Jyoti Sharma

Sex Trafficking in Nepal: Women’s Experiences of Reintegration Jyoti Sharma Master’s Degree, Humanities and Social Sciences, Tribhuvan University, Nepal A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2015 School of Social Work and Human Services Abstract A much neglected area of research concerns the reintegration of formerly sex trafficked women. Very little is known about Nepalese women’s experiences following their return from brothels in India to their families in Nepal. This research explored the reintegration experiences of twenty formerly trafficked Nepalese women who were released, rescued or had escaped from Indian brothels and returned to live in Nepal. The study sought to answer two questions: how do women survivors of sex trafficking experience reintegration; and what are the barriers and the supporting factors that facilitate reintegration. The data was collected through in-depth interviews. At the time of interview the participants were living in one of three different settings: with their families in a rural village; independently or with their husbands in Kathmandu; or in rehabilitation centres run by anti-trafficking Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) in Kathmandu. Qualitative data analysis revealed that despite the participants sharing the same identity as a returnee from sex trafficking, reintegration is not a uniform experience. The proposition that reintegration is a unique experience is demonstrated in three case studies. At the same time the women in this study shared a number of common experiences. For instance, the effects of the abuse which women experienced in the brothels continued to impact the women’s day to day living long after their return. Most of the twenty women who returned to Nepal with the support of NGOs perceived that many of their choices were governed by NGO staff and they therefore lacked autonomy. While waiting to return to their families, these women reported NGO practices such as being sent for HIV tests without their consent, being pressured to take legal action against their traffickers and disclosure of their trafficking history to their families. These practices violated their rights to self-determination. A few women who returned independently from India to Nepal were able to exercise some autonomy in planning how and when they would return to their families and how they would present themselves to their families. However, the journey home to Nepal for some independent returnees was unpredictable and unsafe in comparison to those women who were assisted by NGOs. The majority of the twenty returnee women were welcomed by their parents. Nevertheless, all participants who had returned to their home and community were vulnerable to prejudice and discrimination, particularly from community members. The discriminatory practices meted out by community members constitute a denial of basic social or civil rights of access to facilities, and inclusion in society. Some women’s experiences further suggest that NGOs played a negative role i in their reintegration largely due to NGO staff failing to adequately assess a returnee’s family situation and lack of follow up and support for the women once they returned home. Community discrimination, lack of access to health facilities and HIV/AIDs medication, and limited job options other than agriculture labouring were the key factors that led women to leave their family and village to live in NGOs or independently in Kathmandu. Just five women were living in their village at the time of interview. Notably, none of the women who had returned home with the assistance of NGOs were living in their home or village at the time of interview. The long term experiences for those women who remained living in their village included developing strategies to cope with villagers’ discriminatory practices, finding a marriage partner and coping with health issues and low income. For independently living women in Kathmandu, many were vulnerable to sexual abuse and struggled to become involved in adequately paid employment in the early days. However, over time most found paid employment and some married a man of their choice. For the women who were living in NGOs, most lacked confidence in finding a job outside the NGO and living independently even though they had undertaken several NGO skills training courses. Many expressed concern about their wellbeing should an NGO where they were living terminate its current support. As numerous NGOs are involved in assisting women in their repatriation, rehabilitation and reintegration, the findings suggest that anti-trafficking NGOs need to take a victim centred approach to assessment of women’s circumstances and pathways to reintegration. Moreover, there needs to be a greater focus on changing discriminatory societal and community attitudes towards returnee women. The study findings suggest that while women’s individual resilience plays an important part in successful reintegration, the main focus for change should be at the structural level. Existing deeply entrenched patterns of discrimination against women generally, and sex-trafficked women in particular, must change if Nepalese women are to be included as equal citizens in the social, cultural and economic life of their country. ii Declaration by Author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis. I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my research higher degree candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award. I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School. I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis. iii Publications during candidature No publications. Publications included in this thesis No publications included. iv Contributions by others to the thesis No contributions by others. Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree None. v Acknowledgements This thesis has been a part of my life for many years. There are numerous people whom I would like to thank for their contribution. These people have professionally and personally supported me to complete this study. Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the School of Social Work and Human Services, The University of Queensland, for providing me the opportunity to conduct this study. I would also like to acknowledge the financial support granted through the Jean and George Campbell-Brown travel scholarship during my study. This enabled me to travel to Nepal to meet experts in the field of sex trafficking, make contact with anti-trafficking organisations, and conduct my field work. I would like to acknowledge and thank my supervisors Dr Gai Harrison and Dr Deborah Setterlund for not only guiding me throughout the candidature period, but also for having patience with me and my research. Truly, it would not have been possible to complete this study without their strong support and encouragement. I very much appreciate the support and patience of Ms Karen Bland in assisting me to improve my written English. Karen devoted considerable time and effort in tutoring me when I embarked on my PhD. I would also like to thank Dr Robyn Haynes, a professional editor, for her service with proof reading within a limited time frame. I would like to acknowledge and thank the anti- trafficking organisations, ABC Nepal, Maiti Nepal and Shakti Samuha, for providing gatekeeper approval to access formally trafficked women and providing space for interviewing these women. Special thanks to Ms Durga Ghimire, the President of ABC Nepal, Ms Anu Radha Koirala, the founder of Maiti Nepal, Mr Bishow Khadka, Director of Maiti Nepal, and Ms Chari Maya Tamang, the (then) Chairperson of Shakti Samuha. I am very grateful to Ms Sumitra Shrestha from Maiti Nepal and Ms Nirmala Baral from ABC Nepal for their support in coordinating interviews with my research participants. Special mention should also be made of Ms Januka Bhattarai and Ms Asmita Acharya from Shakti Samuha. Without their assistance, the field work I conducted in the villages of Nuwakot would not have been possible. I would like to acknowledge the hospitality of the family from Thaprek village in the Nuwakot District who allowed me to stay in their home during my field work. vi Special thanks to my parents, Tej Prasad Sigdel and Subidhya Sigdel, for their moral guidance and support. They encouraged me to study hard and complete this thesis. They also looked after my two young children for a few years in Nepal while I was conducting my study. Thank you also to my brother Kiran Sigdel and his family, and my family friends, Pratikchya Sharma and Hridesh Gajurel, for their support. I would like to thank my husband, Ujjwal Kumar Gautam, my daughter, Aarya Gautam, and my son, Rig Ved Gautam, for coping with my busy schedule and frustration throughout my study.

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