THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS INCORPORATING US ASSOCIATION FOR BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL volume thirteen ● number one ● spring 2014
E UROPEAN EABP A SSOCIATION FOR B ODY- P SYCHOTHERAPY SHADOWS IN THE HISTORY
Shadows in the History of Body Psychotherapy: Part Ii Courtenay Young and Gill Westland
Received 4 April 2013, accepted June 2013
Abstract This article is intended to open up a discussion and to begin to name, reflect on, and gradually start healing some of the wounds that arose throughout the development of body psychotherapy, particularly during the 1960-2000 period.ii It highlights several problems inherent in individuals single-handedly pioneering new methods, and several systemic difficulties in the organization of the original training courses. These Shadows are not unique THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS to body psychotherapy and similar examples of such issues can be found in many other modalities of psychotherapy and in many other communities. They have implications for the wider professional field and also the future development of the field of body psychotherapy that, once named and owned, can be utilized more positively. Because of its length, the article has been split into 2 parts. Part II will be published in Volume 13, Number 2, fall.
Keywords: body psychotherapy, shadow, history, abuse, healing, ethics
International Body Psychotherapy Journal The Art and Science of Somatic Praxis Volume 13, Number 1, spring 2014 ISSN 2169-4745 Printing, ISSN 2168-1279 Online © Author and USABP/EABP. Reprints and permissions [email protected]
Introduction
Acknowledging the Shadow Individuals, organisations, countries, and, of course, the profession of body psychotherapy, all carry their Shadow aspects. Jung saw the Shadow as a merging of unconscious personal
elements with various archetypal contents of the collective unconscious. The Shadow also JOURNAL PSYCHOTHERAPY BODY INTERNATIONAL contains the repressed parts of ourselves that we cannot accept and “the less it is embodied in the individual’s conscious life, the blacker and denser it is” (as cited in Samuels, Shorter & Plaut, 1986, p. 138). The Shadow can further contain elements that have not yet emerged into consciousness and thus this part can only be inferred, often in the form of unconscious or subconscious projections. These projections can become stronger and more irrational, individually and collectively, as the contents of the Shadow move towards consciousness. The Shadow cannot be eradicated, but it is possible to learn to live with it, and even use it constructively (Samuels, Shorter & Plaut, 1986). The Shadow and its corollary, the Light, in Jung’s terminology, both have dangerous and constructive characteristics. Only when we “own” the good and bad aspects (of each) can we move beyond these polarities into a more integrated Self. While I use the terminology of the Shadow, I also indicate a process towards higher levels of consciousness (viz., Thich Nhat Hahn’s poem, “Call Me By My True Names”iii). Jung also believed that, “in spite of its function as a reservoir for human darkness — or perhaps because of this — the shadow is the seat of creativity” so that for some, it may be that “the dark side of his being, his sinister shadow... represents the true spirit of life, as against the
13 14 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS psychoanalysis from Reich’s aboutNational views Socialism, isdifficultnow tosay. Even interest inthebody psychotherapy, separationof orwhetherthis was a(necessary) involvement withsocialistorcommunistideals, whetherthiswasbecauseofhisincreasing of FascismPsychology Psychoanalytic Associationin1934,about18monthsafterhehad first published Reich possible Shadow aspectsofFreud andthusofpsychoanalysis; there maywell beothers. Germany from the mid-1930s (Nitzschke, 2003). Given our theme, these are some of the an appallingdegree ofcomplicitywiththerisingpower ofNational Socialism, especiallyin Dreams of cocaine addict(Cohen,2011)andthatpossiblyasubstantial part ofFreud,supporters Emperor who didnotlikethesmallboy hasnoclothes.” saying,“The covered upactualsexualabuseandwasnotsurprisingly metwithconsiderablecriticismfrom Masson (1985)revisited thisterritory, usingtheFreud archives, hepostulatedthatFreud had and fantasy, this essential denial. to support developing Whena whole (Oedipal) theory on, herevised histhinkingandsawthesereports insteadasnormalchildhoodlongings tocastsomethingofhisownstarted Shadow especiallywithrespect tothebody. work; and, with all these exclusions and later denials (including Jung and others), Freud then oriented wayofworking. Freud hadalsopreviously rejected thetotalityofPierre Janet’s it,suchasReichsupported andFenichel (Heller, abodily 2012),bothofwhomsupported psychotherapy, helatercametoreject it,andeventually excluded thosecolleagueswho be aware that, whilst Freud originally acknowledged of the body within the importance Freud publish widelyinEnglish). (except, perhaps,intherefusal ordisdainofothercontinental bodypsychotherapists to psychotherapists, andsotheimpactofhisShadow onithasbeenrelatively benignorobscure of bodypsychotherapy. His work hasonlyrelatively recently beenre-discovered by body remarkableis somewhat thatJanet littleinfluenceonthesubsequentdevelopment hadvery of Charcot’s, ofFreud’s andacontemporary duringFreud’s 3-monthstudyvisittoParis, it (Boadella, 1997:Janet, 1925;Kimble& Wertheimer, 1998),beinganelderestablishedpupil Pierre Janet arid scholar” (Jung, 1983,p. 262).Since theemergenceofpsychoanalysis, there hasbeena: COURTENAY YOUNG ANDGILLWESTLAND Whilst Janet oneofthefoundingfathersbodypsychotherapy wasalmostcertainly Reich was one of Freud’s most talented students, yet he was expelled from the International Finally, there isreasonably strong evidencethat,withinpsychoanalytical circles, there was We thatFreud have recently beenpresented theory withafurther wasanunacknowledged Furthermore, atfirsthebelieved hispatientswho had sexualabuse,butlaterreported ofbodypsychotherapy (Young,Those familiarwiththehistory 2006b, 2011)willalso of theirown andhostiletoothers(Jacoby, truths 1990,p. ix). resulting ofschools andmovements, inabroad spectrum allholdinghighthebanners …vast outpouringofresearch, speculation,theorising,analysis,andcontroversy, wasinfluenced by this. (Reich, 1933). Whether thisexpulsionwasbecause ofhisprevious The Founding Fathers Psychotherapy ofBody The Interpretation of The Mass accounts of the newspaper campaignsagainst him andthe investigationsaccounts of the newspaper by the FBI andthe 2014; FBI,1999; Turner, 2011).He eventually diedinprison1957.It seems,from the before theSecond World War, by where theFBI(Bennett, 2010, hecameundersurveillance for six months), and then to Norway, time and finally emigrated to the USA in 1939, a short religions aswell. ofourpsychotherapeuticdenial isalsoalargepart philosophy, andcanbefoundinseveral denied orrejected; itbecomesmore positive andusefulwhenowned andaccepted. This ofitsShadowthe bodybecamepart side.Again,Ireiterate, theShadow isonlynegative when expulsion was“unjust” (Boadella,1973,p. 114).One result ofthisisthat,forpsychoanalysis, Anna Freud (whochaired thecommitteethatexpelledhim),lateracknowledged thathis mentioning himinhisfirstbook, it wasthen,hadtodistanceitselffrom him,evidencedespeciallyby Lowen (1958)hardly and theUSAin1950s(Young, 2006b, 2008,2010) andbodypsychotherapy, suchas like Oedipus, theseedsofhisown downfall. His bookswere burntinbothNazi Germany ofhisShadowlarge part with him. To anextent,hebecamehisown worstenemyashesowed, Food &Drug Administration thathecarrieda (FDA),whoeventually tookhimtocourt, Shadow sidehere. happens alotmore frequently thanwaspreviously imagined.So, there isahugeparallel longtimeformainstream societytoacknowledgetaken avery thatchildhoodsexual abuse Childhood Sexual Abuse — more onthatlater. (and, toanextent,spirituality)isanotheraspectoftheShadow thatneedsto beexamined healing dialogue about the Shadow can be re-opened. Freud and Reich’s disavowal of religion recognising thesecreative andsometimes traumaticfoundations,apotentiallyhelpfuland (Reich, 1948/1972). are aspectsofthehumanShadow thathegraphicallyillustratedsowell in and thushailhimasagenius;itisequallyeasytodismiss himoutofhand.Boththese It easytogetattachedoneormore ofthemanyfacetsthisiconiccharacter, isvery become thesubjectofpopsongs,allwhichheprobably wouldnever have condoned. have this,or that,filmshave claimedthathiswork beenmade,andhiswork supported has it istherefore quitehard abouthim.Many ofbalancedview people tocome toanysort regarding ‘father-figures’ as well. aniconicandcontroversialReich wascertainly figure and that indicated hehadnotresolved any of theseissues;and there were lessobvious issues were andwives definitelyhugeissueswithhismotheras well assubsequentfemalepartners sexually abusedasachild,thoughthispointislessclearinhisbook(Sharaf, 1983). There for BodyPsychotherapy conference, Vienna/Pamhagen, 1997) thatReich wasprobably sense ofself-agency, andSharaf claimed(inakeynotelecture attheEuropean Association Shadow. He himselfwrote ofhisearlychildhoodsexualexperiences(Reich, 1988)witha Boadella’s books(1973,1976)andhisjournal, psychotherapy thenre-recognised himinthe1970s,significantlywithpublicationof and revived, and became influential within humanistic psychology (Clarkson, 1994). Body Reich thenbecamearefugee, firstto Denmark, thento Sweden (eachonavisitor’s visa Irrespective ofFreud’s reluctance toadmittheobvious, ithasalso,incidentally, earlyfoundationsofbodypsychotherapy.These are someofthevery Hopefully by Reich’s lifehadseveral severe traumaticexperiencesinit,somewithadistinctsexual The LanguageoftheBody. Energy &Character.Energy Later, hiswork wasrecognised SHADOWS INTHEHISTORY Listen, Little Man iv
15 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS 16 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS over time be given sufficient resources andinfluence that itwillneedtomakethe necessary jointly withUSABP recently.concern untilvery Hopefully theEABP and, asfarIamaware, we have notproperly considered thisaspectasaprofessional I have my doubts that this attitude is properly built into our professional training courses healthy attitudetowards exploring andassessingpotentialimprovements and modifications. general terms—aswithany practice,ortreatment ormethodology—there should bea and efficacyofbodypsychotherapy inmore however, detailelsewhere inthisarticle, inmore within thefieldofbodypsychotherapy. Thankfully, there isalotmore healthyself-examination,especiallyaround thistopic,now touch: thisformofdismissalwouldallow usnottoexamineourown practices properly. dismissing theseopponentsaseitherbeinguneducatedorblinded by culturalmores around concept oflegitimatetouchinpsychotherapy, ourown Shadow we maycarry whensimply remit aboutthe(more ofthisarticle unidentified) Shadows withinbodypsychotherapy. fairly well known andalsofairlyeasilyidentified andtherefore donot really fallwithinthe of Defences; andInappropriate or‘Malign’ Regression” (Young, 2006a,p. 1).But theseare identified asbeingthosearound, “Re-traumatisation; Abusive Touch; the Breaking-Down methods canbepossiblyinappropriate. Anysuchinherent risks: any possible contraindications and incircumstances under which theirvarious techniques or method obviously need to beacknowledged, andtherapists therefore need to betrained in well-covered elsewhere (Young, 2006a). psychotherapeuticThe specificrisksofanyparticular body psychotherapy orwithinbodypsychotherapeutic practice. This topichasbeenreasonably UK, withsimilarincidencesofpopstarsand TV personalitiesabusingtheircharisma. congregation andunderitsprotection; andthe ramificationsofthe Jimmy Savile affairinthe the Catholicchurch “allowing” priestsandnunstocontinueabusingpeoplewithinits isstilloutonthistopic. the jury their veracity, especially as these memories are received with horror and shock. However, regression —ratherthanhypnosis,sedatives orprobing questions— Iamconvincedof has hadclientswhohave recovered suchmemories when underaspontaneousformof after theevent) tofail.Psychotherapy hashadtofacethisShadow side:asatherapistwho thathaspossiblyalloweduncertainty several prosecutions ofchildhoodsexualabuse(long in the“recovery” oftraumaticmemorieschildhoodsexualabuse. This created ahuge the ‘false syndrome’ memory whereby therapistswere accusedofinfluencingtheirclients mid-1980s whenthetopiccameoutof“closet”. It wasalsoreacted tostrongly by COURTENAY YOUNG ANDGILLWESTLAND Recently, manymore incidentsofchildhoodsexualabuseare beingdiscovered (viz: As therapists,we are —perhapsslightlymore aware ofthistopicnow, afterthe I deal with the risk that we carry aboutnotdoinganyproper researchI dealwiththeriskthatwe carry intotheeffectiveness In dealingwiththecontentioustopicoftouchandreactions ofthoseadverse tothe The fourmainrisks,easilyidentifiedwith respect tobodypsychotherapy, have been In we are thisarticle, nottalking aboutanyspecificrisksinherent withinthemodalityof working, goal-orientedtherapy,(Young, andinsufficienttimeforintegration. 2006a, p. 7) theempowerment do notsupport oftheindividual,lackawareness, toohurriedformsof … canbeaddedtoby unethicalpractice,power-trips, theoriesanddoctrinesthat pervasive vi , whichwasestablishedonly recently towork, will andjuststarting Risks Within Psychotherapy Body v ScienceandResearch Committee,working risk ofhubris. the “specialness” with it the inevitable way of working, of our particular we will always carry have ourblindspotsandlimitations,areas ofarrogance andcomplicity. Aswe carry some ofthesemayhave alegitimacy. We toguard againstthem. musttry We willinevitably they are “too this” or “not enough that” — will also be applied to body psychotherapy; and within psychotherapy, ofcriticismsthatare allthesorts carriedaboutothermainstreams — do we needresearch? We know itworks.” changes withinourculture. There isstillabasicattitudeof, “Research? What research? Why and theEABP has beguntograpplewiththese ways. conference times,andwith thefeestructures. However, there are waysofworking withthis resentfulsomewhat and impoverished. Some of these Shadows still haunt us, especially at Western countries seeminglyflourishedandgrew andthosefrom the Eastern countriesfelt well asthehistoric East-West divide,reinforced by thepost-warIron Curtain, where the Southern countries claim a more relaxed and laid-back attitude to organisational issues, as countries are andregulations, seenasmuch tooconcernedwithrules andthosefrom the inevitable “cultural” North-South divides,where peoplefrom theNorthern (Germanic) any degree ofreal cooperation, coherence, andcollegiality:there are, withinEurope, the similar associationsinAustralia andSouth America,butthere isalongwaytogoget associations (USABP&EABP)over thelast10-15years andthefoundingofsomeother within bodypsychotherapy aswell (Westland, 2010). Petruska prevalent Clarkson (1999)describedasschoolismwouldseem tohave beenvery body psychotherapy And healthy thus, or whatsupportive. methods that was not particularly fairly constantbackground ofconsistentcriticalreflection andcomparisonbetween different methods. (perhaps) oftheegotismsomefoundersthose particular There wasa thus schools oftensawthemselves ascompetingwith,ratherthancomplementing,eachother and “dogmatic” aspectthathassubsequentlyhauntedusasaShadow withinbodypsychotherapy. information, perhapswe canusetherest of thequoteforreflection: it really maybethe of Boadella(1987)”: together bodytherapiesandpsychotherapies,that…“with butobserves theexception about bodywork inhis1976bookonhumanisticpsychology, hemuddles butunfortunately often emergingaround atalented,charismaticfoundingindividual.John Rowan writes body psychotherapies, far from being marginalised as they had been, began to proliferate, Cooperation &collaboration So, aswe progress intheestablishmentofbodypsychotherapy asalegitimatemainstream The situationhasimproved withthestrengthening ofthetwomainprofessional For alongtime,untilaboutthemid-1990s, thevarious different bodypsychotherapy If we acceptthiscommentaboutproliferation ofdogmaticmethodologiesassemi-factual As post-World War IIpsychotherapy from developed, the1960sonwards, particularly their than inanyotherapproaches (Rowan, 2001,p. 91). dogmatic. For some reason, this seems to be much more the case in the body therapies of individualpractitionerseachwithamethodaboutwhichheorsheiscompletely One oftheproblems withthebodytherapiesisthattheyseemtoleadaproliferation particular methodasbeingimplicitly“betterthan” particular another’s oranyothers:afactor The Post-War Shadows Psychotherapy ofBody SHADOWS INTHEHISTORY 17 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS 18 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS to beoneofthe firsttocondemnthem. not necessarilydirectly connectedwithbodypsychotherapy, ittookabodypsychotherapist processes thatbecame abusive oreven violent(Boadella,1980), andwhilstmostofthesewere ofthe“scene”.part There were alsoseveral more specificinstancesofencounterwithgroup members, or patients/clients. This was not at all confined to body psychotherapy; it was unprofessional. psychotherapy, aswell asoutsideit,thatare now considered unwise,inappropriate, ortotally well. Again,theincredible permissive attitudesin culturalchangesofthiseraledtocertain within this context and therefore carried(or was labelled with) some of these components as charlatans, andwould-be-gurus” (Smith, 1990)and bodypsychotherapy wasalsodeveloping into thecounter-culture. Humanistic psychology atthistimehadits“mavericks, innovators, ever properly attributedtoReich), theBeat Generation (Turner, 2011),andeven passed Many ofReich’s ideaswere eagerlytakenupby Fritz Perls’ Gestalt therapy(thoughnot elements were findingfreer expression, and overly restrictive structures were being overthrown. movement. Major changeswere structural happeninginsociety, where previously repressed or asaresult of, theHuman Potential Movement (Marlock, 1996),andthe1960’s hippie as animplicitcriticismofLowen’s “harsh” formofBioenergetics. if he had still been alive. She may have also used the term ‘Bioenergetics’ in the title of her work influenced by her work as a paediatrician. However, her father might not have agreed with her his footsteps and she softened his work with her form of “Gentle Bioenergetics” eyes. Reich’slater contemporary daughterEva wastheonlyoneofhischildren tofollow in organising trainingsthathadsomeproblematic elements,especiallywhenviewedthrough challenging of the cultural norms, they also sometimes brought about ways of working and some ofhisideas. They were allalsoquiterisk-takingpioneers,but,withtheircreativity and body psychotherapists listed, nonereally Reich knew andallofthemhadborrowed (ordiluted) spirit of the times, and the growth wave of humanistic psychology, from the but, firstapart two bold andcreative innovators (Young, 2008,2010&2011). These innovators allcaughtthe (Ola Raknes, Jay Stattmann, David Boadella, Lisbeth Marcher and Gerda Boyesen) were all Pierrakos, Chuck Kelley, Malcolm Brown, Stanley Keleman, Ilana Rubenfeld, etc.) and Europe post-Reichian developers ofbodypsychotherapy intheU.S.(suchasAlexanderLowen, John themselves and,“ploughed thesamefurrow: over andover again”. not) besignificantthat,sincehisdeath,the muchtoOrgonomists have keptthemselves very for this,itcreates anexclusivity orhierarchy, whichoftencovers aShadow. It may(or medical doctorsshouldbecomeproper Orgonomists). Whilst there are somegoodreasons that still existtothisday(e.g.thatonlyand control (especiallyintheU.S.),settingrules interested inhisideasScandinaviaandthentheU.S.,whichhetendedtoinfluence Humanistic Psychology names”, norreport orspeculation. salaciouslyorfrom rumour modalities (andamongtheirfounders),butforobvious reasons we donotwishto“name that went intocreating some ofthevarious Shadows withinthedifferent bodypsychotherapy COURTENAY YOUNG ANDGILLWESTLAND He becamemuchmore popular, inthe1960’s, particularly 70s,andthenthe80s. These Reich’s were views first taken up in his lifetime, often by small groupings of psychiatrists Now, atthispoint,we needtotakeaslightlydeeperlookatsomeofthefactorsortrends There were, for example, several instances of trainers and therapists sleeping with group Much ofthisperioddevelopment inbodypsychotherapy waswithinthecontextof, vii , strongly excessively integrationoftheexperiencesorinsomecasesregressed withoutthenecessary regression andabreaction —itcouldactuallybecome experienced. trauma andrepression wasintellectuallyaccepted,now —withthedeveloping techniquesof senses, andthusputgreat emphasisonthese. ofchildhoodWhilst thepsychodynamic theory subjective experiences,wantedtofindmuchmore ofaplaceforpeople’s feelingsandthe psychology (andespeciallypsychoanalysis) atthetime.Humanistic psychology valued highly It wasonecomponentofbalancinganover-intellectualised ofhumanbeingswithin view and this was also evident withinseveral ofthe developing bodypsychotherapies in those days. Anti-Intellectualism afforded to training schools by recognised universities is probably a more favourable route. affordedroute. totraining schoolsby recognised universities isprobably amore favourable academic —theirown Shadow —andsotheformationoflinks whereby accreditation is the backofagiantturtle. long-held theoriesthatthesun moves isflatorsits on orthattheEarth around theEarth, ofappropriate scientifictesting,andthereforesort have (perhaps)asmuch relevance asthe many ofourfavoured bodypsychotherapy theoriesover theyears justdonotstanduptoany efficacy —noneofwhichhas really beendoneproperly, yet. Asa result, we mayfindthat favour abitmore academicdiscipline,criticalthinking,scientifictesting,andproof of trainings, itmaywell andrichness,instead have tolosesomeofitsexperientialexpertise we are now beingasked,andrequired, toaddress. and universities stillcarriessomeofthisaversion. This isanotheraspectofourShadow that early 1980s — and we were not unique. The relationship of body psychotherapy to academia bodypsychotherapywas ever demandedofusinourparticular traininginthelate1970sand cultural formofanti-intellectualismarose. nowrittenworkThis wasevidentinthatvirtually There were oftenstatements madesuchas:“Get outofyour headandintoyour body”, anda ofconventional academicintellectual rigourorinvestigationalany sort research parameters. on competencies and therapeutic skills emerged and flourished, with less attention paid to that time.So, abodyofhumanisticallybased,body-centred, experiential,andoftenhands- there. Yet there ofstudywithinanytheuniversities at wasabsolutelynoplaceforthissort mostly experientially, asdidmanybodypsychotherapy trainings,someofwhichstillhappen human capacities” (Esalen,1996)andgenerally blended Easternand Western perspectives, using thetherapeuticrelationship asamedium. the‘armour’“softening sothatthefragileorundeveloped core maygrow of” andexpand, or the“breakthrough”, andnot—asisnow muchmore generallyacknowledged —inthe of thetimesawkeytobodypsychotherapy asbeinginthecatharsis:“breakdown” of theperson,whohadnever really beenabletodevelop thiscore. Many ofthetherapists the (identified) body armouring and the character structure, to a (supposedly) core aspect re-integrating. far outoftheperson’s normal“comfort zone” thatgreat difficultywouldbeexperiencedwith be considered badtherapy. Some oftheabreactions thatwere encouragedtookapersonso person might have been left in a fairlyregressed state, which would now and deconstructed Unfortunately, sometimesthe regressions, often in the formof re-birthing, couldbe done Within humanisticpsychology, there wasalsoafairlystrong anti-intellectualcomponent However, in contrast, manyoftheuniversity-based trainingsare dry, flat,andpredominantly If bodypsychotherapy becomesmore university-based, withMaster’s degree-level The Californiangrowth centre, Esalen,wasfoundedin1962toexplore “unrealized Within bodypsychotherapy itself, there wasstillanemphasison“breaking through” SHADOWS INTHEHISTORY 19 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS 20 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS their headsand theirbodiessometimestookover. It took peoplelikeStan Grof (Grof & Grof, much greater insightinto what wasactuallyhappeningwithinpeoplewhentheywent outof orradicalpsychotherapythe anti-psychiatry issues;this,despite thefactthatwe possibly had therapeutic communityinIreland. Boadella, thenfor“People, notPsychiatry”, andthenfoundedAtlantis, anexperimental with Laingbefore goingtoItaly, andJenny James (Ward, 1982)worked firstwith David For example,Jerome Liss,theHarvard-trained psychiatrist andbodypsychotherapist worked Also present were ahost ofcutting-edgespiritualandpsychological opportunities. the RichmondFellowship, aswell asthemore radical“People, Not Psychiatry” movement. There were up, othertherapeuticcommunities starting likethePhiladelphia Associationand and otherswere working inKingsleyHall andlaterestablished theArboursAssociation. experimentation: R.D. Laing (Laing & Esterson, 1964), Joseph Berke, Morton Schatzmann Psychology ground (Southwell, thenforpsychotherapeutic fertile 1988).Londonwasvery and Gerda Boyesen hadmoved from Norway to“swinging” LondontoteachherBiodynamic Norway: Jay Stattmann wasworking inAmsterdam; David Boadellawasworking inEngland; The Anti-Psychiatry Movement body psychotherapy. We maysoonbeforced tochange. no excusing thefactthat,untilrecently, noonereally attemptedtodoproper research into the “natural” scienceofpsychotherapy andbodypsychotherapy (Young, 2012a).But there is trials andotheracceptedmethodsofscientific research are not themostsuitableforassessing prizes”, according thatrandomisedcontrolled toLuborsky etal.,1975),anditisalsotrue actually shows thattheyare allequallyeffective (theDodo Bird hypothesis:“All shouldhave actual research asthere are “proper” few academicsamongstus. effective thananyotherpsychotherapy, well prepared andwe mayalsonotbevery todothe the possibility thatproper research might demonstrate that body psychotherapy is no more be excused. ofour This isdefinitelypart Shadow, inthat we may notwanttothinkabout recently) intotheefficacyandeffectiveness(until very ofbodypsychotherapy cannot really an “edge”, ofourShadow. whichcouldwell bepart body psychotherapy? Mainly becausewe are there notputtingintheeffort: isaresistance, or haveof their training; and so, if these, why not also substantial experiential learning as part Movement Psychotherapy training courses. psychotherapy trainingschoolinDevon). There are alsoseveral UKuniversity-based Dance another psychotherapy aBuddhist-oriented training schoolinLondon, and Karuna, component (forexample,Gestalt psychotherapy attheLondonGestalt Centre, Metanoia, by universities at Master’s degree level and yet have managed to retain their experiential andinvolvementthe publishingofthesesanddissertations, inresearch programmes. up. However, andthere itwouldbeworthwhile wouldbemanyvaluable spin-offs,including someone withaPhD prepared todoalotofhard work togettheaccreditation process set But thisdemandsthetrainingschoolhave someacademicsattachedtoit,withatleast COURTENAY YOUNG ANDGILLWESTLAND Finally, ofthisanti-intellectualism,theappallingpaucityanyproper research asapart Nowadays, mosthumanisticpsychotherapy coursesintheUKare beingvalidated Meanwhile, bodypsychotherapy effectively stoodontheside-linesandducked manyof There ofideasandexperimentationamongst thesepeople. wasawidecross-fertilisation In Europe, inthe1970’s, there were theremnants ofthepre-war Reichian schoolin It thatthesepointscanapplytootherpsychotherapies istrue aswell: muchoftheresearch viii All of these arts therapyMaster’s Allofthesearts programmes in the1970’s, there wasmore emphasisoncatharsisandin-depthexperience,sexual its implications. Within manyhumanisticpsychology andalso body psychotherapy trainings more sexuallyrepressive elementsinsociety, butwithoutsufficientthinking-through ofall simultaneous development ofthecontraceptive pill)inthe1960’s, liberatedsomeofthe Issues Boundary of hiswork withLSDandatEsalen. experiences intothedifferent forms of‘spiritual emergencies’ that hedescribedcoming out (incidentally, notaformofbodypsychotherapy), toenvisageandincludeKundalini-types of 1990), whofoundedtheHolotropic Breathwork formofbody-orientedtherapytechnique value. In hertrainings, Gerda Boyesen also saidfrequently, “LessisMore”, and spokeofa the ‘out-stroke’, andthatcontainmentexpression offeelingseachhaditsplaceand and Davis (1984), were alsobeginning to recognise thevalue of the ‘in-stroke’, as well as rather thanexaminethemethod. littleoftheresponsibility,the trainerwouldoftentakevery preferring toblame theperson or group memberre-integrate. Occasionally, thepersonwouldhave apsychotic episode,and or resident therapists,whowouldhave tohelppickupsomeofthepieces,ortrainee enormously powerful, individuallyreactive itwouldbethelocal experiences,butafterwards therapy” —andsopeoplecamebackformore. would bequiteprovocative; yet thiswas—inthemétieroftimes,stillconsidered “good Sometimes, themethods, quite ortechniques powerfulused by these trainers interventions, him orherself. There forfeedback,opendiscussion,ordebate. wasalsolittleopportunity be anythingconsidered essentially“wrong” withthe charismatic, internationaltrainer, expectations would be fulfilled, sometimes they were disappointing, yet there would never from abroad bringinghugeexpectations ofpowerful methodologies.Sometimes new these psychotherapy trainings,where aguesttrainer(withconsiderablecharisma)mightflyin and regarding contentiousissue. avery to establish proper1998), whichwere boundaries in a(now) trying fairlyde-regulated field Jarlnaes (1993).Other bookswere alsobeingwrittenlike and practiceinbodypsychotherapy, forexample,thework ofMacNaughton, Bentzen & Therapy”. suchasSouthwell’sand thisledtoseveral articles, in Sexual Boundary “The (1991)article, (Boadella, 1980,p. 9). Reich, peopleandwas“against never hurt drasticmanipulationsandheavy muscle-pushing” psychotherapy groups, andhequotesEva Reich commentingthatherfather, Wilhelm that existedinsomeencountergroups, aswell ashumanisticpsychotherapy andbody question someofthemethodsbeingemployed inthenameofbodypsychotherapy. boundaries were oftenquitefluid. However, by the1980’s, various people were beginningto Clance &Imes, 1998)and The openinguptogreater sexualfreedom andindividualsexuality(withthealmost Yet, itwasnot allextroversion andcatharsis;someofthetheorists, likeBoadella(1986) intothegroup forward member(s)having This formofidealisationcouldcarry There wasalsosomeimplicitquestioningofthestyleteachinginbody During the1990’s, somemore, ordeeper, reflection wasbeginningtobegiven toethics Greater thinkingaboutappropriate sexualboundariesoccurred throughout the1980’s Boadella (1980)hadalready questioned thesometimesextreme levels ofviolence The Ethical Use of Touch inPsychotherapy Touch inPsychotherapy SHADOWS INTHEHISTORY (Hunter &Struve, (Smith, 21 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS 22 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS especially to the young. especially tothe young. and sects—setupby theanswers thosepeoplewhosaidthattheyknew —muchmore attractive, the Second Vatican Council (1962-65), but that also made various religious and spiritual cults that not only prompted the primacy of conscience and greater religious freedom epitomised in alongside increasing materialism, have allhelpedtocreate adegree ofrootlessness, asenselessness tsunami, populationexplosions, ever increasing numbersofrefugees, youth unemployment conventions, thewidening oftheindustrialrevolution intoatechnological andmaterialistic etc. —beingprosecuted forlong-termsexualabuse ofclients. today ofeminentpsychiatrists, psychologists, andpsychotherapists —aswell asdoctors, dentists, none ofthesewere orsuccessfullyprosecuted. ever takentocourt There are similarprosecutions from othermodalities:there are salacious storiesaboutFerenczi, Jung, Perls, andKahn,though depth re-education isnecessary. stereotypes difficultto eradicate,as — even after investigation and it is also very —a lotof in- of Shadow andperniciousasitlinksintoseveral politico-social quitepervasive is(unfortunately) to the therapists and also trainers need totrack that he this trained forward or inspired. This sort due course,needtotrackthisbackthecharismatictherapist(s)whotrainedhim;andwe may peri-natal psychotherapy aboutriskfactorsinthewomb(Krens &Krens, 2006). formofabusewaswrappedupinpseudo-scientificwork todowithpre-natalthis particular and “the warmth and security” that they had had to do without. taken littlenoticeoffrontiers” andimaginedthathewas“a pioneer” andwasgivingthesepeople age.Apparently,therapy worked onlyforwomen,andthenwomenofacertain he“has so hisdefencethatthiswas“scientific” wasignored. One judgeasked,appropriately, whetherthe In hisformative years asatherapist,itwasnotthecustomtotakenotesorkeep medicalrecords, beingnaked,andtheclientortrainee’sparticipants clitoralandvaginal areas beingstimulated. method. He hadcalledit“experimental skincontactwork”, embryonic butthisincludedboth were possiblyatleastanother160-180people thathehad“treated” inthisso-called“scientific” on practicing,withfairlysubstantialdamagesbeingpaidtothefourcomplainants,althoughthere with a three-year sentence, twoinprison and one year onprobation, and an eight-year limitation and continuedtogive therapyinwhatbecameincreasingly unacceptableways. theirabusivehave practices initiallytrainedinthoseearlierunboundedperiods,didnotcurtail psychotherapies) happilygot“ironed out” inthe1990’s. However, sometherapists,who may that person. contra-indications, oreven ofdoingariskassessmenttheappropriateness ofthattechniquefor disavowal of responsibility for the technique, and might also indicate a lack of consideration for the personhaving“insufficientegostrength tocopewith thepowerful forces oftheid”.a Thisis whichwere oftenputdown tothe“powerfulgroups, effectsofKundalini rising” inadditionto (seemingly) psychotic episodesafterBiodynamic therapysessions,orexperiencesintraining “subtle approach” tobodypsychotherapy; andyet, there were stillinstancesofpeoplehaving COURTENAY YOUNG ANDGILLWESTLAND One such(dare we say it, body-oriented) psychologist andpsychotherapist endedupin court, Most ofthesetypesusesorabuseswithinbodypsychotherapy (aswell asinother The catastrophic warsandsocialupheavals oftheearly20thcentury, thelossofestablished It ofbehaviourhasalsobeenascribedtopeople notingthat,by allaccounts,thissort isworth Unfortunately, this one publicized example mightbejust the tip of theiceberg. We may, in The Lossof Values andSpirit ix A lot of the so-called theory behind behind A lot of the so-called theory Jonestown inGuyana in1973;Sun Myung Moon themore started successfulMoonies Manson foundedhis“Family” inCalifornia in1968;Jim Jones setupthecatastrophic Rajneesh hadanenormousfollowing from themid-1960sonwards (Mann, 1987);Charles (like Quaesitor ortheOpen Centre inLondon) and/or communitieslike(orin association happened withinprivate spaces,orlargerrented centres, orinassociationwithothercentres its own versions of organised asprivate businesses,sometimesowned by anindividualor family, andeach taught self-referential.self-published, un-edited,not peer-reviewed, andvery The trainingswere and bookspublishedby internationalpublishinghouses, and therefore muchmaterialwas operated almostasanunderground movement (Boadella,1991).It washard togetarticles psychotherapy,. But bodypsychotherapy alsofunctionedwithoutmuchrecognition and Closed Communities Limits ofDividing Reality intoDistinct Realms ofKnowledge”. of the Soulwith the Certitudes and ending with the Ambivalences of the Mind” and “The of these long-term changes in trends and attitudes, especially when he writes about “Starting back inretrospect. toswing backabit,butweswung; itmayhave shallsee.It started isstilltooearlytolook trends. We mayhave thrown thebaby outwiththe bathwater. The pendulumcertainly materialism,the“let-it-all-out”ally themselves withthenew andthe“have-it-now” cultural work, professionalism, research, discipline,thrift,etc.Some trends ofthesenew seemed to especially afterthe1960s,there were manyvalues thatnow seemedtobeold-hat:hard body psychotherapy becamealittlebitmore likesectsthanprofessional trainings. charismatic founder. Thus, ithastobesaid,sometrainings,schools,orinstitutionswithin of finding deeper values and getting backto the “core”, often underthe guidanceof a trends with the proliferation of competing methods, all with their unique answers, sense often seemattractive astheyofferadifferent value system. attractive. But waysget insidethebody-mind(ratherthanhead)canseemvery thesenew someone abettersenseofdirection, aninternalfocus,asenseofself, methodto andanew (Singer &Lalich,1996).In aworldwhere almost“anything goes”, anythingthatgives smaller sectsandcults. the Scientologistswere by L.Ron started Hubbard inabout1953. There were manyother (Unification Church) inthemid-1950s,whichnow has over five millionmembers;and In the post-WW2 era, the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi influenced the Beatles; Bagwan Shree Much ofthisexperimentationwas,outnecessityoutsidethemainstream of Michael Heller, in his (2012) encyclopaedic work on body psychotherapy, points to some At thesametime,witheasingofmorality, andthechangesinvalue systems, Some people,insomeaspectsofbodypsychotherapy, alsocapitalisedonsomeofthese Many ofthesemovements were notallbad,butmanyofthemwere alsoalittlecrazy p. 24-25). our boredom isthefactthatwe have lostallsenseofspiritualvalues. (Zaehner, 1974, is inanguish,itmad.But theroot ofourmadnessisboredom, andtheroot of The modernworldisbored; andbecauseitisbored, itisinanguish;andbecause traditional values. left of our Christian traditions butthat we have lost orthrown overboard allof our The trouble isnotsomuchthatwe have totallylosttouchwiththelittlethatis its x methodsandtheory. Many smallertrainingsorencountergroups SHADOWS INTHEHISTORY 23 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS 24 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS Boadella was developing his form of Biosynthesis; and there were transatlantic a few Biodynamic Psychology. Jay Stattman was developing his Unitive Psychotherapy; David offs, likeLillemorJohnson, LisbethMarcher’s Bodynamics,andeventually Gerda Boyesen’s psychotherapy inScandinavia,theCharacter-Analytic Vegetotherapists, spin- withafew clarity andsubsequentlyanimprovement instandards and ethicshasoccurred. Ironically, by “closing thedoor” anddefining bodypsychotherapy more precisely, agreater first USABPconference inBoulder, CA,in1998, which wasonlyforbodypsychotherapists. openandincludedmanyforms ofbodytherapy,was very dancetherapy, etc.—andthe between thefirstUSBody Psychotherapy conference in Beverley MA,in1996—which just inapsychologically-oriented body therapy. This formofdifferentiation wasapparent 2010), andsomeofthemwere now more solidlybasedwithinpsychotherapy, ratherthan Formative Psychology, and Malcolm Brown’s Organismic Psychotherapy, etc. (see Young, Rubenfeld Synergy, Bodynamics,Rosenberg’s Integrative BodyPsychotherapy, Keleman’s accreditedrunning Masters (andsomeDoctorate) programs inSomatic Psychology. was recentlywhich unfortunately bought out by the University of Chicago. All of these were of Integral Studies (CIIS)inSan Francisco, andlatertheSanta Barbara Graduate Institute, in Boulder, Colorado. Then cameJFKUniversity inBerkeley, CA,theCalifornia Institute the wholeacademicsidebegantogetmuchmore involved. One ofthefirstwasat Naropa, ofourShadow.been anotherpart adherents, andthere were noresearch virtually projects. This formofclosedcommunityhas conceptsandmethodsonlytothe oftendisseminatednew small numberofjournalarticles There conferences were few where could bedisseminated,arelatively very wider views to lendadegree quitesmallandobscure ofrespectability trainingcourses. totheseotherwise Institute inRhinebeck,up-stateNew York, were oftenusedtohostsuchtrainingsandalso was goodorthat“that” were wasnot—andoftentheseviews quitepejorative. centres, whichmeantalessreflective formofcommunication. We tooktheirword that “this” wasdone,ifatall,through themaintrainers,orthroughinterface thefoundersvisitingother psychologists, psychotherapists, or even with other body psychotherapists. Most of the Synergy, inNew York. People inthesetrainingsdidnotcommunicatemuchwithother Rubenfeld trainingsmallgroups inherformofbodypsychotherapy, started Rubenfeld the 1980’s progressed intothe1990’s, Ron Kurtz’s Hakomi togrow work started andIlana prior tothe1990’s: Stanley othersworked Keleman andafew quiteindividually, andas their journalswere more widelyavailable. muchtothemselves,working, withquiteexclusive keptthemselves very criteria,even though Chuck Kelley’s Radix work in third place. The Orgonomists, the inheritorsofReich’s wayor essentially Lowen’s Bioenergetic AnalysisandJohn Pirrakos’s Core Energetics, withpossibly 2002; Young,2011). quite cliquey. This didnotchangesignificantlyin (Westland,Europe untilaboutthe1990s (perhaps unconsciously)hidethemselves awayalittle. The trainingstendedtobesmalland with) centres by (somethinglike)Bagwan run ‘sanyasins’ (disciples)—andthus could COURTENAY YOUNG ANDGILLWESTLAND The other body psychotherapy trainings all tended to be quite small and very individualThe otherbodypsychotherapy trainingsalltendedtobequitesmallandvery In theU.S.,in1960’s and1970’s, themainbodypsychotherapy trainingswere In Europe, uptothe1980s, there were theremnants ofthe “golden age” ofbody By the2000s,there were alsoaplethoraofbody-orientedtrainingcourses:Lomi, It wasn’t untilthe1990sthatsome educational centres expanded into universities, and Larger workshop centres, liketheEsalenInstitute inBig Sur, California,ortheOmega Through theirclosure, theycanalsohideabuses. dialoguing withdifferent perspectives orconforming toexternalstandards andregulations. of beingandworking together, withoutthe naturalchecksandbalancesthatcomefrom (like rehabilitation), butclosedcommunitiesare alsocharacterisedby embeddedways a protective outcome spaceforthedevelopmentideas,orfocusingonaparticular ofnew vulnerabilitiesbecauseofitsinwardhas certain organisation. These communitiescanprovide back over. But allofthesetrainingsandmethodswere –uptothenrelatively closed. Europeans madethejourneyacross andtrainedintheUSAthen brought themethod influences, with Lowen and Pierrakos coming over anddoingtrainingworkshops. Some USABP &EABP) andsocanbeconsidered closedinthiscontext. stillsomewhat done soby havingrelatively littlecontactwith otherbodypsychotherapy organisations(like cliques. andisstillflourishinggreatly toitscredit,That ithassurvived butithasalso and trainingorganisation,was alsonotwithoutitsown severe difficulties,tensions,and controlled by Lowen, tobecominganindependentprofessional and internationalassociation psychoanalysis andalsoPsychosynthesis). splits have happened with other schools and withinother modalities of psychotherapy (viz. organisations oftheUKCP embraced widerhorizons and are alsomoderatedexternallythrough their statusasmember eventually hadtobetotallyre-founded astheLondonBiodynamic School.Allhave now Centre, theoriginalbranch(containingfounder, Gerda Boyesen) diminishedand the Chiron Centre andlaterwithanotherspin-offintotheCambridgeBodyPsychotherapy community alsosplitintheearly1990s,andwhilstone branch flourished,turninginto emotionally painfulforthoseinvolved. In London,theBoyesen Biodynamic Psychology also, toanextent,theHakomi community, didsplit,andby allaccountsthesplitswere quite rumour. However, anumberofbodypsychotherapy communities,likethatwithinRadixand external regulating forces. Inevitably, there were alsosomeabuses. or whoshouldleave. There were checksandbalances, littleinternaldemocracy, few andno structure thetraininghow theyliked,andalsodeterminewhosucceeded inthetraining,and/ charismatic leaders essentially quite a free reign to do what they liked, charge what they liked, especially withintheactualbodypsychotherapy trainingschools. This allowed thefairly of psychotherapy, there was a tendency for relatively more closed systems of organisation, because between 1960 and 1980, within body psychotherapy and in several other forms ofthesecommunities(Brumann, 2000). such leadersactuallyinhibitedthesurvival credited withquasi-religious status,beingconsidered ormessiah,but somethinglikeaguru closedatfirst,whichisrare. very closed sectsortrainings.One communitycalledDamanhur (inItaly) opened up after being (USA), Auroville (India), aswell asmanyothersespeciallywhencontrastedwiththemore in the1960’s and1970’s periodfor example,Findhorn (Scotland),Esalenand The Farm in thewide-rangingspateoffairlyopenalternative communitiesthatdeveloped, especially successful,butmayloseoutonqualityanddepth. seem very There isclearevidenceofthis Open communities are more expansive and welcoming, can be evangelistic, and may Any closedcommunity, suchasareligious order, cult,sect,prison,orresidential facility, By allaccounts,the transitionwithinBioenergetic Analysis,from beingalmosttotally Again, we reiterate thatwe donotwishto“name names”, nortoreport salaciously, orfrom The recognition ofpotentialdifficultieswithinclosedcommunitiesissignificant Such communities mayhave beenfoundedby charismaticleaders,whowere sometimes xi , which,interestingly, didnotexistuntiltheearly1990s.Similar SHADOWS INTHEHISTORY 25 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS 26 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS psychotherapy andbodypsychotherapy. we mayhave tolookattheShadow ofexclusivity. ofthissort tohave anextensive (4-year) groundingexperience –itisnecessary inthatexperience.So, the otherhand,itisclaimed that–asbodypsychotherapy isessentiallydonefrom afelt an already trained body psychotherapist can do a 2-year gestalt conversion course: on profession andwouldapplyinreverse; of facilityisavailable innearlyevery hand, thissort course” or2-year additionaltrainingintheessenceofbody psychotherapy. On theone in agestaltorpsychodynamic trainingcourse),onecannotthenjustdo a “conversion body psychotherapists. therapists oroutcomes(Postle, 2000).Some are of theseviews alsoheldstrongly by some of organisationalpower, andthelackofanyreal evidencethat regulation produces better controls andstructures, adistancingofclientandtherapist,abuseregulation, unnecessary an irrationalfearofsectsandcults. of Psychiatrists, 1983).However, thelargely unacknowledged (Shadow) reasons seemtobe the employment oflaypsychotherapists intheUKNational Health (Royal Service College protection profession, ofpatients,andtheestablishmentanew whichwouldalsoenable on. rumbled The statedmotivation forregulation wastheraisingoftrainingstandards, the and pioneeringofmethods.He reported: perspicacity, Foster recognised theinherent problem ofpsychotherapy, namelydependency psychology, aBritish government wassetup, chaired inquiry by Sir John Foster. With psychotherapy (Miller, 1987). activelyand attackingpsychiatry When Scientologystarted this organisationandwhetheritisacultorwhether, typeof asithasstated,isanew wayofbeingcalled“gettingand anew clear”. There was,andstillis,great concernabout groups andofficesinmanycitiesinternationallyoffered personalityquestionnaires Psychotherapy Regulation also similarexamplesinvarious religious sects andcults. psychoanalysis, excellent references are Makari, G.(2008)andHaynal, A.(1987).” There are among pupilsisawell-known phenomenoninmostpsychotherapeutic modalities.For Shadow sideofbodypsychotherapy. been managedwell, there isoftenlong-lastingpainandhurt. This istherefore ofthe alsopart differing parameters,isadifficultone. Where thesetransitionshave nothappenedeasilyor founder orleader, toawider, more opencommunity, withperhapsseveral centres and COURTENAY YOUNG ANDGILLWESTLAND Meanwhile, theChurch ofScientology, foundedby L.Ron Hubbard in1953,had One ofthereviewers commented:“Similarly, ofthisarticle theintolerancefordeviance The transitionfrom a small closedschool, centred around anoften gifted or charismatic These criticisms are someoftheShadows of increased professionalism within There are alsostrong heldthathavingtrainedasadifferent views psychotherapist (say, There are valid fears and worries about also, over-it must be stated, some very Since then,thedebateonpsychotherapy regulation intheUKandEurope has weakness tothetherapist’s profit (1.para.258). only for the good of the patient himself, and never for the exploitation of his patient’s dependence whichflows from theinherent inequalityofthe relationship its techniques,andtrained—asallorganisedprofessions are trained—tousethe for reward should be restricted to members of a profession properly qualified in …I have becomeconvincedthatitishightimethepracticeofpsychotherapy xii
written a number of articles fortheEAP’swritten anumberofarticles of aEuropean Psychotherapist fortheEAP(www.psychotherapy-competency.eu). He has has recently beenheavilyinvolved inaproject toestablishtheProfessional Competencies Body Psychotherapists (EABP),andtheEuropean AssociationforPsychotherapy (EAP).He of theUnited KingdomCouncilforPsychotherapy (UKCP), theEuropean Associationof and psychotherapist intheNational Health inScotland.He Service ontheBoards hasserved humanistic, transpersonalandbody-orientedmodalitiesalsoworking asacounsellor Arnold Mindell, amongstothers.He isnow anaccredited psychotherapist, working within David Boadella,andwithsignificantinputsfrom John Pierrakos, andlater Stan Grof and Courtenay Young trainedinbodypsychotherapy over 30years ago,withGerda Boyesen, BIOGRAPHIES Body Psychotherapy trainingoffered atCBPCisrooted inapsycho-spiritual perspective. He hashadonebookpublished, Character USABP Journal, editor ofthejournal, Psychotherapy programme atAngliaRuskin University, Cambridge, UK. She isalso co- School ofBiodynamic Psychotherapy, ontheM.A.Body London,U.K;andasupervisor External International Examiner fortheKaruna Institute inDevon, U.K.andtheLondon She isafullmemberoftheEuropean AssociationforBodyPsychotherapy (EABP);an Hospital, Cambridge,asaclinicianandthenmanager, andteacher. clinicalsupervisor Health in Mental Service Health at the Maudsley Hospital, London, and then at Fulbourn for thepast30years. She worked originallyasanoccupationaltherapistin the National as abodypsychotherapist formanyyears andhasbeentrainingbodypsychotherapists registered bodypsychotherapist, trainer, supervisor, consultantandwriter. She hasworked Gill Westland isDirector ofCambridgeBodyPsychotherapy Centre (CBPC)andaUKCP Books in2015. Psychotherapy editing theEnglish-American version ofthe onvarious topics,asadirectorarticles ofBodyPsychotherapy Publications. He iscurrently (AuthorHouse, 2011).He alsopublishesaseriesofcollectionsbodypsychotherapy and haspublishedanother, Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Editor’s Note: hasbeensplitintotwo parts. Becauseof itslength,thisarticle , and has also written other articles inotherjournalsaswell aschaptersinbooks., andhasalsowrittenotherarticles The References and Endnotes are locatedattheendofeachpart. withGustl Marlock &Halko Weiss, duetobepublishedby North Atlantic the Journal ofBody, Dance &Movement inPsychotherapy, Body, Movement andDance inPsychotherapy First ContactswithPeople inCrisis andSpiritual Emergencies Help Yourself TowardsHealth Mental ______International Journal ofPsychotherapy, Handbook ofBody Psychotherapy andSomatic SHADOWS INTHEHISTORY (Taylor andFrancis). The (Karnac Books,2010) and Energy & Energy for the
27 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS 28 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS Laing, R.D.&Esterson, A.(1964). Krens, I.&Krens, H. (2006). Kimble, G.A.& Wertheimer, M.(1998). Jung, C.G. (1983). Jung, C.G.(1938). Janet, P. (1925). Jacoby, M.(1991). Hunter, M.&Struve, J.(1998). Heller, M.C.(2012). Haynal, A.(1987). Grof, S.&Grof, C.(1990). FBI (1999).Project Megiddo, FBIStrategic Assessment,October 20,1999,retrieved 2007-07- Esalen Catalog, Davis, W. (1984).AnIntroduction totheInstroke. Cohen, D.(2011). Clarkson, P. (1999).Eclectic, integrative, andintegratingpsychotherapy orbeyond ‘schoolism’. Clarkson, P. (1994).Chapter1: The nature andrangeofpsychotherapy. In: P. Clarkson &M. Brumann, C.(2000). The Dominance ofOne andIts Perils: CharismaticLeadershipandBranch Boadella, D.(1986). What isBiosynthesis? Boadella, D.(1980). Violence in Therapy. Boadella, D.(1997).Awakening sensibility, recovering motility. Psycho-physical synthesisat Boadella, D.(1991).Organismus undOrganisation: Der Platz derSomatischen Psychotherapie Boadella, D.(Ed.) (1976). Boadella, D.(1973). Bennet, P.W. (2014). Wilhelm Reich, The FBI,and The Norwegian CommunistParty: The Bennett, P.W. (2010). The persecutionofDr.Wilhelm Reich by thegovernment oftheUnited REFERENCES COURTENAY YOUNG ANDGILLWESTLAND Consequences ofanUnsubstantiated Rumor. States. Vanderhoeck &Ruprecht Verlag. DC: AmericanPsychology Association. Series: Princetown University Press. (edited by Read, H.,Fordham, M.&Adler, G.,translatedby Hull, R.)Bollingdon London: Routledge. CA: Sage. Norton &Co. to Michael Balint. 03: http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps3578/www.fbi.gov/library/megiddo/megiddo.pdf. 314). London:Sage. In Palmer, S.& Wolf, R.(Eds.) Pokorny, Structures inUtopian Communes. International Journal ofPsychotherapy, the foundationsofbody-psychotherapy: the100-year legacyofPierre Janet (1859-1947) Society]. in derGesellschaft [Organism andOrganisation: The Place ofSomatic Psychotherapy in International Forum of Psychoanalysis, Energie undCharacter, The Handbook ofPsychotherapy. September 1996-February 1997 Principles ofPsychotherapy Freud onCoke The techniqueatissue.Controversies inpsychoanalysis from Freud andFerenczi Memories, Dreams, Reflections. Individuation andNarcissism, of Self inJung thePsychology andKohut. The Collected Works ofC.G.Jung, &Religion Book11:Psychology London:KarnacBooks. Wilhelm Reich: The evolution ofhiswork. Body Psychotherapy: History, concepts,andmethods. In the Wake ofReich. The Stormy Search fortheSelf. LosAngeles: Risikofaktor Mutterleib [Womb RiskFactors]. . London:Cutting Edge Press. The Ethical Use of Touch inPsychotherapy. 22,61. Integrative andeclecticcounseling psychotherapy, Sanity, Madness, andtheFamily. Journal ofAnthropological Research, Vol. 2(1),45-56. Portraits ofPioneers in Psychology: Energy &Character,Energy Energy &Character,Energy London:Routledge. . London:Allen&Unwin. London:Coventure. 19:51-65. . Big Sur, CA:EsalenInstitute. Psychoanalysis andHistory, London:Flamingo. Energy &Character,Energy London: Vision. 11(1),1-20. 17,(2),1-24. London: Tavistock. Tarcher. 15, (1), 17-26. 15,(1),17-26. 56(4),425–451. Göttingen: Göttingen: Vol.3. Washington, New York: W.W. 16(1),pp. 95–114. Thousand Oaks, Thousand (305-
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[The Mass Psychology of Fascism][The Mass Psychology Psychotherapy. (178-202).Milton Keynes: Open New York: St Martin’s Press. Energy andCharacter.Energy Archives ofGeneral Psychiatry, 32, 13(2),72-76. SHADOWS INTHEHISTORY 1897-1922.New York: New York: Harper New York: Guilford Press. 18 (2),41-49. New York: Sphere. 12,98-108. 30,(4),6-21. London: Energy and and Energy The Physical Physical The 22(1), 16 (3), 16(3), San San Bulletin of Film: . Original . Original
29 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS 30 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS xii xi x ix viii vii vi v iv iii ii i ENDNOTES: Zaehner, R.C.(1974). Young, C.(Ed.) (2012a). Young, C.(Ed.) (2011). Young, C.(Ed.) (2010). The History andDevelopment ofBodyPsychotherapy: European Young, C.(2008). The HistoryandDevelopment ofBodyPsychotherapy: The American Young, C.(2006b).150 Years On: The History andDevelopment ofBodyPsychotherapy www.courtenay-young.co.uk/courtenay/articles/B-PRisks_Cpt.pdf Young, C.(2006a).Risks Within BodyPsychotherapy. Published as‘Körperpsychotherapie und Westland, G.(2010).Report ofthe11thCongress oftheEuropean AssociationforBody Westland, G.(2002).Personal Reflections on Developments inBody Psychotherapy. COURTENAY YOUNG ANDGILLWESTLAND
Being aneditormyself, Idon’t oftenlikedisagreeing withothereditors,whohave their own styles,etc.andthatthere The original version of this article: “The History&Development of Body psychotherapy: “The The originalversion Part ofthisarticle: 5:‘Qui custodiet psychotherapy against witches(Oakley, isbasedonlegislationfrom the16thcentury 2004). In France, thisfearofsectsis muchmore openlyacknowledged andtherecently proposedFrench new law on UKCP: United KingdomCouncilforPsychotherapy. religious groups, doomsdaycultsand(New World Order) conspiracytheories. Christians andtheEsseneswere sects(intheirtime).In theUSA,FBI(1999)analysisfocused onapocalyptic usually refer toasmallreligious orphilosophicalgroup: butmore recently thepejorative usagehascrept in. The early Sects andcults:thisisadescriptive useofthesewords, ratherthanapejorative useofthesewords. These terms periods. of long-termabuse(about8years); theother2 for shorter sexual abuseby takingadvantage ofaconsulting,treatment, orequivalent care relationship. Two ofthevictimsspoke 249.2.3oftheDutch rapeunderArticle Penalcounts ofrepeated statutory Code§174(Criminal Code)concerning From anaccount oftheRoermond (Netherlands) records court intheprosecution ofHans Krens (14/02/2007)on4 (Edinburgh). Roehampton University, Derby University, Christchurch University, Canterbury andQueen Margaret University Masters degree Dance Movement Psychotherapy trainings currently exist at Goldsmiths (U. of London), Reich: www.gentlebio-energetics.com Gentle Bioenergetics –essentiallydeveloped from aformofmassageforpremature babies–developed by Dr. Eva USABP: United States Association ofBodyPsychotherapy: www.usabp.org EABP: European AssociationofBodyPsychotherapy: www.eabp.org Svoboda (2012). Reich wasavictimoftheFBIandformMcCarthyism; andthere filmabout isalsoanew Reich by Antonin However, Philip W. Bennet (2010,2014)iscurrently acampaign(inhisown running iconicmanner)toshow that Thich NhatHahn’s poem:‘CallMe By My True Names’ www.quietspaces.com/poemHanh.html at thede-capitisationofBodyPsychotherapy throughout thisarticle. are different editorial conventions from different sidesoftheAtlantic, butIhave toregister aslightpersonalprotest conjunction withGill Westland andthispresent isasubsequentdevelopment ofthatrevised article version. Historicalin “The Basis ofBodyPsychotherapy (Young, 2011).It wasalsoextensively rewritten anddeveloped in the seriesinJournal ofBody, Movement andDance inPsychotherapy. The originalversion wasthenpublished ipsos custodes?”[Latin: Who guards theguardians themselves?] waswrittenby Courtenay Young of wasaspart Diversity. Legacy of Wilhelm Reich. Today. 625-632). Stuttgart: Schattauer, Accessed: 23/3/13from: ihre Risiken’. In: Marlock, G.& Weiss, H.(2006). Body, Psychotherapy andthe8thInternational ScientificCommittee,8-11 November 2008, Paris. Society. Psychotherapy Publications. Psychotherapy Publications. Movement andDance inPsychotherapy, 30(1),7-16. Journal forBody, Movement &Dance inPsychotherapy, Journal ofBody, Movement andDance inPsychotherapy, Our Savage God. The Historical Basis ofBodyPsychotherapy. About theScienceofBodyPsychotherapy. Journal ofBody, Movement andDance inPsychotherapy, London:Collins. 5,(1),89-93. Handbuch derKörperpsychotherapie. 1(1),5-20. Galashiels: Body Galashiels: Body Galashiels: Body 5(1),5-20. 3 (1), 5-18. 3(1),5-18. Self and (pp. 122 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS Two-year subscription: Members € Payment through banktransfer, American Express or PayPal. Printed singleissue:Members €17.50, Non-members €20 INCORPORATING USASSOCIATION FOR BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL Yearly subscription: Members €30, Non-members €35 THE ART AND SCIENCE OFSOMATIC PRAXIS Online issues are available free ofcharge www.eabp.org http://www.eabp.org/ibpj-subscribe.php Print subscriptions are available:also
www.usabp.org 55.00, Non-members €60. 123 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS 124 INTERNATIONAL BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS Website: Psychotherapy represents. approaches andculturalstancesintheunderstanding ofhumanbeingsthatBody We welcome you to this exchange and toacelebrationofthemanymethodological cultural diversity ofthemovement. covers theory, clinicalpractice,theembeddednessofourwork insocietyaswell asthe professionals from manyEuropean countries,LatinAmericaandtheUnited States. It The Congress focusesonBodyPsychotherapy initscurrent richness,bringingtogether organized togetherwiththeInternational ScientificCommitteeofBody Psychotherapy. This isthe14thCongress oftheEuropean AssociationforBodyPsychotherapy (EABP), http://lisbon2014.eabp-isc.eu/ THE ART AND SCIENCE OF SOMATIC PRAXIS INCORPORATING US ASSOCIATION FOR BODY PSYCHOTHERAPY JOURNAL volume thirteen ● number one ● spring 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
04 Editorial Jacqueline A. Carleton, PhD
08 Self-Reflections on Art and Psychotherapy Terry Marks-Tarlow, PhD
10 Two Poems Jeanne Denney, BS, MA
ARTICLES
03 Shadows in the History of Body Psychotherapy: Part I Courtenay Young with Gill Westland
31 The Endo Self: A Self Model for Body-Oriented Psychotherapy? Will Davis
52 Toward an Integrative Model for Developmental Trauma Homayoun Shahri, Ph.D., M.A.
67 Awareness and Mindfulness in Consciousness-Centred Body Psychotherapy Christian Gottwald, MD
80 Helping the Body Grieve: A Body Psychotherapy Approach to Supporting the Creation of Continuing Bonds After a Death Loss Dyana Reisen, MA, CT
95 The Impact of Body Awareness on Subjective Wellbeing: The Role of Mindfulness Olga Brani, Kate Hefferon, Tim Lomas, Itai Ivtzan, Joan Painter
108 The Enteric Nervous System and Body Psychotherapy: Cultivating a Relationship with the Gut Brain Stephanie Pollock, MA
E UROPEAN EABP A SSOCIATION FOR B ODY- P SYCHOTHERAPY
Journal (ISSN 2169-4745)