanoma International Journal of Molecular Sciences Review WNT Signaling in Melanoma Anna Gajos-Michniewicz and Malgorzata Czyz * Department of Molecular Biology of Cancer, Medical University of Lodz, 6/8 Mazowiecka Street, 92–215 Lodz, Poland; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +48-42272570 Received: 22 May 2020; Accepted: 7 July 2020; Published: 9 July 2020 Abstract: WNT-signaling controls important cellular processes throughout embryonic development and adult life, so any deregulation of this signaling can result in a wide range of pathologies, including cancer. WNT-signaling is classified into two categories: β-catenin-dependent signaling (canonical pathway) and β-catenin-independent signaling (non-canonical pathway), the latter can be further divided into WNT/planar cell polarity (PCP) and calcium pathways. WNT ligands are considered as unique directional growth factors that contribute to both cell proliferation and polarity. Origin of cancer can be diverse and therefore tissue-specific differences can be found in WNT-signaling between cancers, including specific mutations contributing to cancer development. This review focuses on the role of the WNT-signaling pathway in melanoma. The current view on the role of WNT-signaling in cancer immunity as well as a short summary of WNT pathway-related drugs under investigation are also provided. Keywords: WNT; β-catenin; WNT5A; melanoma; immune evasion; signal transduction crosstalk 1. Introduction The study of WNT-signaling was initiated in the early 19800s by the discovery of Wingless, a Drosophila segment polarity gene [1] and then the mouse proto-oncogene Int1 [2]. The term ‘WNT’ comes from a combination of these two names of the same gene [3]. The WNT-signaling is evolutionarily conserved and plays an important role in the embryonic development, adult tissue homeostasis and regeneration [4]. Furthermore, it maintains genetic stability and is important for cell fate and differentiation, cell proliferation, cell motility, apoptosis and stem cell maintenance [5]. Aberrant functioning of WNT-signaling is associated with a number of diseases, including embryonic malformations, degenerative diseases and cancer [6–9]. WNT-signaling is divided into two pathways: β-catenin-dependent also known as canonical or WNT/β-catenin pathway and β-catenin-independent—also termed as non-canonical—which can be further divided into WNT/planar cell polarity (PCP) and calcium pathway that in some circumstances can antagonize WNT/β-catenin-signaling [10]. The β-catenin-dependent pathway mainly controls cell proliferation, whereas β-catenin-independent signaling regulates cell polarity and migration. This distinction, however, is conventional as these two main pathways form a network with concomitant crosstalk and mutual regulation [11,12]. Better understanding of the mechanisms that govern the highly context-dependent outcome of WNT-signaling in different tumors is important for the development of appropriate treatment strategies. This review is focused on WNT-signaling in melanoma, a tumor derived from melanocytes that arise from neural crest cells. 1.1. WNT Ligands in Canonical and Non-Canonical WNT Signaling Pathways The WNT family of secreted proteins includes 19 cysteine-rich glycoproteins (~40 kDa; ~350–400 amino acids with a 20–85% sequence identity) [4,13], in which postranslational modifications comprising glycosylation and palmitoylation are considered to be essential for their biologic activity [6,14]. Porcupine, endoplasmic reticulum resident acyltransferase, is the enzyme that is required for the Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 4852; doi:10.3390/ijms21144852 www.mdpi.com/journal/ijms Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, 4852 2 of 31 attachment of palmitoleic acid to WNT ligands [6,8,14]. Then, WNT ligands bind to an evolutionary highly conserved transmembrane protein Evenness interrupted/Wntless (EVI/WLS) and are shuttled to the plasma membrane via the Golgi apparatus [15]. By clathrin-mediated endocytosis, EVI/WLS Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 32 is recycled in the Golgi apparatus by the retromer complex. There are several routes enabling WNT proteins toendoplasmic exit the reticulum cells: by resident solubilization, acyltransferase, exosome is the enzyme formation that is orrequired by lipoprotein for the attachment particles of (LPPs), serving aspalmitoleic extracellular acid to transporters WNT ligands [6,8,14]. to achieve Then, long-rangeWNT ligands signalingbind to an evolutionary [4,8,15]. The highly interactions conserved between transmembrane protein Evenness interrupted/Wntless (EVI/WLS) and are shuttled to the plasma WNTs andmembrane their specific via the Golgi receptors apparatus activate [15]. ByWNT clathrin pathways:-mediated endocytosis, canonical EVI/WLS (β-catenin-dependent) is recycled in the Golgi (Figure1) and non-canonicalapparatus by ( βthe-catenin-independent) retromer complex. There are (Figure several2 routes) that enabling cooperate WNT with proteins each to exit other the incells: regulation by of importantsolubilization, cellular processes. exosome formation Generally, or by the lipoprotein ligand subtypeparticles (LPPs), determines serving as the extracellular mode of thetransporters WNT-signaling to achieve long-range signaling [4,8,15]. The interactions between WNTs and their specific receptors activate network.WNT WNT1, pathways: WNT2, canonical WNT3, (β-catenin WNT3A,-dependent) WNT8a, (Figure WNT8b, 1) and non WNT10a-canonical and(β-catenin WNT10b-independent) are activators of the canonical(Figure 2) pathway,that cooperate whereas with eachWNT4, other in regulation WNT5A, of important WNT5B, cellular WNT6, processes. WNT7a, Generally, WNT7b the ligand and WNT11 are commonsubtype activators determines of the non-canonical mode of the WNT WNT-signaling-signaling network.[ 16WNT1,,17]. WNT2, WNTs WNT3, are classifiedWNT3A, WNT8a, as directional growth factorsWNT8b, with WNT10a unique and WNT10b properties are activators since of they the canonical influence pathway, proliferation whereas WNT4, and WNT5A, polarity, WNT5B, and both may WNT6, WNT7a, WNT7b and WNT11 are common activators of non-canonical WNT-signaling [16,17]. occur atWNTs the same are classified time andas directional in the growth same factors cells [with18]. unique Moreover, properties WNTs since they can influence act in proliferation an autocrine and paracrineand manner polarity, [6 and,19 ,both20]. may occur at the same time and in the same cells [18]. Moreover, WNTs can act in an autocrine and paracrine manner [6,19,20]. Figure 1. Simplified scheme of canonical WNT -signaling pathway. (A) In the absence of WNT ligands (WNT Figure 1.OFFSimplified state), β-catenin scheme is phosphorylated of canonical by a destruction WNT -signaling complex consisting pathway. of AXIN, (A APC,) In GSK3β the absence and CK1α of WNT ligands (WNTto be further OFF ubiquitina state),tedβ for-catenin proteasomal is phosphorylated degradation. In the absence by a of destruction R-spondins, E3 complex ubiquitin ligases consisting of AXIN, APC,RNF43/ZNRF3 GSK3β targetand FZD CK1 forα lysosomalto be furtherdegradation; ubiquitinated (B) binding of WNT for ligands proteasomal to FZD receptors degradation. and LRP In the co-receptors activates WNT-signaling (WNT ON state). AXIN is associated with LRP5/6, whereas DVL is absence of R-spondins, E3 ubiquitin ligases RNF43/ZNRF3 target FZD for lysosomal degradation; recruited to FZD, which results in dissociation of the destructive complex. β-catenin is accumulated and (B) bindingstabilized of WNT in the ligands cytosol, and to FZDthen unphosphorylated receptors and β LRP-catenin co-receptors is translocated activates to the nucleus WNT-signaling to activate the (WNT ON state).expression AXIN of isWNT associated target genes. with APC— LRP5adenomatosis/6, whereas polyposis DVL coli; isAXIN recruited—axis inhibition to FZD, protein; which BCL— results in dissociationB-cell of CLL/lymphoma the destructive protein; complex. BRG-1β—-cateninbrahma-related is accumulated gene-1; CBP— and(CREB) stabilized-binding inprotein; the cytosol, CK1α— and then casein kinase 1α; CK1γ—casein kinase 1γ; CK1ε—casein kinase 1ε; DKK1—Dickkopf-1; DVL—disheveled; β unphosphorylatedFZD—frizzled -cateninreceptor; GSK3β is translocated—glycogen tosynthase the nucleus kinase 3β; to LEF activate—lymphoid the expression enhancer-binding of WNT factor target 1; genes. APC—adenomatosisLGR—leucine-rich polyposis repeat-containing coli; AXIN—axis G-protein coupled inhibition receptor; protein; LRP— BCL—B-celllow-density lipoprotein CLL/lymphoma receptor protein; BRG-1—brahma-related gene-1; CBP—(CREB)-binding protein; CK1α—casein kinase 1α; CK1γ—casein kinase 1γ; CK1"—casein kinase 1"; DKK1—Dickkopf-1; DVL—disheveled; FZD—frizzled receptor; GSK3β—glycogen synthase kinase 3β; LEF—lymphoid enhancer-binding factor 1; LGR—leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein coupled receptor; LRP—low-density lipoprotein receptor related protein; MAK—metastasis associated kinase; PAR1—protease-activated receptor 1; PKC—protein kinase C; PYGO—pygopus; RNF43—ring finger protein 43; sFRP—secreted frizzled-related proteins; TCF—T cell factor; β-TrCP—beta-transducin repeats-containing proteins; WIF1—WNT inhibitory factor 1; WISE—WNT modulator in surface ectoderm; Ub; ubiquitin; ZNRF3—zinc and ring finger protein 3. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020, 21, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 32 related protein; MAK—metastasis associated kinase; PAR1—protease-activated receptor 1; PKC—protein Int.
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