Community Empowerment and Child Marriage in Kilifi

COMMUNITY EMPOWERMENT AND CHILD MARRIAGE IN KILIFI

COUNTY, KENYA.

JOYREEN WAMBUI WANYEKI

K101/CTY/PT/30960/2015

A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF

APPLIED ECONOMICS IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ECONOMICS

(COOPERATION AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT) AT KENYATTA

UNIVERSITY.

SEPTEMBER 2020

DECLARATION

DEDICATION

To my beloved Daughter, Hadassah Njeri.

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I pass my sincere and heartfelt gratitude to the Almighty God for the gift of life, His grace, favour and wisdom. I would like to thank my supervisors, Dr. George Kariuki and Dr.Valeria Costa for their tireless and valuable guidance throughout the project preparation and presentation. To my wonderful family-my mother, Jane Wanyeki; my father, Joseph Wanyeki; my sisters, Winnie and Cynthia Wanyeki; not forgetting my lovely daughter, Hadassah Njeri- your constant encouragement, patience and support goes beyond expression. To Grace Kairuthi, for her encouragement and support; To

Simon Mwangi, Symon Thuo and Thomas Mbaru, for their effortless encouragement, support and guidance. Thank you.

TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ...... ii DEDICATION ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT...... iv LIST OF TABLES ...... viii LIST OF FIGURES ...... ix ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... x OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS ...... xii ABSTRACT ...... xiii CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 Background ...... 1 1.1.1 Child Marriage Implications on Development Priorities...... 1 1.1.2 The Child Marriage Situation Globally...... 3 1.1.3 The Child Marriage Situation in Kenya...... 5 1.1.4 Policy Instruments on Child Marriage...... 6 1.1.5 Community Empowerment and Child Marriage...... 8 1.1.6 Community Empowerment and Child Marriage in Kilifi County...... 9 1.2 Statement of the Problem...... 10 1.3 Research Questions...... 11 1.5 Research Objectives...... 12 1.6 Significance of the Study...... 12 1.7 Scope of the Study...... 12 1.8 Organization of the Study...... 13 CHAPTER TWO ...... 14 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 14 2.1: Introduction ...... 14 2.2 Theoretical Literature...... 14 2.2.1 Economic Approach to Human Behaviour...... 14 2.2.2 Child Marriage Model...... 15 2.2.3 Theory of empowerment...... 18 2.3 Empirical Literature...... 20 2.3.1. Causes and Effects of Child Marriage ...... 20 2.3.2. Community Empowerment and Child Marriage...... 23 2.4 Overview of Literature...... 28

CHAPTER THREE ...... 31 METHODOLOGY ...... 31 3.1 Introduction ...... 31 3.2. Research Design...... 31 3.3. Theoretical Framework...... 31 3.4. Model specification...... 36 3.5. Definition and Measurement of Variables...... 39 Table 3.1: Definition and Measurement of Variables...... 39 3.6. Study Area...... 41 Table 3.2: Magarini Sub-County Population Distribution...... 42 Figure 3.1: Map of Magarini Sub-County...... 43 3.7. Target Population...... 43 3.8. Sampling Frame...... 44 Table 3.3: Sample Distribution in Magarini Sub-county...... 45 3.9. Research Instruments...... 45 3.10 Pilot Study...... 45 3.11 Data Collection...... 45 3.12. Data Processing and Analysis...... 46 3.13. Ethical Considerations...... 46 CHAPTER FOUR ...... 47 EMPIRICAL FINDINGS...... 47 4.1. Introduction...... 47 4.2. Response Rate...... 47 4.3. Descriptive Statistics ...... 47 4.3.1. Demographic Analysis...... 47 4.3.2. Household Factors Influencing Child Marriage...... 51 4.3.3. Awareness Initiatives and Child Marriage...... 57 4.3.4. Initiatives that Enhance Access to Education for Girls and Child Marriage...... 58 4.3.4.1. Monetary Support...... 58 4.3.4.2. Accessibility to Schools...... 61 4.3.4.3. School Feeding Programs...... 61 4.3.5. Economic Empowerment and Child Marriage...... 62 4.4. Regression Results...... 63 4.4.1 Multicollinearity Test Results...... 63 4.4.2. Likelihood ratio test...... 65

4.4.3. Regression Results ...... 66 4.4.4. Marginal Effect Analysis...... 72 CHAPTER FIVE ...... 78 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS ...... 78 5.1. Introduction...... 78 5.2. Summary...... 78 5.3. Conclusion...... 80 5.4. Policy Implications...... 81 5.5. Limitations of the Study and Areas for Further Research...... 83 REFERENCES ...... 85 APPENDICES ...... 95 APPENDIX 1: INTRODUCTION LETTER...... 95 APENDIX 2: SAMPLE SIZE...... 96 Table A1: Sample Size...... 96 APPENDIX 3: INTERVIEW GUIDE...... 97 Table A2: Distribution of the Sample...... 100

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LIST OF TABLES

Table3.1: Definition and measurement of variables.……………………………..….39 Table 3.2: Magarini Sub-County population distribution……….…………………...43 Table 3.3: Distribution of the sample in Magarini Sub-county………………………44 Table 4.1: Age of respondents…………………………………………………....…..49 Table 4.2: Marital status…………………………………………………………...…50 Table 4.3: Religion………………………………………………….……………..…50 Table 4.4: Education level……………………………………………………………51 Table 4.5: Age at first marriage……………………………………………………....51 Table 4.6: Age at first marriage disaggregated by sex…………………………….....52 Table 4.7: Household composition…………………………….………………….…53 Table 4.8: Household composition, disaggregated by sex………………………..….54 Table 4.9: Additional household income requirements……………………………....57 Table 4.10: Knowledge around child marriage issues…………………………..…...57 Table 4.11: Organizations providing monetary support……………………………...59 Table 4.12: Accessibility to schools……………………….………………………....61 Table 4.13: Access to financial support……………………………………………...62 Table 4.14: Multicollinearity test Results…………………………………………….64 Table 4.15: The likelihood ratio test results………………...………………………..65 Table 4.16: Logistic regression results…………………...…………………………...68 Table 4.17: Marginal effects………………………………………………………….72 Table A1: Sample Size………………………………………………………………..96 Table A2: Distribution of Sample…………………………………………………...100

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 3.1: Map of Magarini Sub-County…………………………...... 43 Figure 4.1: Sex of household representatives…………………………………………50 Figure 4.2: Age at which girls not attending school and married, got married……….55 Figure 4.3: Households that have received monetary support to facilitate education…58 Figure 4.4: Usefulness of monetary support in facilitating secondary school completion…………………………………………………………………………....60

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ACRWC: African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child.

ASAL: Arid and Semi-Arid Lands.

CCTs: Conditional Cash Transfers.

CEDAW: Convention on Elimination of All forms of Discriminations Against

Women.

CEP: Community Empowerment Programme.

CRC: Convention on the Rights of the Child.

DHS: Demographic and Health Survey.

EE: Entertainment-Education.

FGC: Female Genital Cutting.

HIV/AIDS: Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome/ Human Immunodeficiency

Virus.

ICRW: International Centre for research on Women.

IPPF: International planned Parenthood Federation.

NGOs: Non-Governmental Organizations.

NCPD: National Council for Population and Development.

SDGs: Sustainable Development Goals.

UCSD: University of California San Diego.

UDHR: Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

UNFPA: United Nations Population Fund.

UNICEF: United Nations Children fund.

VIF: Variance Inflation Factor.

WHO: World Health Organization.

NACOSTI: National Council for Science, Technology and Innovation.

OPERATIONAL DEFINITION OF TERMS

Child Marriage: This is marriage, forced or consensual, before the legal age of 18 years. This term is used interchangeably with the term early marriage.

Community Empowerment: In relation to this project, community empowerment is defined as interventions at community level addressing the causes of child marriage. It includes; economic empowerment initiatives, enhanced access to education for girls, awareness and social change initiatives for communities and girls.

Education: A process of facilitating acquisition of skills, knowledge, values, beliefs and habits. It can be formal or informal.

xii

ABSTRACT

Child marriage is a familiar phenomenon in many countries in Africa and Asia. It is a harmful traditional vice, a human rights violation which not only denies young girls a choice on whom to marry, but also exposes them to psychological, social, health and economic risks. Globally, girls from impoverished households are more likely victims of child marriages. Further combined with traditional practices and beliefs, poverty gives education preference to boys in situations of economic constraints. In Kenya, an estimated 23 per cent of girls are married off before 18 years. Kilifi County records the highest prevalence of child marriage with 47.4 per cent of girls married off before the age 18 years. Civil Society organizations in collaboration with the Government of Kenya are actively working towards reduced child marriages through awareness creation on the adverse consequences, presenting viable alternatives and advocating for implementation and enforcement of existing laws prohibiting it. However, several communities proceed with this practice. To better understand the social patterning of child marriage in Kenya, this research targeted Kilifi County. Guided by a model of child marriage, the study explored the effects of community empowerment on child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya through four specific objectives that explored: the factors influencing child marriage; the effect of knowledge empowerment on child marriage; the effect of scholarship empowerment on child marriage; and the effect of economic empowerment on child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. The study adopted a cross-section research design and was informed by primary data obtained through in depth interviews. The study was carried out in Magarini Sub-county, Kilifi County leveraging multi stage sampling design. Research findings indicated that Knowledge empowerment, age at first got married, household composition, access to financial support services (Economic empowerment), access to school feeding programs, access to monetary support to facilitate education, accessibility to schools (Scholarship empowerment) and household incomes, significantly influence child marriage decisions in a household. Based on the findings the study recommendations are :more awareness creation initiatives around abuse reporting channels and legal laws around child marriage, accommodation of interested child brides into the education system either though adult literacy or vocational training programs, access to more favourable and context based financial support initiatives as well as community participation in development through enhanced citizen participation. The study identified gaps in the link between child marriage and devolution as well as climate change, and recommended for further research on the impact of devolution and climate change on child marriage.

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CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Child marriage is a traditional vice, whose effects spill over to communities and society at large (United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF, 2011). It is a human rights violation which not only denies young girls a choice on whom to marry, but also exposes them to psychological, social, health and economic risks (Universal

Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), 1948; UN Convention on Elimination of All forms of Discriminations Against Women (CEDAW), 1979; Convention on the Rights of the Child (CRC), 1989; United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), 2012; World

Health Organization (WHO), 2013).

It is attributed to various intertwined factors: poverty fuelling perceptions of girls either as economic encumbrance or sources of wealth (Ackerly, 2009); protection of girls’ sanctity and family dignity (Gatti & Dollar, 1999); and traditional and religious practices (UNICEF, 2005). Gender inequality and poor social status of women and girls further fuels this vice, rendering them susceptible to cultural and economic pressures.

Restraining notions about the role of women further limits investment in their education, skills and consequently, economic potential (Cutura, Dione , Ellis, Gillson,

Manuel, and Thongori 2007; Farre, 2012; UN Women, 2014; Ayferam, 2015).

1.1.1 Child Marriage Implications on Development Priorities.

The 2015 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) call for elimination of poverty and all its forms. Health, education, labour force participation and stability are key in achievement of the SDG agenda, but are abjured by child marriage. There is a connection between the status of women, health, education and wellbeing of families

1 and communities (Vogelstein, 2013). The Global Health Initiative seeks to promote gender equality through women and girls’ empowerment. This is through investment in family planning, maternal, child health and nutrition, all of which are jeopardized by child marriage. Child marriage and thus early child bearing is correlated to poor maternal health (Nour, 2009; Raj, 2010). In addition to lack of access to contraceptives, child brides are not able to negotiate sexual relationships with their spouses. This leads to early child bearing (Santhya, 2010; UNICEF, 2012). Of the teenage mothers globally, 90 per cent are married (UNICEF, 2012). Teenage pregnancies truncate physical growth, increasing the risk of maternal mortality and morbidity. Girls aged 15-

19 are twice more likely to die from pregnancy related complications and child birth than women in their twenties. Furthermore, infant mortality and still births are 50 per cent more likely among underage mothers, increasing the risks of low birth weight and childhood malnutrition ((Nour, 2009). Children born from teenage mothers face a higher risk of poor health given the possibility of married girls having more children with shorter birth spacing .This further increases the probability of adverse health outcomes, taxing family resources thus perpetuating generations of deprivation and poverty (Raj, 2010). Further, child marriage exposes girls to sexually transmitted infections (STIs) and HIV, as they are more likely to have unprotected sexual relations dictated by significant age differences. (Clark, Bruce & Dude, 2006).

Girl education is among the single most effective development investments, which are short-changed by child marriage (Vogelstein, 2013). The effects of truncated education include reduced literacy levels from limited schooling, which undercuts girls' potential.

This further undermines economic progress (Murray, 2010; Psacharaopoulos &

Patrinos 2004; Clark & Mathur, 2012). According to the World Bank, an extra year of schooling increases a woman's wage by 10-20 per cent. Further still, a percentage

2 increase in the share of women attaining a secondary education increases a country's annual per capita growth by 0.3 per cent (World Bank, 2012). Child survival and immunization rates have also been associated with educated mothers. When a girl’s education is replaced by marriage, her capabilities are reduced.

Child Marriage inhibits women's participation in economic activities, undermining economic growth and development (World Bank, 2012). Child marriage not only limits a girl's education, but also impedes her participation in the market place (Daly 2007).

This creates a dependency state which fuels a cycle of poverty that undermines the potential for community growth (Lawson, 2008). Women are drivers of economic growth through small and medium enterprises. Their inclusion in the workforce has been shown to narrow the gender gaps and increase countries' GDP through increased per capita incomes. (Lawson, 2008). This economic potential is reduced by child marriage.

Child marriage undermines stability and security. The practice is highly correlated with sexual and domestic violence, which destabilizes households and communities

(Santhya, Ram, Aharya, Shireen &Singh, 2010). Child brides are vulnerable to physical and sexual abuse not only from their husbands, but also from other family members

(Dahl, 2010; Santhya et.al, 2010). Consequently, most of these girls relapse into hopelessness resulting from the trauma and overburdens from early marriage.

1.1.2 The Child Marriage Situation Globally.

Child marriage is found in every region of the world but rooted in developing countries

(Vogelstein, 2013). It is a familiar phenomenon in many countries in Africa and Asia

(Jain&Kurz, 2007). Though the practice involves young boys in some countries, it is invariably girls rather than boys who are forced into marriage at an age earlier than that which they can express consent (Goonesekere & Amarasuriya , 2013). This practice is

3 commonly traced in South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa (International Planned

Parenthood Federation (IPPF), 2007; (UNFPA), 2012; Loiza & Liang, 2013).

South Asia has hosted the largest number of child brides with 46 per cent and 18 per cent of women aged 20-24 years married before 18 years and 15 years respectively

(Singh & Samara, 1996; Volgestein, 2013; Williamson, 2014). However, this trend has declined globally. The number of global child marriages is estimated at 12 million, an accumulated global reduction of 25 million fewer marriages that would have been anticipated in the 1990s (UNICEF, 2018). The proportion of women married off as girls is reported to have decreased by 15 per cent, to 20 per cent from 35 per cent in the

1990s. Of this decline, the largest proportion is from South Asia, whose child marriage prevalence has dropped by over a third (UNICEF, 2018). This progress, according to the UNICEF 2018 report, is associated to enhanced government investment in adolescent girls, increased girl education and increased awareness around the harmful consequences of child marriage and its illegality.

The global burden of child brides has therefore shifted to Sub-Saharan Africa where 33 per cent of child marriages are reported compared to 20 per cent of child marriages reported in the 1990s (UNICEF, 2018). Child marriage prevalence in Sub Saharan

Africa is highest in West and Central Africa. Niger records the highest rates of child marriages at 76 per cent, with central Africa Republic, Chad, Burkina Faso, Mali,

Guinea, Nigeria and Sierra Leone following closely at 68, 60, 52, 52, 51, 44 and 39 per cent respectively (UNICEF, 2017). In East Africa, South Sudan records the highest rate of child marriage at 52 percent. Somalia, Eritrea, Ethiopia and Uganda follow closely at 52, 45, 41, 40 and 40 per cent respectively. In Absolute child marriage numbers,

Uganda ranks the highest with approximately 787,000 child brides, followed by

Tanzania, Sudan and Kenya with approximately 779,000, 640,000 and 527,000 child

4 brides (UNICEF, 2017). While accelerated efforts to combat child marriage are required in Sub-Saharan Africa, there is a possibility of progress in Africa noted in

UNICEF’s new data highlighting a drop-in child marriage prevalence in Ethiopia, by a third over the past decade (UNICEF, 2018).

1.1.3 The Child Marriage Situation in Kenya.

Kenya is ranked 20th highest in child marriage absolute numbers in the world, reported at 527,000. UNICEF, 2017). 23 per cent of girls are married before their 18th birthday and 4 per cent are married before the age of 15 years (UNICEF, 2017). These rates vary across regions. According to the data from the 2014 demographic health survey, Kilifi

County records the highest prevalence of child marriage in the country-47.4 per cent.

Poverty is among the major causes of child marriage, presenting girls as "assets" attached to possible dowry payments (UNICEF, 2016). It is a practice that is associated with low levels of education. A girl who drops out of school is more likely to get married (Plan International, 2012). As a safeguard against immoral behavior and adolescent pregnancies, parents push their daughters into marriage to safeguard the family's dignity as well. This is common among communities in Kilifi and Kwale counties in Kenya (Plan International, 2012).

Child marriage is further used as a survival tactic during natural disasters. As reported in the UNICEF 2017 report, the 2017 drought in Kenya was among the major cause of rise in child marriages. In addition, girls may opt for child marriage to escape unfavorable conditions in their homes such as child labor, strict and controlling parents

(Plan international, 2012). Moreover, in communities such as the Maasai, Turkana,

Rendille and Kuria, female genital mutilation/cutting prepares girls aged 9-17 years for marriage. Coupled with harmful traditional practices such as beading among the

Samburu community, girls stand a higher chance of abuse and consequently, child marriage.

1.1.4 Policy Instruments on Child Marriage.

Most developing countries are signatories to conventions and charters that discourage child marriages, among them being the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC) that calls nations to action against the harmful practice. Moreover, countries that record high rates of child marriages have in place, legal laws as regards the minimum age of marriage at 18 years. Yet, child marriage still persists due to other reasons including lack of political resources and will to enforce the laws on the books

(Goonesekere & Amarasuriya, 2013).

Art [16 (2)] and Art [25(2)] of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR),

Art [10] of the international covenants on Economic, Social and Cultural rights (1966) and Art [23(3) & 24(1)] of the Civil and Political Rights refers to the aspect of forced marriage without full and free consent of the parties as an infringement of their right to enter marriage “with free and full consent”. Art [16(2)] of the UN Convention on

Elimination of All forms of Discriminations Against Women (CEDAW,1979) further clarifies child betrothal and marriage as having no legal effects and advocates for state parties to set the minimum age of marriage and provision of a compulsory system for registration of marriages. Art [6,7,2&3] of the Convention on the Rights of the Child

(CRC,1989) articulates concepts on the child’s right to life, survival and development

(Art6); right to birth registration (Art 7) which obliges states to prevent early marriage; right to protection from abuse and exploitation and right to participate in decision making concerning the child's life throughout capacity development and maturity; rights to non-discrimination (Art 2); best interests of the child (Art 3) further reinforce

6 prohibition of early marriages. Moreover, Art [24(3)] of the CRC obliges state parties to " take effective and appropriate measures to abolish traditional practices prejudicial to health", " set minimum ages of marriage and sexual consent without discrimination on the ground of sex".

Kenya is state party to many treaties including CEDAW and CRC. The right of every child to pursue a 12 years basic education is entrenched in the Kenyan 2010 constitution. The constitution, marriage bill and sexual offences Act of 2006 further criminalizes activities and cultural practices that either dissuade or deny girls the opportunity to complete basic education. These penalties range from a minimum of 20 years imprisonment to a life sentence, depending on the age of the girls (Sexual offences

Act, 2013). Furthermore, Kenya has in place the National Plan of Action for Children in Kenya (2015-2022) that acknowledges the consequences of child marriage and advocates for public awareness of the vice.

Kenya has an established child protection system following the enactment of the

Children Act 2001. [Cap 141] that accedes to the CEDAW and CRC conventions. The

Framework for The National Child Protection System for Kenya, developed in 2011, further promotes linked and coordinated child protection interventions, all aimed at improved child protection service delivery in Kenya. It defines the components of a child protection system; outlines the stakeholders responsible for a coordinated child protection system, clearly defining their roles and functions. Moreover, Kenya is a focus of the UNICEF-UNFPA programme on FGM/C, where child marriage survivors, through District Probation Offices are rehabilitated. These offices also investigate child marriage cases and recommend sensitizations in communities on the consequences of the practice. However, Inadequacies in monitoring, legislation and enforcement of the

7 minimum legal age of marriage are however evident, resulting to insufficient measures to address the origins of child marriage (Ganira,Inda,Odundo,Akondo and Ngaruiya ,

2015).

1.1.5 Community Empowerment and Child Marriage.

Civil Society organizations in collaboration with governments in developing countries are actively working towards reduced child marriages through awareness creation on the adverse consequences, presenting viable alternatives and advocating for implementation and enforcement of existing laws prohibiting it (WHO,2010;

UNFPA,2012). Programs working to reduce child marriages range from community awareness creation, girls empowerment, access to education, economic empowerment of vulnerable families, to service provision to girls at risk and married girls. A program scan initiated by the International Center for research on Women, indicates that most programs address underlying social norms that perpetuate child marriage. 58 per cent of these programs educate community and family members through community mobilization, sensitizations and education entertainment (edutainment); 42 per cent educate girls through formal and informal education, life and vocational skills trainings

(Jain & Kurz, 2007).

A systematic review on child marriage programs links reduced child marriages to provision of incentives towards girls’ education (Kalamar, Hindin and Lee-Rife, 2016).

Further, randomized evaluations in Kenya have linked reduced child marriage incidences to provision of schooling incentives (Duflo, Dupas, Kremer and Sinei,

2006).

Education is among the most powerful empowerment tools. The impacts of education are far reaching in questioning, challenging, and changing retrogressive and regressive norms perpetuating child marriage and consequently gender inequality (Brown 2012;

UNFPA, 2012; Sperling & Winthrop, 2016). Child marriage majorly happens during the transition from primary school to secondary school. In most cases, it jeopardizes secondary school completion (Ouma, 2013; Otieng, 2014; UNICEF, 2016; Salem,

2018). It is rampant in settings where educational and employment opportunities are limited. Significant barriers such as distance, cost, unsafe and unprotected school environments further limits education attainments (Sperling & Winthrop, 2016). While child marriage is both a cause and effect of school dropout (Ellis, et al, 2007; Brown,

2012; Farre, 2012), it is not the sole cause for school dropout. Financial strains in the family and poor academic performance makes marriage an ultimate viable option

(Brown, 2012; Wodon, Nguyen, yedan & Edmeades, 2017).

1.1.6 Community Empowerment and Child Marriage in Kilifi County.

Being the county with the highest prevalence of child marriage in Kenya, the study focused on Kilifi County. In particular this research targeted Magarini sub-county, among the poorest regions in the county, characterized by poor infrastructure, long dry spells, water shortage, and majorly, early marriages (Mwandoto, 2016). School enrolment and completion is affected by the high levels of poverty and cultural norms, which give preference to boys’ education and in most instances, push for marriage either as a viable economic and social option (Mwandoto, 2016). An Adolescent and

Youth 2017 Survey in Kilifi County indicates that early marriages from customary laws, teenage pregnancies, tourism, poverty, religious interferences and child labor are among the major challenges in the County (NCPD, 2017). The ripple effects of poverty are far reaching in influencing marriage timing decisions for girls in the sub-county.

Given the strains in household expenditures, girls are viewed as economic encumbrances; a source of family income through dowry payments (CISP, 2017).

Girls’ education is sacrificed in situations of financial strains, giving education priority

9 to boys. Accelerated by cultural norms that promote marriage of girls at puberty, teenage pregnancies are also a major cause of child marriage in the region (CISP. 2017).

Efforts towards reduced child marriage are apparent in Kilifi County. These include, but not limited to; scholarships, bursaries, economic incentives and awareness creation to households. Mwandoto (2016) highlights the County’s bursary/scholarship allocations going back three financial years. Of these allocations, 75 per cent finances secondary school education. This has recorded an increase in secondary school enrolment- an estimated 500,000 students, of whom, 240,000 are boys and 267,000 are girls. This indicates an increase in girls’ secondary school enrolment (Mwandoto,

2016). Moreover, Partnerships with Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) working in the regions, to delay marriage are apparent (Mwandoto, 2016; National

Council for Population and Development (NCPD), 2017). These range from: livelihood programs, aimed at economic empowerment of households; community sensitizations on the importance of education and delayed marriage, including harmful consequences of child marriage; provision of conditional and unconditional cash transfers and provision of incentives such as school uniforms, scholarships, all aimed at retaining girls in schools. The constant efforts by the stakeholders have led to enhanced public awareness on harmful consequences of child marriage (NCPD, 2017). However, these efforts are frustrated by the rising cases of early marriages in the region (Mwandoto,

2016; NCPD, 2017).

1.2 Statement of the Problem.

Child marriage is a violation of girls’ rights to education, health, a life free from exploitation, violence and equality, as enshrined in the human rights treaties and conventions (CEDAW, 1979; CRC, 1989). It is an impediment to key development

10 priorities in education, health, labour force participation and stability (Vogelstein,

2013).

Studies have highlighted the causes and effects of child marriage (Parsons, Edmeades,

Kes, et al (2015); Ganira, Inda, et al (2015); Nur, 2016; Montazeri, Gharacheh, et al

(2016); Wodon, Nguyen & Edmeades, 2017). Other studies in other parts of the world have gone further to link reduced child marriages to community empowerment initiatives (Erulkar & Muthengi, 2009; McCleary-Sills, et al (2015). Despite accelerated efforts through a myriad of community empowerment initiatives, child marriage remain high in Kenya with Kilifi County having the highest prevalence rate at 47.4 per cent. To reverse this trend there is need to assess the effectiveness of community empowerment initiatives in delaying child marriage in Kilifi County,

Kenya.

1.3 Research Questions.

This study answered the following questions:

1. What household factors influence child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya?

2. What is the effect of awareness initiatives on child marriage in Kilifi County,

Kenya?

3. What is the effect of initiatives that enhance access to education for girls on

child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya?

4. What is the effect of economic empowerment on child marriage in Kilifi

County, Kenya?

1.5 Research Objectives.

The general objective of this study was to examine the effect of community empowerment on child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. This was achieved through four specific objectives that sought to:

1. Determine the household factors that influence child marriage in Kilifi County,

Kenya;

2. Determine the effect of awareness initiatives on child marriage in Kilifi County,

Kenya;

3. Determine the effect of initiatives that enhance access to education for girls on

child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya;

4. Determine the effect of economic empowerment on child marriage in Kilifi

County, Kenya.

1.6 Significance of the Study.

The aim of this research was to guide future programming of Government and development actors in addressing root causes of child marriage in Kenya, with evidences of what interventions work and what doesn’t in the county with the highest prevalence of child marriage in Kenya.

1.7 Scope of the Study.

The study sought to examine the effects of community empowerment on child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. The study was carried out in Magarini Sub-county, but given the vastness of the Sub-County, the study focused on Magarini, Gongoni and Garashi wards as they host most of the community empowerment programs.

1.8 Organization of the Study.

The study was organized into three chapters: Chapter one- the background to the study, statement of the problem, purpose of the study, objectives of the study, research questions, significance of the study, operational definition of terms and organization of the study; Chapter two- literature review that reviews an economic approach to human behaviour, a child marriage model and the theory of empowerment as part of theoretical review as well as the Empirical studies review; and Chapter three- methodology that highlights the research design, theoretical framework, model specification, description and measures of variables, target population, sampling frame, data collection, research instruments, ethical issues and Data Analysis.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1: Introduction

This chapter contains a review of selected literature on causes and effects of child marriage, social norms and programmatic evidence on child marriage. Theoretical and empirical literature is also reviewed. Finally, it presents an overview of literature.

2.2 Theoretical Literature.

The study is based on the theories of: Economic approach to human behaviour, and the theory of empowerment. The study also explores the child marriage model.

2.2.1 Economic Approach to Human Behaviour.

The economic approach has developed a theory of the optimal or rational accumulation.

According to Becker (1976), the economic approach postulates the existence of costs.

It posits that when making decisions, there is an assumption of incomplete information pegged on the fact that information is costly. Decision units are not necessarily conscious of their maximization efforts but only choose to follow pursuits it they expect the benefits to exceed those available in alternative occupations. This according to

Becker, explains human behaviour whose compliance is induced by social norms.

Social norms spring from collective rationality, whose benefits are collective rather than individualistic. Becker further argues that social norms are preferences which are formed, assumed not to change substantially over time and further assumed not to be different between status, societies and cultures. This theory further postulates that norm guided behaviour is dominated by ignorance and traditional beliefs which translate into misperceived collective behaviour. This results in a self-perpetuating occurrence and re-occurrence of misperceived behaviour. Revealing the healthier norm, therefore,

14 encourages individuals to engage in the positive and healthy behaviour(s) (Mollen,

Rimal, Ruiter and Kok, 2013).

Akerlof (1976) argues that people obey norms with a particular outcome in mind, mostly to avoid disappointment from social sanctions. He further argues that given the choice to take a norm-guided action, a cost-benefit analysis reveals the most rational choice. Thus, Akerlof posits that norm-guided behaviour is supported by the threat of social sanctions, making it rational to obey norms. In response to this argument, Elster

(1989) argues that norms are not dependent on external sanctions to be effective. When internalized, they can be followed in the absence of sanctions imposed from their violation. An internal drive to adhere to norms independent of other people’s reactions.

According to Elster, people can sanction others for violating norms. This is because, if they do not express their disapproval of the violation, they will be targets for disapproval by third parties. As long as the cost of expressing disapproval is less than the cost of receiving disapproval for not expressing it, it is rational to express it.

These three arguments are relevant in explaining child marriage as a norm guided behaviour, whose irrationality is pegged on incomplete information, social norms and sanctions. Since individuals’ behaviour is linked to customs, values and tradition, it is apparent that their actions are propagated by the benefits, whether social or economic, attached to their actions.

2.2.2 Child Marriage Model.

This model describes the demand and supply side factors that incentivize child marriage as developed by Cockburn, Diarra & Dessy (2015). Child marriage is associated with factors that encourage marrying girls early-supply side factors; and the added value attached to marrying underage girls-demand side factors.

According to Cockburn, et al, a girl's timing in marriage is majorly a parents' decision.

The households' decision on marriage timing of their daughters is binary. That is, in each household, girls may be married off at time t=0, when still underage, or until time t=1, when of legal age, having nurtured her emotional, cognitive and social development.

Child marriage decision is linked to the parents' socioeconomic outcomes, determined by average years of completed schooling and standards of living. The standard of living can be derived from ownership of assets or other sources of livelihood. The timing of a daughter's marriage in households with underage girls, has a utility payoff. Underlying this payoff, are the considerations of the girl's well-being and household survival.

Parents care about the well-being of their daughter and the economic stability of their households. The payoff components' structure indicates that both demand for and supply of child brides must simultaneously exist for there to be child marriage. The level of economic stability in the households is linked to household per capita expenditures on the household members. A decision by households to delay their daughter's marriage means that the household will allocate a share of household wealth to expenditures aimed at nurturing her development.

Conversely, if household decides to marry off their underage daughter then, the child bride immediately leaves the home. This brings an immediate release of household resources to other uses. This could also mean an addition to household resources through bride price payments. Marriage timing decisions have an impact on girls' well- being. Education is seen as a viable alternative to child marriage. A girl's outcomes

(education or marriage) can be linked to both socioeconomic outcomes of parents (level of education and wealth) and the value attached to underage brides by men. Household

16 resources invested in nurturing a girl’s education contributes to her prospects (higher educational attainments) proportionally to the level invested. This implies that the more the resources invested to a child, the better the prospects.

Conversely, a poor household, hampered in its ability to enhance a girl's prospects through schooling, may lead to poor outcomes such as teenage pregnancy. Thus, parents may fear that their inability to nurture their daughter's outcomes may lead to out-of- wedlock teenage pregnancies, undermining their present and future prospects, as well as added household expenditures. Furthermore, low literacy levels among parents does undervalue children's education (Foley, Gallipoli & Green, 2014). Literate parents on the other hand, value their children's education as they further create conducive environments for learning, stimulating learning abilities. Educated parents also have access to information about harmful consequences of child marriage and values attached to education.

If households decide to time their daughter's marriage at legal age then, the decision impacts her well-being, which is also dependent not only on their socioeconomic outcomes but also on the men's value for child brides. Given the value attached to marriage, parents wish not to delay their daughters to participate in the marriage market if men only want child brides. Conversely, if households time their daughter's marriage before 18 years, the outcome of such a strategy is dependent on the probability that the daughter escapes poor emotional and reproductive health related to child marriage.

This model highlights the socio-economic and cultural factors influencing child marriage, both from the demand and supply side. It postulates that child marriage is linked to the socio-economic aspects of households. Further, it explores an interesting component that links the parents’ education levels to decisions around child marriage.

Thus, it is apparent that education goes a long way in influencing decisions around the practice. It is therefore relevant to the proposed study as it defines a model that explores community empowerment and its effect in delaying child marriage. It also articulates various socio-economic and cultural factors related to child marriage.

2.2.3 Theory of empowerment.

There are four elements of empowerment: information access; participation/inclusion; accountability; and local organizational capacity (Khwaja,2005). There are two underlying theoretical components of empowerment: information and influence. The former is conceptualized as both provision of and access to information. When communities are empowered, they are able to provide information about their preferences as well as gain information from external agents that enhance their capacity to make optimal choices (Khwaja, 2005). Provision of information benefits community members, as the final outcome will most likely match the community's needs. Access to information on the other hand, resulting from information flow from external institutions to community members, enhances making of more informed choices.

Information is also an aspect of three other components of empowerment: Participation; social accountability; and fostering local organizational capacity. Information exchange as a component of empowerment implies that both parties are willing to supply information relevant to goal achievement. Though information is necessary, it is not sufficient to produce a desired outcome. Influence is also required. Communities may perfectly share information, but unless they have the ability to influence decisions and most importantly know of this ability, the information exchange will not be effective

(Zimmerman, 2012).

Given the norm guided nature of child marriage, this theory defines key components in behaviour change. These are; full information which exposes the effects of the norm guided behaviour, which then influences communities’ beliefs and attitudes and prompts community/ individual participation in reducing the practice. This further prompts communities and individuals to hold various institutions accountable and lastly, influences decisions around child marriage. This theory is thus useful in explaining the effect that community empowerment has on reducing child marriages.

2.3 Empirical Literature.

This section explores relevant literature on child marriage causes, effects and community empowerment initiatives that have been documented as effective in reducing child marriage.

2.3.1. Causes and Effects of Child Marriage

Khasiani (1995) in a study on fertility, asserts that child marriage relegates women to low societal and economic status. The study shows that marriage at a younger age limits engagement in educational opportunities thus participation in the labour force.

Furthermore, child marriage exposes women to longer reproductive spans, increasing their fertility rate. Consequently, the young brides are vulnerable to poor health and multidimensional poverty.

A study commissioned by UNICEF Sri lanka in 2011, was aimed at establishing the causes of early marriages and consequently devise mechanisms to counter it. The qualitative inquiry suggested that statutory rape and early marriages were on the rise in

Sri lanka, among the less developed districts in particular. It was further noted that the rising cases of child marriage were majorly associated to teenage sexuality and less linked to cultural norms and forced marriages. The study findings recommended introduction of teenage reproductive health information and services, awareness creation around adverse effects of child marriages, and revision of existing laws related to teenage pregnancy and forced marriages.

A study commissioned by Plan international, Kenya, to establish the factors barring completion of girls' secondary education in Nyanza, Eastern, coastal and Nairobi

Counties reported child marriage as among the major causes of school dropout.

Adopting both qualitative (focus group discussions, Key informant interviews) and quantitative (household surveys) data collection methods, the study recommended for poverty alleviation programs, education for both girls and boys, awareness creation initiatives towards girls empowerment and further research on household child marriage decisions to inform future programming.

According to MAMTA Health Institute for Mother and Child, (2012), Child marriage is manifested in various factors, classified as either economic, socio-cultural or religious. It is a practice linked with rural-urban divide, economic status, education and ethnicity. However, these factors do not independently determine a woman’s age at marriage but are rather interrelated in producing a collective effect in marriage age determination.

Birech (2013) discusses the cultural factors influencing child marriage, health implications of child marriage and various strategies and measures in place to end the menace. Bride wealth, societal status of women, preservation of virginity and sanctity, poverty and cementing of bridal alliances are highlighted as the major reasons behind child marriage. Policy and legal measures by governments have been put in place to address the issue, but it still persists. The study highlights community mobilization as among effective tools for social behaviour change. In addition, evidence on the effectiveness of provision of economic activities, access to education opportunities for girls, provision of incentives for delayed marriage and life skills trainings is apparent.

The study recommends the need for active community engagement in the search for solutions to end child marriage and awareness creation on the negative health ramifications of child marriage.

Ganira,Inda,Odundo,Akondo and Ngaruiya (2015) in their study on Early and Forced

Child Marriage on Girls' education in Migori County, Kenya, reveals that early marriages impede on the rights of girls and women which undermine initiatives to increase involvement in education, increase employment and enterprise levels and reduce maternal mortality. This further hinders participation in economic, social and politics in adulthood. The study focused on prospects, policies and constraints with an aim to provide direction for enhanced women participation in national development.

The study used both primary and secondary data, with the former obtained through structured interviews with 30 women who got married before attaining 18 years.

Findings revealed that quality education and weak implementation of policies contributed to perceptions around child marriage. Further, the belief that girls are sources of wealth fuel the child marriage pandemic. The study recommends a review of existing laws to enhance adherence to: the minimum age of marriage and registration of marriages.

Parsons, Edmeades, Kes, Petroni, Sexton & Wodon, (2015), through a review of literature, analyses the economic impacts of child marriage. This is done on specific areas in health, education attainment, labour force participation, decision making and participation and violence. The linkages among the highlighted areas is apparent-a girl without agency and voice is limited in making decisions about her life. This contributes to increased school dropout rates, illiteracy, low labour force participation, less control over household assets, poor health outcomes, all of which pose a huge economic and social cost to the individuals, households and communities at large. These consequently translate into lost national earnings and further intergenerational poverty.

CISP (2017) in a study on the relationship between social norms and child marriage, explore the causes of child marriage in Magarini Sub-County, Kilifi, County, Kenya.

Through 20 in-depth focus group discussions, leveraging community members, community based organizations (CBOs), community health workers, government officials, school management committees and youth aged 15-20 years as respondents, the study sought to understand existing social norms and their effect on child marriage.

The study findings linked child marriage to; poverty, teenage pregnancies, cultural norms defining girls as economic encumbrances and not deserving of education, preservation of family dignity and preservation of girls sanctity. The study recommended provision of support services to boost household incomes, as well as schooling incentives towards girls’ education.

Wodon, Nguyen and Edmeades (2017) in an analysis of the impacts of child marriage on educational attainments posit that there is a causal relationship between child marriage and educational attainments. Through use of regression-based techniques in the analysis of Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) data from 15 countries, on girls secondary school completion, the findings posited a significant negative relationship between child marriage and secondary school completion. The study therefore recommends for strategies that seek to retain girls in school.

2.3.2. Community Empowerment and Child Marriage.

The Berhane Hewan program in Ethiopia is among programs acclaimed for its efforts in delaying child marriage. Adopting a multi-faceted approach, the program sought to reduce girl’s vulnerability by building social, economic and health assets among the adolescent girls (Erulkar & Muthengi, 2009). The program encouraged discussion of

23 pertinent issues around child marriage through use of community conversations. In addition, animal incentives were offered to families as a counter to economic burdens preventing girl education and a further motivation to delaying of marriages within the

2 years the program ran. An evaluation of the program confirmed that 90% of girls aged

10-14 years in the experimental areas were less likely to be married off, and thrice likely to be in school compared to their counterparts in the control group. The evaluation focused on three strategies: awareness creation on dangers of child marriage; support of girl education through provision of school supplies; and provision of conditional incentives for delaying marriage. The evaluation recommended recognition of economic elements of child marriage, as child marriage goes beyond the issue of tradition. It is majorly as a result of seasonal scarcities, emergencies and poverty. It was also recommended that programs be tailored by gender and age, as what works for an under 15 years age group is different for an over 15 years age group (Erulkar &

Muthengi, 2009).

Tostan's Community Empowerment Programme (CEP) has been cited as a promising programme for abandonment of child marriage (Cislaghi, Gillespie & Mackie , 2010).

The CEP creates avenues for community members to explore implications and meanings of human rights through focusing on community's wellbeing and the influence to participate in the wellbeing. Two classes of 25-30 participants-for adults and adolescents-are organized. As a result, participants taken through the CEP are not only empowered to organize, but also to speak out and take action regarding issues such as child marriage and female genital cutting (FGC) in their communities.

Programmatic efforts to reduce child marriage while addressing lack of economic opportunities, poverty and education are a milestone for the World Bank Group, through investment in gender-informed research, programs and impact evaluations

(IEs) (Parsons & McCleary-Sills, World Bank Group). Parsons & McCleary-Sills (no date) have identified programs impacting on child marriage. Among those identified include: Conditional Cash Transfers (CCTs) offering financial incentives pegged on the condition that the girls get to attend school; additional education programs such as life skills courses, girls clubs; subsidized school uniforms; infrastructure improvements and curriculum reforms. The evaluations analysis identifies child marriage drivers and recommends for strategies and programs that address multiple economic and social drivers towards delayed marriages.

Mccleary-Sills, Hanmer, Parsons and Klugman (2015) in an analyses of child marriage as a barrier to schooling and gender equality in Girls Education, the study highlights education as a powerful empowerment tool. Referring to such empowerment as

Agency, the study articulates the impacts of education as far reaching in questioning, challenging, and changing retrogressive and regressive norms perpetuating child marriage and consequently gender inequality. The study further highlights strategies to retain girls in school as: provision of scholarships and cash transfers to incentivize and subsidize schooling for girls; staffing of female teachers to bridge the gender disparity and as a way to attract girls in schools; reduced distances to schools in unsafe areas, conducting gender sensitivity trainings to teachers for prevention of sexual harassment in schools; and collaboration with religious and community leaders in prevention of gender based violence. These recommendations are an emphasis on the World Bank

Group supported initiatives, which support a combination of both structural interventions and family-level financial incentives as a means to improve education.

Kalamar, Lee-Rife and Hindin (2016) in a systematic review on child marriage programs in low and middle-income countries, synthesized evaluated programs and analysed the broader implications for possible solutions to child marriage. The findings indicate that prevention programs focus on community mobilization, girls’ empowerment, economic incentives and enhanced schooling and policy changes which significantly influences knowledge, attitudes and practice around child marriage.

These, according to the review, are classified either as Conditional cash transfers, unconditional cash transfers, teacher training, Schooling incentives and/or life skills curriculum development. The analysis further highlights programs fostering information, networks and skills, combined with community mobilization as effective.

Kalamar, et al commends the structural efforts addressing health, education and poverty reduction and recommends these linkages as child marriage prevention strategies.

Nur (2016) in a study on socio-economic factors contributing to early marriage in

Garowe district, Puntland Somalia, evidenced household income and parents’ education level as significant influences to early marriage. The qualitative study evaluated household incomes and educational attainments among parents in Garowe district. The target population comprised of parents from rural/urban/wealthy/poor households, education managers and policy makers in the area, sampled through snowball sampling. Data was collected through documentary analysis, focus group discussions and interviews. The study findings revealed that early marriage was not just a practice common among the rural poor, but also entrenched among the urban rich.

This, the researcher attributed to the deep rooted cultural and religious norms in the target area. Therefore, a shift from the conventional policy formulations towards design of sensitization programs-awareness, civic education, life skills, adult education- focusing on child marriage emerged as recommendations from this study.

Montazeri, Gharacheh, Mohammadi, Rad and Ardabili, (2016), in a study on determinants of early marriage in Iran, highlights the need for a community-based approach in the design of health interventions aimed at addressing early marriage. In a two-year study, involving 15 participants sampled purposefully, the qualitative study was aimed at exploring the determinants of early marriage from a married girls’ perspective. The research findings indicated that there were efforts to delay early marriage from the participants but were all countered by other multiple factors which were classified as either; family structure, response to needs or low decision-making autonomy. Socioeconomic difficulties such as growing up in dysfunctional families with constant difficulties, prompt many girls in such settings to opt for marriage as a better option; cultural and religious norms; inappropriate decision making and negotiation skills; response to social, emotional and sexual needs, fuel child marriages.

The research findings recommend a multidimensional approach in efforts to reduce child marriages.

Chae and Ngo (2017), in a study on global interventions that prevent child marriage, classify the approaches into four categories: strategies that give girls the information, skills, and support structures they need to advocate for themselves and improve their own status and well-being; strategies influencing community attitudes toward child marriage and increases local knowledge of the negative consequences of the practice;

27 strategies providing incentives to keep girls in school and for out-of-school girls to return to school; and strategies providing families with economic incentives or opportunities to offset the costs of raising girls and to discourage them from marrying girls off. These strategies are further expounded as taking the form of life-skills training, livelihoods training, gender-rights awareness training, exposure to future careers, reproductive health training, social mobilization, group formation by adult female mentors, provision of free school supplies and/or uniforms, payment of school fees, tutoring, cash or asset transfers that are unconditional or conditional on certain conditions being met, such as school attendance. Their analysis further postulate that empowerment approaches are more effective compared to other approaches. The findings suggested that the interventions that incorporated an awareness creation approach, either in solitude or combined with another approach, provided the greatest success in reducing child marriage. Resources directly directed towards girls themselves also emerged as more effective than approaches directed towards families and communities. The study findings recommended a broader evidence base on both successful and unsuccessful interventions in reducing child marriage, in efforts to prevent channelling resources to ineffective approaches.

2.4 Overview of Literature.

Theory postulates that child marriage is a norm guided behaviour propagated by incomplete information, ignorance and fear of sanctions. A collectively rationalised behaviour, that seeks to maximize benefits from engaging in it. Further, both demand and supply factors have to be present for child marriage to occur. Majorly a parent's decision, the parent's socioeconomic outcomes are significant in marriage timing decisions of their daughters. Studies on the causes and effects of child marriage further

28 support these arguments, linking child marriage to social, economic and cultural factors. Revealing the healthier norms significantly reduces child marriage. Community empowerment efforts by government and non-governmental organisations highlight the significance of awareness creation, incentives to keep girls in school and economic empowerment. Through program scans and evaluations, the effects of such empowerment are far reaching in influencing household decisions around child marriage.

Child marriage has been identified as an impediment to key development priorities in education, health, labour force participation and stability (Elster, 1989; Storms, 1973).

This is backed by empirical literature that highlights causes and effects of child marriage (Khasiani, 1995; Gikenye, 2001; UNICEF, 2011; Birech, 2013; Parsons,

Edmeades, Kes, Petroni, Sexton & Wodon, 2015; Ganira, Inda, Odundo, Akondo

&Ngaruiya, 2015; Nur, 2016; Montazeri, Gharacheh, Mohammadi, Rad &Ardabili,

2016; Wodon, Nguyen & Edmeades, 2017). Moreover, it highlights positive effects of community empowerment initiatives explored by NGOs in collaboration with

Governments, recommending scaling up of similar initiatives (Erulkar & Muthengi,

2009, Parsons & McCleary-Sills; World Bank Group, McCleary-Sills, Hanmer,

Parsons & Klugman, 2015; Kalamar, Lee-Rife, & Hindin, 2016; Chae & Ngo, 2017;

Jackson, McDougal & Raj,2017.

It is apparent from the reviewed literature that the causes and effects of child marriage are cross cutting in different contexts. So are the recommendations. Community empowerment has all through being mentioned as a strategy for reducing child marriage. However, despite this justification, child marriage is still a concern in

Magarini sub-county. Amid the community empowerment initiatives rolled out in the

29 region, this study seeks to understand which of the initiatives are working and make recommendations.

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction

This chapter outlined the research design, theoretical framework, empirical model, definition and measurement of variables, study area, target population, sampling frame, research instruments, pilot study, data collection, data analysis and ethical issues.

3.2. Research Design.

This study adopted a cross-section design. This enabled the researcher to measure both the exposure and outcome of interest at the same point in time (Arnett & Claas, 2017).

Moreover, this design allowed the researcher to formulate questions that assessed the subject’s past. It further enabled categorization of subjects with regards to previous exposure despite the information being collected was at a set point in time (Thelle &

Laake, 2015). Both qualitative and quantitative data was collected and analysed.

3.3. Theoretical Framework.

The theoretical framework for this study was based on a model of child marriage. This model described the demand and supply side factors that incentivize child marriage as developed by Cockburn, Diarra & Dessy (2015). Child marriage is associated with factors that encourage marrying girls’ early-supply side factors; and the added value attached to marrying underage girls-demand side factors. According to Cockburn, et al, a girl's timing in marriage is majorly a parents' decision. Assuming a measure N of girls under 18 years, associated with one household, and parents as decision makers. N is thus a measure of households and underage girls.

The households' decision on marriage timing of their daughters is binary. That is, in each household, i, girls may be married off at time t=0, when still underage, or until

31 time t=1, when of legal age, having nurtured her emotional, cognitive and social development. Focusing on marriage-timing decisions involving the N underage girls, a measure m Є [0; 1] of these N girls, is married off before their 18th birthday.

Normalizing N to unity, m is interpreted as the prevalence of child marriage.

Child marriage decision, 푡푖 Є {0, 1} is linked to the parents' socioeconomic outcomes, determined by average years of completed schooling, 푆푖; and standards of living measured by the wealth index, 푊푖 . The standard of living can be derived from ownership of assets or other sources of livelihood. The parents’ average level of education is obtained by adding up the mother's and father's completed years of schooling and dividing the sum by 2.

The timing of a daughter's marriage in households with underage girls, has a utility payoff. Underlying this payoff, are the considerations of the girl's well-being and household survival. Parents care about the well-being of their daughter, denoted as 푏푖; and the economic stability of their households, denoted as ℎ푖. Thus, the payoff function for each household, i, is additive, separable in the girl's well-being and level of economic stability. It is expressed as:

푈푖= ℎ푖+β푏푖……………………………. (3.1)

Where β is a positive scaler converting units of girl's well-being into equivalent units of household economic stability. The terms ℎ푖 and 푏푖 capture incentives, constraints and forces that make girls vulnerable to child marriage. The payoff components' structure indicates that both demand for and supply of child brides must simultaneously exist for there to be child marriage. Thus, ℎ푖 and 푏푖 are structured to reflect both demand and supply side factors.

The level of economic stability in the households, ℎ푖, is linked to household per capita expenditures on the 푛̅ household members, with 푛̅>0. We assume equal household size,

푛̅.

A decision by household i, to delay their daughter's marriage (t=1), means that the household will allocate a share of household wealth, 푊푖 , to expenditures aimed at nurturing her development. Assuming each member receives an equal share of household income, then the level of economic stability in this household given this household timing strategy is:

ℎ = ln푊푖…………………………….(3.2) 푖 푛̅

Conversely, if household, i decides to marry off their underage daughter (t=0), then, the child bride immediately leaves the home. This brings an immediate release of household resources to other uses. This could also mean an addition to household resources through bride price payments. Denoting additional resources to the household by 휀휔̅푔 where 휀Є(0,1), and 휔̅푔 denotes the average level of wealth of potential grooms, constant across households.

Thus, the households’ level of economic stability becomes:

푊 +휀휔̅ ℎ =ln ( 푖 푔)…………………………. (3.3) 푖 푛̅−1 reflecting that there is one mouth less to feed (n-1) and more resources to the household

(푊푖 + 휀휔̅푔). This economic gain from adhering to child marriage is among the incentives towards child marriage.

Since, 푡푖 Є {0, 1}, we generally express the level of household economic stability as a function of parents’ decision, 푡푖, incorporating equations 2 and 3:

푊푖+(1−푡푖)휀휔̅ 푔 H (푡푖) = ln [ ]……………………………... (3.4) 푛̅−(1−푡푖)

This equation structure links the level of economic stability of households H (푡푖) and marriage timing decisions, 푡푖.

Marriage timing decisions, 푡푖, have an impact on girls' well-being, denoted as 푏푖.

Education is seen as a viable alternative to child marriage. A girl's outcomes (education or marriage) can be linked to both socioeconomic outcomes of parents (level of education, 푆푖, and wealth, 푊푖 ) and the value attached to underage brides by men, ∅.

Household resources invested in nurturing a girl’s education contributes to her prospects (higher educational attainments) proportionally to the level invested, 푊푖. This 푛̅ implies that the more the resources invested to a child, the better the prospects.

The demand for child brides {∅ Є [-1,1] denotes the relative value men attach to child brides. ∅=-1 means that men value adult brides instead of child brides. Meaning that they will only consider adult brides. When ∅=1, men only desire child brides. When

∅=0, men are indifferent between adult and child brides. Where ∅ Є (0,1), men are said to have a preferential bias for child brides as they attach an added value (∅>0) to having a child bride and will only consider adult brides as second options.

If household, i, decides to time their daughter's marriage at t=1, then, the decision impacts her well-being, which is also dependent not only on their socioeconomic outcomes, (푆푖, 푊푖), but also on the men's value for child brides. Given the value attached to marriage, parents wish not to delay their daughters to participate in the marriage market if men only want child brides (∅=1). We assume that the benefits associated with delaying marriage until legal age decreases in the value men attach to underage brides, ∅. Therefore, if parents, with combined socioeconomic outcomes (푆푖, 푊푖) in household, i , time their daughter's marriage at t=1, their choice leads to the following level of well-being:

훾 1−훾 푏푖= ln [(1-∅) (푆𝑖) (푊푖 ⁄푛̅) ………………………. (3.5) where 훾 Є (0,1). 훾 Measures the relative importance of average parental education in nurturing the emotional and cognitive development of their daughter.

Equation (5) implies that if ∅ =1, i.e. men only value underage girls, then, 푏푖= -∞, making the decision t=1 unfeasible.

Conversely, if household i, times their daughter's marriage at t=0 (marriage before 18 years), the outcome of such a strategy is dependent on the probability that the daughter escapes poor emotional and reproductive health related to child marriage. This probability is thus expressed as 휌 Є (0, 1). Assuming that parents know 휌, then, from the parents’ viewpoint, the girl's well-being from their decision to marry her off before legal age is expressed as:

푏푖= (1- 휌) ln [1+∅휔̅푔]………………………………. (3.6)

Where 휔̅푔denotes the average wealth level of potential grooms. When ∅ =- 1 (men do not value underage brides), 푏푖= -∞, making the decision ti=0 unfeasible.

In order for 푡푖=0 and 푡푖=1 to be feasible, marriage timming choices ∅ must satisfy:

-1<∅<1...... (3.7).

This means that demand for child brides must exist for child marriage to occur. Thus, the link between marriage timing decision,푡푖, and its consequences on girls' well being is summed up from equations 5 and 6 as:

훾 1−훾 B (푡푖)= 푡푖 푙푛[1-∅) (푆𝑖) (푊푖 ⁄푛̅) + (1-푡푖 ) (1- 휌) ln

[1+∅휔̅푔]………………………(3.8)

3.4. Model specification.

The study took a random utility view of the observed choices, based on individuals’ preferences. The individuals are faced with a set of alternatives which reveal their underlying preference(s) by the choice(s) they make. The choice(s) made is (are) affected by both observable and unobservable characteristics of the individual

(Greene,2012; Gujarati,2004). In analysing all the objectives, this study used of a logit model.

The study adopted the following model:

푌(푡푖) = f (푋푖)…………………………. (3.9)

Where 풀풊 is the dependent variable, child marriage decision that is a function of time (

, 푿풊 are the explanatory variables.

The logit model was of the form:

푃 =E (푌 =1|푋 ) = 1 푖 푖 푖 1+푒−(훽1+훽2푋푖)

푍푖 = 1 = 푒 ……………………... (3.10) 1+푒−푍푖 1+푒푍푖

Where 푍푖=훽1+훽2푋푖 and 푋푖 the set of explanatory variables.

E (푌푖|푋푖) was the conditional probability that an event will occur. 푌푖 Follows the

Bernoulli probability distribution.

Therefore, (1-푃 ) = 1 ………………………… (3.11) 푖 1+푒푍푖

The odds ratio therefore was expressed as follows:

푃 1+푒푍푖 푖 푍푖 ( ) = −푍 = 푒 ……………………………… (3.12) 1−푃푖 1+푒 푖

Equation (3.12) is the odds ratio in favour of child marriage given the socio-economic and cultural factors and community empowerment incentives.

Taking natural logs of equation (3.12):

푃푖 퐿푖 =In ( ) = 푍푖 = 훽1+훽2푋푖 ………………………. (3.13) 1−푃푖

Where 퐿푖 is the log of the odds ratio. It is the logit.

The odds in favour of child marriage was estimated in the logit model as follows:

푃푖 퐿푖 =In ( ) = 훽1 + 훽2푋1 +훽3푋2 +훽4푋3 +훽5푋4 +훽6푋5 + 훽7푋6 + 훽8푋7 + 훽9퐷1 1−푃푖

+훽10퐷2 + 훽11퐷3 + 훽12퐷4 + 휇푖………………… (3.14)

Where

푋1 = Age ; 푋2 = Education level ; 푋3 = Household income ; 푋4 =Knowledge empowerment ; 푋5= Scholarship empowerment; 푋6= Economic empowerment

; 푋6 = Household composition; 퐷1 = Region (urban or rural); 퐷2 = Religion ; 퐷3 =

Marital status (married or unmarried) ; 퐷4 = sex (male or female) ; and 푈푖=error term.

The equation was re-written as:

푃푖 퐿푖 =In ( ) = 훽1 + 훽2 퐴𝑔푒 +훽3 퐸푑푢푙푒푣 +훽4퐻퐻푤 +훽5퐾푛푤푒푚푝 + 훽6푆푐ℎ푒푚푝 1−푃푖

+ 훽7 퐸푐표푒푚푝 + 훽8 퐻퐻퐶표푝푚 + 훽9 푅푒𝑔 +훽10푅푒푙𝑔푛 + 훽11 푀푎푟푠푡푎푡 + 훽12 푠푒푥 +

휇푖………………… (3.15)

푃푖 =E (푌푖=1|푋푖) is the conditional probability that 푌푖=1/푋푖 (i.e., the event occurs given that another event occurred) and (1-푃푖) is the probability that 푌푖=0 (i.e. the event does not occur).

Therefore, 푃푖 is the conditional probability that child marriage occurred. (1-푃푖) is the probability that child marriage did not occur.

3.5. Definition and Measurement of Variables.

Table 3.1: Definition and Measurement of Variables. VARIABLES DEFINITION OF Scale of MEASUREMENT VARIABLES variables OF VARIABLES. Dependent variable Child marriage Where a household Binary A binary variable has an experience where an experience of of a girl marrying a girl marrying before before the age of 18 the age of 18 years years. =1and 0, otherwise. Independent variables Age The age of the categorical Categorical variable household head in ordered according to the household at the age of household the time of heads at the time of marriage. marriage. Education level The highest level of categorical Categorical variable education attained ordered according to by the household various education head. It can be levels; no education, formal, informal or primary, secondary, traditional. tertiary, informal, traditional.

Household income The overall categorical Categorized based on household welfare. satisfaction with current income/ ability to meet basic household costs/ additional income requirements to meet basic household costs (Ksh). Knowledge Where any member categorical A dichotomous empowerment of a household has variable where, if a participated in any member of the awareness and household has social change participated in any initiatives. awareness and social

change initiative =1, 0 otherwise. Schooling categorical A dichotomous empowerment variable where, if a school going girl in the household has ever Where a school received support in going girl in a terms of bursaries and / household is/ has or sanitary items, (been) a school feeding beneficiary of any programmes, easily initiatives that accesses the school, enhance access to school uniforms and education, supplies=1, 0 otherwise. Economic Where a household categorical A dichotomous empowerment is supported to variable where, if a improve real household has incomes in the participated in household. business skills trainings, microfinance and/or opportunities promoting their assets =1, 0 otherwise. Household The number of categorical Categorized as either Composition children, both male male or female, school and female, aged going or not school 14-25 years present going/ completed in a particular school or dropped out household, in and of school. out of school. Region A region within a categorical Measured as a dummy country having variable where 1= definable urban, 0, otherwise. characteristics but not always with fixed boundaries. Religion Faith of the categorical Use of categorical household head. dummy variables to distinguish a specific religion from others,

with Christianity as the base category. Marital status Whether the categorical Use of categorical household head is dummy variables to married or not. distinguish a specific marital status from others, with “Never married” as the reference category; 1 if sex The state of being categorical Measured as a dummy male or female where 1= male, 0, defined by social otherwise. and cultural roles. The sex of the household head.

3.6. Study Area.

Kilifi County was formed as a result of the Kenyan 2010 constitution. It was formed from the previous Kilifi and Malindi districts’ merger. Kilifi is its capital and Malindi its largest town. The county has a population of 1,109,735 and covers an area of 12,245 km sq. It comprises of 35 wards. Tourism and fishing are the major economic activities due to its proximity to the Indian Ocean. Moreover, the county houses historical sites such as Mnarani ruins. The county has a strong industrial sector, with Mabati rolling mills and Athi river cement contributing heavily to employment and income generation in the area. Opportunities in agriculture particularly dairy and crop farming also exist.

The study was conducted in Magarini Sub-county. Magarini sub-county is among the poorest regions in the county, characterized by poor infrastructure, long dry spells, water shortage, and majorly, early marriages (Mwandoto, 2016). The sub-county hosts

6 wards-Maarafa, Magarini, Gongoni, Adu, Garashi and Sabaki wards. The sub-county holds a population of 175,473 people and has a total area of 6979 sq kms (Republic of

Kenya, 2009). Further information relevant to the highlighted wards is provided in table 3.2.

Table 3.2: Magarini Sub-County Population Distribution. Wards Population Area in No. of Sub-locations (2009 census Sq km sub- locations Maarafa 16847 686.90 3 Mambasa, Madina and Dakacha Magarini 40694 248.90 4 Marikebuni, Bomani, Pumwani and Mambrui Gongoni 34597 232.00 4 Shomela, Fundissa, Ngomeni and gongoni Adu 43005 5427.00 8 Kamale, Adu, Kadzandani, Ramada, Marereni, Kisiki Malongeni and Matolani Garashi 25781 347.70 9 Bura, Kaya, Bate, Mikuyuni, Masindeni, Singwaya, Baricho, Bore and Gandini Sabaki 16317 36.90 1 Sabaki

Source: Kenya Population and Housing Census 2009 report

Figure 3.1: Map of Magarini Sub-County.

3.7. Target Population.

The unit of analysis in this study was the household. The research findings were informed by household responses. The study focused on three wards in Magarini Sub-

County, where community empowerment programs were rolled out. The study drew its sample from household population in Magarini, Gongoni and Garashi wards.

3.8. Sampling Frame.

A multi-stage sampling procedure was adopted. First, the researcher purposively sample Magarini Sub-County as the poorest sub-county in Kilifi County. Secondly, 3 wards (Gongoni, Magarini and Garashi) were purposively sampled based on their population proportion to the total sub-county population. Third, through stratified sampling, the researcher distributed the total sample among the 17 sub-locations in the

3 wards of study. Lastly, households were purposively selected from those that had been beneficiaries of either of the community empowerment programs. The study adopted a cross-section design, with the dependent variable being a categorical variable.

The sample size was based on the margin of error, E, in confidence intervals. (Singh &

Masuku, 2014). The study used the usual confidence interval of 95 per cent.

There are 23,231 households in Magarini sub-county (Republic of Kenya, 2013). Of these, 2769 households are in the three wards- Magarini, Garashi and Gongoni. The three wards comprised a 58 per cent representation of the whole sub-County. Therefore, a representative household sample was obtained based on the following formula as provided by Yamane method:

푁 푛푦푎푚푎푛푒= ⁄(1 + 푁푒2) where the population is represented by N, and the margin of error in confidence intervals represented by e.

This was equivalent to 399 households in the wards. The calculation of the sample sizes was detailed in the appendices. Table 3.3 shows how the sample was distributed.

Table 3.3: Sample Distribution in Magarini Sub-county. Ward Household interviews

Magarini Ward 160

Gongoni Ward 137

Garashi Ward 102

Total 399

There was a level of flexibility in considering the sample size. Adjustments were done in the field depending on factors such as homogeneity/heterogeneity.

3.9. Research Instruments

The study was guided by in depth household interview schedules. The interview schedules were subdivided into four sections: Section A which collected background characteristics of households such as age, household composition , education, household income, region, marital status, religion and sex; Section B,C and D which probed on effect of knowledge (awareness initiatives), scholarship (initiatives that enhance access to education) and economic empowerment on child marriage, respectively.

3.10 Pilot Study.

The questionnaire instrument was tested on ten (10) households. The responses from the ten households were then used to polish the questionnaire.

3.11 Data Collection.

An authorization letter was obtained from the Department of applied economics,

Kenyatta University to help obtain a permit from the National Council for Science,

Technology and Innovation

(NACOSTI). This allowed the researcher to administer various research tools. The researcher then trained research enumerators on data collection methods before the actual study. Moreover, the researcher liaised with local administration and Non-

Governmental organizations (NGOs) in the target wards in Kilifi County to mobilize community members for interviews.

3.12. Data Processing and Analysis.

Regression analysis and descriptive statistics were used to analyse data collected for all objectives. The regression analysis involved estimation of a logit model using the

Maximum Likelihood Estimation method. Further, descriptive statistics, which include measures of central tendency (mean, mode, median), measures of dispersion (range,

Standard Deviation and Variance) and distribution were used to analyse data. The findings were then presented/ distributed in summary using percentages, frequency distribution tables, graphs, bar and pie charts.

3.13. Ethical Considerations.

The study ensured a high degree of confidentiality in data collection and analysis. The researcher sought consent from the respondents, highlighted the benefits of the research, and gave assurance of privacy of the data collected. The respondents’ names were omitted and instead, household numbers were assigned.

CHAPTER FOUR

EMPIRICAL FINDINGS. 4.1. Introduction.

This chapter contains results, discussions and interpretation of the research findings with regard to the study objectives. The response rate, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics are also presented.

4.2. Response Rate.

Primary data was collected from respondents located in Garashi, Gongoni and Magarini wards in Magarini sub-location, Kilifi County. Out of the targeted 399 households, 388 were reached, a response rate of 97 per cent. All questions were filled out in the 388 questionnaires. The response rate is therefore, sufficient for further analysis, drawing conclusions and generalizations based on research objectives.

4.3. Descriptive Statistics

The study was conducted in Magarini Sub-County in three wards, i.e Magarini,

Gongoni and Garashi. There was an almost even distribution of the sample. However, the responses in some regions were lesser than others due to that fact that the study area was vast and very sparsely populated, with little or no means of transport. As guided by the study objectives, the study descriptives are described in the below sections.

4.3.1. Demographic Analysis.

The study further determined the age, sex, marital status, religion, and education level of the household representatives as well as the age at which household representatives first got married. This was significant in analysing the influence of each of the highlighted variables on child marriage decisions in the household.

The study sought to categorize the age of the respondents. This was important in the analysis of how age influences child marriage decisions in the households. This was also used to validate data collected on other variables in the study such as the first age of marriage and household composition and ensure consistency in the responses.

Furthermore, this was important in the analysis of intergenerational trends and views around child marriage.

Table 4.1: Age of Respondents.

Age Frequency Percent Cumulative 16-18 13 3.35 3.35 19-20 18 4.64 7.99 21-25 50 12.89 20.88 26-30 45 11.60 32.47 31-35 34 8.76 41.24 36-40 67 17.27 58.51 41-45 65 16.75 75.26 46-50 48 12.37 87.63 51-55 25 6.44 94.07 56-60 18 4.64 98.71 61-65 3 0.77 99.48 66-70 0 0.00 99.48 71-75 2 0.52 100.00 Total 388 100.00 Source: Survey Data.

17.3 per cent of the respondents were aged between ages 36-40 years, 16.8 per cent between ages 41-45 years, 12.9 per cent between age 21-25 years, 12.4 per cent between age 46-50 years, 11.6 per cent between age 26-30 years, 8.9 per cent between age 31-

35 years, 4.6 per cent aged between 19-20 years, 3.4 per cent between age 16-18 years and 12.4 per cent aged above 50 years.

The study further sought to determine the sex of the respondents. 87 per cent of respondents were female while 13 per cent were male. This was an indication that female respondents were more available for the study than their male counterparts. This can be attributed to the gender roles that place women as homemakers and caregivers, and men as bread winners.

Male Female

Figure 4.1. Sex of Household Representatives.

Table 4.2: Marital Status.

Marital status Frequency Percent Cumulative Married 303 78.09 78.09 Separated 28 7.22 85.31 Divorced 8 2.06 87.37 Widowed 46 11.86 99.23 Never married 3 0.77 100.00 Total 388 100.00 Source: Survey Data.

A further analysis of the marital status indicated that 78 percent of the household representatives are married, 12 percent widowed, 7 percent separated, 2 per cent divorced and 1 per cent have never been married.

Table 4.3: Religion.

Religion Frequency Percent cumulative Christian 338 87.11 87.11 Muslim 50 12.89 100.00

Total 388 100.00 Source: Survey Data.

Christianity and Islam are the dominant religions in the study area. 87 percent of the respondents were Christians while 13 per cent were Muslims.

Table 4.4: Education Level.

Education Level Frequency Percent Cumulative No formal education 139 35.82 35.82 Primary 211 54.38 90.21 Secondary 30 7.73 97.94 Tertiary/ University 8 2.06 100.00

Total 388 100 Source: Survey Data.

54 per cent of the respondents have acquired primary education, 8 per cent a secondary education and 2 per cent, tertiary / university education. 34 per cent of the respondents have no formal education.

4.3.2. Household Factors Influencing Child Marriage.

The study sought to analyse household factors that influence child marriage. Among the factors analysed include; age at first marriage, household composition and household income.

Table 4.5: Age at First Marriage.

Age range Frequency Percent cumulative 12-18 yrs. 235 60.57 60.57 19-24 yrs. 135 34.79 95.36 > 25 yrs. 18 4.64 100.00 Total 388 100.00

Source: Survey Data.

61 per cent of the household representatives were married before the age of 18 years,

35 per cent between age 19-24 years and 5 per cent above 25 years.

Table 4.6: Age at First Marriage Disaggregated by Sex.

Age range Male Percent Female Percent

12-18 yrs. 14 26.92 221 65.77

19-24 yrs. 29 55.77 106 31.55

> 25 yrs. 9 17.31 9 2.68

Total 52 100.00 336 100.00 Source: Survey Data.

Of those married before the age of 18 years, 27 per cent were male and 66 per cent female; those married between 19-25 years, 56 per cent are male and 32 per cent are female; and those married above 25 years, 17 per cent are male while 3 per cent are female. This is an indication that most female household representatives were child brides.

Child marriage cases are rampant in the study area. 89 per cent of the respondents recorded having heard of a child marriage case in their neighbourhood. Of the respondents that have heard of a child marriage case in their neighbourhood, 75 per cent did not agree with their neighbours’ child marriage decision. Of the responses disagreeing with the child marriage decisions, 76 per cent of them associated child marriage to lost opportunities in education and a better life for the child brides; 18 per cent termed child marriage as child abuse as the girls are not mature enough to handle the pressures and responsibilities that come with marriage and child birth; 6 per cent of

52 the respondents said that child marriage is illegal and approximately 0.3 per cent of the respondents did not know why they disagreed.

On the other hand, of the 89 per cent that recorded having heard of a child marriage case in their neighbourhood, 15 percent agreed with their neighbours child marriage decisions. 61 per cent of the household representatives that agreed with their neighbours’ child marriage decisions associated the child marriages in the region to poverty, harsh economic conditions and financial constraints in the homes. 19 per cent of the responses associated child marriage to the girls' individual choices, 16 per cent on teenage pregnancies and 3 per cent on religion.

Table 4.7. Household Composition.

Children aged 14-25 years Frequency Percent Cumulative 0 118 30.41 30.41 1-6 232 59.79 90.21 7-10 27 6.96 97.16 >10 11 2.84 100.00 Total 388 100 Source: Survey Data.

30 per cent of the sampled households do not have children aged between 14-25 years.

This is an indication of young parenthood in the regions. 60 per cent have between 1 to

6 children aged 14-25 years and 7 per cent between 7-10 children aged 14-25 years. 3 per cent of the sampled households had more than 10 children aged 14-25 years. This was an indication of large family sizes in the study region. Majority of the households in the target wards have between 1 to 6 children aged 14-25 years.

Table 4.8. Household Composition, Disaggregated by Sex.

Children aged 14-25 years Female Male 0 0 0 1-6 428 318 7-10 115 114 >10 69 71 Total 612 503 Source: Survey Data.

In absolute numbers, as shown in table 4.10 , majority of the children aged 14-25 years in the households are girls.

58 per cent of children aged 14-25years in the sampled households attend school while

42 per cent of children aged 14-25 years do not attend school. There is an almost even distribution of girls and boys per household aged 14-25 years that attend school in the study area.

68 per cent of the girls aged 14-25 years not attending school are married. 26 per cent are employed while another 6 per cent are not attending school for other reasons such as pregnancy and labour at home.

As shown in figure 4.2, 9 per cent of the married girls aged 14-25 years, got married at

14 years , 24 per cent at 15 years, 26 per cent at 16 years, 16 per cent at 17 years, 7 per cent at 18 years and 18 per cent above 18 years.

15 Percentage 10

0 14 yrs 15 yrs 16 yrs 17 yrs 18 yrs >18 yrs Age at which the girls not attending school and married, got married.

Figure 4.2. Age at Which Girls Not Attending School and Married, Got

Married.

Financial strains in the households and pregnancy were among the highest responses associated to child marriage, recorded at 42 per cent. Of the girls that got married, 2 per cent dropped out of school while 14 per cent got married because they completed school.

Household Income.

90 per cent of the household representatives reported their dissatisfaction with their current monthly income. Only 10 per cent of the household representatives reported that they were satisfied with their current montly income. 79 per cent of the household representatives that reported their dissatisfaction with their current income indicated that they cannot cover their basic household costs with their current income, while 21 per cent indicated that they could cover their basic costs. 77 per cent further reported that they cannot cover their household basic costs throughout the year while 23 per cent reported that they can cover their household basic costs throughout the year.

33 per cent of the households reported that they are not able to cover the costs associated with education, 25 per cent on health, 5 per cent on food and 37 per cent on other costs.

Respondents mentioned costs associated with development /implementation of income generating activities as among the "other costs" category in the responses.

Table 4.9: Additional Household Income Requirements.

Additional income requirement Frequency percentage Cumulative 5000-20000 176 45.36 45.36 20000-30000 150 38.66 84.02 35000-50000 62 15.98 100.00 Total 388 100.00 Source: Survey Data.

45 per cent of the sampled households would require between 5000-20000 Ksh per month to fully meet their basic household costs. 39 per cent would require additional monthly income between 20000-30000 Ksh and 16 per cent between 35000-50000 Ksh.

4.3.3. Awareness Initiatives and Child Marriage.

The study sough to establish the level of awareness around child marriage issues in the study area. This was significant in determining the influence of awareness creation on child marriage.

Table 4.10. Knowledge Around Child Marriage Issues.

Knowledge around Child marriage issues Frequency Percent Importance of girls education 221 87.70 Consequences of child marriage 211 83.73 Legal laws around child marriage 152 60.32 Where and how to report child abuse 170 67.46 Source: Survey Data.

88 per cent of the households have heard information on the importance of girls education, 84 per cent have heard about the consequences of child marriage, 60 per cent have heard about the legal laws around child marriage and 67 per cent know where and

57 how to report in case they encounter child abuse cases. All the households reported that they heard about the various categories of child marriage related information from radios and community meetings (barazas).

4.3.4. Initiatives that Enhance Access to Education for Girls and Child Marriage.

To better understand the influence that enhanced access to girl’s education has on child marriage, the study sought to examine the influence of schooling incentives, accessibility to schools and availability of school feeding programs, on child marriage.

4.3.4.1. Monetary Support.

On monetary support, the study results indicate that 51 per cent of the households have received monetary support to facilitate education for their children. The monetary support was majorly associated to sanitary item for girls in school. 49 per cent of the households have not received any monetary support to facilitate education for their children.

Received Not received

Figure 4.3. Households that Have Received Monetary Support to Facilitate

Education.

Table 4.11: Organizations Providing Monetary Support.

Monetary support/Organization Frequency percent Cumulative NGOs 7 5.47 5.47 Schools 70 54.69 60.16 Well wishers 14 10.94 71.09 Government 37 28.91 100.00 Total 128 100 Source: Survey Data.

Majority of organizations reported to provide monetary support to facilitate education are schools, reported at 55 per cent. 29 per cent of the monetary support was associated with government programs such as bursaries, 11 per cent with well-wishers and 5 per cent with Non-Governmental organizations (NGOs). Most of the monetary support from schools was reported to be through provision of sanitary items to girls. NGO support was reported to be in the form of scholarships.

91 per cent of the households reported that the monetary support was useful in facilitating secondary school completion for the beneficiaries. Only 9 per cent of the households reported that the monetary support was not useful in facilitating secondary education completion. Among the reasons associated with non-usefulness of the monetary support were that; the beneficiaries are still in school and are yet to complete secondary school. Additionally, two households reported that the monetary support only covered the sanitary items for the girls but did not cover other household expenditures. Two households further expressed their dissatisfaction in the monetary support as their daughters still went ahead and got married.

Useful Not useful

Figure 4.4. Usefulness of the Monetary Support in Facilitating Secondary

School Completion.

4.3.4.2. Accessibility to Schools.

Table 4.12: Accessibility to Schools.

Distance from the School Minutes Number percent Means 5 18 7 Walking 10 41 16 Walking 15 30 12 Walking 20 41 16 Walking 25 8 3 Walking 30 76 30 Walking 35 3 1 Walking 40 8 3 Walking 45 8 3 Walking 50 6 2 Walking 60 9 4 Motorbike 120 3 1 Bus 480 1 0 Bus Source: Survey Data.

85 per cent of the children that go to school spend approximately 5 to 30 minutes to walk to school. A further 13 per cent spend between 35-60 minutes to walk to school.

One per cent of the school going children spend an hour or two to go school by use of buses or motorbikes. One household has rented a house for their school going child in a close vicinity to the school. This analysis was significant in determining the influence that distance from schools has on child marriage decisions.

4.3.4.3. School Feeding Programs.

85 per cent of the school going children / children that have attended school are in/have been into schools with feeding programs. 15 per cent have not been to schools with feeding programs. However, the feeding program is not totally free. The households contribute both in cash or kind towards this program. The cash contribution goes towards payment of salaries to the cooks and purchase of items instrumental to the

61 program such as firewood. This analysis is significant in determining the influence that school feeding programs and contribution thereof has on chid marriage.

Overall, 92 per cent of the household beneficiaries of any scholarship empowerment program (sanitary incentives, bursaries, scholarships, feeding program, close proximity to the schools) reported that it was useful in facilitating school completion for their school going children. 8 per cent of the household beneficiaries reported that the support was not useful in facilitating school completion for their children for the reasons that; the programs especially the feeding programs in schools were not consistent and that most of the programs were independent such that one household would benefit from one but miss an opportunity to benefit from another. Hence, the huge education expenditures were still not catered for in the households, leading to school dropout.

4.3.5. Economic Empowerment and Child Marriage.

To ascertain the influence of financial support on child marriage, the study sought to examine the usefulness of financial support on household expenditures. 51 per cent of the sampled households have accessed financial support services. Of these, 80 per cent have benefited from financial support from table banking/ chamas, 9 per cent from microfinance institutions, and 6 per cent from women fund and 5 per cent from Saccos.

Table 4.13: Access to Financial Support.

Financial support provider Frequency Percent Cumulative Microfinance institutions 11 8.59 8.59 Saccos 7 5.47 14.06 Table banking/ chamas 102 79.69 93.75 Women fund 8 6.25 100.00 Total 128 100

98 per cent of the households’ beneficiaries of the financial support services reported that the support has been useful in facilitating education and other basic household expenditures through the boost it gave to their businesses and farming practices.

4.4. Regression Results.

This section presents result findings from the diagnostic tests, the logit regression and marginal effects analysis. Diagnostic tests performed on the estimated model are presented in the contents in section 4.41. to (b).

4.4.1 Multicollinearity Test Results.

To establish the level of correlation between the independent variables in the logistic regression model, a multicollinearity test was conducted. The Variance Inflation Factor

(VIF) was used as a measure of multicollinearity. This test was conducted to assess how much of variance of estimated regression coefficient increase if the predictors are correlated. The VIFs will be at 1 if no factors are correlated. The multicollinearity results are presented in Table 4.14.

Table 4.14: Multicollinearity Test Results R- Variable VIF SQRT VIF Tolerance Squared Age 1.08 1.03923 0.903492 0.0748 Education level 1.189 1.09041 0.927182 0.1164 Household income 1.081 1.03971 0.894222 0.0851 Scholarship empowerment Monetary support 1.203 1.09681 0.924092 0.1368 School accessibility 1.05 1.02470 0.909672 0.0495 Feeding Programs 1.12 1.05830 0.988982 0.0956 Economic empowerment 1.307 1.14324 0.956022 0.1057 Household composition 1.02 1.00995 0.964262 0.0233 Religion 1.046 1.02274 0.914822 0.0398 Marital Status 1.303 1.14149 0.944692 0.1046 Sex 1.037 1.01833 0.952932 0.0336 Region 1.022 1.01094 0.975592 0.0274 Knowledge empowerment 1.059 1.02908 0.906582 0.0542 Mean VIF 1.117

The VIF of a variable, as a thumb rule, should not exceed 10. This typically happens when the R-squared surpasses 0.90 (Gujarati & Porter, 2009), an indication of high collinear variables. The findings indicated a mean VIF of 1.117 which showed that there was no multicollinearity that would require further investigation of the variables.

4.4.2. Likelihood ratio test.

Table 4.15: The likelihood ratio test results.

Variable Chi2 df P>chi2 Age 1.8 2 0.4073 Education level 18.06 2 0.0001** Household income 10.81 2 0.0045** Scholarship empowerment Monetary support 19.82 2 0.0000** School accessibility 5.67 2 0.0586 Feeding Programs 21.32 2 0.0000** Economic empowerment 19.37 2 0.0001** Household composition 0.2 2 0.9037 Religion 1.46 2 0.4816 Marital Status 7.12 2 0.0285** Sex 0.37 2 0.8317 Knowledge empowerment 12.12 2 0.0023** **. Indicates significance at 5 % level.

To assess the logit regression model effectiveness, the likelihood ratio (LR) test was carried out. LR test is conducted to assess the difference between two nested models that share the same dependent variable. The log likelihood of a restricted intercept-only model and an unrestricted model, with all the explanatory variables, was conducted.

The null hypothesis was that the intercept-only model was a better fit to the data, against the alternative hypothesis of the model with all the predictor variables. A good fit to the data exist if the logistic model demonstrates an improvement over the intercept- only model or one with restricted explanatory variables (Peng, Lee, & Ingersoll, 2002).

When a logistic regression model demonstrates an improvement over the null model

(intercept-only model), it is said to provide a better fit to the data. The likelihood test was founded on the variance in deviation of the intercept only model subtracting the

65 deviance with all predictors in the model. This was because, an intercept-only model serves as a good baseline as it contains no predictors.

From table 4.15 above, it is apparent from the likelihood ratio test that education level, household income, monetary support, school feeding programs, economic empowerment, marital status and knowledge empowerment are significant in the likelihood ratio test. However, Age, school accessibility, household composition, religion and sex were not important across equations and could be potentially dropped.

While Age and school accessibility appear not to be significant in the likelihood ratio test, they appear as significant variables in the logistic regression results presented in table 4.16.

4.4.3. Regression Results

A binary logistic regression analysis was conducted to estimate the effect of community empowerment on child marriage based on household socio-economic and empowerment factors. The dependent variable was child marriage which was measured as a binary variable where an experience of a girl marrying before the age of 18 years was equated to 1 and 0, otherwise.

The Explanatory variables were: Age at which the household representative first got married; Education level of household representative; household income, Knowledge empowerment (participation in any awareness and social change initiatives); schooling empowerment (participation in initiatives that enhance access to education )which was categorized as: access to monetary support, accessibility of schools and household contribution towards school feeding programs; Economic empowerment (participation in financial/credit support initiatives to improve real incomes in the household; household composition, which was measured as the number of male and female

66 children aged 14-25 years in a household; and religion, region, marital status and sex of household representative measured as dummy variables. Knowledge empowerment, schooling empowerment, economic empowerment were measured as dichotomous variables.

To avoid the problem of dummy variable trap, certain explanatory variables were omitted. These included; “Christian” as a reference category for religion , “Female” as a reference category for sex ,”Rural” as a reference category for region and “Never married” as a reference category for marital status . All the other explanatory variables were used in the analysis. The results of the multiple regression are as in table 4.14 which presents the logit coefficients, standard errors, and odds ratios of the full model.

The log likelihood ratio chi-square test statistic for the model, LR chi2(18) = 115.46, with a P value of 0.0000, indicated that the overall model was significant. Holding all explanatory variables constant, the odds in favour of child marriage in a household decreases by 0.071.

Based on the logistic regression output the odds ratios are presented in Table 4.16.

Table 4.16. Logistic Regression Results.

Logistic regression Number of obs = 388 LR chi2(18) = 115.46 Prob > chi2 = 0.0000 Log likelihood =-115.82903 Pseudo R2 = 0.3326

Odds [95% Conf. Child Marriage Ratio P>|z| Interval]

Age 0.5** 0.024 0.275 0.908 Education level 0.425** 0.000 0.264 0.685 Household income 1.000** 0.000 1.000 1.000 Scholarship empowerment Monetary support 2.803** 0.000 1.622 4.843 School accessibility 1.037** 0.000 1.019 1.054 Feeding Programs 6.421** 0.000 3.071 13.425 Economic empowerment 2.605** 0.001 1.509 4.496 Household composition 2.277** 0.000 1.841 2.817 Religion Christian (omitted) Muslim 0.721 0.235 0.421 1.237 Marital Status Never married (omitted) Married 0.422** 0.004 0.236 0.754 Divorced 1.711 0.517 0.337 8.667 Separated 0.370 0.183 0.086 1.598 Widowed 2.556 0.446 0.228 6.896 Sex Female (omitted) Male 0.625 0.305 0.255 1.532 Region (omitted) Knowledge empowerment 1.253 0.103 -0.253 2.760 _Constant 0.071 0.005 0.011 0.449 **. Indicates significance at 5% level. Source: Survey Data.

The variable Age had an odds ratio of 0.5 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a household decreases by 0.5 for a year increase in the age at which the female household representative gets married, holding all other variables constant.

This was significant at 5 per cent significance level with a P value of 0.024.

The variable Education level had an odds ratio of 0.425 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage decreases by 0.425 for an increase in education level of the household representative, holding all other variables constant. This was significant at 5 per cent significance level, with a P value of 0.000.

The variable Household income had an odds ratio of 1.000 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage increases by 1.000 for an increase in additional household income requirements to meet basic needs, holding all other variables constant. This was significant at 5 per cent significance level, with a P value of 0.000.

The variable Schooling empowerment was explained by three variables-Monetary support, school accessibility and feeding programs. The variable monetary support had an odds ratio of 2.803 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a household increases by 2.803 for an increase in household self-sponsorship (no monetary support) towards education, holding all other variables constant. This was significant at 5 per cent significance level, with a P value of 0.000. Moreover, the variable Feeding program had an odds ratio of 6.421 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a household increases by 6.421 for an increase in household contribution towards school feeding programs, holding all other variables constant.

This was reported to be significant at 5 per cent significance level, with a P value of

0.000. The variable School accessibility had an odds ratio of 1.037 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a household increases by 1.037 for every increase in distance to school (minutes), holding all other variables constant. This was significant at 5 per cent significance level, with a P value of 0.000.

The variable Economic empowerment had an odds ratio of 2.605 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a household increases by 2.605 for an increase in access to financial/ credit support services, holding all other variables constant. This

69 was significant at 5 per cent significance level , with a P value of 0.01.The variable

Household composition had an odds ratio of 2.277 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a household increases by 2.277 for an increase in children aged 14-25 years in the household, holding all other variables constant. This was significant at 5 per cent significance level, with a P value of 0.00.

The variable Religion had an odds ratio of 0.721 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a Muslim household was 0.721 that of a Christian household, holding all other variables constant. This was however insignificant at 5 per cent significance level, with a P value of 0.235.

The variable Marital status was categorized as; Never married (base category), Married,

Divorced, Separated and Widowed. The category Married had an odds ratio of 0.422 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a married household is

0.422 that of a household where the household representative was never married holding all other variables constant. This was reported to be significant at 5 per cent significance level , with a P value of 0.004.The category Divorced had an odds ratio of

1.711 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a household that has gone through divorce is 1.711 that of a household where the household representative was never married, holding all other variables constant. This was reported to be insignificant at 5 per cent significance level, with a P value of 0.517.The category

Separated had an odds ratio of 0.370 indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a household that has gone through separation is 0.369 that of a household where the household representative was never married, holding all other variables constant. This was reported to be insignificant at 5 per cent significance level, with a P value of 0.183.

The category Widowed had an odds ratio of 2.556 indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a household where the household representative is widowed is 2.556

70 that of a household where the household representative was never married, holding all other variables constant. This was reported to be insignificant at 5 per cent significance level , with a P value of 0.183.

The variable Sex was categorized as either male or female, with the female category as the base category. The male category had an odds ratio of 0.625 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a male headed household was 0.625 that of a female headed household, holding all other variables constant. This was reported to be insignificant at 5 per cent significance level, with a P value of 0.305.

The variable Knowledge empowerment had an odds ratio of 1.253 which indicated that the odds in favour of child marriage in a household increases by 1.253 for an increase in household inaccessibility to information on child marriage, holding all other variables constant. This was reported to be insignificant at 5 per cent significance level

, with a P value of 0.103.

4.4.4. Marginal Effect Analysis.

The second step of the regression was to derive the marginal effects of the explanatory variables. The marginal effects of the explanatory variables show whether the sign of the coefficient estimate and P value are in line with economic theory and other findings of empirical studies on child marriage issues. The findings are presented in Table 4.17.

Table 4.17. Marginal Effects. Delta Method

[95% Conf. Interval] Variable dy/dx P>|z| Age -0.0824** 0.01 -0.14479 -0.01993 Education level 0.0095 0.686 0.03641 0.05532 Household income 0.0000** 0.033 -1.18E-06 3.54E-06 Scholarship empowerment Monetary support -0.0157** 0.046 -0.06948 0.03812 School accessibility 0.0008** 0.043 -0.00118 0.00278 Feeding Programs 0.0159** 0.0265 -0.05302 0.084723 Economic empowerment -0.0291** 0.0032 -0.08621 0.028123 Household composition 0.05200** 0.011 0.011894 0.092114 Religion Christian (omitted) Muslim -0.02763 0.32 -0.08206 0.026793 Marital Status Never married (omitted) Married - 0.0669 0.501 - 0.2621 0.128221 Divorced - 0.0429 0.189 - 0.1069 0.021121 Separated - 0.0006 0.993 - 0.1341 0.132979 Widowed - 0.1161 0.068 - 0.2409 0.008658 Sex Female (omitted) Male -0.02237 0.562 -0.09795 0.05321 Region (omitted) Knowledge empowerment - 0.09743* 0.037 -0.006044 0.188807 *. Indicates significance at 10% level. **. Indicates significance at 5 % level.

Age, household income, monetary support, school accessibility, feeding programs, economic empowerment, household composition and knowledge empowerment were significant variables in the model. On the other hand, education level, religion, marital status, sex and region were not significant variables in the model. The coefficients of household income, school accessibility, feeding programs, household composition were positive while those of Age, monetary support, economic empowerment and knowledge empowerment were negative and significant at 5 per cent significance level.

The first objective of the study was to determine the household factors that influence child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. The findings indicate that Age, household income and household composition are household significant factors that influence child marriage. On the other hand, sex, religion, education level and marital status are not significant household factors influencing child marriage.

The age at which household representatives first got married is important in influencing child marriage decisions, with a marginal effect of -0.082. This indicates that holding other factors constant, the probability of child marriage in a household where household representatives got married above the age of 18 years is 8.24 percent lower compared to that of a household where the household representatives got married below the age of 18 years. The significance of this can be attributed to the fact that delayed marriage has more pros than cons as it encourages involvement in education, increases employability that further promotes economic and social participation. This s in line with the findings by Ganira, et al (2015), Parsons, et al (2015), Mccleary-Sills, et.al

(2015) & Wodon (2017).

Household composition in regards to the number of female children in a household influences child marriage decisions, with a marginal effect of 0.052. This indicates that

73 the probability of child marriage in a household with more female children aged 14-25 years is 5.2 percent higher than that with fewer female children aged 14-25 years, holding all other variables constant. The significance of this can be attributed to the increased household expenditures that are associated with having female children in a household. Where there is low household income, basic needs specific to female children may not be a priority, which may result to the female children getting out of their means to acquire them. The process of acquiring these resources may in turn drive them towards marriage. This findings are in agreement with those by CISP (2017);

Montazeri, et al (2016) & Nur (2016).

Household income had a marginal effect of 0.0000018. The positive sign indicated that the probability of child marriage in a household with more additional income requirements is higher than in a household that is able to meet the basic costs comfortably. This can be credited to the fact that low household income leads to lower attainment of basic life entitlements. This is turn forces households to allocate the little income towards the very basic household expenditures such as food, neglecting the seemingly costly expenditures such as education. This in turn leads to low education attainments (school dropout) exposing children to marriage as a viable option. This finding is in line with the findings in Montazeri et. al (2016)

The second objective of the study was to determine the effect of awareness initiatives on child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. Participation in awareness and social change initiatives had a marginal effect of -0.0974. This indicates that ceteris paribus the probability of child marriage in a household that has access to information on child marriage is 9.74 per cent lower than a household that has no access to child marriage information. The significance of this can be attributed to the fact that access to complete

74 information is the first step in influencing attitudes, beliefs and perceptions around child marriage. This in line with the theory of empowerment that that places information provision and access as among the key elements of empowerment that enhance the capacities of households to make optimal decisions (Khwaja, 2005; Erulkar &

Muthengi, 2009; Cislaghi, 2010; ).

The third objective of the study was to determine the effect of initiatives that enhance access to education for girls on child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. Access to school feeding programs had a marginal effect of 0.0159. This indicates that the probability of child marriage in a household contributing towards school feeding programs is 1.59 per cent higher than a household than does not contribute, ceteris paribus. This indicates that the probability of child marriage in households that contribution towards school feeding programs is higher than those that do not contribute. This can be attributed to the additional household costs that emanate from the contribution requirements which task the already low income in the household. As a result, low income households may not cater for this cost which means that the children are either sent to school hungry or they have to walk back home for lunch then walk back to school. Both options are not viable as the children may be lured with food gifts or drop out of school due to hunger.

As a result, they may opt for child marriage as a viable option amid the frustrations.

These findings are in support of those in Montazeri, et al (2016).

Access to monetary initiatives that enhance access to education influences child marriage decisions, with a marginal effect of -0.0157. The negative sign indicates that the probability of child marriage in a household beneficiary of monetary support

(Scholarships, bursaries, sanitary items) to facilitate education is 1.57 percent lower than a household that has not received any monetary support towards education. The

75 significance of this can be attributed to the fact that education is among the weighty expenditures in a household. Subsidies or support given towards this not only facilitates payment of educational requirements, but also enables households to channel the

“would have been” education expenditure towards income generating economic assets that in turn provide additional income in the household to cover basic costs. These findigs are in line with findings in Kalamar, et al (2016); Mccleary-Sills, et al (2015);

Parsons (no date) and Chae and Ngo (2017).

Accessibility to schools had a marginal effect of 0.0008. The positive sign indicates that the probability of child marriage in households where children walk long distances to access school is higher than in households where children walk shorter distances to school. This can be attributed to the barriers children may come across on their way to school which may include transportation offers by motorist, which may result to child abuse. Furthermore, the long distances to school may discourage school attendance leading to school dropout and consequently marriage as a viable option. These findings are in line with those in CISP (2017) and Mccleary-Sills, et al (2016).

The fourth objective of the study was to determine the effect of economic empowerment on child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. Economic empowerment had a marginal effect of -0.0291. This indicates that the probability of child marriage in a household beneficiary of financial support is 2.91 per cent lower than that without financial support, ceteris paribus. The negative sign indicated that household beneficiaries of financial support to improve real incomes in the household have a lower probability of child marriage than household that are not beneficiaries of financial support. This is attributed to the fact that the financial support aids in enhancing household incomes through enhanced income generating activities. This income as a result offsets

76 household expenditures that would have otherwise been costly, such as education and expenditures incidental towards education. These findings are in support of those in

Erulkar & Muthengi (2009); Kalamar, et al (2016) and Parsons & McCleary-Sills

(n.d))

CHAPTER FIVE

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND POLICY IMPLICATIONS 5.1. Introduction.

This chapter delivers the summary of the study, conclusion, and policy implications of the findings, limitations and areas for future study.

5.2. Summary.

Child marriage causes and effects though cross cutting, community empowerment initiatives to counter it are context specific. To better understand the effect of community empowerment on child marriage in Kenya, this study focused on Kilifi

County as the county recording the highest child marriage prevalence in the country.

The study made use of primary data. A sample of 388 households was purposively sampled in three wards in Magarini Sub-County- Gongoni, Garashi, Magarini wards.

Data was collected using structured questionnaires and analysed. To answer the research objectives the study used descriptive statistics and regression analysis. For regression analysis the study employed a logit model that was fitted /estimated using

Maximum Likelihood Estimation method. In the first stage coefficients of explanatory variables was determined and in the second stage marginal effects were generated. A logit regression was run to quantitatively analyse the data. Marginal effects were used to ascertain the effects of household factors, awareness initiatives and initiatives that enhance education. The regression results were also used to ascertain whether the findings of the study were in line with economic theory and findings of other empirical studies on child marriage. Multicollinearity and log likelihood tests were also conducted to ascertain the correlation level between independent variables and assess the effectiveness of the logit regression model respectively.

The first objective of the study was to determine the household factors influencing child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. The study findings indicated that the age at which household representatives first got married, the education level of household representatives, household composition and household income, were significant household factors influencing child marriage. The result findings indicated that most female household representatives had been victims of child marriage. It was also apparent that child marriage was rampant in the study area. However, the findings indicated that most households disagreed with neighbours’ child marriage decisions.

Moreover, child marriage was attributed to poverty, harsh economic conditions and financial strains in the households. The findings further indicate that majority of the households had up to six children. The findings indicated that most households' income was not sufficient to meet basic household costs. As such, huge expenditures such as education and health went unmet in these households.

The second objective of the study was to determine the effect of awareness initiatives on child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. This was a significant factor influencing child marriage. The research findings indicated that all households were aware of issues around child marriage- importance of girl education, consequences of child marriage, legal laws around child marriage and reporting channels and mechanisms.

The third objective of the study was to determine the effect of initiatives that enhance access to education for girls on child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. Scholarship empowerment in terms of monetary support, school accessibility and school feeding programs were significant factors influencing child marriage. The study findings indicated that the household beneficiaries of monetary support in form of educational bursaries, scholarships and sanitary items, found the support useful in facilitating

79 education completion. Further, accessibility to schools in terms of reduced distance was also useful in facilitating school completion, so is access to school feeding programs.

The fourth objective of the study was to determine the effect of economic empowerment on child marriage in Kilifi County, Kenya. Economic empowerment was a significant factor influencing child marriage.The study findings indicated that financial support went a long way in boosting household incomes as well as offsetting household expenditures.

5.3. Conclusion.

The study findings indicate that the most important factor in tackling child marriage is participation in awareness and social change initiatives (Knowledge empowerment). In addition, the age at which household representatives first got married, household composition, access to financial support services (Economic empowerment), access to school feeding programs, access to monetary support to facilitate education, accessibility to schools (Scholarship empowerment) and household incomes significantly influence child marriage decisions in a household.

The study findings show that the age at which household representatives first got married had a negative effect on child marriage. The study concludes that delaying child marriage through initiatives such as education goes a long way in breaking generational cycles of child marriage.

A household with more females aged 15-24 years in turn have higher income requirements. Such households have a high chance of child marriage. The study concludes that having more children in a household tasks household resources which are not sufficient to cater for the basic needs in the household.

Participation in awareness and social change initiatives had a negative effect on child marriage. The study concludes that awareness creation on issues around child marriage is a key element influencing negative attitudes and beliefs around child marriage.

The study findings show that monetary support in form of educational bursaries, scholarships and sanitary items had a negative effect on cases of child marriage. The study concludes that increased monetary support through provision of bursaries, scholarships and sanitary items will go a long way in reducing child marriage

Moreover, increased distance to school had a positive effect on child marriage. The study concludes that having sufficient and well distributed schools near the households that minimizes the walking distance to school is key in reducing cases of child marriage

Access to feeding programs was dependent on the contribution that goes towards it.

The study findings show that contribution towards school feeding programs increases child marriage. This study therefore concludes that such contributions act as additional expenditures in the households which task the few resources in the household.

Consequently, basic needs are not met leading to child marriage in search of better lives.

The study findings show that access to financial support services had a negative effect on child marriage. This study concludes that financial support helps boost household incomes which enhance offsetting of household basic costs which consequently reduce cases of child marriage.

5.4. Policy Implications.

Based on the study findings, a number of policy implications have been drawn for the household, Government and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs).

Information regarding child marriage is available in the study area. Over 80 per cent of the population is aware about the importance of girls’ education and consequences of child marriage. However, more emphasis and more campaign around abuse reporting channels and legal laws around child marriage need to be sensitized. The government in collaboration with NGOs and learning institutions can have awareness creation programs developed and disseminated.

From the study findings, household representatives that have been victims of (in) voluntary child marriage. This has resulted in large family sizes. Education has been linked to delayed child marriage as well as better decision making with regards to economic, cultural and social aspects including family composition. To break the intergenerational cycle of child marriage, education can be used as a tool to delay marriage among girls. Moreover, through initiatives such as adult literacy and vocational training, household representatives who dropped out of school can have a chance to further their studies as well as have vocational training. Moreover,

Introduction of Sexual Reproductive Health (SRH) education in schools, as an awareness creation tool among girls can also go a long way in reducing cases of child marriage.This can be collaboratively developed and implemented by the Government in collaboration with relevant NGOs and learning institutions.

Child marriage cases were attributed to harsh economic conditions and financial strains in the household. The research findings indicate that economic empowerment through financial support is significant in influencing child marriage decisions. While private financing may be expensive, government efforts through initiatives such as the women fund are apparent. However, more favourable and context based initiatives can be developed and implemented. The Government in collaboration with NGOs and

82 financial institutions can develop suitable financial access initiatives that can help boost household incomes. Moreover, financial education is important for successful utilization of the financial support. Financial literacy programs can be developed and implemented by the government, in collaboration with NGOs and learning institutions.

The study region was an Arid and Semi-Arid Land (ASAL) region, sparsely populated and experiencing extreme weather conditions. While poverty levels are high in the region, the county government should work with the community to identify beneficial projects in the region. Community and citizen participation initiatives should be enhanced in the region. The government in collaboration with relevant NGOs should develop and implement initiatives that not only create awareness around devolution and its benefits, but also engage the community in development initiatives.

The study findings show that initiatives enhancing access to education through bursaries, scholarships and sanitary incentives go a long way in enhancing school completion in consequently, reduce cases of child marriage. Government initiatives towards enhanced education are apparent through the free primary education as well as the free government secondary school education. Such ongoing initiatives are a best practice and should be enhanced to accommodate more beneficiaries. The County

Government through the constituency Development Fund, should advocate for more allocation towards educational assistance and this fund should be evenly distributed among the regions in the county. In addition, NGOs and well-wishers should enhance their support towards provision of sanitary items to girls in schools.

5.5. Limitations of the Study and Areas for Further Research.

The study relied on primary data from a study area that was vast and in some regions, sparsely populated. Moreover, language barrier was a challenge in the study population.

To overcome this challenge, the researcher engaged community mobilisers in every ward who assisted in not only mapping the study area but also in translation.

The study was staged in a rural setting, in an ASAL area, As such, the findings cannot be generalized for urban areas. For comparison and context specific research, it is recommended that similar studies be conducted in other contexts to inform future context specific programming.

The study focused on the effects of community empowerment on child marriage.

However, aspects such as the effects of climate change and devolution on child marriage in the study area were not captured. Future research exploring the Impact of climate change and devolution on Child marriage is recommended.

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APPENDICES

APPENDIX 1: INTRODUCTION LETTER.

KENYATTA UNIVERSITY,

DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED ECONOMICS.

Dear Respondent(s),

RE: RESEARCH

I am a post- graduate student pursuing a Master in Economics (Cooperation and

Human development) at Kenyatta University. As part of my assessment, I am conducting a research on “The effect of community empowerment on child marriage in

Kilifi County, Kenya.” The purpose of this letter is to kindly request for your time in completion of this questionnaire. You are assured of confidentiality as the information obtained will be purely used for this study. Thank you for your cooperation and assistance.

Yours Sincerely,

Joyreen Wanyeki

APENDIX 2: SAMPLE SIZE.

Sample Sub-County Population size Magarini Sub-County 175,473 399 Wards Magarini 40396 160 Gongoni 34454 137 Garashi 25745 102 Total for the three 100595 399 wards Other wards Population Maarafa 16736 Adu 42810 Sabaki 15332 Table A1: Sample Size.

The proportion for each ward is calculated on the basis of the population. The three wards- Magarini, Gongoni and Garashi constitute 58 per cent of the total population in

Magarini Sub-County (KNBS & SID, 2013). The sample size per ward was then calculated as a proportion of the total population of the three wards of focus. 2769 households constitute the study’s population.

APPENDIX 3: INTERVIEW GUIDE.

Section A: Background characteristics.

Which ward does the respondent live in? Which sub-location does the respondent live in? What is the sex of the household head? What is the marital status of the household head? What was the age of the household head at time of marriage? Does the household reside in an urban or rural area? What is the religion of the household head? What is the education level of the household head? Do you know any child among your neighbours and friends who got married before 18? Did you agree with their choices?

A1. Household composition: How many children aged 14-25 years are in this household? If response is [0; female] end the survey. How many of the children aged 14-25 years attend school? For those children aged 14-25 years not attending school, where are they? (Employed, Married) If married, at what age did they get married? What were the reasons why they got married?

A2. Household Income: Do you feel satisfied with your earnings? Why? Are you able with you income to cover the basic costs of your households: 3 meals a day, education, health? Can you cover these costs the entire year? Which expenses you are not able to cover?

How much more would you need to cover these costs?

Section B: Knowledge empowerment and Child marriage: Has any member of this household ever heard of information on: Importance of girls’ education; consequences of child marriage; Kenyan laws on legal age of marriage; where and how to report in case of a child abuse incident? Through what channel did you hear this information? Did you find the information useful? if no, why did you not find it useful?

Section C: Scholarship empowerment and child marriage.

Has any member of this household received any monetary support to facilitate education? Which organization(s) offered the monetary support? At what stage in their education did the beneficiaries receive this monetary support? Was the support useful in enabling the beneficiaries to complete secondary school? If not useful, please give reason(s) Approximately how much time is spent to get to school? What means do the school going children in this household use to get to school? Is there a school feeding programme in the schools of the school going children? If yes, is it free or does the household contribute towards it? Has the [monetary support/ accessibility to the school, school feeding program] been useful in facilitate education?

Section D: Economic Empowerment and child marriage. Has the household participated in any credit/ financial support services? If yes, from whom did the support come from? If no, end survey. What has the household been able to do with the credit service? Has the credit/financial support had an effect on household expenditures?

If yes, how? If no, why not? What did it change in your household? Are you able to help your children access education?

Targeted Ward Sub-location Responses Responses Garashi Baricho 34 Bate 12 Bura 13 Gandini 3 Kaya 21 Masindeni 11 Mikuyuni 11 Total 105 Gongoni Fundissa 37 Gongoni 13 Ngomeni 21 Shomela 51 Total 122 Magarini Bomani 32 Mambrui 41 Marikebuni 48 Pumwani 40 Total 161 Table A2: Distribution of the Sample.

100