Resources for Teaching Virginia Government. INSTITUTION Charlottesville City Schools, Va.; Virginia Univ., Charlottesville

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 294 788 SO 018 773

AUTHOR Snook, Helen B. TITLE Resources for Teaching Virginia Government. INSTITUTION Charlottesville City Schools, Va.; Virginia Univ., Charlottesville. Inst. of Government. SPONS AGENCY Department of Education, Washington, DC. PUB DATE Oct 86 NOTE 515p. AVAILABLE FROMCenter for Public Service, Institute of Government, 207 Minor Hall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903 ($16.00). PUB TYPE Guides - Classroom Use Guides (For Teachers) (052)

EDRS PRICE MF02 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Class Activities; *Government (Administrative Body); Grade 12; High Schools; *Instruction; Instructional Materials; *Local Government; *Resource Materials; Secondary Education; Social Studies; *State Government; Teaching Guides; Units of Study IDENTIFIERS *Virginia

ABSTRACT This resource notebook contains information and unit planning ideas for teachers, class activities, and student materials that can be used for teaching a 12th grade course about Virginia state and local governments. Section A features: (1) information about how to use these materials and how to find time to teach about Virginia government; (2) a student survey and materials on student class participation; (3) 28 sources of free or low-cost reference materials; (4) a 138-item bibliography; and (5) research questions and a list of student report topics. Section B contains resources and activities to develop an understanding of Virginia's physical geography, population), and economics, while Section C highlights reapportionment and Virginia's political and economic history. Section D presents information for teaching about politics and elections, ana Section E examines the Virginia legislature through the implementation of a model general assembly. Virginia state and local taxes are considered in Section F; local government powers and structures are explored in Section G, and Section H describes Virginia's water resources. Pictures, maps, tables, charts, and graphs are included. (JHP)

*********************************************************************** * Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made * * from the original document. * *********************************************************************** RESOURCES FOR TEACHING VIRGINIA GOVERNMENT

INSTITUTE OF GOVERNMENT MINOR HALL UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA CHARLOTTESVILLE, VA 22903

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION "PERMISSION TO REP.)DUCE THIS Otf.ce Educaivonal Research and Improvement MATERIAL IN MICROFICHEONLY EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION HAS BEEN GRANTED BY CENTER (ERIC) ms document has been reproduced as received IrOm the person or organaation origina Ong It C Minor changes have been made to improve reproduction quality

Pomis of view or opiniOnSsiatedInthoSdOcu- TO THE EDUCATIONALRESOURCES ment do not necessamy represent oltmai INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." OERI PosMon or poky

BEST COPYAVAILABLE

k.; PREFACE

In response to a statewide need, the Charlottesville City Schools sought and received a Pilot Study grant from the Office of Innovative Programs of the Department of Education, to develop teacher resource units on Virginia state and local government for use in the 12th grade course, Virginia and United States Government.

This notebook, Resources for Teaching Virginia Government, has been created with the cooperation of the Institute of Government at the University of Virginia, under the leadership of Helen B. Snook, Associate in Research at the Institute and former government teacher at Charlottesville High School. A statewide advisory committee guided the design of the materials, which were tested at Charlottesville High School and selected high schools around the Commonwealth. In the first year of the grant (1982-83), three packets were developed which now appear as sections A through E of this notebook. In 1983-84, two additional resource units were developed and evaluated: F - Virginia State & Local Taxes, and G - Local Government in Virginia. The final phase of the Pilot Study is to develop Section H - Virginia's Water Resources, and to assist teachers with the coordination and use of all the materials.

This notebook contains information from many sources, unit plan ideas, class activities, and student handouts. It may be used with the textbook, "By the Good People cf Virginia"..Our Commonwealth's Government, written by Paul C. Cline and Daniel B. Fleming, Jr., published in November 1983 by the Virginia Chamber of Commerce. Videotapes on Virginia government also are being developed under the direction of the Department of Education during 1985-86, to complete the package visualized by the Virginia Studies Committee. A Government Teacher Resource Service is proposed to up-date these materials with replacement pages and periodic newsletters.

The Charlottesville City Schools and the Institute of Government hope that the resources in this notebook, and those to be added in the coming years, will enable Virginia government teachers to strengthen the state and local components of their courses. May the overall effort encourage our young people tobecome better informed, and motivate them to be more active participants in the democratic process.

Helen B. Snook, Project Director Dr. John A. Eberhart Institute of Government Assistant Superintendent for Instruction University of Virginia Charlottesville City Sch( )1s

ZZZ ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The materials, ideas, and activities in this notebook would still be scattered all over the state of Virginia, in official publications, newspaper archives, file cabinets, and plan books, or tucked away in the experience of innumerable teachers, were it not for the vision and persistence of a score of individuals and many groups of concerned people.

Dr. James A. (Dolph) Norton, Director of the Institute of Government, Universitj of Virginia, commissioned a study of the specific needs of Virginia government teachers that might be met with Institute resources. He made available the office, library, support services, and professional expertise of Institute faculty and researchers.

Dr. John A. Eberhart, Assistant Superintendent for Instruction, Charlottesville City Schools, saw the potential and quickly became a staunch advocate of the project, offering the support of the Charlottesville Schools and serving as director of the Pilot Study grant that funded part of the cost of developing these materials.

Dr. Thomas A. Elliott, James C. Page, and Clyde Haddock (Social Studies Service), and Dr. Mary A. Lowarn (Office of Innovative Projects) of the State Department of Education recognized the interest of the Institute of Government and Charlottesville Schools as an opportunity to develop significant resources for 12th grade teachers and students. Their approval of funds enabled the project to continue and assured the publication of this notebook.

The Advisory Committee met many times, contributed ideas, critiques, and corrections, mailed drafts across the state for fieldtesting. and helped to set up inservice and preschool meetings with teachers. Their support and enthusiasm, individually and as a group, helped to assure the usability of the materials in this notebook.

Many teachers from Charlottesville, Albemarle, and other areas of Virginia, called and wrote, offered ideas, advice and encouragement at district and state conferences, fieldtested activities, and let it be known that the resources were eagerly awaited.

Faculty, researchers, and staff at the Institute of Government gave advice and assistance in the assembling, writing, and publication of this notebook. Dr. Weldon Cooper, Director Emeritus of the Institute of Government, prcvided valuable historical information and perspective. Holly Hoffman Frazier, Western Albemarle history teacher, contributed her artistic skills to the design, cover, maps, and incidental drawings.

A fitting reward for all these efforts will be new interest in state and local government for the 12th grade students of Virginia.

iv ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Resources for Teaching Virginia Government

Patricia Bell James C. Page, Supervisor Teacher & Workshop Participant Social Studies Service Waynesboro High School Virginia Department of Education

Charles R..Clemmons, Betty R. Pittman (Virginia Studies Committee) Teacher & Workshop Participant Executive High School Internship (Virginia Studies Committee) Program Chair, Social Studies Department Fairfax County Schools Charlottesville High School

The Honorable James S. Dillard, II K. Diane Price Virginia House of Delegates Teacher & Workshop Participant (Virginia Studies Committee) Charlottesville High School Resource Teacher Fairfax County Schools The Honorable Mitchell Van Yahres Virginia House of Delegates Dr. John A. Eberhart Charlottesville Assistant Superintendent for Instruction Charlottesville Public Schools Ex Officio Dr. Thomas A. Elliott Dr. Thomas M. Garrou Associate Director (Virginia Studies Committee) Social Studies Service Social Studies Supervision Virginia Department of Education Virginia Beach City Schools Dr. James A. Norton, Director Mary Jo Gies Institute of Government Teacher & Workshop Participant University of Virginia Chair, Social Studies Department Albemarle High School Sandra H. Wiley, Managing Editor University of Virginia News Letter Dr. Jerry R. Moore Department of Curriculum & Instruction Helen B. Snook School of Education Project Director, Resources for University of Virginia Teaching Virginia Government

ENDORSEMENTS

This project has been endorsed andsupported by the Virginia Consortium of Social Studies Supervisors and College Educators, and by the VirginiaCouncil for the Social Studies.

This notebook is distributed by theVirginia Department of Educationas a resource for teachers of Virginia government. / PREFACE--SECOND PRINTING

The Teacher Resource Service at the Instituteof Government, University of Virginia, recognized thata second printing of Resources for Teaching Virginia Governmentwas appropriate at this time. Teachers new to Virginia classrooms andthose newly assigned to teach United States and VirginiaGovernment need copies of this notebook of information, ideas,sources, activities, and simulations.

To meet this need, the Teacher Resource Service,Institute of Government, is pleased to make availablethe second printing of this valuable resource, which governmentteachers can easily adapt to their existing course of study.

James A. (Dolph) Norton Director, Institute of Government University of Virginia

Michael Wildasin Director, Teacher Resource Service Institute of Government University of Virginia

October 1986 RESOURCES FOR TEACHING GOVERNMENT

CONTENTS

FRONT POCKET OF NOTEBOOK: Transparencies - Virginia Government Chart

Preface - Acknowledgments - Advisory Committee

SECTION A INTRODUCTION Make This Notebook Work for You - Time for More Virginia State & Local Government Study Student Participation - Free & Low-cost Resources - Bibliography - Scavenger Hunt for Basic Information- Student Report Topics - "Did You Know...?" Virginia Trivia A 1 - 32

SECTION B ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY OF VIRGINIA The physical geography, demography, and economy of Virginia- Lesson plans and class activities with maps, charts, and transparencies - News Letters and 10 maps B 1 -60

SECTION C CITIZEN POWER IN VIRGINIA Reapportionment in 1981-82 - Voting Rights in Virginia- A

Political and Economic History (for teachers) News Letters C 1 - 30

SECTION D CITIZEN POWER: POLITICS & ELECTIONS Class activities and student worksheets to help state elections

become a more important part of the government course plan D 1 - 35

SECTION E CITIZEN POWER IN THE LEGISLATURE Bring Virginia government to life with a Model General Assembly using current issues, real legislative districts, information from Virginia legislators. How to do it, step by step, with a minimum of wasted classtime E 1 - 26

SECTION F VIRGINIA STATE & LOCAL TAXES Taxes are politics! Statistics on Virginia Taxes - Comparisons

with Other States Some Proposals for the Future F 1 - 67

SECTION G LOCAL GOVERNMENT IN VIRGINIA Powers & Structures: handouts, and charts for studyingyour own local government and observing meetings. Ward System and At-large

Representation. Decision-making and the Budget Process G 1 - 36

SECTION H VIRGINIA'S WATER RESOURCES (Due Summer of 1985) Maps and charts on Water Supplies and Use- Pollution and Clean-up - Local, State, & Federal Programs & Who's in Charge?- Lobby list

and Proposed Legislation - Committee Hearing Activity H 1 -

FEEDBACK SHEETS FOR YOUR REACTIONS, IDEAS, AND REQUESTS

vii CIT IZEN POWER

RESOURCES FOR TEACHINGVIRGINIA GOVERNMENT

A INTRODUCTION

Make This Notebook Work For You- Making Time for More Virginia State and Local Government Study A 3- 6

A Student Survey - To Get Students Involved in theClass A 7- 8

Scrap-Paper Quiz - Current Events A 9

Public Opinion Surveying A 10

Student Participation & Shared ResponsibilityFor Current Events A 11- 12

TtJughts on Being Nonpartisan in the Classroom A 13 - 14

Free and Low-Cost Reference Materials on Virginia State and Local Government A 15 - 18

Selected Bibliography for Teaching Virginia Government A 19 - 28

Scavenger Hunt - To Teach About Virginia Government with Limited Resources - A List of Questions To Research A 2S 30

Starter List of Student Report Topics A 31 ' Did You Know (Virginia Trivia) A 32

A 1- INTRODUCTION

This notebook is a collection of teacher information andsugge3tions, student pages and class activities, assembled to help teachers includein their plans for "Virginia and United States Government," a fair share oftime and interest on the study of Virginiastate and local government.

There are two main reasons why it is important to increasethe Virginia state and local content of the12th grade government curriculum:

1 This can be an almost sure way to heighten student interestand involvement in the course, sinceyou will be studying and discussing topics and people who havea direct effect on all of your lives, people you can know andsee in action working on matters of local concern.

2 A stated objective of the course (in the Standards of Learning) isto involve students in the community,to increase their understanding and participation in theprocess of government. This is difficult to manage if your curriculum is heavily weighted toward nationaland international study. Recent surveys of thecourse plans in many school divisions point out theneed for a better balance of attention to the different levels of government, and, in mostcases, this means more time and attention to the levels that are nearestand most accessible.

MAKE THIS NOTEBOOK WORK FORYOU

Teachers who know what is here, will find many differentways and times during the year to use the ideas, information, and class activities,and to assemble the numerousresources that are listed in the bibliography.

1 Get acquainted with this notebook.

TAN pages are teacher informationand ideas. WHITE pages are student handoutsand worksheets. YELLOW pages are teacher instructionsfor class activities. GREEN, BLUE, AND PINKpages are classroom reference materials.

2 You may duplicate any materials in this notebook, except Universityof Virginia News Letters, which are copyrighted. Order extra copies of specific issues from: Teacher Resources Institute of Government Minor Hall University of Virginia Charlottesville, VA 22903

3 If any page in your notebook is not clear, or does notreproduce well on your equipment, write or call (804-924-3396) for a cleancopy. 4 Check with your department head, your school librarian,and your community librarian to see what resources are already available toyou and your students? Are there items listed in Section A that might be ordered foryour A 3

C. use? Will the school and community libraries help withvertical files and information gathering on issues of importance toVirginia and your community? List materials on each topic that are on hand foryour use. (When you add a page to this notebook, number it with the previouspage number and add an a, b, or c, etc.)

5 - Request additional information, reporton pages and ideas that work and those that don't work, and contributeyour own ideas for revisions and future pages, on the FEEDBACK SHEETS in the back of this notebook. The Institute of Government is anxious to map resources availableto Virginia teachers. Take advantage of the service.

6 If you do.not have classroom sets ofbooks on Virginia government available for your students'use (the new Cline-Fleming textbook, Chamber of Commerce books, or League of Women Voters, "Guideto Virginia State Government"), collect the resourcesyou do have on a reference table in your classroom or in the library, anduse the scavenger hunt technique, adapting the list of questions at the end of thisSection A.

MAKING TIME FOR MORE STATE AND LOCAL STUDY

A teacher of "Virginia and United States Government"must have determination and superb organization tocover all the content and activities now included in most "curriculum guides.Too often, the state and local government components have been squeezed intoa few weeks, in part because resources were lacking to teach a compelling and well-organizedshare of the course on Virginia. Many teachers skipped it altogether,or hurried over one combined unit on state and local government,or taught it from the two or three chapters in a national *extbook thathomogenized and de-personalized state government, creating a composite unlikeany of the 50 states. Other teachers have relied on the inclusion of state and local issuesin current events to "cover" Virginia. The school divisions thathave required several weeks of state and local government have developedsome interesting and useful materials. A plan is now proposed that will facilitate the sharingof these ideas, with the Institute of Government keepingmaterials up to date.

Here are some ways teachers have found to make timefor more Virginia state and local government in theircourses:

1 - Plan realistically, and stick toyour schedule. Prevent the end-of-the-year crunch that often short-changes Virginiastate and local units. Include individual student activities in each unit,and some that you can skip if assemblies, senior pictures, snow days and fieldtrips interfere. Build local and state current events into each week,so that you will have interest already kindled when you approach the stateand local units.

2 - Publish assignments at the beginning ofeach unit and expect them to be completed on the date specified. Students can plan their work in advance, whether they are absent or present, whetheryou remind them or not. By giving out assignments in advance, you can also bemore selective about the materials your students will use. You can include library books and verticalfiles, and give some non-textbook assignments,as suggested in several places in this notebook

A4 10 3 - No one textbook is strong in allareas, and some quickly become dated. You might choose to skip portions of thetextbook, write up a list of impertant points on a summary sheetor on the board, and use class time to relate the information to real-lifeissues, saving student reading time for up-to-date sources, or for classicsthat dramatize the processes of government and politics.

4 - The history section at the beginning ofmany national textbooks includes much that students shouldremember from 11th grade. Many teachers expect their students to read and review thismaterial on their own. In any event, you probably will want to integratea review of the crucial information as the branches of government and courtcases are studied during the year.

5 - Even the best chapterson elections and politics may be fairly dull, compared to the enthusiasm you can generate for the real thing. Assign any parts of the text that you thinkare important background. or discuss the most important points, then go on with studentresearch and reports on local candidates, issues, parties, and politickingtechniques in the news. There are pages of ideas and handouts in Section 0 ofthis notebook.

6 - Many Virginia teachers "cover"the national bureaucracy in a minimum of time with maximum impact by writinga list of agencies, departments, and commissions (see contents of United StatesGovernment Manual) on a big piece of newsprint or a poster.Students signup for one theyare interested in and one that is completely new to them. The assignment is to make posters telling the purpose, chief administrator, budget (ifavailable), and how it influences our lives. (If your textbook does not includea U. S. Government Organization Chart, you might have an artistically-inclinedstudent draw one or make one--perhaps in the form of a mobile?)Students check in their posters with the teacher on the assigned day, then post themaround the room. Spend a period or two sharing information on categories ofregulation, and allow some time for informal reading of the posters. The test might include generalizations about the agenciesyou discussed, a brief summary of one the student researched, an important factor two about an agency on another student's poster, and an essay (or ' 3 factsyou would include if you wrote an essay") on the impact of the bureaucracyon our lives, the kinds of regulation we have or need for our health and safety, regulatory reformproposals, or some other category of your choice. Bureaucracy will be covering your walls that's impact in a very few days and with littletime spent on whatever issues or (perhaps outdated) casesyour textbook might include, or details that might not survive the next change of administration.

7 - As topics come up in discussion and incurrent events during the year, assign a student or two to collect informationon how Virginia ranks in comparison with other states. Be sure students identify the source, the date, and the exact nature of the statisticsor ranking. (Does a rank of 47th mean close to the "best" or close to the "worst"?What difference does this make? to whom?) This activity will take little classtime, but it can result ina poster that is useful and interestingto all your classes.

8 - Is there a prominent hallway witha blank wall in your school? Ask your principal if a mural map of Virginia with famouslandmarks, products, people and moments in history would bean appropriate eye-catcher and a learning opportunity for the designers,the artists, and the observers. A5

: Government students (perhaps assisted bysome 11th grade history students) might research the information to include, and art students might produceit. Everyone who passes the spot could learna bit about the Commonwealth.

9 - Non-textbook assignments, all kinds of community and currentevents activities are all aroundyou in the news. Many teachers use them for make-up, extra credit, and to stimulate class discussion. Students can attend meetings a::d hearings, particularlybudget hearings when controversial programs are under discussion and citizen input is invited. Other assignments might include the following: Writeup pros and cons on current issues, citing sources of information. Call a legislator or other officialfor information or views on an issue. Call party headquarters for officialpositions and platforms. Conduct an informal poll of family,neighbors, a few strangers. Look up economic, biographical, or other information in the library. Watch a pertinent TV show. Organize a pro and con discussionor a debate.

Reports from the Governor's Commission on Virginia's Future will give you data and discussion questions for years! Watch for them in thenews. See other report topics at the end ofSection A of this notebook.

Some non-textbook activities mightbe required, some optional;some individual, and some pursued in smallgroups. All can lead to stimulating class discussions. Make assignments, or let students.zhoosefrom a list or propose their own activities-- for 20% or ? of the unit grade.

Schedule the reporting/sharinga week or two ahead to allow students to find information and plan an interesting presentation. Some teachers require that a detailed plan be approved 3 days before the presentation. Some have point systems for students to evaluate class reports on such thingsas diversity of information sources, content, organization (questionsor outline on the board or on a handout?), presentation, andinterest. Such a system can stimulate dramatic improvements indata-handling skills and communications.

THE STANDARD LECTURE FORMAT PUTS ALLTHE RESPONSIBILITY ON THE TEACHER. SINCE THERE IS NO WAY YOU CAN KNOWEVERYTHING ABOUT EVERYTHING THIS COURSE INCLUDES, SHARE THE LOAD. Find course plans, assignments, anddiscussion techniques that put your students intopositions of leadership. It might be good for all of you!

QUESTION..QUESTION..QUESTION. "Can you think of other ways this problemmight be approached, handled, solved?" If that alternative were chosen,what effect would it have on otherpeople or problems?" *If you vote that way, would you be reelected?" "How would you explain it toyour constituents?" The details of the discussionmay be forgotten two days after the test, but the insights and the experience ofqunstioning mly last past graduation!

How do You do it? iiow have you taught the essentialsof a particular unit without wasting time on dated trivia?and with a ,,,inimum of generalizing? Have you found ways to increase learning,or to include specific Virginia information in yoer course, withoutincreasing classtime? Send yo r ideas so tha', cari benefit from your experience.

A6 A STUDENT SURVEY- THEIR FIRST ASSIGNMENT

(SURVEY FORM ON REVERSE)

Why? Because this one piece of paper handed to eachof your students can start them thinking constructively aboutyour course. Since this will be your first written impression ofthem, they will give you thoughtrul and valuable answers, and they will enjoy theopportunity to share their ideas and concerns. ?If cuss is A DieMocOAWID AND X KUN 'They will say they want an orderly class,' they wantto earn better grades, they prefer combination tests, they seldom discuss politics or government with anybody, they want help disagreeing-without-being- disagreeable, they read the newspapers sometimes (sports, Ann Landers, horoscope, comics), they know where the local government officesare located, they have very disturbing fears about their world, and they know they need to know about government. You might say much of this in your "first dayof school--this is how it's going to be" speech. Why not let it come from them? Wouldn't you rather be asked than told?

HOW TO USE THE SURVEY

- Duplicate the survey form on the back of this sheet...OR rewrite it to suit your needs: add questions,correct city/county designations, and specify the date you want themreturned. Many teachers also ask for a copy of the student's schedule.

- Hand out first day with little comment--to be returned next day.

- Collect next day and remind the hold-outs.

- Discuss the generalizations.the 3rd day. Be' careful not to betray confidences: you may find someon the back of the sheet.

2,5-50 - Announce your course plan and grade plan a day or two later. Since they probably will have requested 25-50%of the grade based on tests k,% and "the rest extracredit," you may need to give an arithmetic 0,31k lesson beforeyou announce the grade plan.

- Ask a student who wants to help by making bulletin boards to make a poster showing the times and stations/channels ofnews and commentary programs.

- Acquaint your students with the difference between news and commentary sections of the newspaper. What do they know about the editorial page?

Check with your voter registrar. Registration closes 30 days before a general election or primary.Those who will be eligible by the next general election may register and participate inprimaries and mass meetings (See Virginia Constitution, ArticleII, Sec. 1). See D 3

That's an idea! Try it! If you use the informationyou gather AND try other ideas in this notebook,your classes should be more interesting and your students should be more involved. The increased coverage of current events should lead to better understanding of allgovernment -- particularly Virginia state and local government.

-A 7 A c) STUDENT SURVEY- Please return

Name What do you prefer to be called? Homeroom Teacher Career Interests Home Address . Phone Work? Hours Employer Your usual social studies grade What do you plan to earn in Government? How much of your grade doyou want to earn on tests? What other ways do you want toearn your grade? Have you artistic skills youare willing to use on our bulletin boards? Current events are important in thiscourse. What newspapers do you read? What sections? How regularly? What newsmagazines do you read? How regularly? Radio newscast? Station Time TV newscast? Channel Time Do you know anyone who is active in localpolitics? Who? Have you ever been to a political party m4eting? worked for a candidate/party? Do you know any local offlcials?

Ever been in county offices/city hall? Attended a council/board meeting? Attended a school board meeting? Other?

Are you now 18 years old? registered to vote? When will you be 18? Do you ever discuss politics or government with your family? friends? Do you generally agree with them? Can you disagree without being disagreeable? What do you think are the greatestproblems in our community?

in Virginia?

in the U.S.?

in the world?

What do you think you will study inGovernment this year?

What would you like to study?

What do you think you need to know to bea responsible citizen?

What are your pet peeves or things that bugyou about teachers? about classes?

Anything else you would like.me to know about you, the way you work best,your feelings about this course:

Thank you for your help!

A8 GiE.v4440 FatsmnA Time Required: At WEE SCRAP-PAPER QUIZON CURRENT EVENTS 11 Least 30 Minutes Improve student participation in current events discussion! Make quiz points cumulative to lessen the terror ofthe student who starts with no knowledge, and to allow a few lapses without panic. Cumulativetotals that count 10-20% of the grade will motivate borderline studentsas well as more competitive ones. (You may need bulletin board,poster, or clipping activities for students who have reading or comprehension problems.)

1/8 of an old ditto sheet (one side clean)per student... Materials or the scraps of your choice. Needed: A few colorsd pencils to loan to students for grading.* 8-12 short-answer questions on major points of headlinenews stories. Sharpen the focusas their knowledge increases.

ALMOST EVERY IMPORTANT NEWS STORY INVOLVES ACTION,REGULATION, OR TAXATION BY LOCAL, STATE, OR NATIONAL GOVERNMENT. Choose the storiesthat will make the best topics and tie-ins for class discussion.

1 - (Give out slips) "Write yournam2, period, and date at the top and draw a dime-sized circle we'll use later for your point total."

2 - "Answer the following questions inas few words as possible."Read off the questions, pausing while they write. They'll love, clues, bonus and extra questions -- more points! Put in some easy on -- have fun with it! 3 - "Swap papers." (Vary the direction of the swap from dayto day.) "Use a * different color or type of pen or pencil and write YOURNAME on some bare spot on the back of the quiz you are grading. I'll spot-check. If you have accepted a wrong answer, I'll subtracta point from YOUR paper since it shows you still weren't sure, even afterour discussion." 4 - THIS IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PART OF THE EXERCISE...IT PROVESTHE RELEVANCE OF THE COURSE! DISCUSS THE ANSWERS: facts, decisions to be made, decision- makers, levels and related departments of government, influencesand influ- encers, and tie-ins with the course. Ask some why questions in the discussion, and some who-would-favor and who-would-opposequestions. The teacher arbitrates full/partial/no credit for variousanswers. If the grader is still in doubt, he/she can puta question mark by the answer and NOT total the points. Keep the haggling good natured and brief! - Student grader puts total points in circle, gives it back to the writer to hand in. Teacher spot-checks, solves problems, records points, andreturns slips to students to keep or record.

Payoff #1- You can be generous with points and have fun with the discussion. Enthusiastic learning is more important than half-points hereand there, provided basic facts are not compromised.

Payoff #2 - Schedule current events quizzes weeklyor every week and a half. Let students bring in questions OR let 2-3 students write the quiz. They should check the questions with you before class to besure they are clear, not too picky or easy,or miss something important. They'll vie for the chance when they realize that they will know the answers to the questions they submit!

Payoff#3 - The question writers and answerers-- the whole class -- will read and listen to the news. If you think they are not keeping up, give your own pop quiz. KEEP GOVERNMENT ALIVE! USE CURRENTEVENTS! Payoff#4 - Quiz papers from ALLyour classes will fit in one pocket! A9 .\.:Forextra credit, I want to doa poll.")

Translation: I'll ask a few friends a few questions, write it up, and expect ° " my grade to go up at least one letter! .32 #!Ii

BUT...there are ways to turn that idea into a legitimate project. Edit the following to suit your own wishes and library resources. Have copies ready to hand out when a student wants to "do a poll." You might encourage at least one per class. r PUBLIC OPINION SURVEYING

1 - Read what your textbook says about polling. Then use the Readers' Guide to Periodic Literature and your library card file, tolocatt information about public opinion research, the firms, and the techniques used. Learn about some of the classic goofs, such as the Literary Digest poll. What can go wrong?Why is polling such a specialized business? Who uses polls? 2 - Give examples of leading questions and how timing of the interview, personality of the interviewer, and the interviewer's expectations can influence poll results. 3 - Write the hypotheses for your research, defining particular points you want to study. Word some questions you might use.

4 - Define the population you wish to poll-- your neighborhood? the school? the senior class? Define stratif;ed and random sampling. How will you construct a scientific sample?How many should be in your sample?

5 - Test your questions on some friends andsome strangers. Were the responses what you expected? Check for bias, wording, order, and presentation. What improvements should you make? 6 - Report on all of the above to your teacher and/or to the class. Discuss and correct your plan.

7 - After receiving an o.k. from your teacher, conductyour poll. 8 - Compile your responses in a statistically-acceptable fashion. 9 - Did your data support your hypotheses? State the conclusions shown by your data. 10 - Explain the details of your procedure, as well as your results, to the class. Describe any parts of the poll or process you would do differently if you did it over again, or if you were doing it for a client.

11 - There are professional pollsters all over Virginia, checkingon voter choices, tooth pastes, TV viewing, and what made you buy your car. See if you can locate an opinion researcher to talk to,or to bring to class. (Check the classified phone directory in the large city nearest to you. An advertising agency can often help.) 12 - Summarize what you have learned. A 10

16 SOME IDEAS TO ORGANIZE STUDENT PARTICIPATION AND SHARED RESPONSIBILITY FOR CURRENT EVENTS COVERAGE IN YOUR CLASSROOM

4 IF IT'S PART OF YOUR GRADE PLAN, STUDENTS FIND A WAY TO KEEP UPWITH THE NEWS! NOTEBOOK LISTS AND SPECIAL NEWS SUMMARY PAGES, BULLETIN BOARDS,STUDENT INPUT ON QUIZZES AND DISCUSSIONS, PANELS, AND DEBATES MAKECLASSES MORE INTERESTING FOR ALL OF YOU AND BUILD BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF THE PROCESSOF DECISION-MAKING -- PERSONAL, LOCAL, STATE, AND NATIONAL.

#1 - A NOTEBOOK Controversy Chart OA Virginia and LocalIssues Students record the date a controversy hits thenews, a brief summary of facts, identification of the ultimate decision-maker(s), anda list of different points of view and who could hold them. Some controversies also contain conflicts of interest at.d vested interestgroups, which should be identified. Leave room for additional points of viewas issues develop. Because you will be looking deliberately for different points of view,many 5.1.0.04answers will be acceptable. Students who are less sure of themselves may 40,!'"-g° be more willing to participate.

Since students will be listing the controversies and points of view,these will be integral parts of the course andcan be included in quizzes and tests. If you keep a master list posted in your classroom,you can coordinate class coverage more easily. You.might choose a different controversy for the essay or short answer questions in each class.

#2 - A NOTEBOOK Names-to-Know List for Virginia Issues mid Government 1111 Students record the name, title, and reason whya person is in the news. This will help them recognize and understandnews stories about Virginia government and Virginia issues mare easily.

Identifying the names and the reasons they make thenews will help students see the structure and functions of Virginia government, and the WOW 1. people and groups who influence.decisions. A ScAVEK MASUT: C Start them off with a list of official titles. Students fill in the names as they come across them, and as you discuss them in the news.

#3*- NOTEBOOK Names-to-Know Lists for Local Issues & Local Government As above...AND it's great for national cabinet officers and others, too!

#4 - BULLETIN BOARD IDEAS Even if you're a real Van Gogh at bulletin boards, there is such learning value in organizing instructive displays on various issues, that students should be asked to do it. If you fear your artistic sensibilities will CURRENT ISSINS be offended, you can always help with the grand design and selectionof colors. The Student Survey form in this notebook will help students to offer help on such projects. This might be a way for a shy student to 16E0 3 earn class participation credit and achieve peer status that would lead to more vocal contributions. Some teachers require that clippings from newspapers and magazines be mounted on a piece of paper that has written on it a 2-sentence summary of the story.

All Classroom Discussion Ideas You May Not Have ThoughtAbout Recently...

#5 - The chemistry of some classes is not conduciveto easy discussion at the beginning of the year. If class participation is part ofyour grading system, make sure students know it, andquietly, but obviously, make little checks inyour grade book when people do volunteer. You might use a plus sign (+) for a really good contribution.

#6 - Discussing the student survey and differentviews on class participation can help. Reticent participants are likely to feel more comfortable if you have acknowledged that thereare students who fear the floor will swallow them if they speakup during the first week!

#7 - Making lists of ideas on the board andencouraging people to call VT:9 out answers sometimes helps shy students break thesound barrier. When you go around the room, start with differentrows, front or back, and sometimes across.Ask for short answers.

#8 Current events discussions help, becauseanswers can be statements of fact a student heard on thenews, or reactions to a story-- "Who would be concerned about this?" "Who would be likely to agree?" 7 "Who would be likely to disagree?" "Why do you think people feel this way?" "If you had to decide this issue, what wouldbe the greatest influence on your decision?" "What values of society enter into this issue-- truth? justice? equalW777 "Is therea conflict of values?" Give extra credit if a student identifies values on 2 or more views.

#9 - Set a good example for students to respect each other'sopinions. No matter how outlandish an idea mayappear to you, have a positive response ready: "Yes, some people may feel that way." "That's an idea." (You can always eliminate it fromyour summary. Then go on quickly to another one.

#10- QUESTION AND PROBE--ALWAYS ASK FOR ADDITIONALPOINTS OF VIEW. ON THE Ctie NAND og - THE MINUTE A DISCUSSION LEADER ANNOUNCES AN OFFICIAL OPINION, WINER *ago_ SOME STUDENTS WRITE DOWN THE ANSWER ANDTUNE OUT--OTHERS START ARGUING. Everybody loses.

- IF YOUR OPINION POPS OUT...Give extra credit to students whocan offer reason disagreement and back it up withsome evidence.

- Try offering extra credit on tests for students who can present BOTH sides of an issue, then tell why they woulddecide in favor of one.

GOVERNMENT IS A SOCIAL STUDIES COURSE. Every now and then, it is useful to stop and consider how you can be a better facilitatorof the discussion process. It is not easy, particularly if the studentopinions do not always agree with yours!

A 12 8 SOME THOUGHTS ON BEINGNONPARTISANIN A GOVERNMENT CLASSROOM

Nonpartisan, adj: not partisan; esp. free from party affiliation, bias, or designation

'Obviously, it depends on your community,your personality, and the particular details of the campaign/problem/election, butas a general rule, you will have mire successful, open, and educational classdiscussions if your students are not quite certain aboutyour particular position on a given topic. Some school divisions have specific statements in their policy manuals about teacher nonpartisanship in theclassroom -- has yours? Some teachers may take stands on issues. Some may endorse candidates. If your views are known and respected in the community,it would be foolish to try to project a classroom imageof neutrality or nonpartisanship. Students will be interested in yourreasons. Of course, you will have to take extra precautions in grading opinionsthat do not agree with yours -- but that is even more true ifyour views are not generally known.

ONCE YOU MAKE A STATEMENT OF YOUR OPINION ON A TOPIC,SEVERAL STUDENTS WILL WRITE IT DOWN AND MEN TUNE OUT THE DISCUSSION... SOME WILL DISCOUNT YOUR VIEWS AND AUTOMATICALLY TAKE AN OPPOSING VIEW...SOME MAY BE TEMPTED TO ARGUE...OTHERS MAY AGREE (TACITLY OR PUBLICLY). Be ready to deal with these reactions.

None of these responses indicates a recommended teachingtech- nique, since the usually accepted goal of social studies instruction is to teach young people to make theirown decisions based on facts arrayed against their considered value judgments.

See the preceding pages (A 11-12) forsome ideas on how to help students think and discuss more constructively, and make decisionson public (or private) questions. Here are some more ideas:

- List on the board and discuss the different points of view that would be possible on the issue. Start with the extremes at either end of the board -- from yes to no, or whatever is appropriate, then fillin views and qualified statements between. - Identify each different shade of opinion -- with groups or individuals who would be likely to support it

for economic reasons, direct or indirect, financialor other benefit or loss, including opportunity cost; for philosophical reasons, such as idealism, greater good of society, pragmatism, "It'll never work," necessity, equityor fairness, democracy, representation;

for political reasons, for one party or candidate,or both, for platform or personal commitment; and

for emotional reasons- help for the under-dog, for a person or program that needs support, or to help redressa wrong. - Where would you go for facts, documentation of data,statements of support or other information? Would it help to choose students to bring in data another day? A 13

1,,C - What other issues, controversies, neighborhoods, programs,or people are or might be affected?

- List costs (dollars, time, political power/support, other) andbenefits to individuals, groups, and society.

- If you think your students would profit from an example of howto organize arguments on each side for an opinionpaper, ask for volunteers to select points that should be included. - Assign short essays or opinion papers. Students should take a position and defend it, answering important opposing arguments. You might give extra credit for opinion papers on more than one position, provided theyare well done. - Identify people in the community who might have different points of view on the question. Ask for volunteers from the class to interview them-- AND have the class help to word questions that would be useful in bringing out the different positions and reasoning. Share and discuss the reports. - Assign each student 5 interviews (1 other student, 1 teacher, 2 family or neighborhood, and a stranger) .to summarize -- without names -- and then hand in the specific statements AND an analysis of their own view. Did it change during the discussions with others? Did other people know about the question or care about it? How did their views differ?'

When you are faced with the temptation to takea stand on an issue, one that might not be universally acclaimed by your school administration.OR might lead to controversy with students, parents,or community -- consider using the issue foran exercise 'in problemsolving or decision-making. It will drain off the venom and you can win acclaim as the soul of reason, a natural arbitrator, or even an objective scholar! Instead of defending your own views, you turn the questions back to the students, the parents, and the community. THEY learn content and process and YOU stay out of trouble! (Since they will be doing the work, researching questions you and they.think are important, you can just be an impartial discussion leader listing their responses and reasonson the board. OR you could even ask a student to be the recorder, focusing on the facts, the powers and forces in the decision.) There are many questions and problems for which there AREno right answers, and whole batches more on which honest, intelligent people disagree. Try some inductive methods! Invent and consider wide arrays of alternatives and predict their possible consequences. Use role playing, and let students describe the range of reasoning and opinions that might be expected in certain segments of the population. What other groups would feel the same way?Would they be likely to prevail? Use test questions that ask for understanding of the complexity ofthe issue and points of view, rather than one "right"answer, which is often unrealistic anyway!

Test your objectivity. Ask a class for secret ballotson how they think you feel on the issue. A perfect score would be a split decision, perhaps reflecting the split inthe class views since we all tend to hear best what agrees withour own thinking. Should your handling of a controversial issue be questionedby anyone outside the class, the student vote couldcome to your rescue.

P.S. You might even find your own view changing ifyou and your students do a super job of researchand discussion !! ??

A 14 20 FREE & LOW-COST REFERENCE MATERIALSON VIRGINIA STATE & LOCAL GOVERNMENT Get it all together-- let one contact, one order, serve the whole department!

1 - FREE MAPS OF VIRGINIA. Ask at your nearest office of the Virginia Highway Department or your Motor Vehicle DepartmentOffice. If they'll give you two copies, you can show both sidesat once on your bulletin board. They're very attractive maps!

2 - FREE CHART: "Organization of the Virginia State Government,1983." One copy is in the front pocket of this notebook. To order more, or to obtain the update, usually published inthe summer, Organization Chart, P.O. Box 1422, Richmond, VA 23211.

3 - MAPS. Topographical and geophysical, aerialphoto maps and related publications. Send for list. Virginia Division of Mineral Resources, Box 3667, Charlottesville, VA 22903.

4 - FREE MAPS of the Virginia House of Delegatesand Virginia Senate Districts (1983). A copy of each is in the front pocket of this notebook. Source: Division of Legislative Services,General Assembly Building, 910 Capitol St., Richmond, VA 23219. 5 - FREE INFORMATION ON YOUR COMMUNITY. Call your county offices or city manager's office for an,appointment to discuss issuesexpected to be in the news during the comingyear, and materials that would be helpful to you in dealing with the issues in your classroom. Your chairperson or ypur principal might like to go along, and you might ask for information such as the following:

A list of meeting times and places, anda chart showing who (name and title) sits where.

Maps of your community showing voting districts, landuse, special improvements, parks. (Big maps are dramatic for bulletin boards; small ones are useful for duplicating, handoutsor tests.) Fact sheets. Organization charts. Flyers or booklets that describe the structure and operation of your local government. Is there a mailing list for future materials? Can your name/department be added to it?

A list of officials who might be available to visitclasses or answer student questions during the year.

A list of special interest groups, neighborhood associationsand their principle concerns, people who frequently speakup at meetings. 6 FREE (and low cost) INFORMATION ON STRUCTUREAND PROCESS OF GOVERNMENT, SPECIAL ISSUES AND CANDIDATES. Contact your nearest League of Women Voters. Each League publishes a guide to its own local government(s). Leagues provide election information, nonpartisan candidate information, open meetings and speakers on assorted local, state, and national topics. This is a volunteer organization and the office location changes with the president. Some Leagues pay for a separate phone listing. Ask officials or media if you have trouble locating theLeague. There are Leagues in the following parts of Virginia.

Alexandria Fredericksburg Norfolk-Virginia Beach Arlington Gloucester-MaIhews Prince William Albemarle-CharlottesvilleHampton-Newport News Richmond Area Chesapeake Loudoun County Roanoke Area Danville Louisa County Rockbridge Area Fairfax Area Lynchburg Waynesboro Falls Church Montgomery County Williamsburg

A 15 _Er.o..e_kLow-Cost Reference Materials (cont'd)

7 - LOW-COST ($2 handling charge) FILMSAND TAPES from State Department . of Education A-V Libraries. Each school should havean up-to-date list. Order well in advance. (Not availableto independent schools.) 8 - FREE VIDEOTAPES & TELECASTSare often available through your area TV or cable stations:--gajar unit schedule, thensee their lists of available programs. They are anxious to help by showing them when your students will swell the ranks of viewers.

9 - FREE MATERIALS ON LAW & CORRECTIONS. Virginia Institute for Law & Citizenship, Virginia Commonwea th University, Schoolof Education, 1015 West Main St., Richmond, VA 23284.

10 - FREE COPIES OF VIRGINIA FACTS &FIGURES. If youl' library does not have a recent copy, ask your librarian to orderone from the the Division of Industrial Development, State OfficeBuilding, Richmond, VA 23219. It is a fine source of up -to -date information,but it is expensive to print. Some teachers have receivedmore than one copy by requesting "last year's edition" inFebruary, when the new ones are published. 11 - FREE COPIES OF YOUR LOCAL NEWSPAPER might be available foryour use when you are studying local government,some local controversies, or the topic of a feature series. ASK! See the editor. You might also find a reporter who would tellyour classes about covering local government or a particular story. (Check for editorial bias and plan ways to present other sides of the story-- see current events ideas in this notebook.) DON'T FORGET TO LET THEM KNOWWHEN YOUR CLASS IS ENGAGED IN SOME INTERESTING ACTIVITIES. It reinforces your thesis that Government is important-- and fun! 12 - FREE ALMANACS are often available from book dealersor distributors during the time the new onesare coming out. Let them know in advance that you would like the "old"ones. They are great sources of information on state and national governments, cities, history,economy, and sociology. and for supporting evidenceor research for discussions on important issues in the news.Some also have world and regional maps. Last year's data is better than none!

13 - LOW-COST ATLASES are availablethrough high school book and magazine suppliers. Encourage your students to purchaseone to keep by their TV. Use it in class for current events,world resources. Draw your own outline maps with a stylus anda piece of carbon paper. 14 - LOW-COST MAPS & PUBLICATIONS can be ordered from the Virginia State Library. Many of the booklets and maps would beuseful for the history classroom and teacher. Your department or '.ibrary might buy andmount a $10 set of historic maps. The geology map ( f9) might be of interest in your study of economic geography. Some are very decorative! 15 - FREE CLASS MATERIALS can often be arranged in return fora "thank you for your contribution" letterfrom your chairperson, librarian,or principal. Keep your eyes open for usefulresources in your community-- books, magazines, maps, films, displaypictures, slides, posters, other? The donor can use the letter fora tax deduction and EVERYBODY BENEFITS! 16 - ALMANAC OF VIRGINIA POLITICS- the indispensable reference book includes economic and political descriptions ofeach legislative district; biographies, committee assignments, andvoting records on key issues for each legislator in the General Assembly. It is up-dated after each election. THIS BOOK PROVIDES THE CRUCIAL INFORMATIONFOR THE MODEL A 16

4' Free and Low-Cost ReferenceMaterials (cont'd)

GENERAL ASSEMBLY ACTIVITY (Section E of this notebook). The cost is $9.95 plus 4% salestax and 95¢ postage and handling. Post-election supplement:January 1986 ($4.95) 2310 Barbour Road, Falls Church, VA22043.

17 - THE UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT MANUAL is the officialhandbook of the U.S. Government, and the best reference of allon national governnment in brief. Great for current eventsbackground. Brief histories of each branch, department,agency, corporation, and commission. The purpose and role of each,authority, programs and activities, and how to getmore information. Great list of abbreviations andacronyms in the appendix--also organizational charts. $9.50 from the Superintendentof Documents, U.S. Government PrintingOffice, Washington, D.C. 20402. Recommended: one copy for each government teacher;one copy in the library is a minimum.

18 - FREE BOOKLETS, FLYERS AND EVEN COAPUTER PRINTOUTS on PACs and other campaign financing information--on all candidatesfor national office. See the latest figures on'contributions to members of a committee on Congress--compare it to the kindsof legislation they vote on! Voter Education Programs inthe schools! Pages and pages ofresources, case studies, and classroom activities! Speakers and workshop materials available! Contact the Federal ElectionCommission 1325 K Street, N.W., Washington, D.C.20463. 19 - FREE WORKBOOKS AND TEACHING MATERIALS ON FEDERALINCOME TAXES "Understanding Taxes,"a student workbook including general information, sample problems,test questions and activities, available free from the InternalRevenue Service, Richmond Office (800) 424-1040. Call early in the schoolyear to avoid the tax season rush! Ask for a copy for eachstudent AND A TEACHER GUIDE FOR EACH TEACHER. Wall charts and additional materials included. Films are also available.

20 - FREE SUBSCRIPTIONS TO NEWSLETTERS! Three newslettersare currently available from the Instituteof Government at the University of Virginia:

The University of Virginia News Letter isa scholarly look at current topics in Virginiastate and local government. Published monthly.

The Ouarterly is an eight-pagenewsletter of ideas, strategies, resources, and featurestories especially for government and civics teachers. Published four times during the school year.

A 17 The Virginia Independent is the officialpublication of the Virginia Commission on the Bicentennialof the United States Constitution with historicalreports and a calendar of bicentennial activities. Published bimonthly.

Most teachers should be receiving them,but if not, contact the Institute of Government, 207 MinorHall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903.

21 - FM INFORMATION ON MANY TOPICS RELATING TO VIRGINIA STATEAND LOCAL GOVERNMENT. See the Institute of Government"Selected Bibliography" (updated to May, 1986)on pages A 19 - 28 of this notebook.

22 - Most local, state and nationaloffices and agencies will provide information, materials and speakersfor class. Ask! 23 - FREE CATALOG OF LOW-COST MATERIALS ON WOMEN'S HISTORY! Teaching guides, records, slides,games, posters, cassettes, and novelties are available from theNational Women's History Project, P.O. Box 3716, SantaRosa, CA 95402.

24 - PARTICIPATION PROGRAMS--TheVirginia YMCA sponsors three programs which involve students in simulationsof state government. In the Model General Assembly,students learn about the legislative process; in the ModelExecutive Government Conference, students learn the theoryand practice of the executive branch; and in the ModelJudiciary Program, students work with lawyers and judges ina trial simulation. Contact Mark Coward, Associate ExecutiveDirector, The Virginia YMCA. P.O. Box 10365, Lynchburg, VA2506 or call (804) 385-9117. 25 - A QUESTION OF GOVERNMENT, a new eight-part videotape serieson Virginia state and local government is now available. The series features Professor Larry Sabato, many Virginiapoliticos, and Roanoke area students exploringvarious questions of Virginia government. .Titles include:

"Why Should I Be Involved?" "How Does It Work?" "Who Does What?" "What Can I Do?" "What Should the State Do forMe?" "Why Do We Need Local Government?" "What Happens When I.Break theLaw?" "How Do We Pay the Costs of Governing?"

Each tape is approximately 15 minuteslong; a teacher's guide with worksheets and handouts isavailable. Send your own 1/2

A 18 inch or 3/4 inch tapes (enoughfor two hours of taping) to Mary Dalton, Division of InstructionalMedia and Technology, Department of Education, P.O. Box6Q, Richmond, VA 23216. Include $2.00 for handling fees. For more information, call (804) 225-2401.

26 - GET INVOLVED IN GOVERNMENT,a new three-part videotape series emphasizes citizen participation inissues on the local, state, and national levels. Titles include:

"Get Involved In Local Government"discusses land use, local ordinance and zoning changesrequired for a brewery, and the sale of beer on Sunday.

"Get Involved In State Government"features a filmed tour of Virginia government facilities andservices, from parks and hospitals to offices for minoritybusiness, education, highways, airports and workman'scompensation.

"Get Involved In National Government"shows the many services provided at the nationallevel and reviews the legislative process.

Send your own 1/2 inchor 3/4 inch tapes (enough for two hours of taping) to Mdry Dalton, Divisionof Instructional Media and Technology, Department of Education,P.O. Box 6Q, Richmond, VA 23216. Include $2.00 for handling fees. For more information, call (804) 225-2401.

27 - COMMONWEALTH COLLOQUIA: ATELEVISION PROJECT ON THE VIRGINIA EXPERIENCE, is a new nine-part seriesof programs on Virginia history, featuringsome of the state's foremost scholars discussing the Virginia experience. Titles include:

"The Spaniards Are Coming!"--Spanishexploration on the Virginia coast before Jamestown

"Who Goes There?"--Theories ofthe Virginia Frontier

"Free to Profess: Virginia's Statute of Religious Freedom"--The historical and contemporarysignificance of Jefferson's document

"Time on the Cross at Tredegar"--Industrialslavery in the Commonwealth

"Beyond the Academies"--The originsof Virginia's public schools

A 18a re: "Mahone, Martin and Virginia's Machines"--The postReconstruction era

"Suffering Suffragettes "-- Virginia's feminists

"Massive Resistance: Its Originis and Politics"--a view of Virginia in the '50's and 60's

"Bourbonism in Virginia"--Machine politicsin crisis

Each tape is approximately 28minutes long; a teacher's guide is available. Send your own 1/2 inch or a;4 inch tapes(enough for two hours of taping) to Mary Dalton,Division of Instructional Media and Technology, Departmentof Education, P.O. Box 6Q, Richmond, VA 23216 or The Resource Center, VirginiaFoundation for the Humanities and Public Policy,P.O. Box 3697, Charlottesville, VA 22903. Include S2.00 for handling fees. For more information, call (804)225-2401.

28 COURT DAYS FORUMS VIDEOTAPES The "Virginia Court Days Forums"was a series of twenty public meetings on the United States Constitution that were heldacross the Commonwealth from 1984 through1986. The forums were intended to promote greater publicunderstanding of the U. S. Constitution as the nation approachedthe 200th anniversary of that document. The series was directed by theInstitute of Government and supported in part bya grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities.

The forum have bro'sght togethera remarkably diverse and distinguished collection of paneliststo discuss a wide variety of constitutional issues. As the forums were filmed for broadcast on WCVETV, videotapesare available for purchase. The tape of each forum lasts approximately 60 minutes. Each forum was accompanied bya University of Virginia News Letteron the same topic by an outstandingscholar. Please use the form on the next page to order tapes and classcopies of the newsletters.

"The Constitutionas Symbol and Substance: Williamsburg, VA What Does ConstitutionalismMean?" February 28, 1984

"Religion and the Constitution:

Orano County, VI'. How High is the Wall ofSeparation?" July 14, 1984

A 18b "Democratic Representation Under theConstitution: Loudoun County, VA Where Do Political Parties FitIn?" September 12, 1984

"Courts and the Constitution:

Richmond, VA Toward an Imperial Judiciary?"

October 9, 1984

"Federalism and the Constitution:

Danville, VA Whither the American States?"

January 23, 1985

"The Philosophical Roots ofthe Constitution: Charlottesville, Liberty or Equality?"

VA, April 9, 1985

"Coal and the Constitution:

Wise County, VA The Federal Government andInterstate Commerce" April 16, 1985

"Technology and Government: Can the Constitution Augusta County, VA Survive in the Modern Age?"

May 7, 1985

"Conflicting Rights Under theConstitution: Hanover County, VA A Free Press Versusa Fair Trial" June 16, 1985

"Suffrage and the Constitution:

Roanoke, VA The Future of Voting Rights inVirginia" September 5, 1985

A 18c "Schools and the Constitution: Hampton, VA The Dimensions of the Right toEducation" September 17, 1985

"Changing the Constitution:

Westmoreland County, VA A New Convention?"

December 11, 1985

"The Constitution and theExecutive Alexandria, VA Establishment:An Imperial Bureaucracy?" February 18, 1986

"Democracy and the Constitution: Winchester, VA Is the Congress Representative?" April 16, 1986

"Foreign Policy Under theConstitution: Fredericksburg, VA Should the President's PowersBe Curbed?" May 7, 1986

"Federalism and the Constitution: Bristol, VA Interstate Cooperation and Conflict" June 18, 1986

"The Constitution and theWorld Economy Norfolk, VA How Does the ConstitutionAffect International Trade?

July 16, 1986

26 A 18d o

VIDEOTAPE REQUEST FORM

NAME

ADDRESS

PHONE

TITLE AND/OR LOCATION OF FORUM PROGRAM REQUESTED

TYPE OF VIDEOTAPE (Beta or VHS)

Cost of each VHS videotape is $10.00. Cost of each Beta videotapeis $20.00.

How many copies of the accompanyingnewsletter do you want?

Please mail this form, witha check made payable to the Institute of Government, to the following address:

Virginia Court Days Forums Institute of Government University of Virginia 207 Minor Hall Charlottesville, VA 22903

Due to production time, you will receive your videotape approximatelytwo weeks upon receipt ofyour request.

Thank you for your interest inthe Court Days series. it A 18e 1)C SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MATERIALS ONVIRGINIA GOVERNMENT Compiled by Sandra H. Wiley

Institute of Government, Minor Hall,University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22902

The Institute of Government isa reseach organization within the Univer- sity's College of Arts and Sciences. A significant part of the Institute's program is the conduct of research and the publication of materialson various aspects of public affairs in Virginia. These materials are in the form of a monthly news letter, monographs, and occasional bookspublished jointly with the University Press of Virginia. The Institute worked with Charlottesville Schools and the Virginia Department of Educationon the preparation of this notebook, and additional resources are planned in subsequentyears. The Institute also will respond to requests for specific informationto aid teacher and student understanding of state and local governmentand issues in Virginia.

The University of Virginia News Letter, a monthly publication of the In- stitute of Government, is now in its fifty-ninthyear of publication. Indexes are available. Each issue is a four-page article that discussesone specific topic. Copies are mailed regularly to most Virginia public highschool libraries. The News Letter is copyrighted, but multiple copies andclassroom sets may be obtained at no charge from the address above.Subscriptions are available free upon request-- simply ask to have your name added to the list. Some recent News Letters on topics useful in the 12th grade Virginia government units are listed below. Starred items are included in this notebook.

A. STATE GOVERNMENT

1. Constitution

The Constitution of Virginia: 1776 and 1976, Albert L. Sturm, Vol. 53, no. 4 (December 1976)

Local Government and the 1971 Virginia Constitution,Donald C. Dixon, Vol. 49, no. 10 (June 1973)

Local Government in Colonial Virginia: A Prelude to Constitution Making, Donald C. Dixon, Vol. 49,no. 7 (March 1973)

Religion and the Political Process: Virginia's Statute for Establishing Religious Freedom, Keith Crim and Thomas O. Hall. Jr. Vol. 60, no. 9 (May 1984)

2. Legislative Branch

*The 1982-83 Virginia General Assembly, RobertJ. Austin, Vol. 60, no. 1(September 1983)

The Virginia General Assembly,I: Structure and Procedures, Robert J. Austin, Vol. 54, no. 2 (October 1977)

The Virginia General Assembly, II: Influencing Policy, Robert J. Austin, Vol. 54, no. 3 (November 1977)

A 19 The Virginia Legislatures, 1776 and 1976, William Buchanan, Vol. 54 no. 2 (October 1976)

The 1978-79 Virainia General Assembly: end of a Decade, Robert J. Austin, Vol. 56, no. 1 (September 1979)

* Occupational Background, Recruitment Patterns, and Party in the Virginia General Assembly 1970-1981, Arthur B. Gunlicks, Vol. 58 no. 8 (April 1982)

* The 1981/1982 Reapportionment of the Virginia House of Delegates, John G. Schuiteman and John G. Selph, Vol. 59, no. 10 (June 1983) 3. Executive Branch

The Governorship of Virginia, 1776 and 1976, Rowland Egger, Vol. 52, no. 12 (August 1976)

The Governor's Veto Power, Alexander J. Walker, Vol. 54,no. 4 (December 1977)

Executive Clemency in Virginia, Thomas R. Morris, Vol. 55,no. 3 (Novembei. 1978)

The Governor of Virginiaas Executive Leader, Gibson L. Tucker, Jr. Vol. 45, no. 5 (January1969)

The Governor of Virginia,Carter O. Lowance, Vol. 36, no. 6 (February'1960)

The Office of Attorney General in Virginia, Thomas R. Morris, Vol. 56, no. 8 (April 1980)

4. Judicial Branch

The Virginia Judiciary, 1776 - 1976, Thomas R. Morris, Vol. 54, no. 1 (September 1976)

The Criminal Trial Process in Virginia, Thomas R. Morris, Vol. 53, no. 7 (March 1982)

Sexual Assault Law Reform in Virginia: An Over.:ew, H. Lane Kneedler, Vol. 58, no. 5 (January 1982)

The Role of Judges in Virginia Local Government: A Historical Overview, Stanley A. Cook, Vol. 57, no. 10 (June 1931)

5. State Agencies and Policies

Human Services in a Time of Diminished Resources, Joseph L. Fisher, Vol. 59, no. 9 (May 1983)

* Virginia's State Corporation Commission, I:Historical Perspective, Vol. 56, no. 4 (December 1979) and Virginia's State Corporation, II: * Decision Making Today, Vol. 56, no. 5 (January 1980, Robert S. Montjoy and Laurence J. O'Toole)

A 20 31 The Virginia Historic Landmarks Commission: The State's Preservaticn Agency, H. Bryan Mitchell,Vol. 56, no. 11 (July 1980)

Welfare Policy in Virginiaand the Nation, Timothy G. O'Rourke, Vol. 56, no. 2 (October 1979)

Elementary and Secondary Education to the Year 2000: Issues and Policy Alternatives, Charles P. Ruch, Vol. 60 no. 10 (June1984)

The 1984 Virginia Assemblyon Policy for Elementary and Secondary Education in Virginia: Issues for the Commonwealth(no named author) Vol. 60, no. 12 (August1984)

Deinstitutionalization, C.Knight Aldrich (vol. 1985) 62, no. 1( September

6, Elections and Voting Behavior

Suffrage Requirements and Voter Turnoutin Virginia: 1776 and 1976, Robert S. Montjoy, Vol. 53,no. 3 (November 1976)

Party Nominations in Virginia, Clifton McCleskey, Vol. 54,no. 10 (June 19781

The Initiative and Referendum inAmerican States, David S. Magleby, Vol. 56, no. 6 (February 1980)

Money in Politics: Financing the 1977 Statewide Electionsin Virginia, Richard W. Hall-Sizemore, Vol. 56,no. 12 (August 1980)

Virginia General Assembly Elections, 1979, Larry Sabato, Vol. 56,no. 7, (March 19801

The 1980 Election: Understanding the Reagan Victory inVirginia, David S. Magleby, Vol. 57,no. 7 (March 1981)

The 1980-81 Virginia General Assembly,Robert J. Austin and Bernard Caton, Vol. 57, no. 12 (August 1981)

The 1981 Gubernatorial Election inVirginia, Larry Sabato, Vol. 58, no. 6 (February 1982)

The 1982 Election for U.S. Senator in Virginia, Larry Sabato, Vol.59, no. 5 (January 1983)

The Voting Rights Act Amendments of1982, Timothy G. O'Rourke, Vol. 59, no. 6, (February 1983)

1983 Virginia General AssemblyElections: Stability, for a Change, Larry J. Sabato, Vol. 60. no.6 (February 1984)

The 1984 Presidential Electionin Virginia: A Republican Encore, Larry J. Sabato, Vol. 61, no.6 (February 1985)

A 21 7. Environment

Hazardous and Toxic Waste Disposal,John Gilmour, Vol. (September 1980) 57, no. 1

Virginia's Climate,Bruce P. Hayden no. 5, (January 1981) and Patrick Michaels,Vol. 57,

Hazardous WasteManagement in Virginia, Richard C. Collinsand Elizabeth B. Waters,Vol. 59, no. 4 (December 1982) The Virginia Assembly on theFuture of the Virginia named author), vol. Environment (no 62, no. 3 (November1985) Water Supply Managementin Virginia, William (June 1985) E. Cox, vol. 61,no. 10

8. Finance-Taxation

Financing Virginia'sGovernment: David S. Jones, Where the MoneyComes From, Vol. 53,no. 9 (May 1977) Financing Virginia's Government:Where the Money Fields, Vol. 53,no. 10 (June 1977) Goes, Mary Jo

The Movementto Limit Government Spending in American Localities, 1977- 1979, David B.. Magleby, States and (November 1980) Vol. 57, no. 3

Virginia PropertyTax Assessment/Sales and Philip J. Ratio Study, JohnL. Knapp Grossman, Vol. 58,no. 11 (July 1982) Reform of the Virginia Individual Income Tax,John L. Knapp, Bonventre, and WilliamT. Smith, Vol. Karen 8. 60, no. 3 (November1983)

The Virginia RetailSales Tax, John L. Knapp and Bruce K.Johnson, Vol. 58, no. 4 (December1981)

* Virginia State and Local GovernmentFinances in the Knapp, Vol. 54,no. 3 (November 1982) Eighties, John L.

New Rules for Public Procurement in theCommonwealth, Clay Paul N. Proto, Vol.52, no. 8 (April 1983) L. Wirt and

Virginia's Sales Tax: Its Origins and Deeb, and Stuart W. Administration, MichaelS. Connock, Vol. 46,no. 8 (April 1970) 9. Geography

* The Geography of Virginia, James H.Fonseca, Vol. 57, (July 1981) no. 11

A 22 10. Health

Emergency Medical Services and Volunteer Rescue Squads in Virainia, Marcia S. Mashaw, Vol. 58, no. 2 (October 1981)

11. Land Use

Land Use and the Public Interest, John Gilmour, Vol. 56,no. 9 (May 1980)

The Virginia Assembly on Land Use Policies: Issues for the Commonwealth, (No named author), Vol. 58, no. 13 (August 1982)

The Rural Renaissance and the Management of Virginia's Lands, Sandra S. Batie, Vol. 59, no. 2 (October 1982)

12. Media

Virginia's Capitol Press Corps, John T. Whelan, Vol. 57,no. 6 (February 1981) Mistakenly issued as Vol. 58, no. 6

13. Population Studies

* Population Change in Virginia 1970-1980, Julia H. Martin and Michael A. Spar, Vol. 58, no. 10 (June 1982)

Family Composition in Virginia: Female-Headed Families, 1970-1980 Julia H. Martin and Donna J. Tolson, Vol. 59, no. 11 (July 1983)

Other Minorities: A Demographic Description of Virginia's Asian Populations, Julia H. Martin and David W. Sheatsley, Vol. 61,no. 3 (November 1984) 14. Regionalism

The Frostbelt-Sunbelt Controversy,Timothy G. O'Rourke, Vol. 57, no. 8, (April 1981)

15. Women's Issues

Women in Virginia State and LocalGovernment, Mary Jo Fields, Vol. 58, no. 3 (November 1981)

Family Composition in Virginia: Female-Headed Families, 1970-1980, Julia H. Martin and Donna J. Tolson, Vol. 59,no. 11 (July 1983)

16. Other

The Average Virginia as Seen by the Census,William J. Serow and Charles O. Maiburg, Vol. 49,no. 6 (February 1973)

Freedom of Information in Virginia, CliftonMcCleskey and Mary Jo Fields, Vol. 55, no. 10 (June 1979)

A 23 The Enterprise ZoneConcept and Virginia's Act, John C. Brown, Urban EnterpriseZone Vol. 59, no. 7 (March1983) The Metrorail System: Its Impact on Virginia,Jeremy F. Plant, Vol. 59, no. 1(September 1982)

The Virginia Assembly on the Role of AdultCorrections within the Virginia CriminalJustice System (no no. 12 (August 1983) named author), Vol.59,

Changing Job Skills in Virginia: The Employer's View, Julia H.Martin and Donna J. Tolson, vol. 62, no. 6 (Special Issue, January1986)

B. LOCAL GOVERNMENT

1. General

Virginia Local Government, 1776- 1976, Weldon Cooper, Vol. 52, no. 11 (July 1976)

The Charter and Virginia LocalGovernment, Weldon Cooper, Vol. 45, no. 8 (April 1969)

Local Government and the 1971 VirginiaConstitution, Donald C. Dixon, Vol. 49, no. 10 (March 1973)

Virginia Town, I, Vol, 47,no, 12 (August 1971) and The Virginia Town, II, Vol. 48, no. 1 (September 1971), S.J. tiakielski,Jr.

The Study of Small Towns in Virginia,Byron Farwell, Vol. 56, no. 3 (November 1979)

Town-County Relations in Virginia, MaryJo Fields and Sandra H. Wiley, Vol. 56, no. 10 (June 1980)

The Staunton Story 1908- 1973, I, Vol. 49, no. 8 (April 1973) and The Staunton Story 1908- 1973, II, Vol. 49, no. 9 (MO 1973), Edward L. Morton and Weldon Cooper. These two articles deal with the use of the council-manager formof government by Virginia's cities and towns (I) and theuse of a manager or other central administrator by counties (II),

The County Tie Breaker in Virginia,Mary Jo Fields, Vol. 57,no. 9 (May 1981)

Municipal Electric Utility Systems inVirginia, Michael F. Digby, Vol. 57, no. 4 (December 1980)

The Role of Judges in Virginia LocalGovernment: A Historical Overview, Stanley A. Cook, Vol. 57,no. 10 (June 1981)

35 A 24 * Virginia's Local Executive ConstitutionalOfficers: A Contemporary Profile, Timothy G, O'Rourke and GeorgeAsimos, Jr. Vol. 58, no. 9 (Nay 18821

* Virginia's Local ExecutiveConstitutional Officers in Historical Perspective, Stanley A. Cook, Vol. 58,no. 1 (September 1981)

Managing Federal.Grants in the City ofRichmond, Donald F. Kettl, Vol. 57, no. 2 (October 1980)

Mayoral Leadership in Council-ManagerCities in Virginia, Nelson Wikstron, Vol. 54, no. 5 (January 1978)

The Industrial Development Bond Controversy, DouglasL. Sbertoli, Vol. 60. no. 2 (October,1983)

The Virginia Local Government Manager: An Updated Statistical Denise S. Butterfield, Profile, Vol. 60, no. 7 (March1984) 2. Finance

Local Government Financein Virginia, Bernard (March 1978) Caton, Vol. 54, no. 7

State Aid to Local Governments in Virginia,John L. Knapp and Philip J. Grossman, Vol, 55,no. 1(September 1978)

3. Annexat::on and Consolidation

The Commission on City-County Relations: A New Look atan Old Dilemma, George Rogers Clark Stuart, Vol. 52, no. 3 (November1975) Municipal Annexation in Virginia, 1960- 1970, Edward L. Morton, Vol. 48, no. 9 (May 1972)

Merger in Virginia LocalGovernment: Issues and Implications,David G. Temple, Vol. 50,no, 2 (October 15, 1963)

Annexation: The Virginia Procedure,Chester W. Bain, Vol. 37, no. 11, (July 1961)

Annexation Resumes inVirginia, Jack D. (April 1984) Edwards, Vol. 60,no. 8

An Updateon Local Government Consolidation in Virginia, Vol. 60. no. 4(December 1983) Mary Jo Fields

A 24a Annexation and State Aid to Localities: A Compromise is Reached, Thomas J. Michie, Jr.,and Marcia S. Mashaw, Vol. 55, '0. 11 (July 1979; Note: The first of these two articles providesa good description of Virginia's judicialannexation procedure. the statutory requirements However, because some of subsequently have changed. be read together with the article must the secondone to get an accurate picture of the current annexationprocess. INDEXES to the news letters published since 1958can be found in the following issues:

1958 - 1965, Vol. 41,no. 12 (August 1965) 1965 - 1972, Vol. 48,no. 12 (August 1972) 1972 - 1979, Vol. 55,no. 12 (August 1979) 1979 - 1980, Vol. 56,no. 12 (August 1980) 1980 - 1981, Vol. 58,no. 1 (September 1981) 1981 - 1982, Vol. 58,no. 12 (August 1982) 1982 - 1983, Vol.60, no.1 (September 1983) 1982- 1984, Vol. 61, No. 2 (October 1984) la4 - 1985, Vol. 61, no. 12 (August1985)

1.) N. t.1t

A 24b Institute Publications

A list of selected Institute Publications that might be useful resources for teachers of high school-level government courses is given below. These publications are available in most public libraries. In addition, single copies are available without charge, upon request to the Institute, unless a price is quoted.

The Virginia Local Legislator: A Guide for Municipal Mayors and Councilmen and County Supervisors. Virginia Municipal League, Virginia Association of Counties, and Institute of Government (1972).

Note: This monograph, while intended primarily for newly elected 1.0751 government officials, is written in nontechnical language and provides a good introduction to Virginia's system of local government and the powers and duties of Virginia's counties, cities, and towns.

Handbook for Virginia Municipal Mayors and Councilmembers. 2d edition. Michaux H. Wilkinson and Mary Jo Fields (1979). $6.00.

A concise but general overview of town and city government and municipal office in Virginia.

Virginia County Supervisors' Manual. 4th edition. Marcia S. Mashaw (1982) $17.00

"A Body Incorporate": The Evolution of City-County Separation in Virginia Chester W. Bain (1967).

Annexation in Virginia: The Use of the Judicial Process for Readjusting City-County Boundaries. Chester W. Bain (1966).

Virginia's Lieutenant Governors: The Office and the Person. Thomas R. Morris (1970)

Zoning and Subdivision Law in Virginia: A Handbook. Stephen Robin (1980) $3.00

A good explanation, in summary form, of the basic law of zoning and land use control as it now exists in Virginia.

Virginia Issues: State Aid to Local Governments. John Knapp and Philip J. Grossman (1979).

Special District Government in Virginia. S.J. t4akielski, Jr. and David G. Temple (1967).

Publications Issued by the University Press of Virginia

The publications listed below are all available by purchase from the University Press of Virginia, P.O. Box 3608, University Station, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903. They are also available in most public libraries.

Virginia Government and Politics: Readings and Comments. Weldon Cooper and Thomas R. Morris (1975). $10.00

The Virginia Supreme Court: An Institutional and Political Analysis. Thomas R. Morris (1975). $12.50

A 25

(J Ls Merger Politics: Local Government Consolidationin Tidewater Virginia. David G. Temple (1972). $12.50.

The Democratic Party Primary in Virginia: Tantamount to Election No Longer. Larry Sabato(1977). $9.95.

P blications Issued by the Virginia StateLibrary Virginia State Library,Richmond, VA 23219. Send for copies of the current publications list- for your library and your social studies departmentfile.

VIRGINIA TOWN& CITY MAGAZINE

Address: 311 Ironfronts 1011 East Main Street P.O. Box 753 Richmond, VA 23206

Virginia Town & City is the official publicationof the Virginia Municipal League, and association thatrepresents Virginia municipal governments. Published bimonthly since 1966, the magazine oftencontains articles of general information on Virginia localGovernment suitable for use in conjunction with high school-level governmentcourses. In addition, each issue usually contains one or two articles about governmentactivities in particular towns or cities.

Subscription Rate: $8.00/per year VIRGINIA CAVALCADE MAGAZINE

Address: The Virginia State Library Richmond, VA23219

Virginia Cavalcade is a magazine publishedquarterly by the Virginia State Library. Each issue includes historical articles(usually three to five) on various aspects of Virginia life, including itsgovernment and politics. The writing style is suitable for highschool students, and the articleson government would provide good supplementary readingsfor special projects and reports. The articles are accompanied bymany illustrations.

Subscription Rate: $4.00/per year; $7.00/twoyears (Library discount, 10%) COMMONWEALTH, THE MAGAZINE OF VIRGINIA

Address: Virginia State Chamber of Commerce P. O. Box 1710 Norfolk, VA23510

Commonwealth is a monthly publication of the VirginiaState Chamber of Commerce, which has been published since 1934. Each issue has approximately three feature articles of general interestpertaining to Virginia; some of these articles relate to Virginia government. The level of writing is suitable for high school studentS, and the articles arevery journalistic in style, similar tonewspaper feature articles.

Subscription Rate: $15.00/per year

A 26 VIRGINIA MAGAZINE OF HISTORY ANDBIOGRAPHY

Address: Virginia Historical Society P.O. Box 7311 1111 Richmond, VA23221

The Virginia Magazine of Historyand Biography is a quarterly publication of the Virginia Historical Society. Its articles often deal with specific aspects of Virginia political and governmental history, especiallyVirginia's past governmental and politicalleaders. The articles, while scholarly in nature, are generally very readable, and they would provide goodsupplementary information for tachers.

A complete, detailed index ofeach volume is published at year the end of each

Subscription Rate: Member:hip, $15.00per year includes subscription.

SELECTED LISTING OF ADDITIONALPOSSIBLE RESOURCES

The following isa selected listing of books by different organizations, and journal articles,published that provide a varietyof informationon Virginia government, politics, andhistory.

Books

"By the Good Peopleof Virginia. . ." Our Commonwealth's Government. Paul C. Cline andDaniel B. Fleming, Richmond: Jr. Virginia State Chamberof Commerce, 1983. This is a studenttext. Teacher's Guide alsoavailable. Virginia's Government: The Structure and Functions of the Stateand Local Governments ofthe People of Virginia. Richmond, Virginia George W. Jennings. State Chamber of Commerce,1982.

Your Virginia StateGovernment. League of Women Votersof Virginia, 1983. Readings in VirginiaGovernment: A Collection of Articles. Allen Ragan and B. McCluer Gilliam,eds. Richmond: 1964. Virginia State Chamberof Commerce,

Virginia, the NewDominion. Virginius Dabney. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday and Company,1971,

Virginia in our Century. Jean Gottman, Charlottesville: Press of Virginia, 1969. University

Cavalier Commonwealth: History and Governmentof Virginia (2d ed.). William Edwin Hemphill et al. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1963. Virginia: Bourbonism to Byrd, 1870-1925. Allen W. Moger, Charlottesville: University Press ofVirginia, 1968.

Harry Byrd ant. the ChangingFace of Virginia Politics, Wilkinson III. 1945-1966. J. Harvie Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.

Virginia: A New Look at the Old Dominion. Marshall W. Fishwick. Harper and Brothers, 1959. New York:

A27- tA Layman's Guide to Virginia Law. Bai'lcs, Brown and Costello, eds. Charlottesville: The Michie Co., 1977c

The Negro in Virginia Politics, 1902-1965. Andrew Buni. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1967.

General Assembly of Virginia, Manual of the Senate andHouse of Delegates, Session 1982. Richmond: Commonwealth of Virginia, 1982.

Note: A new issue of this volume is publishedevery two years. It provides very useful informationon the organization or the General Assembly (including maps of Senate and House ofDelegates districts) and biographies of all members.Also includes the complete 1971 Virginia Constitution and the Constitution of theUnited States.

Governors of Virginia, 1860-1978, Edward Younger, ed, JamesTice Moore, J.W. Ely, Jr., et. al., associate editors, Charlottesville, 1932.

Articles

"The 1971 Revised Virginia Constitution andRecent Constitution-Making," Albert L. Sturm. State Government 44: 166-77 (Summer 1971)

"The Origins of the Democratic Machine in Virginia," Allen W. Moger. Journal of Southern History, 8:183-209 (May 1942).

"Virginia: Political Museum Piece," in Southern Politics in State and Nation, V.O. Key, Jr., New York: Knopf, 1949.

"Supreme Court Justices from Virginia: Lewis F. Powell, Jr. Virginia Magazine of History avid Biography, 84: 131-141 (1976).

"Annexation and other Municipal Boundary Changes," (no author given) Virginia Law Review, 66: 329-33 (March 1980)

"The One-Government Approach," in The Metropolis: Its People, Politics, and Economic Life, 3d. ed., John C. Bollens and Henry J. Schmandt, New York: Harper and Row, 1975.

Note: This chapter provides a good general overview of various annexation procedures used nationally, with specific attention to Virginia's judicial process.

A 28 4I VIRGINIA GOVERNMENT SCAVENGERHUNT

Answer the questions and tell specificallywhere you found the LIST BOOK AND PAGENUMBER. information.

1 - Name the twohouses of the Virginia General Assembly, and tellhow many members are electedto each.

2 - What are the qualifications for officein each house? 3 - How are the houses "organized"? What officers does eachhave? 4 - Tell the district numbers and thenames of the senator and delegate of this district,

5 - What impeachment powers does the Virginia GeneralAssembly have? 6 - What power does the Virginia GeneralAssembly have over local government?

7 - What is the "DillonRule"?

8 - Briefly describethe major steps by which Virginia. a bill becomes a law in

9 - Under what conditions is the presidingofficer of each house to vote? permitted

10 - What doesreapportionment mean?

11 - Who reapportions the Virginia GeneralAssembly?What is the process? 12 - The office of governor of Virginia is consideredvery powerful. some things our governor Tell can do that other statesmay not permit. 13 - Who isgovernor of Virginia?

14 - What are the qualifications for the officeof governor?

15 - Who is the lieutenantgovernor?

16 - What are the qualifications for lieutenantgovernor?

17 - Who is the AttorneyGeneral of Virginia?

18 - What are the qualifications for attorneygeneral?

19 - When do thecurrent terms expire?

20 - Can the incumbents (those currently in office)serve again? 21 - Where, in the U. S. Constitution, isthere a list ofpowers denied to the states? Tell (briefly) what kinds of powersare included.)

A 29 42 22 What are "reservedpowers"? Where are they mentionedin the Constitution?

23 Name some "concurrentpowers."

24 Describe at least 4different kinds of things do. that state governments

25 Virginia's populationhas been growing rate. faster than theaverage U.S. Briefly describe theareas that have experienced growth. the greatest

26 What is an SMSA?

27 How many SMSAs has Virginia? Where are they? 28 What percent of Virginia'spopulation is black? 29 Where do most of Virginia's black residentslive? 30 What are the voter registration requirementsin Virginia? 31 When can you register?

-32 Why is Virginia said to have "perpetualelections"? 33 What is a constitutionalofficer? 34 Find an articleon the history of Virginia describe the most constitutions, and briefly noteworthy provisionsof each of the major revisions.

35 Write in your notebook a list of the major sectionsof the Virginia Constitution, toserve a! an index for further government. research on Virginia

36 List the states,districts, and bodies in each direction. of water that borderVirginia,

37 Did the populationof this area increase 1980? or decrease between 1970and .

. 38 List the major industrialproducts of Virginia.

39 List the major agricultural products of Virginia. 40 List the major productsof this area.

41 Find' the most recentfigures you can for the median income forthe state of Virginia, andfor this area.

A 30 43 STARTER LIST OF STUDENT REPORT TOPICSON VIRGINIA

Water pollution from non-pointsources (i.e., agricultural run-off) and from chemical spills (i.e., kepone, titanium)or oil spills. Acid run-off from mining operations (tailings) Air pollution and acid rain Nuclear waste disposal (power plants and low-levelindustrial) Toxic waste disposal (including,or other than nuclear) Costs and benefits of port improvement in Virginia Virginia's imports and exports (Dowe gain from increased world trade?) Reservoirs, dams and diversions Riparian rights, inter-basin transfer and otherwater supply questions Tobacco - economic and public policy conflicts:health problems, subsidies What economic development doesyour area need?pros and cons Furniture manufacturing in Virginia Virginia minerals and mines (How are theseresources used?) "Impacted" areas of Virginia (Government and militaryinstallations) Barrier islands, the fragile ecologies The economic importance of tourism in Virginia National parks and forests in Virginia Employment and unemployment dataon Virginia (i.e., teens, minorities) Right-to-work laws - Virginia and elsewhere AND dozens of University of Virginia News Letter topics(see issues included in this notebook, and the list in the Bibliography).There are more ideas in the list of General Assembly Issues in SectionE.

DID YOU KNOW 9

Between 1950 and 1960, the old Norfolk County lost 30 square miles (!) of land . and 40,000 people through annexations to Portsmouth,Norfolk, and the City of South Norfolk. Think of the wasted time and money! No wonder it established itself as Chesapeake City! No more annexation!

Hampton, Virginia is the site of the oldest free schoolin America. In the mid-19th Century, it became part of the city publicschool system.

In 1950, the City of Virginia Beach and the whole ofPrincess Anne County had a combined population of 47,000. (They merged in 1963.) By 1980, it had grown to 262,000 -- more than 5 1/2 times its population 30years earlier!

Only four states receive a greater share of militaryspending than Virginia.

Hampton Roads, Virginia, is the home of the nation's largestconcentration of military installations.

In 1981, Virginia ranked 9th in the nation in pounds ofshellfish and finfish brought ashore. Fishing is big business! Chesapeake pollution is costly!

More than 50 college degrees may be earned throughevening classes at Virginia Commonwealth University!

Virginia has more than 400 public and private campgrounds,and more than 35,000 individual campsites! How many have you visited?

A 31 Did You Know ? (cont'd) Virginia ranks 34th in the nation inexpenditures for public education-- that's per capita expenditures bystate and local governments. Is that good?

One of the fastest-growing industries inboth Virginia and the U. S. isood processing. 80% of the nation's food is processedsome wa, before it is eaten.

The oldest (1839) jail still in operationin Virginia is in Rockbridge County.

There are 189 towns in Virginia's 95counties.

21 Virginia counties containno incorporated towns -- they are either all urban (wall-to-wall city?)or they are all rural.

A unique feature of Virginia governmentis our independent cities. All 41 of them have their own charters and theyare not part of any county.

Virginia is 36th largest in landarea of the 50 states.

Four counties and many cities in Virginiashowed a net loss in population from 1970 to 1980. Many suburban counties showedan increase. Virginia ranks 14th in total population with 5,347,000or 2.4% of the U. S. total in 1980. Slightly less than 1/5 of Virginia'spopulation is nonwhite.

Virginia has 23 community collegeson 33 campuses serving 277,000 students. Another 294,000 students are enrolledat public and private colleges and universities, in all kinds 0programs, full-time and part-time. Higher education is available to almost everybodyin Virginia!

Tourism is a major industry in Virginia,bringing us almost $3 billion a year, creating tens of thousands of jobs. It's good business to keep tourists happy!

Manufacturing industries are Virginia's largestbasic employer, providing over 400,000 jobs. Training programs are in high schools, technicalcenters, and career and college institutes all over the state.

According to the Forestry Service,one out of every six people employed in Virginia works in a woad- relatedindustry...furniture, paper products

In 1981, 156,000 Virginians held civilianjobs with the federal government, and 353,300 Virginians worked forstate and local governments.

The Virginia highway network of 52,000miles in the third largest system of state-maintained roads in the UnitedStates.

MOre than 2 million acres of public lands-- almost 10% of the state's land and inland water area-- are available for recreational use.

The city manager systemwas created in Staunton. Most counties and cities in the state are run by professionally-trainedadministrators. Elected officials set policy and supervise administration.

Virginia has one of the highestcosts-per-inmate for operation of prisons. In 1982, it cost over $22,000per inmate. Crime costs society many ways!

A 32 4.7 1----. RESOURCES & ACTIVITIES TO DEVELOP UNDERSTANDING OF THE PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY, POPULATION, & ECONOMICS OF VIRGINIA. STUDENTS USE THIS INFORMATION TO MAKE HYPOTHESES ABOUT POLITICS TO TEST IN SECTION D.

B ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY OF VIRGINIA

Plans & Ideas For Using SectionB Resources B 3- 4 Physical Geography Maps for Tests & Handouts- Half-page Size B 5 - 6 Script Plan for Use With Transparencies B 7 - 8 Maps - 10 of Them- All Approximately the Same Size, Including Pri!..ts of the Transparenciesin the Front Pocket of this Notebook. Design Your Own Materials. NO NUMBERS Population Teaching About Population Statistics- Teacher Notes B 17 - 18 Population Statistics Lesson (Student) B 19 - 20 Virginia Planning Districts List & Listof SMSAs B 21 - 22 Growth in Virginia- Census Data, 1970 - 1980 B 23 - 28 Black Population Change, Census Data,1970 - 1980 B 29 - 32 University of Virginia News Letter: "Population Change in Virginia, 1970 1980." (A Summary of All the Data for Teacher Information) Virginia Economics Using the Planning District Worksheet- Teacher Ideas B 33 - 34 Planning District Worksheet- (Student) B 35 - 36 Virginia Gross State Product- Data B 37, 39 - 40 Virginia Manufacturing Map and Statistics B 41 - 42 Adjusted Gross Income, Married CoupleReturns B 43 - 48 Virginia Railroads & Air Facilities B 49 - 50 Virginia Colleges B 51 - 52 Agriculture Maps & Charts B 53 - 57.. Value of Timber Cut in 1981 in VirginiaCounties B 59 Mineral Resources in Virginia (Map) B 60 University of Virginia News Letter: "The Geography of Virginia." A Summary of the Data Students Will Collect From These Resources-- For Teacher Information and To Monitor Student Reports.

B 1 PLANS a IDEAS FOR USING SECTION B RESOURCES

- to introduce or focus a unit on Virginia government - to provide economic and demographic background for Virginia politics - to introduce or focus a unit on economics DEFINE YOUR OBJECTIVES- THEN CHOOSE THE RESOURCES AND STUDENT ACTIVITIES MOST USEFUL FOR EACH CLASS.

OPENING ACTIVITIES - Take your choice!

1 - What distinguishes Virginia from other states? Ask students to write down 20 statements about Virginia geography, economics,or politics that they remember from previous study or from thenews. (This could be a homework assignment, with consultation from familyand friehds encouraged.) Discuss student lists. Assign research on doubtful points. Make a class list and go back over it after the study,to correct some of the judgment calls and to document generalities. 2 - What would you need to know? "Suppose you are a professional political campaign manager just in from Montana torun a statewide election campaign. What information would you need to have about Virginia? How would you determine the issues and candidate traitsto emphasize in order to influence voters in differentparts of the state? What questions would you ask?You have 2 minutes to write on a piece of scrap paper a list of the kinds of information you would need."

After 2 minutes, take about 15 minutes to share the listsand consolidate them on the board under the following 3 headlines. Lists might look like these:

NATURAL RESOURCES THE PEOPLE ECONOMIC FACTORS Climate Population distribution Major industries Agricultural land Racial groups Transportation Minerals Income distribution Tourist attractions Water Urban-suburban-rural mix Education & job Scenic attractions Education & employment training Party organizations

Discuss how each factor is a concern of government-- services provided, financial assistance, regulation, taxation-- and therefore a potential political issue. Are concerns different in differentparts of the state? 3 What would you need to know? "Suppose you are a marketing expert fora big paper corporation. It owns a paperback book company, a company that manufactures packing materials for farm produce and other perishableor fragile items, as well as specialtypapers for cigarettes, computer printers, expensive art books, and photography. You have just been assigned to Virginia. Your mission is to triple sale. Where would you find markets for products like these? As you drive around getting acquainted with the state, what would you look for?" ...or your company might manufacture heavy machinery, such as wheels, pulleys, and conveyor systems for handling bulk and packagedproducts. (The items might be used in mines, orchards, manufacturingplants of many kinds, and on loading docks.)

4 - Ask students to interview 6 local voters. (Teacher might stipulate different age groups, neighborhoods, friends,or a stranger or two.) Ask each person interviewed to identify the 3 best and the 3worst things about Virginia government. On report clay, discuss and list

B3 47 Plans & Ideas (cont'd)

responses on the board, weeding outnon-state and non-government items. (Since the lists came from other people, youcan clear up questions without embarrassingyour students!) Some of the responses may be outrageous or very critical. Resist the temptation to correct or balance the statements. .Aska student to copy the list, so it can be discussed later in your studywhen students may be able to evaluatesome of the comments more accurately. If there are points of informationthat need to be checked, assign students to do some research.

PROCEED TO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY-- MAPS! Use the transparencies in the front pocket of this notebook (ormake your own from the prints, pages 9 - 15). Add your own or your library slides, prints, maps, or suggest that students bring intheir pictures that show the physi-al geographyand natural attractions and of Virginia. resources Discuss what people do fora living in different parts of the state. Point out our diverse populationand rescurces. A VERY VALUABLE CLASS THIS CAN BE PERIOD, STIMULATING STUDENTINTEREST AND INVOLVE- MENT IN THE STUDY OF VIRGINIA. See the Script Plan, B7 - 8. PROCEED TO POPULATION STUDY A Population Statistics Lesson handout will helpyour students understand how data is gathered and interpreted. Several pages ofcensus data show how each community and area compares in growth. The Univer- sity of Virginia News Letter provides the teacher witha readable and convenient summary. See "Teaching About PopulationStatistics," B 17. PROCEED TO ECONOMICS A resource unit for students to use in class to developregional economic summaries -- and a News Letter that sums it all'up for theteacher -- are included in this section. Students begin by learningabout a planning district, then pool their information into regions-- giving an opportunity for individual and small group work, which isthen shared with the class. See "Economics- Using the Planning District Worksheet," B 33. The information can also be pooled into Congressionaldistricts, to provide background for Houseof Representativesor Senate campaigns.

WRITE POLITICAL HYPOTHESES...TOBE TESTED IN SECTION D AND IN HEAL POLITICAL CAMPAIGNS

What kind of candidates and campaignsare most likely to be winners in each particular district? Are there economic situation,industries, or people problems that might affect this area's viewson current issues? Are there special concerns that might requiresome vote-trading to address? What state/national issuesare of no particular concern here? Issues to evaluate might beas diverse as D.C. Metrorail, tax, dollars for tourism, harbor coal severance improvements, tobacco blight, location, strip-mining...) prison Note: Teachers who read through Section C will have interestingnotes to add to class discussionon many of these topics.

B4 48 40 MAPS

MAKE YOUR OWN HAND-OUTS, STUDY SHEETS, TESTS.Adapt these maps and materials for the depth or duration ofyour unit and the interest and ability ofyour students.

- Duplicate a half-page map at the top of the sheet. Leave the rest blank for student notes OR addyour questions, instructions, clippings, or list of identifications.

If you are planning a model general assembly,have students organize data by delegate and senate districts. See district maps in the front pocket of this notebook.

MAP QUESTION IDEAS: Directions (N,S,E,W), neighboring states,physical regions, mountains, rivers, Richmond and other importantcities, your.own area, cities and counties in the news, industries in thenews, densely populated areas, areas of black population, areas of significant populationchange.

POLITICAL SPECULATIONS: Select an area and ask students to identifythe characteristics of social, economic, and politicalfactors. What issues or platform might be most popular in the area?

ECONOMIC SPECULATIONS: Describe a business and its needs for personnel,transportation, water, fuel, or raw materials. Students suggest a location and support the choice with key facts from the resources in thisnotebook. (Students learn to use the charts, graphs, and maps by completingthe Planning District Worksheet and preparing group reportson economic regions of Virginia.)

OUTLINE MAP OF

VIRGINIA

B5 VIRGINIA ECONOMIC REGIONS From University of Virginia licvslettor. NUnINC'IN VInGINII July 2981. James 11. Fons*ca,Author. NentwinN tEnuo.r

Nonrmanm VALLXV

I.7.t S. AM .11f

1101.11lowa1T vinceNtA Milian?ttntOmr. IROUSIMAL ZUNI SOUIHSIOF Manning

VIRGINIA CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS AS ESTABLISHED 1981 ...... 0 DISTRICT Of COWMtLA

1 ...... 0 t. .-..-11 A. I...... C.,s-e ,....0P.!. ....r ,C. ... I 4. ...:: ...... 441' 1...... ),.,. / .: S" : .. '...... etS . '..?.' 4:(,..s' . :. :: s..s. ..'-'pi .': ;,;' es 1 r ..., , ...... :" ." -.'r :. 0s .14 (" . ,.., .; . .--,-, .. I. ...., :,,,, .r: .. /- ...... '... \ ,.:,. . ,, : . ,, . \ . .:. ... '. V.: .,. runtessu .4,0.,."!.. 14 CAROLINA

0 14.111 ON, 411. Il

86 50 SCRIPT PLAN FOR USE WITH TRANSPARENCIES

U. S. Map- not included in notebook. Locate Virginia; neighboringstates; directions North, South, East,and West; latitude; longitude; Appalachian Mountains; Atlantic Ocean;Chesapeake Bay; Washington, D.C.; urban corridor, Boston- New York - Philadelphia - Washington and the growth arc throughFredericksburg to Richmond and Tidewater. Transparency #1 - a) Begin in the Southwest. Note the high plateau counties of topography Buchanan, Dickenson, and Wise, thesource of 80% of Virginia's of VA coal. Since major Appalachian ridgesrun northeast to southwest, water from this area flows intothe rivers of Tennessee and West Virginia. Most of southwest Virginia isincluded in the federal redevelopmentprograms of the Tennessee Valley Authority and Appalachia.

b) The ridge and valley structure ofthe Allegheny and Blue Ridge Mountains runs from southwest Virginiato the northeast and continues into Pennsylvania. These are old mountains, eroded and cut by valleys and rivers, Indiantrails, wagon passes, then railroads and highways. Villages grew into cities where there was water and fertile land. Most of Virginia's rivers begin in these ridges andvalleys. c) Piedmont (pied=foot, mont=mountain). The clay soils of the foothills are deeply cut by fast-moving riversand streams. The piedmont industrial belt stretches from northernAlabama and Georgia to northern Virginia, sloping to flattoward the Atlantic. d) Fall line. A 40' to 70' drop in elevationoccurs between the Piedmont and Tidewater lowlands. Water power was easy to harness in these areas, and coastal navigationwas blocked. Cities grew on the fall line: Alexandria, Fredericksburg,Richmond, Petersbyg. e) Tidewater. The rivers spread out over flat land and slow down in speed. Well-drained sandy soil makes the region agriculturally important, though most of the economy has been dominatedby port activity. Military, space, and high technology industry havebecome increasingly important in urban centers of great populationgrowth. Transparency #2 - Point out the fact that most of tlia state has water nearby, and Rivers & in rest years our rainfull is sufficient1.A.s; supply us now and Drainage for t'.2 future IF we use it wisely. Some areas are in trouble Areas now and more will face serious trouble unless sensible planscan be worked out to store, share, andconserve our water resources. Watch for the problem in the news. Should someine who owns land on a river have the right to a share of the water flowing pastor onto his land (riparian right) or is water a stateresource that should be managed for the benefit of all? Transparency #3 - Identify your own area, Richmond and other cities andcounties in Cities & the news. REVIEW. Can you remember why these cities grew in Counties these locations? Transparency #4 - From what we have dire.ussed before, why wouldyou say the popu Population lation of Virginia is concentrated in theareas that show the Densities heaviest concentration on this map? 4111 (Puke here to review mountain pale&s, valleys,river., f ': line,

B -7 Script Plan - Transparencies (cont'd) 44 (cont'd) harbors, waterpower, natural resources, markets for products, transportation to markets, etc.) Add here any information you choose from the NewsLetter on Population Change. Show trends such as the following: 1) Many independent cities lost populationduring the decade. Neighboring counties gained. 2) Greatest growth took place in themetropolitan counties in an arc reaching from the Northern Virginia-D.C.area to Richmond and then to Tidewater, plus thearea around Charlottesville in Central Virginia, andan area that includes Bedford, Roanoke, and Montgomery countiesand the Lynchburg and Roanoke metropolitanareas. (Refer to the rise of the SMSA) Transparency 95 - The cities of Richmond, Petersburg, and Franklin, and the Percent ofcounties of Brunswick, Charles City, Greensville, Surry,and populationSussex had 50% or more black population in the 1980census. black Northampton and Southampton counties were almost 50% black (49.8 and 48.0). This map shows that there 're few blacks in the mountain and ridge-and-valleyareas. Some of the uneven distribution has its roots in the plantation-slavery days. Some may reflect a black preference to stay inareas where there are more blacks, in cities wherethere is more black social and professional opportunity. Can you suggest other reasons for the uneven distribution?

Virginia is the home of American Indians (9,039),Chinese (9,360), Filipinos' (19,901), and Asian Indians (8,483).These populations are concentrated in particular areas. In Northern Virginia, a third of the nonwhite population is "otherthan black," while both' Norfolk and Virginia Beach havesignificant Filipino populations. Several Virginia communities have welcomed Vietnamese refugees who will showup on the 1990 census. Transparency #6 - Use this map in many ways. Add your own information from Outline your files and from the news. Ask students to use a pointer map of and locate mountains, rivers, Piedmont, Tidewater, fallline, Virginia cities, population growth arc, yourown area, coal mine area, neighboring states. Shine the image on a piece of newsprint and mark positions/areas for a review, discussion,or quiz. Transparency #7 - Use a pointer to trace the lines around the nine economic Economic regions identified and described in the GeographyNews Letter. regions IF THE CLASS WILL BE DOING THE PLANNING DISTRICTWORKSHEET, do not describe the regions at this time. It would be helpful to show as students are assigned their districts, and again when the reports are shared with the class. IF THE CLASS WILL NOT BE DOING THE PLANNING DISTRICTWORKSHEET, this is your chance"..:o summarize the information in theNews Letter on each area.

Note: The half-sheet maps (B 5- 6) will make good student handouts to accompany the transparencies for notes,or to review class presentations by teacher or by students. Choose the um! you want, make a copy of it and paste it on a sheet with the mints or questions you want to includi. B8 COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS OF VIRGINIA ''s DISTRICT OT BIM MOUNTAIN ..stim IN\ COLUMWA.

YteNVA...".1n, RIDGE 6 VALLEY REGION

PIEDMONT REGION 4 FALL LINE + 0

TIDEWATER COASTAL PLAIN WATER 1 S 4%*

:r't4 brAino#1, tr.b,Pce I T CRHCSSCC NORTH CAROLINA

1 MAJOR RIVER BASINS WITH THEIR AVERAGE STREAMFLOWS COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

SHADED AREAS PROPORTIONAL TO AVERAGE STREAMFLOWS i" RA BASIN gUIALIAgO.MI.)

1. POTOMAC-SHENANDOAH 5,706 ICT or 40 UMBIA 2. RAPPAHANNOCK 2,848 " 061 3. YORK 2,661

4. JAMES 10,102

5. CHOWAN g DISMAL SWAMP 4,061

6. ROANOKE 6,234

7. NEW 3,070

8. TENNESSEE 8 BIG SANDY 4,140

9. SMALL COASTAL RIVERS 1,687 5P 4V 4 0

A 0°4' iS

Ny,er :FT.

416,fr.ftup.

T N NE55CC NORTH CAROLIN

Prepared by The Institute of Government. (.111 University of Virginia

1.5) Source: Virginia State Water Control Board, Bureau of Water ControlHanagement. 2 ..TIO IY010 VIRGINIA COUNTIES &

INDEPENDENT CITIES

1983

A.,1r-, .. P ei 7.1(C. ,./' ;9,, /:`,.., ..--...- N''''\. ,.....;..; ,...... ,;... .")).. ,''t:...."..) :-.- \t-. ti 1 "':7- I ..44,.L Ii-.1`-,,4,,-./ 71,2. .,.... , r. ,, i_F ) N..iN G.... 1 r.f."-,:k?;-*.:.-/\...61...2*. ./ -. ( .1:1k.,\.,..- .,...... r...... -- i , le....." ft IPM.11,1 .."..",...../ %,""Ile..... 01.:),... TIMM ..,.. i ..1. \ ,--...--l - 61111111111,./is..1 ., r4 .. . /...... %...... --___.. . . A ..,..--- /--. i /. I. r \ ../- \i ...1(1 , .02...... -4c..1Manta1 6 1._ 017...... /: A i...... 1- N.. - IMO Am 1 OD 4OP --L. .M.11 j j= . i ..L -L.

0.16416 M 11 Snell en Innen. ae..46

57 3 COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

POPULATION 1980

PERSONS PER SQUARE MILE I4111'11141 W1' )11A1V ,1111111111 111111141111. DISTRICTor 4111111111111111114114,11 200.0OR MORE 111111 11111171:11 o COLUMBIA 11111111111111114 Jaya. gin. 1 114111011111111 11111111. ...a 11111111111111 111111444. 1111 1 100.0 199.9 111111111111 1 11111141/11,1, M111111111111111 A"'"*" 4 ,111011111I41114411 11141111110 50.0 - 99.9 111111111141111MI rittiimisfy .N 1111mIf1111114*,,,;4%. 111111111111111' 1 .111111111.,11141411 1111111111111111(1. I i111111111(111111111 111 II 25.0 - 49.9 111111111111111111 +0 11111/11111111411 1111114111111111141111 114144 11 1111 114' r------( 0- 24.9 11111111 1111111111,11111111,11.114141 111111111111111 111,11filyi1111111011M41441444' '4 171140 1,111111iiiiii0/111011110fifile 1111111,114101 74711°1":1111114e 141411111

of 111111 1 1)11111kt. 411 II, I I 011101141111. 1 0 '1.410 41 11111111i Ply .11 ,,flf1111111i1111111111 11111611111111111W fait, ,t 11 01le4 11 4 V ir, 1)111111111111111111111111)14111111111111411 A...moos 111111111411111111 4.1/114411111111,111111411111111114111 s 111111144111111 11144I, I it 44441111111111;:111414111$11111111111111111 14111,11111111111111111111111i.. $111' , 0111 111. 91111111111111111,11114111114111114411116 1 111111.11 .o11111111111111111111 s1111111111;11111111141 111114111114i 11111111t111111111111111111111111111111111111111 1111111111111.,Vin::.. 111111111111111111111 111111 1111111111111 "40 'if 111111111141114111/111 111111, 1111111111141 11111111111411111111. 11i11111111!Illt 1/1Aff /1 .111011441 111111111;11111111111 #111/ 19)t" .W1111'1111 TENNESSEE .111.11,1.11,9111 NORTH CAROLINA

.....01001v Prepared by The Institute of Government Source: Census Data and Tayloe Murphy Institute. University of Virginia 5 COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

PERCENT OF POPULATION BLACK- 1980 kii:') 1-..."":*1111111.11 IIIIII fi-1,....,,.::iiipI---,t-z-: DISTRICTor 4 11111111 COLUMPIA 50.0% OR MORE 1.1.0IIII II I vim III I I I r I I I I I I I I II M 11111413111111 30,0 - 49.9% IIIIIIIP' '1111111 ,1A111410111$ 20.0 - 29.9% 4 11111114111' 'em41 , :II!' go. + 10.0 - 19.9% 1111111.411144 0 1111 4:111.(1 14:1 a 141 0 S 1. 5.0 9.9% J*1111111.

U. 1 _1 0.0 - 4.9% I 1 I I I:I:I:1111k .÷% I IIIIIIIII'M'yk .1:45 III I 11111111111 er 11II!

-I( ISL. .24,4111141`t., 11114 V 4 7 4 f0., ..:. .4.24. IMW:4 O IMMOMMIO OIM ""...... : . IHIMMOMIMIMIMI 1. ..!0,4..2.0,44:.V.4.921. IMIMIMIMIMIMIMIN, 1r... IIIIIIIMIIIIIIIIMMIMIlt Midi C mom st.I.!..,:iev I 0611,10111111111111111110 'toti,'45,.. (II IIIIIIII01141.'"IIIIIIIIII 1 IlltIll 11111( .1"I If $ 011111.11111111w smo 1 4P 11W4:7 :Ar n." I ..X. ,.2-P,.. it '$1'11111014141; *of

',,,pli'1M,Pli IP, t inll ( stir T4'..**. i T ENNESS NORTH CAROLINA

011.1.41. Prepared by The Institute of Government Source: Census Data and Tayloe Murphy Institute. University of Virginia. 6A 5 OUTLINE MAP OF

VIRGINIA

Cis 6 VIRGINIA ECONOMIC REGIONS NORTHERN VIRGINIA

From University of VirginiaNews Letter, July 1981. NORTHERN PIEDMONT 1,11111111.

NORTHERN VALLEY RICHMOND

44444 tuna ,\. CHESAPEAKE FRINGE .7/116

OD II

Ht.14444 fg 444444 4. .14111Me% IMair 011.511 **. e efienlo UHtd. 11111111WW0 111 Ilt 44 / /I ol I te X. 13 I.' t I I N. 'XL I. s t I\ ...,ri=-*". fa Sr' .. .I 44444 UPI'S C &t=ig1716.

SOUTHERN PIEDMONT-VALLEY SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA INDUSTRIAL ZONE FOUTHSIDE TIDEWATER

65 7 1

I COMMONWEALTII OF VIRGINIA - 4 i.)- DEPARTMENT OF IIIGIINVAYS ( ANIY TRANSI'()IITATIC)N ii...moo..1., 1.1 TRAFI le AN I/ SAFETY DIVISION f'...5 jarWk.40, ...... ,>..?....RA 60IIPITT SEATS AND INDEPENDENT CITIES . . I...... '.....4--- NMI 4.1 ...... DISTRICT Or !...... 1; /4' -.;...... z.4.; t tf COLUMSIA pl...I... -4ua ti...... :; VER,....1400,=. CV11.144144 , .16 1. ....1....7.9t; L... 4444 0 ...Ow. WI. ''...... C.a... 141; 114114114%. 110.01:. '. 4

S1 14414411 ,,..e .. 1 ., N if: . 1- aa11* , < ...7! ...,.7-....1. -.....,...... :".:.....1 + ...1.:4..0. .. ..- . o r. . i :0.,....-41"d...7 .4.. 44!1101.".4.(..., etro. / 1 A. .. t ,0.,' , ,,,.4 ',.`%.1.M 0. .... i ` ...... ke... ..""...,1.....).. 10. ,,.,) ...... l; ,1:1141 0%* lt....V. t. ..., % 1 . It,_1 % 1 ..%. 4%1' WImn, c".':AaPi 1.'....'.." !1*. S( .;.4.'sr.r.,"74 .1 ;..* 1;... 0 mat.. ..I. a . ,. ) ....,0 drj,,, 4..,..t A ,: r'.. \ IV 44 '.....''S ."'"-.. I ...ff., `V " ' ff'frfl,V 4,,,,t.4,.,(A., Di ,,...... 4..""".11)....ftg,.,a..2/'...... 4. "."7.".. .."..44 #>:\I ...... 0 ,/...... 17.....".77:...*..."4.11-:::;:":1;s..1\ .".11%...." ...... pi..., .0mi ...... t...... a...... ; _,Lo ; 0, .. go.".1:.:. 011 ,0..."4..01 :M..... ""'1711k) 7.7... .10:...... "";,(11:z7".;::::ri:111.... ;TT :.1;.....:211 i..-1:70..:".2.0:,."r...... 1i. 1 ' '1 le , ...... # . ,. ".'""". "" 1. f . -... ' ... *k ...... 1 , 4...; -,...... k-J 44'011/41°44 ".' \ Sit al..,.....t. 40,1 1 ...Mil ,.., " f 6.4..0.--...... --.. . s, .1 i . IS...) ....'cMI *I"" . .) t ..1 ...... 7: ::."4-t : ., i. 114 ..: MAL , / .1 : d''''''' '7'1: . 1., ,..- i i ...... i , '...... ". .... , .. -...... I".1...... (": L. s....,:."...... 111 . 4 04 ; 4414114 j'. 7:: ivNu ...MO/ ...... it r 40444, ,, 0\ I' ,....,,,,,,, ;ct.T..1.-1.--- kr.., , 0 el.... Y--.--:-..----2-....' ( ...... 1 i;;;--;;6_ i i ..1., a° ' 1 011=1,.. TCNNCSS CC i --.,. NORTH CAROLINA

as .1";a

67 C ,e6orma--rT-1-1o Ta M 0.11n VIRGINIA 15,s. Mir t SENATORIAL DISTRICTS I i 33 AS ESTABLISHED 1981 271' DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA 31::0 .. ,1 26,;'z'

f 4_ 4r5, 4 , te 0

40 ` 4'I ;* A:4 ...... e ..... 38 20 19 .. 7;-3./ ...... 37

TENNESSEE CAROLINA

PRIPAATO PT THE VIAORMA DEIAATMENT OF HOUSING AND COHMUNITY DEVITOIAIMT AND THE OTTAATMENT OF rtAHNINO AND BLOM APSE, 9112

t N a a ""`" 1::=1==3illOMITTA

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

1-- 33-52 SEE INSERT A 1.28, -'

VIRGINIA MARYLAND HOUSE OF DELEGATES DISTRICTS 74 AS ESTABLISHED 1982 66 -71 17

16 14 =1.100 0 N coo. < 1014' 4 1...... 14

5 76-95 SEE -INSERT 11 B TENNESSEE 20 NORTH CAROLINA IEPAAis ST TI VS1000 OSPARDWIT Of 11001840 AMD communar OtVtIOISIDIT IWO nIC Of/MTMENI Of KAMM° AND WOOST 5542

7 a TEACHING ABOUT POPULATION STATISTICS

1 - Read the Unifersity of Virginia News Letter on "Population Change in Virginia, 19;0-1980" for an overview of Virginia demography. The growth patterns have been important to the economic and political influences on g.Jvernment. 2 - From your knowledge of the makeup of each class, decide about the time and effort you will spend to help students understand and deal with the statistics of population. Do your department or course objectives include graphs, charts, and statistics? If you are inexperienced at explaining them, read them over enough times to be sure you can deal with the numbers using thesame words that are used on the handouts and the Planning District Worksheet (next activity). If you usually use different terms, change the handouts to avoid confusing your students.

The Population Statistics Lesson explains the rationalebehind the Percent of Change statistic that is usedon the population charts. It also tells how to calculate it Students with some numerical sense will be ableto grasp this material by themselves. If there is time available for more thorough study,.it should be possible for students tocalculate a row of numbers (as on B 25-28) from the three numbers reprintedfor each locality on EXCERPTS sheet (B 18): the census figure, the 1970 census figure, and the natural increase figure. They are the only ones that are documented.* The others are all manipulations.

A brief explanation might be worded this way: * - 1980 census count - a matter of record

* 1970 census count - a matter of record - Numerical change is the difference between them. If the 1970 number was smaller, the growth was positive. If the 1970 number was larger, the growth was negative and the numerical change would be expressed as a minus (i.e., -405). - Percent of change is described on the Population Statistics Lesson sheet. It is the numerical change divided by the 1970 count, since it describes the amount of change that happened to the earlier count.

* - Natural increase is a matter of record -- births minus deaths. If there were more births than deaths recorded, the number will be a positive one. If there were more deaths, the' number will be a minus. - Divide the natural increase number by the earlier (1970) count to find the percent of natural increase that occurred since then.

- Net migration is a manipulated figure. The difference between the two census counts, the numerical change, must beattributed to natural increase or to migration. Subtract the natural increase from the numerical change and the remaindermust be the result of migration. This can be a positive number ifmore moved in than moved out, or a negative number ifmore moved out than in. - The percent of net migration would be the net migration divided by the earlier (1970) censs count.

Use a few examples from the Excerpts sheet-- the calculations can be checked on the charts (B 25-28)- "Growth in Virginia." STUDENTS USE THIS SKILL ON THE PLANNING DISTRICT WORKSHEETS,THE NEXT ACTIVITY IN THIS NOTICOOK. 17 EXCERPTS FROM TAYLOE-MURPHY CHARTS ON POPULATION CHANGE IN VIRGINIA,1970 1980

Natural Natural Population Population Natural COUNTIES Increase PopulationPopulation Increase 1984 1970 PopulationPopulation Increase CITIES 1970-80 19811 1970 1910 -80 1980 1970 1970-80 Accosack 31,268 29,004 -67 Lancaster 10.129 Alexandria 101,217 10,005 Alhemarle 9.126 -158 110,927 55,783 37,780 Bedford 2,925 Lee 25,956 20,321 563 .991 6,011 -415 Allegheny 14,333 12,461 710 Loudoun 57,427 37.150 4,671 Bristol 19.042 19,651 79 k-al is 8.405 7,592 331 Louisa 17.825 14,004 654 Buena Vista 6,717 6,425 319 Amherst 29,122 26,072 1.393 Luncnberg 12,124 11.687 138 Charlottesville 39,916 38,880 1,809 I Appomattox 11.971 9.784 444 Madison Chesapeake 114,226 89,580 9,748 Arlington 152,599 174,284 10.232 8.618 292 9.012 Clifton Forge 5,046 5,501 -155 Augusta 53,732 44,220 Mathuws 7.995 7.168 -471 '2.267 Colonial Heights 16,509 15,097 811 Bath 5,860 5,192 Mecklenburg 29,444 29,426 1,018 -5 Covineton 9,063 10,060 III Bedford 34,927 25,242 Middlesex 7,719 6,295 -238 1.486 Panville 45,642 46,398 1,060 Montgomery 63,516 46,813 3.580 Bland 6,349 5,423 4,840 Botetourt '11 Nelson Emporia 5,300 III 23,270 18,193 12,204 11,702 141 74% New Kent Fairfax 19,390 22,727 1,896 Brunswick 15,632 16,172 8,781 5,300 537 558 Falls Church 9,515 10,772 443 Buchanan 37.989 32,071 Northampton 14,625 14,442 4,010 122 Franklin 7,308 6,880 318 Buckingham 11,751 10,597 Northumberland 9,828 9,239 -292 298 Nottoway Fredmricksburg 15,322 14,450 406 14,666 14,260 216 Campbell. 45.424 34.248 3,602 Galas 6,524 6,278 92 Caroline 17,904 13,925 Orange 17,827 13,792 540 889 Hampton 122,617 120,779 12,783 Carroll 27,270 23,092 Page 19,401 16,581 832 572 ilarrisonburs 19,671 14,605 442 Charles City 6,692 6,158 Patrick 17,585 15,282 706 442 Hopewell 23,397 23,471 2,006 Charlotte 12,266 12.366 Pittsylvania 66.147 58,782 360 3.671 Lexington 7,292 7,597 -44 Powhatan 13,062 7,696 486 Chesterfield 141,372 77.045 10,353 Lynchburg 66,743 64,640 1,786 Clarke 9,965 8,102 Prince Edward 16,456 14,379 563 179 Nanassas 15,438 10,758 1,993 Craig 3,948 3,524 Prince George 25,733 24,371 80 2,845 Manassas Park 6,524 6,844 862 Culpeper 22,620 18.218 Prince William 144,701 93,500 21,219 1,149 71artinsville 18,149 19,653 844 Cumberland 7,881 6,179 Pulaski 35,229 29,564 2,100 229 Newport News 144.903 138,177 17,075 Rappahannock 6,093 5,199 BB Dickenson 19.806 16,077 1,482 Norfolk 166,979 307,951 29,511 Dinviddie 22,602 21.668 Richmond 6,952 6,504 1,034 61 Norton 4.757 4,172 174 Essex 8,864 7,099 Roanoke 72,945 53,817 294 3,827 Petersburg 41,055 44,202 2,362 Fairfax 596,901 454,275 Rockbridge 17,911 16,637 468 48,845 Poquoson 8,726 5,441 338 Fauquier 35,889 26.375 Rockingham 57,038 47,890 3.434 1,776 Portsmouth 104,577 110,963 8,971 Russell 31,761 24,533 1,696 Floyd 11,563 9.775 104 Scott Radford 13,225 11,940 395 Fluvanna 10.244 7,621 25,068 24,376 810 427 Richmond 219,214 249,332 6,174 Franklin 35,740 28.163 Shenandoah 27,559 22,852 217 1,676 Smyth Roanoke 100,427 105,637 2,452 Frederick 34.150 24,107 33,366 31,349 1.588 2,357 Nalco, 23,958 21,982 781 Giles 17,810 16,741 Southampton 18,731 18,582 620 569 South Boston 7,093 6,889 95 Spotsylvania 34,435 16,424 2,657 Clou ester 20,107 14,059 737 Staunton 21.857 24,504 303 Goocaland 11.761 10,069 Stafford 40.470 24,587 3,580 590 Suffolk 47.621 45,024 2,373 Grayson 16,579 15,439 Sorry 6,046 5,662 284 241 Virginia Beach 262,199 25,324 Greene 7,625 Sussex 172,106 5,248 477 10,874 11.464 418 Tazewell Waynesboro 15,329 16,707 896 Greeneville 10.903 9,604 50,511 39,816 3,350 798 Williamsburg 9,870 c,069 243 Warren 21,200 15,301 748 Winchester 20,217 19,429 50 Halifax 30.418 30,076 1,359 Hanover 50,398 37.479 Washington 46,487 36,033 2,408 1,993 TOTAL CLUES 2,020,106 1,976,817 144,828 ilenrico 180.735 154.463 Westmoreland 14,041 12,142 227 Henry 10,083 Wise 57,654 50,901 41,86) 35,947 1,141, 4,444 Wythe Highland 2.937 2,529 25.522 22,119 818 -21 York 35,461 27,762 1,790 Isle of Wight 21,603 18,285 1,313 Ja-en Ctty 22,753 17,853 1,717 T00, L COVNI1E1 3,326,17i Ving and Queen 5,958 2,674.611 :111,8 15 5,491 207 Ylng Cnrwe 10,5.1 8,019 711 F;ng 1,32: 7.497 316

7r POPULATION STATISTICS LESSON POPULATION = the number of people ina particular area. Count them! Then, count them ten years later, as the government does inthe census, and fir you'll probably come up witha different number. Subtract one total from the other and you'll have the difference,or numerical change. NUMERICAL CHANGE = the difference between officialcounts at different times. Since population over the world is generallyincreasing, the numerical change usually will bean increase or a plus (+). When the second count shows fewer people, the change will bea decrease or a minus (-). Many cities have decreased populations today.(Richmond's 1970-1980 numerical change was -30,118.)

THE IMPACT OF POPULATION CHANGE

Example A - Suppose a city had 100,000 cone hundredthousand) people in 1970. By 1980, it had grown to 105,000 (one hundred five thousand)people -- some apartments were added in one part of town. Life in the immediate area was changed (7.he small buildings are gone and tallone now block the view), but the city absorbed the increase without tremendous upheavalin traffic, trash pickups, police and fire protection, though they didhave to adjust a school district line. The urban services were already in place. The added tax revenue might have been even more than the increased cost of services.

Example B - Suppose a rural area alloweda suburban developer to build many housing units that increased population by 5,000. They grew &La 500 people in 1970 to 5,500 in 1980. The original 500 people needed and expected minimum government services. They took care of their own trash and didn'twant streetlights. This new crowd can't bury their trash in theirflower gardens. They need water mains, police and fire protection. The county needs a new school for their children. The Board of Supervisors is no longer worrying onlyabout broken cattle fences-- it is being asked to spend money for "city" services. This kind of :lvelopment, sometimeseven larger and more dramatic, has happened in Virginia many times. Military bases, theme parks, Dulles Airport,the town of Reston -- all were built rapidly in ruralareas. Has anything like this happened near you?

WHAT WOULD BE THE EFFECT OF 5,000 PEOPLE LEAVINGTHE CITY (Example A)? WHAT WOULD BE THE EFFECT OF 5,000 PEOPLE LEAVINGTHE COUNTY (Example B)? These two examples show thata numerical change of 5,000 people can have a very different impact on different areas. We need a way to express the change that describes the real impact of the change. One way is using percent of change, also called rat,: of change.

PERCENT OF CHANGE = a number that tells howgreat the change is on what was there before. In Example A (above):

Increase 5,000 .05 = 5% - NOT a great change, First Count 100,000 100,000)5,000.00 particularly for a 5,000.00 good-sized city. In Example B (daove):

Increase 5,000 = 10.00 = 1000% - a VERY great change First Count 500 500)5,000.00 for any area. Percent of change is a convenient way to express the impact of change. A high percent of population change probably means a great change in the way of lifein an area--and a change in the government.

B 19 Population Statistics (cont'd) Now, let's try an example from the charts: Nurarricul Percent Nil lira Percent Population rupuld L ton Cla.ingt Ilk N. nilI ei :114 rat ion Nam: '...t MIgr It lull 19711 1970-no 1774 -HI, p1/11-101 1,1111-r4 1W7 -h0 Mecklenburg 29,444 29,426 18 .1 1,018 3.5 -1,001 -3.4 Read: Mecklenburg's population in 1980 was 29,444. In 1-70 itwas 29,426, making the numerical change 18 people and the percent of change .1% (one-tenth ofone percent). There was a natural increase of 1,018 more births than deaths (3.5%) and a -1,001 (-3.4%) net migration, meaning that a thousandmore people left the county than moved in. Why did they leave? Were they elderly people going elsewhere to retire?Were they young people seeking opportunities?Were they people who could not find jobs? Did some leave for each of these reasons? During ten years when almost every co' :nty in Virginia gained population, why did 3 counties lose population and a few more stay almost the same? What questions would you ask? :41mrie.a Vrron Natural P.rvolt NO Polmlat km ropulat lot. Pert Olt Chalme aumw In. rea Nat und hiereaw Mhtral 1.44 get mi;rnt 1.11 'Low 19$11 19711 070-.0 19711410 1470-80 I 9/11-hn I 9711-,so I Wil-na Sputsylvania 34,435 16,424 18,011 2,657 16.2 15,354 93.5 Can you calculate the percent of this change? These figures show that the population doubled. Some of the increase is documented in the birthand death statistics, but most of it must be due to migration, peoplemoving into Spotsylvania-- one of the :ounties in the metropolitan growth arc thatcurves south and east from Washington, D. C. to Richmond andon to the Tidewater ports. The statistics tell us that there must be many new homes, young families,new schools, and expanded government to take care of the increased population. Actually, 25 of Virginia's 95 counties have more population than Spotsylvania,though it is one of the fastest growing counties in the Commonwealth. Look downthe list on the EXCERPTS chart (B 18) and find some other interesting examples.Calculate their net migration and the percentages of change, natural increase,and net migration.

OTHER IMPORTANT STATISTICAL CATEGORIES SMSA = Standard Metropolitan Statistical Area As the city grows, land becomes too expensive for single-familyhomes, and highrise apartments and office buildings take their place. People move into the open land and developments around the city, and thecounty land becomes suburban, the bedroom for the city. Then industries, unable to find land for expansion, also move to the county, and all the area's relationships change.The Bureau of the Census has created a new category of data that accommodatesthe interdependence of cities and their surroundingareas. The population and economic statisticsare grouped in Standard Metropolitan StatisticalAreas, or SMSAs that includea central city or cities and the surrounding/supportingcounties. Virginia has ten SMSAs that include thirteen major cities and about 70% of the state'spopulation. Can you identify them? (Hint: three of them extendacross Virginia's borders.) RPD = Regional Planning District The entire state is divided into Regional PlanningDistricts -- 22 of them, each with a policy commission and a staff of plannersto help the cities, towns, and counties in its district coordinate capital improvements,programs, and services; to avoid duplicatic.1, and to encourage sharing andeconomies of scale. Since most natural and htman resource problems do notstop at local government borders, programs that are funded by state and 'aderal grantsare coordinated by the RPD commission. Which planning district includes this community? What other cities and counties are part of it?Where is the office located? What specific programs does it oversee? coordinate? assist? . . Note: If you like to look for questions behind numbers, ask atyour library to sPe Statistical Abstracts, published annually by the Department of Labor. Look up Virginia in all those lists, and share the information with your class. It is fascinating to see how we rank in different categories of information.

B 20 VIRGINIA PLANNING DISTRICTS

1. LENOWISCO 8. Northern Virginia 15. Richmond Regional Norton City Alexandria City IlichmondC I ty Lee County Fairfax ^ity Charism CI ty County Scott County Falls Church City Clu ',Our f told Count,. Wise County Manassas City Gooch land County Manassas Park City lianovor Court ty 2. Cumhorland Plaloau Arlington County ilanr Ice County Fairfax County Now Kunt County Buchanan County Loudoun County Powha tnn County Dickenson County Prince blillam Comity Russell County lo. RAMO Tazewell County 9. Rappahannock-HapIdan frowtor I ck Muir() C 1 ty 3. Mount Rogers Culpopor County Caroline County Fauquler County K I ng George County Bristol City Madison County Spot sy I van I a County Galax City Orange County Stafford County Bland Couaty Rappahannock County Carroll County 17. Northern Nock Grayson County 10. Thomas Jefferson Smyth County Lancaster County Washington county Charlottesville City Northumberland County Wythe County Albemarle County Richmond County Fluvanna County Wustmoroland County 4. New River Valley Growl° County Louisa County 18. Middle Peninsula Radford City Nelson County Floyd County Essex CouLty Giles County 11. Central Virginia Gloucester County Montgomery County King and ()linen Count Pulaski County Bedford City King WilliamCounty Lynchburg City Mathews County 5. Fifth ----- Amherst County Middlosnx County Appomattox County Clifton Forge City Bedford County 19. Crator Covington City Campbell County Roanoke City Colonial Hnights City Salem City 12. Most P;;Amont Emporia City Alieghany County linpownli City Botetourt County Danville City Potorshurg City Craig County Martinsville City Dinwiddie County Roanoke County Franklin County Groonsvi I leCounty Henry County Prince George County 6. Central Shenandoah Patrick County Surry County PIttsylvania County Sussex County Buena Vista City Harrisonburg City 13. Southsldo 20. Southeastern Virginia Lexington City Staunton City South Boston City Chosapnako City Waynesboro City Brunswick County ranklln City Augusta County Halifax County Norfolk City Bath County Mocklenhurg County Portsmouth City Highland County Suffolk City RockbrIdge County 14. Piedmont Virginia Beach City Rockingham County Isle of Wight County Amelia County Southampton County 7. Lord Fairfax Buckingham County Charlotte County 21. Peninsula Winchester City Cumberland County Clarke County Lunonburg County Hampton City Frederick County Nottoway County Newport News City Page County Prince Edward County Poguoson City Shenandoah County Williamsburg City warren County Jam,. City County York County

27. Accomack-Northampton

Acznmock County 0 Northampton County

B 21 STANDARD METROPOLITAN STATISTICAL AREAS OF V12GINIA

Charlottesville Petersburg-Colonial Heights-Honeell Charlottesville City Colonial Heights City Albemarle County Hopewell City Fluvanna County Petersburg City Greene County Dinwiddie County Prince George County Danville Danville City Richmond Pittsylvania County Richmond City Charles City County Johnson City-Kinnsnort-Bristol, Chesterfield County Tenn.-Va. Goochland County Virginia oortion: Hanover County Bristol City Ilenrico County Scott County New Kent County Washington County Powhatan County Tennessee portion: Roanoke Carter County Roanoke City Hawkins County Salem City Sullivan County Botetourt County Unicol County Craig County Washington County Roanoke County

Lynchburg Washington D.C.-Md.-Va. Lynchburg City Virginia portion: Amherst County Appomattox County Alexandria City Campbell Munty Fairfax City Falls Church City Newport News-Hamnton Manassas City Hampton City Manassas Park City Newport News City Arlington County Poquoson City Fairfax County Williamsburn City Loudoun County Gloucester County Prince William County James City County York County District of Columbia portion: District of Columbia Norfolk-Virginia Bean-Portsmouth, Va.-N.C. Maryland portion: Virginia portion: Charles County Chesapeake City Oontnomery County Norfolk City Prince George's County Portsmouth City Suffolk City North Carolina portion: Currituck County

22 UNIVERSITY OF VIRGIMA THE COLGATE DARDEN GRADUATE SCHOOLOF BUSINESS ADMINISTRATION Tay loe Murphy Institute

1980 Census AnalysisSeries, Volume 'I

Growth inVirginia

Between 1970 and 1980 thestate of Virginia gained a total change of 14.9 percent. 694,831 persons, for Growth in the SouthAtlantic Division, of which Virginia is a part, was 20.4 percent.Within this division the highest growth rate, 43.4 Florida had percent, followed by SouthCaroli.la with 20.4 percent, Georgia with 19.1percent, North Carolina with 15.5 Virginia with 11.8 percent, Delaware percent; West with 8.6 percent, andMaryland with 7.5 percent, while the District of Columbia, alsopart of this division, lost 15.7 percent of its population. Between 1970 and 1980, then,the heaviest concentration of population growth 4n this divisionwas in Florida, where the rate of growth was more than double that ofany other South Atlantic state.

In general there are two mechanismsof population change, increase and net migration.. natural Natural increase is definedas the difference between the number of births and the number of deaths;net migration is defined as the numbei of people who moved intoan area minus the number of people who moved out. Natural increase will bepositive if births exceeded deaths during a given period of time and negative ifmore deaths than births occur-ed. Similarly, net migration will be positiveif more people moved into an area than out, and negative if the reverse is true. Population growth may therefore result from either positive natural increaseor positive net migration or both.

Between 1970 and 1980 population growth in Virginiaresulted from both positive natural increase and positive net migration. Of the total population change duringthe decade, we estimate that resulted in a gain of 346,663 natural increase persons, or 49.9 percent of the total This is in marked contrast to the increase. 1960-70 decade, duringwhich natural increase accounted for 78.2 percent of the total growth,while net migration accounted for 21.8 percent. During the past decade, tended to gain population, counties as a group while cities tended tolose. overall trend were the Exceptions to this counties of Charlotte, Brunswick,and Sussex, which lost population during the decade, and several cities,most notably Harrisonburg, Manassas, Poquoson, and VirginiaBeach. Each of these four rates of over 30 percent. cities had growth However, all StandardMetropolitan Statistical Areas, each of which includes one or more independent citiesas well as onp or more counties, gained population at rates ranging from 0.4percent in th Petersburg-Co:onial Heights SMSAto 26.9percent in the newly created Charlottesville SMSA.

Five areas in Virginia experienced particularly high population during the 1970-80 decade. growth The first of these is NorthernVirginia, where

B 23 Growth in Virginia (cont'd)

Louaoun, Prince William, Stafford, and Spotsylvaniacounties had growth rates of over 50.0 percent. Included in this area are alsoFrederick, Warren, and Fauquier counties, whichgrew by over a third. At its. southernmost point this growth area touches thesecond high groAh area, that surrounding Richmond City. Although the city itself lost populationand the suburban counties of Henrico and CharlesCity grew only moderately, Hanoverand New Kent counties to the north and Powhatan and Chesterfieldcounties to the south of Richmond had growthrates of over 33.3 percent. This area in turn is linked to the tnird and smallergrowth area of Gloucester and James City counties to the east.

A fourth area of the state in whichconsiderable population growth occurred was in central Virginia,including the counties of Greene, Albemarle, and Fluvanna, where growth in each exceeded 33.3 percent. With Fluvanna Cuunty as its easternmost segment, thisgroup of counties comae very cloca to linkage with the Richmond SMSA growthareas. In the fifth area, however, no such linkage with nearby counties isapparent.This area includes the contiguous counties of Bedford, Roanoke,and Montgomery, all of whichgrew by over a third in contrast to the surrounding counties. Finally, although it does not constitute a separatearea, the city of Virginia Beach had an extremely high growth rate of 52.3percent while the adjoining cities of Norfolk and Portsmouth both lost populitionand Chesapeake gained only moderately.

In contrast to these high growthareas were the more moderate gains experienced in other major areas ofthe state The counties of Southwest Virginia, for example, grew from 16.8to 33.3 percent, as did a group of Shenandoah Valley counties and anothergroap lying between the high growth areas of Northern Virginia and the centralVirginia Albemarle-Greene- Fluvanna complex. Even lower rates of growth took placein a strip of western counties including Highland, Bath,Alleghany, Craig, and Giles, in a nurber of south central counties, and inthenortheastern counties of Westmoreland, Northumberland, Richmond,Lancaster, Accomack, and Northampton. In addition, population loss among independent cities included some suchas Fairfax City, Falls Church, andAlexandria, which are in ornear high growth areas, as well as others such as Covington,Clifton Forge, Martinsville, and Danville, located invery slowly growing areas.

B 24 Table 1.Tayloe MurphyInstitute Population Change in VirginiaLocalities, 1970-19801

Numerical Percent Natural Percent Net Percent Population Population Change Change Name 1980 Ir,.7.;:esse Natural Increase Migration Net Wirintlon 1970 1970-80 1970-80 1170-80 1976-80 1970-80 1970-80 011 Counties

Accomack 31,268 29,004 2,264 7.8 Albemarle -67 -.2 2,331 8.0 55,783 37,780 18,003 47.7 Alleghany 2,923 7.7 45,078 14,333 12,461 1,872 39.9 15.0 710 5.7 Amelia 8,405 7,592 1,162 9.3 813 10.7 331 Amherst 29,122 4.4 483 6.4 26,072 3,050 11.7 1,393 5.3 1,657 6.4 Appomattox 11,971 9,784 2,187 22.4 444 Arlington 152,399 4.3 1,743 17.8 174,284 -21.685 -12.4 9,012 Augusta 53,732 5.2 -30,697 -17.6 44,220 9,512 21.5 Bath 2,267 5.1 7,245 16.4 5,860 5,192 668 12.9 Bedford -S -.1 673 34,927 25,24' 9,685 13.0 38.4 1,486 5.9 8,199 . 32.3 Bland 6,349 5,423 926 17.1 111 Botetourt 23,270 2.0 815 15.4 18,193 5,077 27.9 742 Brunswick 15,632 4.: 4,336 23.8 16,172 -340 -3.3 558 Buchanan 37,989 3.4 -1,098 -6.8 32,071 5,918 18.5 4,010 Buckingham 11,731 12.5 1,908 3.9 10.597 1,154 10.9 298 2.8 856 8.1 Campbell 45,424 14,248 11,176 32.6 3,602 10.5 Caroline 17,904 13,925 7,575 22.1 3,979 28.6 889 6.4 Carroll 27,270 3,090 22.2 23,092 4,178 18.1 832 Charles City 6,692 3.6 3,346 14.5 6,158 514 8.7 442 Charlotte 12,266 7.2 92 1.5 12,366 -100 -.8 360 2.9 -460 -3.7 Chesterfield 141,372 77,045 64,327 83.5 10,353 13.4 Clarke 9,965 8,102 53,974 76.1 1,863 23.0 179 2.2 Craig 3,948 1,684 20.8 3,524 424 12.0 80 Culpeper 22,620 2.3 344 9.8 18,218 4,402 24.2 1,149 Cumberland 7,881 6.3 7,233 17.9 6,179 1,702 27.5 229 3.7 1,474 23.8 Dickenson 19,806 16,077 3,729 23.2 '1,482 9.2 Dinviddie 22,602 21,668 2,248 14.0 934 4.3 1,034 4.8 Essex 8,864 7,099 -100 -.3 1,763 24.9 294 Fairfax 596,901 454,275 4.1 1,471 20.7 142,626 31.4 48,845 Fauquier 35,889 10.8 93,781 20.6 26,375 9,514 36,1 1,776 6.7 7,737 29.3 Floyd 11,563 9,773 1,788 18.3 104 1.1 Fluvenna 10,244 7,621 1,684 17.2 2,623 34.4 427 5.6 Franklin 33,740 28,163 2,196 28.8 7,377 26.9 1,676 6.0 Frederick 34,150 5,901 21.0 24,107 10,043 41.7 2,357 Giles 17,810 9.8 7,686 31.9 16,741 1,069 6.4 369 3.4 503 3.0 Gloucester 20,107 14,039 6,048 43.0 737 5.2 Coochland 11,761 10,069 5,311 37.8 1,692 16.8 390 3.9 Grayson x16,579 13,439 1,102 10.9 1,140 7.4 284 1.8 Greene 7,625 837 5.5 5,248 2,377 43.3 477 Greensville 10,903 9.1 1,900 36.2 9,604 1,299 13.5 798 8.3 501 5.2 Halifax 30,418 30,076 342 1.1 1,359 4.5 Hanover 50,398 37,479 -1,017 -3.4 12,919 34.5 2,408 6.4 Henrico 180,733 134,463 10,511 28.0 26,272 17.0 10,08 6.5 Henry 37,654 50,901 16,190 10.3 6,753 13.3 4,444 8.7 Highland 2,937 2,309 4.3 2,529 408 16.1 -21 -.8 429 16.9 Isle of Wight 21,603 18,285 3,318 18.1 1,313 James City 7.2 2,003 11.0 22,763 17,833 4,910 27.5 King and Queen 1,717 9.6 3,193 17.9 5,968 5,491 477 8.7 King George 207 3.8 270 4.9 10,543 8,039 2,304 31.1 King William 713 8.9 1,791 22.3 9,327 7,497 1,830 24.4 316 4.2 1.514 20.2 Lancaster 10,129 9,126 1,003 Lee 11.0 -138 -1.7 1,161 12.7 23,956 20,321 5,635 27.7 Loudoun 363 2.8 5,072 25.0 57,427 37,150 20,277 34.6 4,671 12.6 15,606 Louisa 17,825 14,004 42.0 3,821 27.3 654 4.7 Lunenburg 12,124 3,167 22.6 11,687 437 3.7 138 1.2 299 2.6

B 25 Table 1. (continued) -1=11=1111=O o Numerical Percent Natural Population Percent Net Percent Population Change Change Iv:reale Name 1940 Natural Increase Migration Net Migration 1970 1970 -80 1970-80 1970-80 .-1 1970-80 1970-80 1970-80 AMMO Madison 10.232 8.638 1,594 Mathews 18.5 292 3.4 7,995 7.168 827 1,302 15.1 Mecklenburg 11.5 -471 -6.6 29,444 29.426 18 1,298 18.1 .1 1,018 3.5 Middlesex 7,719 6,295 -1,001 -3.4 1,424 22.6 -238 Montgomery 63,516 -3.8 1,662 46,813 16&703 35.7 3,580 26.4 7.6 13.123 28.0 Nelson 12,204 11,702 502 4.3 141 New Kant 8,781 1.2 361 -.300 3,481 65.7 3.1 Northampton 537 10.1 14,625 14,442 2,944 55.6 183 1.3 122 Northumberland 9,828 .8 61 .4 9,239 589 6.4 -292 Nottoway 14,666 -3.2 881 9.5 14,260 406 2.4 216 1.5 190 1.3 Orange 17,827 13,792 4.035 Page 29.3 540 3.9 19,401 16,581 2,820 3,495 25.3 Patrick 17.0 572 3.4 17,585 15,282 2,303 2,248 13.6 15.1 706 4.6 rittsylvania 66,147 58,782 1,597 10.5 7,365 12.5 3.671 Powhacan 13,062 6.2 3,694 (.3 7,696 5,366 69.7 486 6.3 4,881 63.4 Prince Edward 16.456 14,379 2,077 14.4 563 Prince Ceorge 25,733 24,371 3.9 1,514 10.5 1,362 i.6 2,845 Prinze William 144,703 11.7 -1.483 93,500 51.203 54.8 -6.1 Pulaski 21.219 22.7 35,229 29,564 5,665 29,984 32.1 Rappahannock 19.2 2,100 7.1 6,093 5,199 894 3,565 12.1 17.2 88 1.7 807 15.5 Richmond 6,952 6,504 448 6.9 61 .9 Roanoka 72,945 53,817 387 6.0 19,128 35.5 3,827 Rockbridge 17,911 7.1 15,301 28.4 16,437 1,274 7.7 468 Rockinghan 57,038 47,890 2.8 801. 4,8 9,148 19.1 3,434 Russell 31,761 7.2 5,714 11.9 24,533 7,228 29.5 1,696 6.9 5.532 22.5 Scott 25,068 24,376 692 2.8 810 Shenandoah 27,559 3.3 -118 22,852 4,707 20.6 -.5 Smyth 217 .9 4,490 33,366 31,349 2,017 6.4 19.6 Southampton 1.588 5.1 429 18,731 111,582 149 1.4 .8 620 3.3 Spotsylvan: 34,435 16,424 -471 -2.5 18,011 109.7 2,657 16.2 15,354 93.5 Stafford 40,470 24,587 15,683 64.6 3,880 14.6 Sorry 6,046 5,882 12,304 50.0 144 2.8 243 Summit 4.1 -79 10,874 11,464 -590 -5.1 -1.3 r.izewel1 418 3.6 50,511 39,816 10,695 -1,008 -8.8 Warren 26.9 3,350 8.4 21,200 15,301 7,345 18.4 5,899 38.6 748 4.9 5,151 33.7 Washington 46,487 36,033 10,454 29.0 1,993 5.5 Westmoreland 14,041 12,142 8,462 23.5 l,899 15.6 227 Wise 43,863 1.9 1,672 35,947 7,916 22.0 13.8 Wyche 3.346 9.3 4,570 25,522 22,139 3,383 12.7 15.3 898 4.1 York 35,463 27,762 2,485 11.2 7,701 27.7 1.780 6.4 5.920 21.3 TOTAL COUNTIES 3026,173 2,674,631 651,542 24.4 201,835 7.5 449,707 16.8

B 26 Table 1. (continued)

-70111,111111111. Numerical Population Percent Natural Name Populs ion Change Percent Net 1980 Change Increase Percent 1970 1970-80 Natural increase 1970-80 Migration Net Mi3rxtion 1970-80 1970-80 1970-80 1970-80 Cities

Alexandria 103,217 Bedford 110,927 -7,710 5,991 -7.0 10,005 Bristol 6,011 -20 9.0 19,042 -.3 -415 -17,715 -16.0 Buena Vi.ta 19,659 -617 -6.9 6,717 -3.1 395 6.6 6,425 79 .4 Charlottesville 292 t.5 -696 39,916 38,880 319 5.0 -3.5 1,036 2.7 -27 1,809 4.7 -.4 Chem/Teske 114,226 -773 -2.0 89,580 24,646 Clifton Forge 5,046 27.5 9,748 5,501 -455 10.9 Colonial Heights 16,509 -8.3 -155 14,898 16.6 15,097 1,412 -2.8 Covington 9,063 9.4 813 -300 -5.5 Danville 10,060 -997 5.4 599 45,642 -9.9 111 4.0 46,398 -756 1.1 -1.6 1,060 -1.108 -11.0 Emporia 2.3 4,840 -1,816 -3.9 Fairfax 5,300 -460 19,390 -8.7 111 Falls Church 22,727 -3,337 2.1 9,515 -14.7 1,896 -571 -10.8 Franklin 10,772 -1,257 8.3 7,308 -11.7 443 -5,233 -23.0 6,280 428 4.1 Fredericksburg 15,322 6.2 318 -1,700 -15.8 14,450 872 4.6 6.0 406 111 1.6 Galax 2.8 466 6,524 3.2 Hampton 6,278 246 122,617 3.9 92 Harrisonburg 120,779 1,873 1.5 19,671 1.5 12,783 154 2.4 Hopewell 14,605 5,066 10.6 23,397 34.7 442 -10,945 -9.1 Lexington 23,471 .74 3.0 4,624 7,292 -.3 2,006 31.7 7,597 -305 8.5 -4.0 -44 -2,080 -8.9 -Lynchburg -.6 66,1-.3 -261 -3.4 Ma 64,640 2,103 3.3 15,438 10,758 1,786 Manassas Park 4,68U 2.8 317 6,524 43.5 1,993 .5 6,844 -320 18.5 Martinsville 18,149 -4.7 862 2,688 25.0 Newport Hewn 19,;)53 ,504 12.6 144,903 -7.7 844 -1,182 -17.3 138,177 6,726 4.3 4.9 17,075 -2,348 -11.9 Norfolk 12.4 - 10,349 266,979 307,951 -7.5 Norton -40,972 -13.3 4,757 4,172 29,511 9.6 Petersburg 585 14.0 -70,483 41,055 44,202 174 -22.9 Poquoson -3,147 4.2 411 8,726 -7.1 2,362 9.9 Portsmouth 5,441 3,285 5.3 104,577 60.4 338 -5,509 -12.5 110,963 -6,386 6.2 -5.8 8,971 2,947 54.2 Radford 8.1 13,225 -15,356 -13.8 Richmond 11,940 1,285 219,214 10.8 395 Roanoke 249,332 -30,118 3.3 100,427 -12.1 6,174 890 7.5 Salem 105,637 -5,710 2.5 23,m58 - 4.9 2,452 -36,293 -14.6 South Boston 21,982 1,976 2.3 7,093 9.0 781 4,662 -7.3 6,889 204 3.6 3.0 95 1,195 5.4 Staunton 1.4 21,057 109 1.6 Suffolk 24,5,74 -2,647 47,621 -10.8 '03 Virginia Beach 45,024 2,597 1.2 262,199 5.8 2 /3 -2,950 -12.0 Waynesboro 172,106 90,093 5.3 15,329 52.3 25,324 224 .5 16,707 -1,378 14.7 Williamsburg 9,870 -8.2 896 64,770 37.6 Winchester 9,069 801 5.4 20,217 8.8 243 -2,274 -13.G 19,429 788 2.7 4.1 50 558 6.7 TOTAL CITIES .3 739 2,020,106 1,976,817 3.8 43,289 2.2 144,828 7.3 -101,539 -5.1

8 27 Table 1. (continued)

Numerical Percent Natural Population Percent Net Percent Population Change Change Increase Hams 1980 Natural Increase Migration Net Migration 1970 1970-80 1970-80 1970-80 1970-80 1970-80 1970-80

PDC 1 99,644 84,816 14,828 17.5 4,893 5.8 PUC 2 140,067 112,497 9,936 11.7 27,570 24.5 10,538 9.4 PDC 3 181,139 159,412 17,033 15.1 21,727 13.6 5,876 PDC 4 141,343 3.7 15,851 9.9 114,833 26,510 23.1 6,749 PDC 5 252,990 5.9 19,761 17.2 231,175 21,815 9.4 8,548 PDC 6 208,344 3.7 13,268 3.7 186,306 22,038 11.8 8.059 PDC 7 132,492 4.3 13,979 106,372, 26,120 24.6 4,121 PDC 8 1,105.714 3.9 21,999 20.7 921,237 184,477 20.0 98,945 PDC 9 92,661 10.7 85,532 9.3 72,222 20.430 28,3 3,844 PDC 10 14%597 5.3 16,595 23.0 115,235 28.362 24,6 6,432 PDC 11 194,178 5.6 21,930 19.0 165,997 28.181 17.0 8,297 PDC 12 240,917 5.0 19,885 12.0 219,179 21,738 9.9 12,401 PVC 13 82,587 5.7 9,337 4.3 82,563 24 .0 PDC 14 3,022 3.7 83,549 77,060 6,489 -2,998 -3.6 8.4. 2,134 2.8 PDC 15 632,015 547,542 4,355 5.7 84,473 15.4 31,073 PDC 16 116,674 5,7 53,401 9.8 77,425 41,249 53.3 8,2(4 PVC 17 10.6 33,005 42.6 40,950 37,011 3,939 10.6 PDC 18 -162 -.4 4,101 59,980 47,609 12,371 11.1 26.0' 845 1,8. PDC 19 161,959 161,059 11,526 24.2 900 .6 10,631 PDC 20 843,244 6.6 -9,731 -6.0 769,371 73,873 9.6 78,117 PDC 21 10.2 -4,304 344,342 319,081 25,261 7.9 PDC 22 33,937 10.6 -8,676 45,893 43,446 2,447 5.6 -2.7 1.1 .1 2,393 5.5

Bristol SMSA 90,597 80,068 10,529 13.2 2,881 Chlrlottesvilla 3.6 7,649 9.6 SMSA 113,568 85,529 24,039 26.9 5,637 Danville SMSA 111,789 6.3 18,402 20.6 105,180 6,6.19 6.3 4,731 Lynchburg SMSA 153,260 4,5 1,878 1.8 134,744 18.516 13.7 7,225 5.4 11,291 8.4 Newport News SMSA 364,449 333,140 31,309 9.4 34,674 10.4 Norfolk SMSA 795,F02 725,624 -3,365 -1.0 69,518 9.6 75,927 10.5 Petersburg SMSA 129,296 128,809 -5,949 -.8 487 .4 9,061 7.0 Richmond SMSA 632,015 547,542 -8,574 -6.7 84.473 15.4 31,073 5.7 Roanoke SMSA 224,548 53,401 9.8 203,153 21.395 10.3 7,881 Northern VA SMSA 1,105,714 3.9 13,514 6.7 921,237 184.477 20.0 98,945 10.7 85,532 9.3 TOTAL METROPOLITAN 3,720,238 3,269,07K 451,812 13.8 278,034 8.5 173,778 5.3 TOTAL N0NMETROPuu:T48 1,625,441 1,382,422 243,019 17.6 6:'.629 5.0 174,390 12.6 TOTAL VIRGINIA 5,.)4:,239 4,651,448 694,831 24.9 346,663 7.5 348,168 7.5

lAll 1970 numbers in this tablaare adjusted tu. ,nnexations and boundary changes involving 1f70 nusber :e based on these adjusted figures. occurring between 1970 and 1980.All calculations

B 28 8.0 UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA THE COMM DARDEN GRADUATE SCHOOL OF BUSINESSADMINISTRATION Woe Murphy Institute

1980 Census Analysis Series, Volume1

Virginia's Black Population

Between 1970 and 1980 Virginia's black populationincreased by 143,157 persons, a 16.5 percent increase. However, while blacks constituted 18.6 . percent of the total population in 1970, in 1980this percentage had grown only to 18.9. Thus while the number of blacks hasgrown substantially, the proportion of blacks in the total populationhas not.

The black population continuesto be concentrated in the eastern half of the state, where the percentageof blacks ranges from 10.0 to over 70.0 percent:, with a great many areas having populations30.0 percent or more black. Adjacent to this area is a band of lesserconcentration, running from Clarke County in the north to HenryCounty in the south.In this belt the concentration of blacks is similarto the less concentrated areas in the eastern half, generally from 10.0to 29.9 percent. Still fewer blacks are found in northern Virginia, and west ofthe Blue Ridge are located the lowest proportions of all, under 5.0 percent.

Within these broad regions, however,some change in the distriblition of the black population has occurred duringthe past decade. In the eastern half of Ole state thoseareas which had sigh proportions of blacks iu 1970 continue to do so, but in manycases actual numbers of blacks are declining. Decline is also noticeable in countieswest of the mountains, where areas that began with a low proportion of blacksare losing still more. Meanwhile the number of blacks in northern Virginia andin the counties around Richmond is increasing; although the proportion ofblack:, are losing still more. Meanwhile other areas which have experiencedsubstantial gains in numbers are Albemarle, Montgoorry, Henry, and York counties,as well as the cities of Chesapeake and Virginia Beach. In all of these ',trees the black population has increased .by 20.0percent or more.

In the state as a whole 'he number of blacksliving in metropolitan areas has increased, but the -ctual proportion of the metropolitan population which is black has decreased. This decrease has occurred mainly in the two new SMSAs, Charlottesvilleand Danville, where the percent of the population which is black fell from 15.7to 15.0 and 30.0 to 28.8 respectively. Although the Bristol SMSA also showeda slight drop, from 2.5 to 2.3 percent, without thetwo new metropolitan areas the overall percent of metropolitan population which is blackwould have shown a slight increase' rather than a slight decrease.

B 29 Table 2. Change in the Black Populationof Virginia, 1970-19801

Black Black Numerical tweent Hams Population Percent of Percent of Difference Population Change Change 1980 Population Population in Percents 1970 1970-80 1970-80 1970 1980 1980-70

Counties

Accomack 11,401 10,839 562 5.1 Albemarle 6,183 i7.4 36.5 - .0 5,019 1,164 "23.2 Allegheny 356 13.3 11.1 -2.2 361 -5 -1.4 Amalia 3,215 2.n 2.5 - .4 3,587 -372 -10.4 47.2 Amherst 5,963 38.3 -8.9 5,554 409 7.4 21.3 20.5 - .8 Appomattox 2,778 2,426 352 14.5 Arlington 14,029 24.8 23.2 -1.6 10,076 3,953 39.2 Augusta 5.8 9.2 3.4 2,031 1,947 84 4.3 Bath 4.4 3.8 553 555 -2 - .6 Bedford -.4 10,7 9.4 3,971 4,439 -468 -10.5 -1.3 17.6 11.4 -6.2 Bland 198 135 63 46.7 Botetourt 2.5 3.1 1,124 1,485 -361 .6 Brunswick -24.3 8.2 4.8 8,972 9,410 -468 -3.4 Buchanan -5.0 58.4 21 S4 57.4 -1.0 -13 -38.2 .1 Buckingham 4,979 .1 .0 4,687 292 6.2 44.2 42.4 -1.8 Campbell 6,861 6,792 59 Carolina 1.0 19.8 15.1 7,693 7,074 619 -4.7 Carroll 8.8 50.3 94 99 43.0 -7.8 -5 -5.1 .4 Charles City 4,726 4,569 .3 - .1 157 3.4 Charlotte 4,727 74.2 70.6 -3.6 4,923 -186 -3.8 39.8 38.6 -1.2 Chesterfield 13,910 8,672 5,238 60.4 Clarks 5,144 11.3 9.8 -1.5 1,193 -49 -4.1 Craig 8 14.7 11.5 11 -3 -27.3 -3.2 Culpeper 4,653 4,376 .3 .2 - .1 271 6.3 Cuaber1and 3,393 24.0 20.6 -3.4 2,961 432 14.6 47.9 43.1 -4.8 Dickenson 94 103 -9 -8.7 .6 Dinwiddis 9,653 10,955 1,302 .5 - .1 Essex 11.9 50.6 42.7 3,543 3,198 -7.9 345 10.8 45.0 Fairfax 34,994 40.0 -5.0 15,603 18,391 110.8 FauquieV 5,635 3.7 5.9 2.2 5,858 -22S -3.8 22.2 15.7 -6.5 Floyd 384 472 -88 -18.6 Fluvanna 3,013 4.8 3.3 2,734 279 10.2 -1.5 Franklin 4,324 35.9 29.4 3,832 492 12.8 -6.5 Frederick 484 13.6 12.1 454 30 6.6 -1.5 Giles 1.9 1.4 154 379 -25 - .5 -6.6 2.3 2.0 .3 Gloucester 3,088 3,123 -35 Goochland -1.1 22.2 15.4 4,275 ,4,375 -100 -6.8 Grayson -2.3 43.5 36.3 550 579 -29 -7.2 Greene -5.0 3.8 576 563 3".3 - .5 13 2,.3 10.7 Greeneville 6,175 5,506 7.6 3.1 669 12.2 57.3 56.6 - .7 Halifax 12,119 12,052 Hanover 67 .6 40.1 6,5:9 6,718 39.8 - .3 Hendee -160 -2.4 17.9 27,096 10,106 13.0 -4.9 16,090 168.1 6.5 Henry 13,478 15.0 8.5 11,035 2,443 22.1 Highland 6 21.7 23.4 11 -5 -45.5 1.7 .4 .2 - .2 lsle of Wight .8,875 9,058 -183 Jamas City -2.0 49.5 41.1 6,439 6,226 213 -8.4 King and Queen 3.4 34.9 28.3 2,764 2,786 -21 -6.6 King George » .8 50.7 2,385 2,125 46.3 -4.4 King William 260 12.2 26.4 3,231 3,189 22.6 -3.8 64 2.0 42.5 34.9 -7.6 Lancaster 3,360 3,535 -175 -5.0 Lee 89 38.7 33.2 -5.5 97 -8 -8.2 Loudoun 5,018 .5 .3 4,648 370 8.0 - .2 Louisa 5,801 12.5 8.7 5,399 402 7.4 -3.8 Lunenburg 4,764 38.6 32.5 -6.1 5,051 -287 -5.7 43.2 39.3 -1.9

B 30 87 Table 2. (continued)

Black Black Numerical Percent Percent of Percent of Ham Population Population Difference Change Change Population Population 1980 1970 in Percents 1970-80 1970-80 1970 1980 MIN1111110, ..1MIMI1.. 1980-70

Madison 1,831 1,761 70 Msthews 4.0 20.4 1,432 1,662 17.9 -2.5 -230 -13.8 23.2 Mecklenburg 11,867' 12,404 17.9 -5.3 -537 -4.3 42.2 Middlesex 2,244 40.3 -1.9 2,331 -87 -3.7 Montgomery 1,897 37.0 2i.1 -7.9 1.416 481 34.0 3.0 3.0 .0 Nelson 2,916 3,344 -428 -12.8 New Kent 2,287 28.6 23.9 -4.7 2,332 -45 -1.9 Nort.taapton 7,289 44.0 26.0 -18.0 7,555 -266 -3.5 Northumberland 52.3 49.8 -2.5 3,306 3,607 -301 Nott. aay -8.3 39.0 33.6 -5.4 5,725 5,701 24 .4 40.0 39.0 .1.0 Orange 3,104 2,945 159 5.4 Page 499 21.4 17.4 -4.0 480 19 4.0 Patrick 2.9 2.6 - .3 1,344 1,287 57 Pittsylvania 4.4 8.4 7.6 19,983 19,523 - .8 165 .8 33.7 Powhatan 3,320 30.2 -3.5 2,7"9' 521 18.6 36.4 25.4 -11.0 Prince Edward 6,169 5,258 911 17.3 Prince George 7,481 . 36.6 37.5 .9 7,483 -2 -.0 Prince William 30.7 29.1 -1.6 11,919 5,173 6,746 Pulaski 130.4 5.5 8.2 2.7 1,867 1,794 73 Rappahannock 4.1 6.1 5.3 - .8 689 859 -170 -19.8 16.5 11.3 -5.2 Richmond 2,218 2,379 -161 Roanoke -6.8 36.6 31.9 -4.7 1,685 1,791 -106 Rockbridge -5.9 3.3 581 691 2.3 -1.0 -110 -15.9 4.2 Rockingham 788 669 3.2 -1.0 119 17.8 1.4 Russell 300 1.4 .0 297 3 1.0 1.2 .9 - .3 Scott. 15' 211 -54 Shenandoah -25.6 .9 .6 374 367 - .3 Smyth - 7 1.9 1.6 1.4 594 546 - .2 48 8.E 1.7 Southampton 8,994 1.8 .1. 10,065 -1,066 -10.6 Spotsylvania 54.2 48.0 -6.2 5,082 3,578 1,504 42.0 21.8 14.8 -7.0 Stafford 2.904 2,284 620 Surry 27.1 9.3 7.2 3,779 3.853 -2.1 Sutex -74 -1.9. 65.5 6,635 7,247 A2.5 -3.0 -612 -8.4 63.2 Tazewell 1,304 61.0 -2.2 1.194 110 9.2 Warren 1,189 3.0 2.6 - .4 933 256 27.4 6.1 5.6 - .5 Washington 793 775 23 3.0 Westmoreland 5,335 2.2 t.7 - .5 5,361 -26 -.5 44.2 Wise 38.0 -6.2 857 860 -3 Wyche -.3 2.4 2.0 910 820 - .4 90 11.0 3.7 .York 6,118 4,778 3.6 - .1 1,340 28.0 17.2 17.3 .1 TOTAL COUNTIES 439.921 380,737 39,184 15.5 14.2 13.2 -1.0 Cities

Alexandria 23,005 16,082 6,923 43.0 Bedford 14.5 22.3 1,159 1,048 111 7.8 Bristol 10.6 17.4 19.3 1,122 1,046 76 1.9 Buena Vista 7.3 5.3 265 220 45 5.9 .6 Charlottesville 20.5 3.4 7.229 5,749 3.9 .5 1,480 25.7 14.8 18.1 3.3 Chesapeake 31,510 20,669 10,841- 52.5 Clifton Forge 797 23.1 27.6 875 -78 -8.9 4.5 Colonial Heights 52 15.9 15.8 8 44 550.0 - .1 Covington 1,209 .1 .3 1,209 0 0 .2 Danville 13,573 12.0 10,486 3,087 13.3 1.3 29.4 22.6 29.7 7.1 Emporia 1,953 2,024 -71 -3.5 Fairfax 585 38.2 40.4 383 202 52.7 2.2 Falls Church 223 1.7 3.0 152 71 46.7 1.3 Franklin 4,045 1.4 2.3 3,494 551 15.8 .9 Fredericksburg 3,104 50.8 55.4 - -. 2,511 593 4.6 23.6 17.4 20.3 2.9 Galax 307 338 -31 -9.2 Haapton '42,072 5.4 4.7 30,619 11,453 37.4 - .7 Harrisonburg 874 25.4 34.3 669 205 30.6 8.9 Ilupewell 4,661 4.6 4.4 3,597 1,064 29.6 - .2 Lexington 896 15.3 19.9 1,190 -294 -24.7 4.6 15.7 12.3 -3.4 B31 Tab :e 2. (continued)

Black 810,:k Numerics/ ?accent Percent of Permit of Name Population Population Difference Change Change Population 1980 Population in Percents 1970 1970-80 1970-80 1970 1980 1980-7n

Lynchburg 15,807 12,583 3,224 2S.6 Manassas 19.5 23.7 4.2 1,403 765 638 83.4 Manassas Park 7.1 9.1 2.0 286 13 273 2,100.0 Martinsville .2 4.4 4.2 5,728 :.622 106 Newport News 1.9 28.6 31.6 3.0 45,584 39,196 6,388 16.3 28.4 31.5 3.1 Norfolk 93,987 87,261 E,726 7.7 28.3 35.2 Norton 249 235 6.9 14 6.0 5.6 Petersburg 25,080 5.2 - .4 21,062 4,018 19.1 47.6 Poquoson 25 61.1 13.5 25 0 0 Portsmouth 47,185 .5 .3 - .2 44,320 2,865 6.5 39.9 45.1 5.2 Redford 860 518 342 66.0 4.3 Richmond 112,357 6.5 . 2.2 104,686 7,671 7.3 42.0 lonoke 22,019 51.3 9.3 17,784 4,235 23.8 Salem 1,063 16.8 21.9 5.1 1,205 -142 -11.8 South Boston 2,562 5.5 4.4 -1.1 2,288 274 12.0 33.2 36.1 2.9 Staunton 2,461 2,532 41 -2.8 Suffolk 22,682 10.3 11.3 1.0 22,702 -20 - .1 Virginia Beath 50.4 47.6 -2.8 26,251 15,693 10,598 67.5 Waynesboro 9.1 10.0 '1,294 1,094 200 .9 18.3 6.5 8.4 Williamsburg 1,031 1,156 1.9 -125 -10.8 12.7 Winchester 1,795 10.4 -2.3 1,308 487 37.2 6.7 8.9 2.2 TOTAL CITIES 568,390 484,417 83,973 17.3 . 5 28.1 , 3.6 ...... PDC 1 1,352 1,403 -51 -3.6 1.7 1.4 PDC 2 1,719 1,628 - .3 91 5.6 1.4 PDC 3 4,573 1.2 .2 4,338 235 5.4 PDC 4 2.7 2.5 .2 5,362 4,579 783 PDC S 17 1 4.0 3.8 .2 28,261 24,72! 3,540 1441 PDC 6 10.7 11.2 .5 9,749 9,578 171 1.8 PDC 7 5.1 4.7 - .4 5,485 4,7:5 750 PDC 8 15.8 4.5 4.1 91,462 53,895 - .4 37,567 69.7 5.9 PDC 9 15,912 8.3 2.4 15,799 113 .7 21.9 PDC 10 25,718 17.2 -4.7 22,808 2,C'0 12.8 PDC 11 19.8 17.9 -1.9 36,539 32,842 3,697 11.3 19.8 18.5 PDC 12 58,435 52,085 -1.0 6,350 12.2 23.8 PDC 13 35,520 24.3 .5 36,184 -664 -1.8 43.0 PDC 14 32,982 43.0 - .8 32,168 814 2.5 41.7 PDC 15 174,529 39.5 -2.2 144,257 30,272 21.0 PDC 16 26.3 27.6 1.3 21,168 17,572 3,596 2C.5 PDC 17 22.7 17.8 -4.9 14,219 14,42 -663 -4.5 PDC 18 40.2 34.7 -5 5 16,3:4 16,289 35 PDC 19 .2 34.2 27.2 -7 0 65,469 61,735 3,734 6.0 PDC 20 38.3 40.4 .,1 243,574 213,262 30,312 PDC 21 14.2 27.7 28.9 101,269 82,000 19,269 1.2 PDC 22 23.5 25.7 29.4 3.7 18,690 18,394 296 1.6 42.3 40.7 -1.6

Bristol SMSA 2,077 2,032 45 2.2 Charlottesville 2.5 2.3 - .2 SMSA 17,001 14,065 2,936 20.f 15.7 15.0 - .7 Danville SMSA 33,561 30,309 3,252 10.7 30.0 28.8 Lynchburg SMSA 31,409 -1.2 27,355 4,054 14.8 Newport News SNSA 20.3 20.5 .2 104,.157 85,123 19,234 Norfolk SMSA 22.6 25.6 28.6 3.0 721.:.55 190,645 31,010 16.3 26.3 27.9 1.6 Petersburg SNSA 46,9%1 43,105 3.822 8.9 33.5 Richmond SMSA 174,529 144,257 36.3 2:8 30,272 21.0 26.3 Roarok* SMSA 25,899 27.6 1.3 22,276 3,623 16.3 NortLarn VA SMSA 11.0 11.5 .5 91,462 53,895 37,567 69.7 5.9 8.3 2.4 TOTAL METROPOLITAN 748,877 613,062 135,815 22.2 20.1 18.8 -1.3 TOTAL NONMETROPOLITAN 259,434 152,092 7,342 2.9 16.0 18.2 2.2 TOTAL VIRGINIA 1,008'011 865,154 143,157 16.5 18.6 18.9 .3

/All 1970 numbers in thistable are adjusted for annexations and boundary changes occurring between 1970 and 1980. All calculations involving 1970 numbersare based on these adjusted figures. ^a. O B 32 8 5 Titt: UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA VOL. 58 NO. 10

This News Letter was reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University of Virginia,

POPULATION CHANGE IN VIRGINIA, 1970-1.980 by Julia H. Martin and Michael A. Spar

Ms Martin is Research Director and Mr. Spar a is referred to as the percent change or growth Research Associate at the Population Studies Center. accounted for about two-thirds of Virginia's Toi loe Murphi Institute. Color,- Darden School of rate, and it is useful because it enables us to population growth. During the next decade, Bcoine>s Administration. Univers:Iv of Virginia. compare areas of different sizes on the same however, two new trends arosedeclining basis. By this measure, we can say that the birth rates and increased migration to the Virginiais adiversestatethathas Division as a whole grew by 20.5 percent South. As a result, between 1970 and 1980 experienced considerable population growth during the 1970-80 decade. However, we also Virginia grew about as much from net and change during the past decade. This can look at the average growth, which was migration as from natural increase. This was article describing some of these changes is quite different. The average rate of growth, not true of the more northern South Atlantic based on two kinds of data: first, informa- calculated by summing the percent change of states, as Table 1 shows. In the District of tion from the 1970 and 1980 decennial each individual state and dividing by nine, Columbiathepopulationwouldhave censuses and second, annual births and was 14 percent. Therefore, although Virgin- declined even more than it did if part of the deaths by race for Virginia localities and the ia's growth rate of 15 percent was lower than loss resulting from negative net migration South Atlantic states during the decade. that of the Division as a whole, it was had not been offset by positive natural Availability of these data enable us not only actually slightly above the average rate for increase. to treasure change in the size of the total and the eight states and the District of Columbia. On the whole,however,theSouth nonwhite populations between 1970 and Population size can change in only two Atlantic Division experienced considerable 1980. but also to estimate natural increase ways, either through natural increase or net gains from migration between 1970 and and net migration. the two mechanisms of migration. Natural increase is the difference 1980.Approximately 4.2 million more population change. In turn. these estimates between the number of births and the people moved into the region than moved permit us to pinpoint some difference number of deaths that have occurred in an out of it, for an overall net migration rate of between Virginia and other South Atlantic areabetween two pointsintime;net 13.7 percent. Again, the average net migra- states, as well as differences among areas migrationisthe difference between the tion rate of ,'.2 percent was much lower than within Virginia. number of people who moved in and the the overall rate, and Virginia's rate of 7.5 VIRGINIA AND THE SOUTH ATLANTIC number who moved out. Either measure can percent was just about average. In general, DIVISION be negative as well as positive, as when an therefore, the region was characterized by excess of deaths over births produces a two extremes: the population loss in the The group of states designated by the negative natural increase, or when more District of Columbia and the very high gain Bureau of the Census as the South Atlantic people move out of an area than into it, in Florida. Division stretches along the eastern sea- producing negative net migration. board from Delaware in the north to Florida Since births and deaths are registered but POPULATION CHANGE IN VIRGINIA in the south: it includes, in addition to these moves are not, we do not know directly how During the 1970-80 decade, Virginia's two states,Maryland,theDistrictof many people moved in and out of an area growth rate was about average for the South Columbia, Virg;nia, West Virginia. North within any given time period. Natural and South Carolina. and Georgia. Between Atlantic Division. Rates of change within increase can be used, however, to estimate thestatewere by no means uniform, 1970 and1980thisareaincreasedin the result of these moves, or net migration. population by about six million people, from however. Five major centers of population An example using 1970 and 1980 popula- ,,..,,ith were all located either in or adjacent almost 31 million to almost 37 million. tions will illustrate how this is done. First, Change in the individual states varied from a to metropolitan areas, and all contain a using the number of registered births and number of counties that grew by a third or substantial decline in the District of Colum- deaths, the natural increase that occurred bia to an extremely large increase in Florida. more. The first of these centers is in Northern between the two dates is calculated. Second, Virginia; it includes the metropolitan juris- In fact. Florida alone accounted for almost this natural increase is added to the popula- half of the total growth in the division. diction of Loudoun, Fairfax, Prince Will- tion. This indicates what the 1980 pc ra- iam, and the City of Manassas together with Insteadof looking at raw numbers, tion v.id have been if no one had movzti in however, it is often more useful to examine the adjacent counties of Frederick and or out of the area. Finally, since the only Warren, and extends southward ti Spotsyl- growth and decline as they relate to the other way the population size could have original, or base year, population. Viewed vania County. The southemmot.part of this changed was through migration, the differ- tea borders on the second major growth this way, change between 1970 and 1980 ence between what the 1980 population would be calculated by subtracting the 1970 center, surrounding the City of Richmond. would have been if just natural increase had Together these two areas create a crescent of population from the1980 population, occurred and what the 1980 population dividing the result by the 1970 population, population growth with one tip at Loudoun actually was has to be net migration. County in the north and the other at New and multiplying this ratio by 100. The result Between 1960 and 1970 natural increase Kent County in the eastern part of the state.

I.\.S 'fn.( 7'1.. ()I ElINMENT CNITIEIZSITY OF CI1.IR1-0 frESVILLE /JUNE 1982 Table 1.Population Growth. Natural Increase, and Net Migration in the South Atlantic Division, out may or may not be entirely replaced. 1970-1980 If they are not replaced and population decline Percent Change results, one immediate effect is likely to be Accounted for By: the loss of funds allocated according to Percent formulas that include population as one of Percent Net Natural Net the factors. If outmigrants from urban areas Change Migration Increase Migration arepartially or wholly replaced, it is often by Delaware 8.4 1.2 85.2 14.8 populationswithlowersocioeconomic District of Columbia -15.6 -19.9 - status, who require more inse way of Florida 43.5 40.0 8.1 91.9 support services than didtheoriginal population. In addition, at the same time as Georgia 19.1 9.6 49.7 50.3 the demand for services increases and funds Maryland 7.5 1.2 83.5 16.5 allocatedto thelocalitydecrease, tax North Carolina 15.7 7.8 50.0 50.0 revenue. tend to decline, since business and South Carolina 20.5 10.6 48.5 51.5 industry often prefer to locate in or near growing areas. Virginia 14.9 7.5 49.8 50.2 Not all Virginia cities are metropolitan. A West Virginia. 11.8 6.3 46.1 53.9 The Division StandardMetropolitanStatisticalArea (SMSA), as designated by the Bureau of the Overall 20.5 13.7 33.2 66.8 Average 14.0 7.2 46.8 42.1 Census, is a particular kind of geogri.phical area typically including one or more large SOURCE: Computed bytheauthors from data obtained from the U.S. Census Bureau and the cities, known as central cities, and several bureau of vital records and health statistics or comparable agency) in each of the individualstates. surrounding counties. The rules for designation of an SMSA are quite complicated and Here growth skips over a small portion of Eastern Shore and Northern Neck counties involve several indicators of the social and King and Queen County to resume in the of Westmoreland, Northumberland, Rich- economic linkages among the jurisdictions thirdcenter, where high growthrates mond,Lancaster,Accomack,and included. occurredinGloucester County and in It',3rthampton also experienced relatively An SMSA can be located in more than several other of the southeastern counties little growth. one state. In 1970 Virginia contained six and cities, most 'notably thecities of Besidesthis geographical variation in complete SMSAs: Lynchburg. Newport Poquoson and Virginia Beach. growth, there were also significant differen- News-Hs.npton. Norfolk-Portsmouth. Two other major growth centers remain. ces between counties and cities. In general, Petersburg-ColonialHeights. Richmond. The fourth one includes the City of Charlot- counties tended to gain population, while and Roanoke. It alsc contained portions of tesville and the nearby counties of Greene, independent citiestended either to lose two SMSAs that cross state boundaries- Albemarle, and Fluvanna in central Virgin- population or to have relatively small gains. Northern Virginia, a part of the Washington. ia.Thiscenterisseparatedfrom the This is reflected in the overall growth rate of D.C. SMSA; andBristol,partof the Northern Virginia area by the counties of 24.4 percent for countiesversusonly 2.2 Johnson City-Kingsport SMSA, split be- Rappahannock, Culpeper, Madison, and percent for cities. Even within the high tween Virginia and Tennessee. Between 1970 Orange. and from the Richmond area by the growth areas described above, population and 1980 several jurisdictions were added to counties of Goochland and Louisa-all of declines occurred in the majority of the VirginiaSMSAs. OnewasCurrituck which grew by a sixth to a third between 1970 urbancenters- Arlington, Alexandria. County, North Carolina. which became part and 1980. If this trend continues, it will Roanoke City, Richmond City, Norfolk, of the Norfolk-Portsmouth metropolitan orlyamatteroftimeuntilthe and Portsmouth, for example. area. Virginia Beach also was added to this Charlottesville-area growth center merges Although data is not yet available from SMSA, so the name was changed to reflect with those of Northern Virginia and the City the1980 Census giving the origins of its inclusion as a central city. Another name of Richmond to produce a single area migrants, these figures seem to suggest that a changeofthiskindoccurredinthe comprising almost the entire northe-. half of current trend in Virginia is movement from Petersburg-Colonial Heights SMSA, where the Commonc,ealth and extending diagonal- independentcitiesintocounties, most Hopewell was added to form the Petersburg- ly all the way to Virginia Beach at the probably from cities into surrounding or Colonial Heights-Hopewell SMSA. southeastern tip. the fifth and last bordering counties. Examining net migra- In 1980 two new SMSAs were designated area of high growth in Virginia includes the tion figures for the two kinds of areas leads inVirginia:theCharlottesville SMSA, counties of Bedford, Roanoke, and Mont- us also to suspect that immigrants to the including the City of Charlottesville and gomery,adjacentto one another and state tend to choose counties rather than Albemarle, Fluvanna, and Greene counties; included in or bordering the Lynchburg and cities as their destinations. For example, and the Danville SMSA, consisting of the Roanoke metropolitan areas. only eleven of ninety-five counties ex- City of Danville and Pittsylvar:a County. Of course, not allVirginia localities periencednegativenet migration, while Despite these additions, the proportion of experienced such high growth rates. Some twenty-four of forty-one cit)es, or over half, the state's population living in metropolitan areas had very low or negative rates of experienced this phenomenon. In addition, areas or inareasthat would become growth between 1970 and 1980. One of these Arlington County, the only county that it metropolitan in 1980 actually declined very extends along the western border of the stare classified by the Bureau of the Census as slightly, from 70.3 to 69.6 percent.) Taken from Highland County south to Giles totally urban, had the largest negative net together, Virginia's SMSAs grew by 13.8 County, including the County of Rock- migration tate among counties, with a rate of percent during the 1970-1980 decade, with a bridge to the east. Another begins along the -17.6 percent. In fact, the next greatest loss, a net migration rate of 5.3 percent. Again, southern border but 'extends north all the rate of -8.8 percent in Sussex County, was however, this overall figure masks consider- way to Prince Edward, Amelia, Dinwiddie, only half that of Arlington. able diversity. Although no metropolitan Prince George, and Surryr.ouizties. This zrea Between 1970 and MO, then, counties arealostpopulation,thePetersburg- includes three of the fo,tr counties that tended to grow at much higher rr.tes than did Colonial Heights-Hopewell ShrSA grew by experienced population loss during the independent cities. Many more counties less than 1 percent and had a negative net decade: Charlotte, Brunswick, and Sussex than cities had positive net migration rates, migration rate. Two others, Newport News- (the fourth being Arlington). A third low and the overall net migration rate for Hampton andNorfolk-VirginiaBeach- growth area lies in Central Virginia. It is counties of 16.8 percent was much higher Portsmouth, grew a bit more but also had located between the two growth centers of than that for cities-which was, in fact, a Charlottesvilleand Lynchburg-Roanoke negative rate of -5.1 percent. Outmigration In addition to the designation or new SMSAs. co un tics were added and includes the counties of Amherst, to already-existing SMSAs during the decade. Consequent!). 1970 of the population from any area is likely to metropolitan areas have been reconstructed to correspond to 1980 Nelson, and Buckingham.Finally,the have serious consequences. Those move boundaries Figure 1. Population Change in Virginia Localities, );,10-1980

Percent Change, 1970-1980

Over 33.3% 16.8-33.3% 0.1-16.7% Gain Loss

negative net migrationrates. In contrast, the south,however,growthratesincrease low rates of nonwhite natural increase and largest SMSA. Northern Virginia, and one dramatically Prince William County, at the relatively high rates of net migration. of the smallest, Charlottesville, both had southern et.ge of the SMSA, increased its In Virginia. 92.5 percent of all nonwhites very high growth rates, with 20.0 percent for population by more than half. Further are black, but sizeable numbers of American Northern Virginia and 26.9 percent for south, two counties adjacent to the SMSA, Indians (9.039). Chinese (9.360). Filipinos Charlottesville. the fastest-growing SMSA Stafford and Spotsylvania, grew even more. (18.901), Asian Indians (8,483). Koreans .n the state. with Spotsylvania wore than doubling its (12,550). and Vietnamese (10.000) also reside When the jurisdictions that make up the population.Evidently the trend toward in the state. Although these figures may not SMSAs are examined, we find that the suburbanizationcontinuedinVirginia be significant on a statewide basis, the pattern of urban loss and suburban-rural throughout the 1970s. Nor do we yet see any populations tend to be concentrated in gain continues withinthemetropolitan evidence of a turnaround in the process. particular areas. In Northern Virginia, for areas. Of the thirteen central cities present in Rather, growth seems to be pushing farther example, one third of the nonwhite popula- the ten SMSAs, eightDanville, Bristol, and farther out on the peripheries of the tion is oththan black, while both Norfolk Norfolk. Portsmouth, Hopewell, Peters- metropolitan areas. and Virginia Beach have significant Filipino burg, Richmond, and Roanokelost popu- populations. iation; the remaining ones generally had very THE NONWHITE POPULATION Most Virginia jurisdictions had about the small gains. Virginia Beach, with an ex- T.le nonwhite population in the Census same law of nonwhites to total population tremely unusual growth rate of 52.3 percent, officially contains. in addition to blacks, in 1980 as they did in 1970. On the whole the was an exception. Much more typical were thirteen other categories. The South Atlantic distribution of the nonwhite population Charlottesville, Lynchburg, Hampton, and Division between 1970 and 1980 experienced continues to follow a pat:ern that long has Newport News, all with growth rates under 5 an increase of about 4.5 million white been present in the Commonwealth, in percent. persons and slightly more than 1.5 million which the Blue Ridge Mountains act as a Between 1970 and 1980, men, metropoli- nonwhites; the nonwhite population in- boundary between two distinct areas of the tan growth in Virginia took place largely in creased by 26.7 percent, compared to an state. To the west of the mountains, most the suburban counties of the SMSAs. The ir.crease in white population of 18.8 percent. counties have populations that are less than Richmond SMSA isa good example. The racial balance in the region did not 5 percent nonwhite, with slightly higher Overall, the Richmond SMSA had only the change very much over the course of the proportions in the independent cities. To the thirdhighestgrowthsate among the decade, however. east of the mountains, the nonwhite popula- SMSAs, due partly to a substantial loss in In 1970 nonwhites constituted a little over tion usually is 10 percent or more, with the City of Richmond. At the same time, it a fifth of the Division's population, and in particularly high concentrations of non- includes Three counties that experienced 1980onlyslightlymore. Similarly,in whitesinthe southeastern counties of some of the largest percentage gains in the Virginia the 1970 figure was slightly less than Charles City, Surry, Sussex, Greenville, and stateChesterfield County, with over 80 20 percent, and the 1980 figure was only Brunswick. In all these counties, and in the percent, and New Kent and Powhatan slightly greater. At both points in time the cities of Richmond and Franklin as well, the CJunties, each with over 65 percent. Except region contained extremes. In both 1970 and population is over 50 percent nonwhite. for the small City of Poquoson in the 1980, the population of the District of Again, there aredifferences between Newport News-Hampton SMSA, no other Columbia was almost three-quarters non- counties and independent cities. Between netropolitan area included jurisdictions white, while in West Virginia nonwhites 1970 and 19R0 the percent nonwhite popula- with growthratesthishigh.Another constituted less than one-twenleth of the tion in the counties remained about the example is the Northern Virginia portion of totalpopulation. The largestincreases same, while that in the cities increased by the Washington, D.C. SMSA. The jurisdic- between 1970 any 1980 in the proportions of about five percentage points. As Table 2 tions of Arlington and Alexandria, close to nonwhites were in the two northernmost indicates,however,thisgeneralization the central city of Washington, lost popula- states of the Division, Delaware and Mary- masks some very importantdifferences tion (as did Washington itself). As we move land; these increases resulted from relatively between metropolitan and nonmetropolivm Table 2. Nonwhite Population Change in Virginia by Metropolitan Status. '970-1980 found in the Danville, Lynchburg, Newport Percent of Total Percent Percent News-Hampton, and Roanoke metropolitan Population Change Net Migration areas. The City of Roanoke, for example, 1970 1980 1970.80 1970-80 gained 4,814 nonwhites between 1970 and All Counties 14.515.2 30.4 21.1 1980,while Metropolitan Counties adjacent Roanoke County 10.914.3 66.7 54.0 gained 201 and the City of Salem and the Nonmetropolitan Counties 19.016.5 4.5 -2.2 counties of Botetourt and Craig actually los All Independent Cities 25.130.2 23.1 12.4 small numbers of nonwhites. Finally, the Metropolitan Cities 26.2 31.7 23.7 12.8 Petersburg - Colonial Heights - Hopewell Nonmetropolitan Cities 14.716.3 11.6 6.0 SMSA does not quite fit either pattern. Like SOURCE: Computed by the authors from data obtained from the U.S. CensusBureau and the Virginia Depanment of Health, Bureau of Vital Records and Health Statistics. the first group, it had both central city and suburban growth; but it also had a loss of jurisdictions. To examine these differences for nonmetropolitan cities. Finally, at the 1,032 nonwhites in Dinwiddie County, a we have to divide our localities into four same time as the proportion of nonwhites in decrease eery nearly as large as the increase types: counties located in SMSAs (metro- nonmetropolitan counties decreased, the in the City of Hopewell. politan counties), counties outside SM.'"..A.s proportion in metropolitan counties in- (nonmetropolitancounties),independent creased by over four percentage points. SUMMARY cities located in the SMSAs (metropolitan This change is not taking place uniformly Between 1970 and 19 "' Virginia grew at a cities), and cities outside SMSAs (nonmetro- among Virginia's SMSAs. In fact, the state rate that was just about average for the politan cities). For example, in all of the exhibits two distinct patterns of metropoli- South Atlantic Division. But considerable stairs ninety-five counties, the nonwhite tan nonwhite population change. While each differences existed within the state, ranging population increased by about 30 percent; of these includes an increasinl nonwhite from the high growth rates in the five but in metropolitan counties, the increase population in the central city or cities, they metropolitan-centered growth areas to very was almost W percent, while in nonmetro- differ in the amount of suburban growth. low rates or losses in portions of western and politan counties it was under 5 percent. The first pattern is seen in the Charlottes- south central Virginia. Many independent Similarly, the growth rate of the nonwhite ville,Bristol.Norfolk,Richmond, and cities Inst population during the decade, with population both in all of the fcrty-one NorthernVirginiaarea SMSAs. Here a concomitant growth in the populations of independent cities and in the metropolitan growth in one or more of the counties the surrounding counties. This pattern of cities was about 23percent,whilein bordering on the central city or cities is at suburbanization is particularly noticeable in nonmetropolitan cities it was only half that least as large as that in the central portion of SMSAs. rate. the SMSA. The City of Richmond, for The distribution of the nonwhite popula- Unlike the total population, then, the example, had 8,899 more nonwhites in 1980 tion on a statewide basis continues to follow nonwhite population has tended increasing. than in1970; but in adjacent Henrico a long-established pattern, wit very few ly to concentrate in metropolitan areas. This County the increase of 19,040 nonwhites was nonwhites living west of the Blue Ridge and has been a longstanding pattern in many more than twice that amount; and Chester- heavy concentrations of nonwhites living in areas of the country. A relatively new field County also had a substantial increase metropolitan areas. Within these areas, development, however, is the increase of the of 6,693. These figures are in a contrast to the however, the distribution of nonwhites nonwhite population in suburban counties. nonwhite population increases in the re- appears to be in the process of changing. In This becomes increasingly obvious if we look mainder of the Richmond SMSA-549 for at least half of irginia's SMSAs, substantia, at net m'sration sates for the four types of Powhatan County, 201 for Charles City net migration of nonwhites into suburban jurisdictions, as shown in Table 2. The net County, 25 for New Kent County, and losses counties occurred, particularlyinthose migration rate for nonwhites in metropoli- of 79 and 10 in Gooch:and and Hanover counties closest to the central cities. The tan counties is over 50 percent and that for counties. respectively. signlicance of this movement may well be nonmetropolitan counties is actually nega- The second pattern of nonwhite metropol- considerable, but further analysis must wait tive. For metropolitan cities, the nonwhite itan change limits growth to the central city until more data on detailed population net migration rate is slightly over twice that segment of the SMSA. This is the pattern characteristics become available. 'Editor's Note: Do You Want to Continue Receiving the News Letter? If so, we hope that you have returned the specialpostcard you received from us last month. If you haver.'t, please mail your card to us by July 1. After that, we will revise our mailing :ist toensure that the News Letter goes only to those who want to receive it. If we haven't received a postcard from you, we will assume that you wantyour name removed from our mailing list.

THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

Entered as second-class matter NEWS Charlottesville, Virginia LETTER

(ISSN 00424271) Editor / James A. (Dolph) Nortosi, Assistant Editor / Sandra H. Pnblishect saostWy by the mole, UfthtlaY konitittga, Chatiotteesek,71141*. is 22903.The viewsaadopiaioas expressed beanary those of the anthem and are not to be isorprsasisse representing the Oficial polities of the famituipsor the Uaivettity: cia Emend as seeoed-efees ostler Jesseety the poet of lea at Chatiostarille. Yogisia;medirthr as of Angst 31,1912 1912 by The Reetoeard Visitors of the Usiveisity, .0( Printed by the Unhenity Printing Office.' ECONOMICS USING THE PLANNING DISTRICT WORKSHEET

1 - THIS ACTIVITY STARTS WITH THE POPULATION STATISTICS LESSON.When students understand the source and use of population numbers, they are ready to proceed with other aspects of the economic analysis on the Planning District Worksheet.

2 - The teacher should read the News Letter: "The Geography of Virginia," immediately following this instruction sheet in the notebook. Notice that 22 planning districts are grouped into 9 regions, which are described demographically and economically. THOSE 9 REGION SUMMARIES ARE THE ANSWER KEY TO THE ACTIVITY. Students use the resources in this section to reconstruct the region summaries. Additional data is included in the News Letter so you can supplement the group reports.

3 - If you have not already done it, show the transparencies inthe front pocket of this notebook. End with the (nap of Economic Regions. Augment the presentation with information from your files, slidesor comments from your travels, and knowledge of Virginia. If you think your students will take better notes on a sheet with a mini-map on it, make up one using one of the maps from B 5 or 6. Another idea is to give out the map-note sheet AFTER the transparency presentation, give 'students 8 - 10 minutes to write down what they remember, then review it briefly. 4 - Using the Planning District Worksheet: a) Describe a planning district to the class: "Virginia is divided into 22 planning districts, each including several local governments that share natural, economic,or other resources. Since problems and resources (such as water) do not start and stopat city and county borders, planning district commissions assist and encourage local governments to coordinate the physical, social, and economic elements of their districts in comprehensive plans. Though the planning districts are only advisory, they do have some clout since they review local applications for state and federal aid. As grant funds become more scarce and regional special purpose agencies spin off from the commission, the coordinating function has grown. Regional Planning District Commissions help local governments accomplishmore with limited funds through closer cooperation." - Add anything you know about the activities of your planning district.

b) Assign the 22 planning districts to students in each class,one per student or whatever arrangement 's best for the size and particular talents of the group. Consider the groups that will be forming for the wording of the report in the second phase of the activity: Districts 8 and 15 will be working by themselves. Districts 6 & 7, and 20 & 21 will be working in pairs. Districts 1-2-3, 9-10-16, and 17-18-22 will be working in threes. Districts 4-5-11-12 will be working in a group of four,

c) Be sure students understand that information from chartsis only useful in relation to stateaverages or information from neighboring communities. Example: Knowing that the median family income in Chesterfield County (1980)was $27,471 is interesting, but knowing that the median family income for all thecounties in the state was $22,223 (more than $5,000 less) AND thatnextdoor neighbor, Amelia County, had a median'income of only $15,774,puts it all in a different andmore useful perspective.

B 33' C)A. Using the Planning District Worksheet (cont'd)

d) Hand out Planning District Worksheets. Be sure that all the information called for is available in the room and that students know how to record it on the Worksheet. Write the deadline for completed worksheets on the board. You will ha-e to judge how long it will take the groups to complete their task of coordinating the data. (Assigning some students whom you believe to have good math comprehension to each group will speed the task and improve the quality of the work.)

e) Supervise by walking around and being available to help. You may find that some students or whole classes need some of the charts explained. The News Letters and the introductory pages provide the information. 5 - When most students have filled in their Planning District Worksheets, ask them to group themselves by the economic .egions on the map, and compose a report on their combined information. These two steps may take 1or 2 class periods if the research is thorough and the coordination of district reports is carefully done. (Hint: They may get down to work more quickly if you start the class with'a brief current events or other discussion, concluding with the reminder of their deadline.) Urge groups to summarize their data into 4 or 5 major points that best represent their region, and to word a question on each -- a question that can be answered in 10 - 15 words.Spot-check the questions. Questions can be written on the board as an outline of the greup's report, or worded into quiz or test questions.

6 - REPORT DAY. Hand out copies of Economic Regions half-sheet map with space for student notes. Ask for reports from each group. As each group.finishes its presentation, ask for summary statements from the rest, of the class, then tie it up with the political questions: "If you lived in this area, what views would you be likely to held on the controversial issues in Virginia? How would you probably feel about....[coal severance tax (tax on all coal taken from the ground)?...increased tobacco tax?...state expenditures to encourage tonrism?...legislation that would share water from wet to dry areas of the state?...increased aid,to schools?...increased foreign trade? ...import duties/restrictions?...extension of the D.C. Iletrorail ?... highway repair/construction formulas giving each area similar money allocations OR programs .Jased on miles or need, regardless of terrain and cost of construction?...a more progressive income tax schedule? ...increased state aid for job-training programs?...] Use questions appropriate to point out the area's major concerns AND some issues that may not concern them at all (useful for vote-trading). "If you were running for the general assembly from this area, what would your platform be?Can you see two different points of view that might be held by the parties in this area? 7 - Follow up with your Chamber of Commerce, industrial commission, Business & Professional Women's Club, or other business group speakers to tell about industries and job opportunity in the economic mix of your community. 8 - When general assembly committee assignments are announced, save the clipping. Can your classes predict the fate of certain bills by analyzing the committee lists? See Section E...and The Almanac of Virginia Politics.

R3495 PLANNING DISTRICT WORKSHEET District . Name

1. Using the "Excerpts" chart on population, fill in the 1980, 1970, and Natural Increase figures for each city and county in this planning district. Calculate and fill in the other numbers to complete columns 1- 8. Be ready to explain how you figured the numbers.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 City/County Population Population Numerical Percent Natural % Natural Net % Net Name 1980 1970 Change Change Increase Increase Migration Migration

2. Look up the figures for black population in this planning district, and fill in the figures for columns 9 - 14 on the next page.

3. Look on the Median Income Tables for the median income for each city and county in this planning district. Write in the data in column 15 cn the next page. Look over the income distribution tables and briefly describe any ususual or different pattern in this district.

How does it compare with other parts of the state?

How does it compare with neighboring districts?

4. From maps and .!nformation in the classroom, briefly describe the topography and water resources of this district.

5. Describe manufacturing and transportation facilities in this district.

6. Describe agricultural land and natural resources of this district.

7. Is there a community college or institution of higher learning in this district?or nearby? 96 97 Planning District Worksheet (cont'd) 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 City/County 1980 - Black 1970 - Black Numerical Percent Change 1970 -?; of 1980 -c; of Median Population Population Change 1970-80 Total Pop. Total Pop. Income

8. What questions or problems have you with this data? Is there anything that doesn't add up?Can you identify information or research that may require otherresources?

9. Write a summary of the informationyou have found about this district.

10. Check the Economic Regions map to find the other districts in your region and the studentsassigned to research them. Combine your information into a regionalreport and plan how you will share it with the class. (Please be careful not to disturb others who are still working on the basic informationon this sheet.) 98 99 UNIVERSITY OF `/RGINIA THE COLGATE DARDEN GRADUATE SCHOOL OF BUSINESSADMINISTRATION Tayloe Murphy Institute

Virginia Annual GrossState Product,19584984 John L. Knapp ad. Robert W.Cox

This report presents estimatesfor Virginia gross state product (GSP) over the 1958-1984time period.L-_test in an annual series,this report provides information previous years. for 1984 and revisions for

Gross state prodnct is theterm applied to the value of all final state in a given year.' 'for goats and services produced ina purposes of comparison, onecan assume GSP to be the state's equivalent of gross national product (GNP).However, since data residents outside the state, and are lacking for all income earned byVirginia for all income earned withinVirginia by nonresidents, GSP closely resembles thegross domestic product (GDP), more boundaries of the nation. Since a measure of output producedwithin the GNP and GDPare nearly identical in the United States, product is usually comparedto GNP.2 gross state Virginia gross state product in current dollars (unadjustedfor inflation) rose billion in 1984 (see Table 1),which showed a rise of to almost S87 more than S9.6 billion over 1983.In the 1958-1984 period, GSP increasedat an annual rate of 9.4 percent? in current dollars During this same period,GNP rose an annual average of 8.3percent. From 1983 to 1984, GSP percent, greater than the 10.8percent rise in GNP. grew 12.5 Virginia GSP in constant 1972 dollars (gross state productconverted to a constant purchasing power based on 1972 dollars)grew from S12.5 billion in 1958 This represented an to $38.9 billion in 1984 (seeTable 2). average annual growth of 4.3percent over the time period (see increased by an average of 3.3percent over the same period. Except Figure 1). GNP and 1974-1975, Virginia for the recessions of1969-1970 experienced steady growth.From 1983 to 1984, real 8.0 percent, higher than the6.8 rise in'real GNP. GSP grew a sharp Virginia's current dollar GSP as a percent of GNP is shownin Figure 2. When the growth of GSP exceeds that ofGNP, Virginia's share of rate of has grown from 1.82 percent GNP increases. Since1958, the percentage to 2.37 percent in 1984. Theconstant rise from 1980 to 1984 evidence that Virginia has fared betterthan the nation as a whole provides and 1981-1982). during the last two recessions(1980

1 Some confusion may arise in thetrades mind as to what constitutes &Toni good: In thisreport final good refers to all pmducts that art not usedas inputs for other products and to all products exported outside thestate. 2 .Ichn W. Kendrick and C. Milton Jaycox. The Concept and Estimationof Gross State Product,' Economic Journal 32 (October 1965),pp. 154-155. The SOWISIM 3 All growth rates were computed usingthe least squares method.

13 37

1 0 0 Figure 1. Virginia Gross State Product, 1958-1984 (billions of 1972 dollars) 111W.::

U0 550

45 45

40Maw, 40

25 TEND (4i% Annually)

U 3$ 60 6112 1 64 65 611 47 U 61170 71 7273 74 73 71 77 71179 SO St112 C 94

Figure 2. Virginia GSP as a Percent of GNP, 1958-1984 (current dollars)

2.5%

2.4

2.2

2.1

2.0 2.0

1.9

1.5 1.5

1.7 1.7 SE SS SC $114 53 64 U 56 57 66 SS 70 71 72 73 74 75 71 77 75 71 $O St 5253£4

B 38 101 Figure 3. Industrial Shares of Virginia GSP, 1958-1984 (current dollars) mil V= =I.

100% 100%

Elders! Government - 90

.:,,,, so State & Local Government t,,;r;, 80

GO 60

SO 50 Finance, Insurance & Real Estate

Fanning 40 - 40

,e-YA

30 30 Transports:ion & Public Utilities

0 SI 59 60 1112 43 14 GS 6417 U 19 70 71 72 73 7473 71 77 72 79 SO 4152 S3 84

On an industry-by-industry basis, the relative shares of GSPhave been fairly stable forsome industries, and have changed dramatically for others (see Figure3 and Table 3).Construction: finance, insurance, and real estate; mining; wholesale andretail trade: and transportation and public utlilities have maintained a more or lessconstant share of GSP. Fanning has fallen from 4.7percent in 1958 to only 1.0 percent in 1984. The federalgovernment has also lost about a 3 percentagepoint share. Manufacturing has fallen froma high of 24.2 percent in 1962 to 21.1 percent inI 984. However, manufacturing's share has remained roughlyconstant for the last ten years. and it stillis

B 39 102 the largest industrial sector in the state. The services sector has experienced lor.s-terngrowth. as has state and local government. However,state and local government has decreased 1970's. since the :r.:d

Once adjustments are made for inflation, the relative positions of the industrialsectors remain basically the same as when measuredin current dollars. Manufacturing; services; and finance, insurance and wholesale and retail trace: real estate have the largest shares of realVirginia GSP, followed by the federal government.Transportation and public utilities,state and local goinment. construction, farming and mining each contributeless than 10 percent to real GSP.

Per capita gross state product incurrent dollars stood at S15,428 in 1984, 99.5percent of per capita GNP (see Table 4).Virginia per capita GSPas a percent of the U.S. has been rising constantly since 1979, and since 1958 isup from 80.6 percent.

Gross farm product, acomponent of Virginia gross state product, is derived Department of Agriculture's from the U.S. state farm income statistics for Virginia. Thisis accomplished by subtracting intermediate productionexpenses from the value of total farmoutput. Government payments are omitted from the value of farmoutput In addition, farm wages are production expenses and therefore not included as are considered part of gross state product. Thefollowing table illustrates the computation of Virginiagross farm product for 1984 (current dollars).

Value from total farm output (millionsof dollars) Cash receipts from marketing 1,794.4 Nonmonetary income 243.9 Other farm income 79.2 Net changes in inventories 483 Subtotal 2,029.0 Less intermediate productionexpenses Feed 328.6 Livestock purchased 47.1 Seed, plants, and bulbs 36.2 Fertilizer and lime 130.8 Repairs/operation of capital items 244.8 Miscellaneous operatingexpenses 3312

Subtotal 1,120.7

Gross farm product 908.3 1----- I A detailed statement of the methodology used for all industrial sectorsis available uponrequest

B 40 103 Table 1. Virginia Gross Stale Product in Current PMlars, 1958-1984 (millions of dollars)

Finance, Stet* and Transportation Insurance, and Federal local and Public Year Total Construction farming peel Estate Government GovernmentManufacturing Mining Services. Trade Utilities

1958 8,148.2 360.4 362.6 939.7 1,269.9 425.4 1,891.8 14.5 812.5 1,157.0 771.4 1959 8,816.6 415.6 326.9 1,011.3 1,357.7 453.4 2,119.8 17.9 893.1 1,278.1 814.8 1960 9,035.6 421.8 347.9 1,068.8 1,299.1 494.8 2,156.2 16.1 934.7 1,319.3 877.0 1961 9,437.1 465.3 353.4 1,125.1 1,360.8 536.5 2,228.8 17.9 904.0 1,371.3 894.0 1962 10,206.4 518.1 353.5 1,217.3 1,442.7 593.5 2,473.4 19.4 1,066.7 1,476.8 944.9 1963 10,956.5 593.5 269.9 1,345.3 1,621.8 647.4 2,606.2 31.6 1,166.4 1,568.4 1,000.1 1964 12,055.3 649.7 355.2 1,446.8 1,784.9 721.9 2,855.7 45.1 1,286.4 1,735.3 1,071.4 1965 12,990.4 727.0 353.6 1,567.7 1,843.5 604.9 3,108.4 12.5 1,393.8 1,887.8 1,161.1 1966 14,126.5 768.5 306.9 1,710.5 2,100.3 919.3 3,366.5 54.3 1,521.4 2,022.9 1,253.0 1967 15,133.4 772.9 355.6 1,825.8 2,367.8 1,021.4 3,471.8 60.3 1,659.0 2,176.8 1,322.1 1968 -16,863.2 851.3 337.3 1,991.5 2,693.8 1,197.3 3,929.1 69.5 1,834.3 2,434.1 1,425.1 1969 18,689.8 953.8 373.6 2,195.5 3,264.3 1,367.9 4,086.9 78.0 2,042.8 2,696.7 1,530.1 1976 19,925.6 1,057.4 386.5 2,345.7 3,297.1 1,513.1 4,173.9 269.2 2,260.6 2,906.6 1,685.6 1971 21,840.2 1,189.9 383.9 2,642.8 3,558.2 1,670.2 4,516.4 257.2 2,491.5 3,245.8 1972 24,747.4 1,514.9 466.2 1,884.3 2,973.0 3,805.2 1,866.5 5,261.1 286.5 197327,679.5 1,651.5 2,624.9 3,617.8 2,129.3 623.2 3,397.8 3,806.2 2,189.3 5,796.9 1974 339.7 3,274.2 4,129.1 2,391.4 30,613.2 1,777.9 627.0 3,736.1 4,184.1 2,467.0 6,388.5 638.2 3,719.3 4,517.7 2,557.3 197532,749.8 1,757.1 603.6 3,924.9 4,489.4 2,821.2 6,452.5 1976 710.4 4,099.8 5,061.9 2,829.0 36,997.0 1,881.9 601.5 4,343.9 4,818.5 3,119.1 7,969.5 648.8 4,749.2 5,618.9 3,215.6 197741,580.2 2,090.5 558.9 5,214.8 5,489.8 3,351.0 8,932.2 751.4 5,383.1 6,190.0 1978 46,640.3 2,390.8 805.5 3,618.6 6,001.2 6,018.0 5,734.1 9,876.9 711.5 197951,832.9 6,144.4 6,943.5 3,984.5 2,724.0 853.1 6,635.7 6,459.3 4,121.5 10,979.2 904.8 7,146.3 7,707.0 4,302.0 196056,702.8 2,723.6 696.9 7,163.4 7,176.8 4,556.5 12,104.3 984.9 8,049.6 8,420.2 1961 64,963.3 2,771.0 1,027.8 7,868.7 4,826.6 8,346.3 5,027.8 14,070.3 1,115.9 9,518.9 1982 70.236.8 2,725.0 872.4 9,568.4 5,648.3 9,152.4 9,324.6 5,413.8 14,365.9 1,134.2 1985 77,289.3 3,140.1 10,699.3 10,189.2 6,359.8 750.6 9,583.8 9,907.3 5,857.0 16,230.7 1984 86,953.0 947.3 12,091.2 11,423.1 7,358.3 3,769.6 908.3 10,931.0 10,575.8 6,264.2 18,325.7 1,191.2 13,437.7 12,979.0 8,570.6

Sources: Earnings: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis,Survey of Current Business, 65 (August 19851, 31; J.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Econoelc Analysis, pp 10, If (Table Stale Personal income: 1919-U1 (Washington;GPO, 19841, pp. 32-33, 192-193 (Table Of; National lemma: U.S. Department of Comrerce, Bureau of EconomiC Analysis, unpublished preliminary 1984 estimates. U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis,Survey of Current Business, 64 (July 19841. (Table 6.381, and 62 (July 19821, p. 79 (Table 6.301; p. 70 (Tab:z 6.3 al, 63 (July 1903), p. 69 U.S.-Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis,The National income and Product Accounts of the United States, 1926-76 Statistical Tables (Washington: GPO, 19811, pp. 232-233 (Table 6.38i;-ProductAccounts: Unpublished tabulations from the U.S. 1:6W-0-0:Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis, National Income Manufacturing Adjustment: end Wealth Division; U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census,1962 Census of B.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Manufacturers, Vol. 2, U.S. Summary, pp. 4-5; Census, Annual Survey of Manufactures (selectededitions). Agriculture, Economic Research Service, Economic Agriculture; U. S. Voparlmen1 of indicators oi fhe term Sector; Slate Income and Balance Sheet Statistics, 1981 (Washington: CPO, 19841; Unpublished rovisrans and historical cost figures tram the U. S. poparhnunt of Division. AgriccIturn, ,cunen E-Rusenrch alncludus nirkultural services, forestryand fIshorlos. .nd "rest of Ihu world". .Lich inriudos !Mut-no:tonal organizations In lho Hondo SIdlim. qu-Minns of Wilton qu'orirm.ints and 104 Table 2, Virginia Gross Stale Product in Constant Dollars,1958-1984 (millions of 1972 dollars)

Finance, State and Transportation Insurance, and Fidwal local and Public Tear Total ConstructionFarming Real Estate GovernmentGOvornmentManufacturing Mining Servicos. Trade Utilities 1938 12,532.4 763.9 511.3 1.406.7 2,834.6 809.9 1959 13,324.4 823.9 7,341.3 155.1 1.300.0 1,690.9 992.9 463.7 1,480.7 2,919.7 912.3 2,569.4 169.1 1.390.0 1.828.8 1,070.8 1460 13,374.1 836.9 496.2 1.531.2 2,764.1 951.6 2,576.0 1961 13,845.7 903.6 507.0 168.2 1,422.0 1,870.0 1,099.0 1,600.4 2,803.1 993.4 1962 14,728.3 977.6 490.3 2,653.3 173.3 1,452.5 1,900.2 1,712.1 2,974.6 1,045.0 1,106.5 1963 15,735.4 2,923.7 182.8 1,531.2 1,083.0 386.4 1,042.9 3,143.0 2,049.6 1.158.0 1,101.0 3,147.5 201.2 1964 16,766.3 1,135.8 524.5 1,942.0 8,646.8 2,161.9 1,237.0 3,275.0 1,193.2 3,449.0 207.6 1,748.5 2,325.8 1,300.7 1965 17,664.6 1,205.6 488.2 2,054.6 3,240.0 1,209.9 1966 10,692.4 3,722.7 213.2 1,818.6 1,169.7 377.7 2,162.5 3,512.1 2,507.9 1,409.1 1,397.1 3,960.6 222.6 1967 19,270.1 1,100.9 482.5 2,229.3 1,925.9 2,629.8 1,522.5 3,006.7 1.444.7 3,972.3 1968 20,493.8 1,172.6 431.3 2,342.9 233.5 2,017.6 2,697.0 1,573.9 3,915.4 1,583.7 4,341.5 1969 21,664.1 1,149.1 446.5 2,512.0 252.2 2,102.1 2,078.2 1,698.5 4,484.0 1,686.7 4.413.5 259.0 2,211.4 2,985.6 1,771.0 1970 21,591.5 1,154.4 456.0 2.566.4 4,055.4 1,751.5 1971 22,485.8 1,286.4 4,320.8 296.6 2,301.5 5,079.1 448.7 2,747.2 4,007.0 1,771.2 1,066.6 1972 4,539.1 266.0 2,375.2 24,279.2 1,514.9 468.2 2,973.0 3,805.2 3,314.0 1,964.0 1,066.5 5,261.1 286.5 1973 25,908.4 1,497.3 394.9 3,257.7 2,585.9 3,617.8 2,129.3 3,683.6 2,038.5 5,779.6 287.7 1974 26,334.9 1,369.0 416.0 3,412.0 2.772.0 3,952.5 2,315.0 3,699.4 2,175.5 5,844.9 316.0 2,905.3 3,906.4 2,329.1 1975 25,743.1 1,214.3 458.5 3,412.9 3,664.9 2,2h.9 1976 2,584.6 1,296.1 5,216.2 301.9 2.989.0 4,008.9 450.3 3,546.1 3,620.2 2,365.4 1977 2.,237.7 2,345.2 6,163.5 296.1 3,204.9 1,326.4 440.7 3.920.9 3,924.1 4,265.2 2,521.8 1978 2,351.6 6,519.8 320.9 30,554.4 1,375.6 500.8 4,116.0 3,410.1 4,453.4 2,649.1 4,020.0 2,464.7 6,802.3 1979 31,750.9 1,370.9 464.4 4,240.2 283.8 3,590.1 4.699.0 2,767.0 4,039.6 2,564.7 7,152.6 341.6 3.792.7 4,830.2 2,873.7 1900 32,108.7 1,187.8 436.4 4,233.7 4,187.2 1901 33,736.4 2,621.7 7.304.9 364.7 3,970.3 1,130.1 609.6 4,257.9 4,402.0 4,851.6 2,904.1 1982 34,246.5 2,663.0 7,864.9 371.7 4,343.4 1.076.7 569.8 4,624.8 4,533.1 5,120.4 3,080.2 1983 7,646.0 7,670.0 35,992.0 1,206.4 500.5 4,478.4 352.2 4.530.4 5,210.1 3,139.1 4,584.6 2,639.5 8,308.0 1964 36,851.7 1,392.0 534.9 4,845.3 322.7 4.782.2 5,680.6 3,417.7 4,654.0 2,622.1 9,241.4 385.5 5,140.9 6,343.5 3,783.9

Sources: Tha sources cited in Tibia 1;U,S. Department of Agriculture. Agricultural Prices, 1984 Suemarti Crop Reporting Board, Statistical IWashington: GPO, 1985), p. 7 and earlier Reporting Service, slartstta,-7976 WashingTo:,: 113, 19771, p. 437. summaries; U.S. Deparment ofAgriculture, Avicultorel

°Includes agricultural servicas, forestry and fisheries, and "restof the world", .filch Includes Internetlonal organizations In the UnitndStates. operations of foreign governmentsand

105 Table 3. Percentage Distribution of VirginiaGross Slate Product, 1958-1984 (currentdollars)

Finance, State and Transportation Insurance, and Federal Local Year Total Construction farming andPublic Rea Estate Government GovernmentManufacturing Mining Services Trade Utilities 1958 100.01 4.81 4.7% 1.51 1959 15.6% 1.2% 23.2% 100.0 4.7 3.7 1.4% 0.0% 14.2% 9.5% 1.5 15.4 5.2 24.0 1,3 0.1 14.5 9.6 1960 100.0 4.7 3.9 1.8 14.4 5.5 1961 100.0 4.9 23.9 1.3 0.3 14.6 3.7 1.9 14.4 5.7 9.7 1962 100.0 5.1 23.6 1.2 0.4 3.5 1.9 14.1 14.5 9.5 1963 100.0 5.8 24.2 1.2 5.4 2.5 2.3 0.5 14.5 9.3 1964 14.8' 5.9 23.8 100.0 5.4 2.9 2.0 1.2 0.6 14.3 9.2 14.8 6.0 23.7 1.2 0.7 14.4 8.9 1565 100.0 5.6 2.7 2.1 14.2 6.2 1966 100.0 5.4 2.2 23.9 1.1 0.7 14.5 2.1 14.9 6.5 6.9 I967 100.0 5.1 23.8 1.1 0.8 2.3 2.1 15.6 14.3 8.9 1968 6.7 22.9 100.0 5.0 2.0 1.8 1.1 1.0 14.4 8.7 1969 16.0 7.1 23.3 100.0 5.1 2.0 1.7 1.0 0.9 14.4 8.5 17.5 7.3 21.9 1.0 0.9 14.4 8.2 1970 100.0 5.3 1.9 1.6 16.5 1971 100.0 7.7 20.9 1.4 5.4 1.8 2.1 1.3 14.6 8.5 1972 16.3 7.6 20.7 100.0 6.1 1.9 2.0 1.2 1.4 14.9 8.6 1973 15.4 7.5 21.3 100.0 6.0 2.3 2.3 1.2 1.4 14.6 8.6 1974 14.0 7.9 20.9 100.0 5.8 2.0 2.2 1.2 1.8 14.9 8.6 13.7 8.1 20.9 2.1 2.1 14.8 8.4 1975 100.0 5.4 1.8 2.0 13.7 1976 100.0 8.6 19.7 2.2 5.1 1.6 1.7 2.5 15.5 8.6 1977 100.0 13.0 6.4 21.5 5.0 1.3 2.5 1.8 2.8 15.2 8.8 1978 100.0 13.2 8.1 21.5 5.1 1.7 2.9 1.8 2.9 14.9 8.7 1979 100.0 12.9 6.0 21.2 5.3 1.6 2.8 1.6 3.2 14.9 8.5 12.5 8.0 21.2 1.7 3.8 14.9 8.3 1983 100.0 4.8 1.2 2.6 6.0 1581 100.0 4.3 21.3 1.7 4.2 1.6 2.1 12.0 14.8 6.5 1982 100.0 3.9 7.7 21.7 1.7 1.2 3.0 :::: 4.7 14.7 8.7 1983 100.0 4.1 7.7 20.5 1.0 2.4 1.6 5.2 14.5 9.1 1984 100.0 *2.6 7.6 21.0 4.3 1.0 2.6 1.2 5.6 14.8 9.5 12.2 7.2 21.1 1.4 5.5 14.9 9.9

Source: Table I.

106 Table 4. . Virginia GSP Per Capita and GNPPer Capita,1958-084 (current and 1972 dollars) MINIM INV A I MI In I NM II MI I II I ED. Curren, Dollars 1972 Collars Virginia Virginia 71rginla U.S. as a S Virginia U.S. as a Year Per CaoiT, For Capita of U.S. Per Capita Per Caolte of U.S. 1958 5 2,081 S WM 83.61 53,201 53,907 81.91 7919 2,231 2,755 81.0 3,372 4,075 82.5 1960 2,267 2,815 80.5 3,355 4,097 81.9 1961 2,304 2,867 80.4 3,381 4,136 81.7 1962 2,442 3,042 80.3 3,524 4,309 81.6 1963 2,563 3,167 83.9 3,680 4,41t 83.3 1964 2,767 3,338 82.9 3,548 4,567 83.9 1965 2,945 3,572 82.4 4,005 4,604 83.4 1966 3,170 3,867 82.0 4,195 5,038 83.3 1957 3,357 4,051 82.9 4,275 5,125 83.4 1968 3,700 4,382 64.4 4,496 5,309 84.7 1969 4,051 4,690 86.4 4,695 5,403 86.9 1970 4,276 4,871 87.8 4,633 5,327 87.0 1971 4,595 5,210 88.2 4,731 5,427 87.2 1972 5,126 5,667 90.5 ',029 5,667 58.7 1973 5,641 6,276 89.9 5,280 5,935 59.0 1974 6,149 6,723 91.5 5,290 5,842 93.6 1975 6,477 7,190 90.1 5,091 5,716 1976 7,208 89.1 7,897 91.3 5,374 5,967 1977 7,987 93.1 8,729 91.5 5,424 6,233 87.0 1976 8,827 9,743 93.6 5,782 6,477 89.3 1979 9,735 10,766 93.4 5,V63 4,588 93.5 1940 10,576 11,585 91.3 5,949 6,493 92.2 1941 11,951 12,887 92.7 6,206 6.766 94.2 1982 12,805 3,242 190 96.7 6,244 6,385 97.8 13,911 44,122 98.5 6,478 6,558 1984 15,428 98.8 15,510 934 6,894 6,942 99.3

Source: Tables 1 end 2 and unpublished July 1st populationostimates from the U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Ecommac Analysis,Regional Economic Measurement Division.

107

B 44 Manufacturing

Inopiorment In ManufacturingIndustrios Virginkt Solectod roars Is recent years all areasa map The Luger the circle. the Lafal employee in hot h I he Virginia have attracted major greater the nirmher of workers electrical machinery and lord Industrial 1N4 new industrial plants. Manta in the Irrald y (see map Dural:Jo pewit industries. In addtt ion. indus Concvntartions In fact ming employment is found 'Tend) Virginia Lumber and wood product s 192.!,03 191200 Irks are ranked according to 191.700 in every county and city M the If a county or my his 1.030 I stun. 21.100 22003 Slate. The counties and cities employment site: thus.' tile Furniture and futures 22.010 or rind. e persons etrcloyed lainiiiher 1 14 undocinrinig '27000 are owe emplcriees in the ekes Stontest,and glass prelmis 23.700 23.000 wl4th have 1.000or more man within a sun idle manuf act I. et. etwan4y. t our ur. Incaa machinery industry in Primary metal industries 12,100 13.500 11300 ofacturing employees are indi ing industry. the ctryisry 10.100 cued by a colored ruck on the Suffolk than there are in t he Fabricated nut al products 10.900 10.500 Shown costae map he ream hail industry 1000 2.419 Machinery. except electrical 111.303 10.600 16.700 plc. Slifka, has owe than Electric and electronic equipment 12.900 15.300 11.900 7,500 4,)9 Transportation equipment 38.700 41303 40 603 40.500 Instruments and related products 42200 43.I00 551011 Mistellaneous manufacturing industries 3.503 3.600 3.600 2.900 3200 Noadtostdo poecke 3200 100M IWO Food and kindred products 220.700 225300 221200 Tobacco manufactures 39 003 30100 39.400 31000 Tem* mitl products 17200 16.100 16.900 D2 Apparel and other testaeproducts 43.100 43.400 41.000 Paper aniallied products 32.000 32.600 32,100 11100 to Pr/Mktg and publishing 15,500 15,500 awn 15,400 Chemicals and allted pteducts 27130 29.300 Petroleum. rubber. and plastics products 12300 32,710 31300 Foal AC tevl Luther and leather products 13.310 15.000 15.600 3.11".0 bast 3.100 3,103 crew Prop 11. # n Pomo., 401.603 420,103 410,900 ForamMa ram Kahn boolirewron ~a ant PM* [bloc,' 1.-I en lam 102 SfutIowl Irks lto'hnfty Nur,. IraUm",traarn cedote WWII" Mime Churn.* Lintliny frog Thai, ant Pirars Scream %WY! "fore* Rim henry 1.*...nni Cinunniunn lours l'inuo 7 Main 1.34., nnno 'Ten naindi serer fad hlry4.431, 41, 1.101,

Fiona rano Mme` It Chow.* (*tug liadarinrNo, tionniunral Ltichevir

*rowel/fr. 401,1111.11 'In.1 134 1.

r1,60.0.66tsa rbrw

fnun 11.14/r I omikee bent.. Nowt t. I 1 WC, 1 n a unt .4 1,. 4 or isa Cow 1141tv I an1. Mt oa a ass hi., i 11../e .04.% VIM*. Fait rods yen -IVs Sion. r. Yoe um. Imes..., e.w ...wry 10 Qlosi If I11.1.009.1,

VM PIM I I o.n....1 tg. 109 RAILROADS OPERATINGN VIRGINIA 1983

The network of rail lines that serves Virginia includes 3,693 milesof track. Two Virginia-based systems (CSX, and Norfolk Southern) connect to major lines in neighboringstates, and a number of shorter lines serve specific areas. Passenger service is provided north and south, and east and west, by Amtrak.

no no . STER 1 ^1..1 Legend .104111 M.n Inno on . se,no Ai

C.R. Consolidated Rail SOU. Southern Railway Corporation System** C.S.R. Chessie System S.S.R. Seaboard System ROVA LE XANDRIA Railroads* Railroad AS C.W. Chesapeake Western V.B.R. Virginia Blue Ridge Railway Railway E.S.R. Eastern Shore Railroad Virginia Central Railway UANTICO Company W.&1N. Winchester and Western INT. Inters'ate Railroad Railroad N.&W Norfolk and Western FREDERICKSBURG Railway** N.E&D.Norfolk, Franklin and Danville Railway N.RB.L.Norfolk and Portsmouth Belt Line Railroad Company DOSWEL R.E&RRichmond, Fredericks- L1FTON burg and Potomac FOR E Railroad COVINGTON:1

b VI' AgVD *OPE,L.c. EFIELo. ETERSB rtADCORD 4

clIRT NEWS N NIX 1410 POgistiobni Efr.TA \ sugtfit. MARTINSVILL UTH 8 TON Roy113 I CLARKS IL LE Ng IV :A M.O. oanno... 4, Part of CSX Corp but operated as Part of Norfolk Southern Corp. independent railroads Source Virginia Department of but operated as independent Highways and Transportation. F1411 railroads. Transportation Division

111 110 Major Commercial and Commuter Airlines Serving Virginia --1983 Legend Major Airlines Commuter Airlines AAAmerican Airlines Inc AFAir France CBCommuter Airlines ALUSAir and Allegheny CEAir Virginia Commuter CJColgan Airways Corp BABritish Airways EDSunbird Airlines Inc. BNBraniff International JOHoliday Airlines. Inc Airways SCAlt KCAeromech Airlines MRIS COContinental Airlines NCNew Air i0001110$ 0 10 10 30 .0 10 /0 DLDelta Air Lines. Inc NOAir North. Inc EAEastern Air Lines. Inc NQCumberland Airlines Washington Dulles AA, Baltimore-Warhington MLMidway Airlines Inc 'PMPilgrim Airlines AF, AL, BA, BN, CE, CJ, CO, 9 AA, AL, CE, DL, EA, JO, NC, NO, NY, NWNorthwest Airlines. Inc UREmpire Airlines NW, PA, RC, SU,TW, OZ, PE, P1, RC, TITW, UA, WO NY New York Air VI Mid South Airlines Manassas CJ Washington National AA, OZOzark Air Lines. Inc WRWheeler Flying AK, AL, BN, CB, CE, CJ, DL, PAPan American World Service. Inc EA, KC, ML, NC, NO, NW, Airways ZBAir Vectors Airways NY, OZ, PA, PI, PM, OH, RC, PE People Express ZNTennessee Airways Inc. TOW, UA, UR, VL, WA Airlines. Inc PI Piedmont Aviation. Inc 0 OHAir Florida to RCRepublic Airlines. Inc. co SUAeroflot Shenandoah Valley AL TI Texas International Airlines. Inc. Hot Springs CJ Charlottesville CE, PI TWTrans World Airlines UAUnited Airlines. Inc. WAWestern Airlines. Inc. Richmond ED,AL,CE, WOWorld Airways. Inc. EA, PI, UA Lynchburg CE, PI Roanoke CE, PI

Bluefield KC Nevrpoews

Norfolk AL, CE, EA, ED, PA, PE, PI, UA, WR Bristol Tri-City AL, PI Danville VL

Note' In addition lo the commercial The 14 commercial airports shown on this map provide sheduled airlineservice. airlines serving Virginia. there are NQte:, several air cargo companies which In addition, 65 airports are licensed for public use by general aviation(private, provide air cargo service to airports In 1982, the 3 Washington-area airports bolh inside and outside the Slate cargo, rental, charter, and corporate planes). handled over 225 million pounds of air freight and more than 20 million passengers. Source Virginia Department of National, Dulles, and Baltimore-Washington airports schedule about 1200 arrivals or Aviation, departures each day.

112 . 1.13 Virginia Community Northern Virginia Colleges 1983 (Lou d'runtampus)

lord Fair Northern V1r8c14.9. Community adOrrEfaxf l 5* (Alexandria Campus) Kati S1ERLING antis RitC.1 TICS 0 10 70'4---ibt:711{---.7.1,M ANNANDALE BAILEYS CROSSROADS MANASSAS Northern Northern Virginia * Community ( AxiAnner ridnuni2 Campus) EYE: CAVE. (Manassas Cunriln) Northern Kr * Blue Ridge Community Commundy College (Abodbridge Campus) LOCUST G 'V gThrnmarridr Collage CHARLOTTESVILLE * Piedmcnt Virgins 'CLIFTON FORGE Community C.ollege * Doabney & Lancaster f4mmunivriaPPahann°dItionhcangle)lik2 Ca College J Sarount M74ds ELFA UW1,11= (Cperuharnikoadn Community Campus) * Rappahannock * Eastern Shore (Dnochland Can** * r Comenunity College RICHMOND (South Campus) LYNCHBURG Ceiling Wilkie J. Sergeant 1314* .114, DU Ccenmunity College COMMUMIY OCHESTER ROANOKE (DowntownGamma) Southwest Virginia * Virginia Western John Tyler * CommenitY Coder*_ORICHLANDS DU& Community College Community College * New River KEYSVILLE grtImmuni'sidel;tlicagto HAM Tidewater 1.4cuntan Empire Community College * (John H. Daniel Campus) Comrnunty College Community WYTHEVIL LE 0* withowie PO (Virgins Beach Campus) Virginia Nagrionds ALBERTA BIG STONE AP. Community College Tidewater * VIRGINIA BEACH Community College C4mmunitYABINGStret MARTINSVILLE Denvile Southside Virginia * Community Cnilecte FRANKLIN .1Frecteri* Campus) ...... *Patrick *Community College (Christanna Campus) . GiCI 'APEAKE 0 OANV(LLE Tidewater Yr Communityinollege Paul D. Carry* Community College Community College (Chesapeake Campus)

115 114 Virginia institutions of Higher Education-- 1983

WI NCHE

Shenandoah Colley Slau. Prink* Legend & / SuPPol lad SucCoded Conservatory ol Music 0 imserbn of Virginia Notional Gradvrially FourYear Colleges licAu and UnNefsbes ALEXANDRIA Wit 10. ,AL.to g(\ii dooms Mason thdveraltY111 Kawamura to 40-410 Two.Year Colepea 0 -Isms Madison University giMinefitRgeff Wonsan* EgisacOal Thoological Strninary In Virginia WATER FREDE FlICKSBURG &Wynn* Wade 0 Mary Winhinglon WINN STAUNTON Vary Ihrldwin College 0 it1078411tAt. LE

Institur of Textile Technology Vlirsga matrAtirinvaLlWathinetaw& Lee ASHLAND 1 Aworsove.ocetvnii3O*ArERIAVISTA Randolpharlacon Cols 0 N.., ROANOKE L Roanori Collar 0 YNCHOURGIFIS.:14:C"."1"1" Sche:".17:114°11: Flikh.""4"811°61.111°:nrUnVkIneginikvIctiniaThaCairawnwinth4"ILL URG SALEM. t."""4 Will/1P AR MVI L L E U617:11:Univ.nitY De K SBU FIG 0 Hollins Carp grEIE BURG TY4 Collage of Wiltlarni Mary RADFORD 0 National Businus 0 Lyncabore can* 113v4;ni. Poryscanie Collage HA itilltatfAVtifitlem sntitscr Can* 0 Rndeloamicon Virginia sus. eiusfh4d "Ws °RadfordUniverairy Institute & fur UnivecsItY Wornon's .univviafWPO WISE D HampdenSydney College 0 LibartY F E ARUM Hampton inys 111 Plod, Vsltre Col*, &odd Collette NORFOLK 0 Emory a Henry COW* 0 Fermat College EMORY LAWRENCEVILLE Norfolk Sta e Unhorthtyty Virginia Intarmont 1Colileat DANVILLE 0 St. ssit's Collage Easrrn Vrtwua Medical scaock 0 Await College

Note: Professional schools in 2A specialized institution Owing institutions shown Include five law only graduate degrees. schools and two medical schools.

116 117 L VIRGINIAAGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS

The maps and charts on thesepages offer us a chance to play oracle and detective. The U. S. Department of Commercepublishes the Census of Agriculture every fiveor six years. The next issue is due in 1984. Charts from the state of Virginiado not include a breakdown by county or planning district. Here is one way you might proceed: - Find your assigned district on the 1978 maps and charts. - Consider what has happened in this district since 1978. Some areas have had great population growth,so you could speculate that there is less land incrops and livestock today. Other areas have remained almost unchanged,so you might assume that there has been little change in the,agricultural picture. Sometimes agricultural reporters, clippingsfrom the newspapers, or a call to the local government office ofthe Extension Service will yield helpful information. Watch for up-datingsheets to replace these pages.

RANK* Principal Goes and Livestock, Virginia, 19:1 Rank Within State Rank With Other Virginia Based on States Based on Production Acres Valuer!! Commodity Cash Production 1/ as Percent Harvested1/ Production 1/ Receipts 7/ Number V5=7 of U.S. Thousand Acres Rank Rank Thousand Rk Producing gilds Total Dollars Dollars States Rank 1/ Tobacco, All 3/ 73,340 7 264,017 1 242,119 1 Soybeans 12 4 7.37 633,000 2 102,631 4 25,357 2 Peanuts 29 20 .24 103,000 3 92,941 3. 23,724 3 10 3 2.16 Corn for Crain 621,000 3 131,275 2 65,002 4 41 20 Wheat 310,000 4 .69 57,426 6 56,256 3 41 Potatoes 26 .61 16,000 9 22,322 7 19,133 6 Tomatoes 33 /I .70 2,900 12 . 13,420 i 13,420 7 Hay 26 10 .66 973,000 1 123,000 3 11,112 8 Barley 46 2: 1.13 97,000 6 12,426 9 6,614 9 Sweet Potatoes 29 12 1.24 2,300 13 4,347 10 8,997 Snap Beans 10 12 8 2.73 1,200 16 3,266 11 3,266 11 29 9 Corn, Sweet 2,200 .63 14 2,174 12 2,174 12 29 20 .31 Orchsrdgrass Seed 2,000 13 179 16 Rye 721 13 4 2 4.41 13,000 10 1,0/2 15 613 Oats 14 26 12 1.93 20,000 2 1,739 13 3$3 Sorghum Crain 13 36 31 .19 11,000 11 1,207 14 219 16 Cotton Lint and Seed 23 23 .06 300 17 92 17 91 17 17 17 .01 FRUIT& Apples 41,314 1 31,383 1 33 Peaches, Freestone 3 6.04 3,990 2 4,342 2 . 32 9 1.93 LINT-STOCK AND PRODUCTS* 4/ Milk and Cream 222,001 Cattle and Calves 1 50 19 1.31 215,005 2 Broilers3/ 50 30 1.22 137,393 3 Hogs 31 10 3.40 101,029 Twins 4 50 19 1.07 66,600 3 32 6 3.38 424 N 62,343 Sheep and Lambs 6 50 23 1.36 5,603 Chickens, Farm 5 7 41 19 1.3: 2,267 Honey 8 50 20 1.61 2,066 Wool 9 49 23 1.22 222 10 41 22 .87 LIVESTOCK INVENTORY: All Cattle and Calves Rank Based on Inventory 3anuary 1, 1912 Milk Cows 50 26 1.60 January 1, 1922 Hogs and Pigs 50 IS 1.33 December 1, 1921 Sheep and Lambs 30 IS 1.09 3anuary 1, 1922 41 All Chickens, (excludes commercial broilers) 19 1.30 December 1, 1121 Turkey Breeder Hens, 50 22 1.46 December 1, 1151 24 6 4.86 1/ Oil crop ran 21Preliminary. n Does not include Maryland Type 32 tobacco. 4T Calendar ErMlers,egghandlarmcMdmm. year basis except as noted for Year-begins December I, 1980andendsNovembor30, pti. (1982 data will be published in December1983)

853 118 Map 1. Land in Farmsby County: 1978 As percent of land incounty Stat.awag. 39.1 swan

Map 2. Average Sizeof Farm by County: 1978 Awn* gut 175 *cm

U.S. Department of Commerce BUREAU OF THE CENSUS

B 54

119 Map 3. Value of Land and Buildings by County:1978 Average per farm Stale ~ape 5103.915

DcAars Ur lin 103003

=cm - 24icco znaco - axisce 304003 ce fro,

Map 4. Value of Agricultural Products Sold by County:1978 SUN Iota 51.304.104,003

Wars Lao tin 5 frlicn . I5 tram ...... 10 -14 macin rrrrl.:g:a15 - 19 rn4crl 44110414.0. 2) (rem cr Ira* J.S. Department of CommerceBUREAU OF THE CENSUS

a55 .L () M 1p 5. Cattle and Calves Inventoryby County: 1978 Slam total 1.500,168

WO. and co. r A wishri CO3 1:771 4CO3- ACCO 1:...ezi 14C00- 190:41 M:ra 21003 - MOO 341:03 or troy

Map 6. Milk Cows Inventory byCounty: 1978 slaw taw mo63

1.41k CO*11 Less than 100 . . . .100499 500 1999 U.S. Department of Commerce BUREAU OF THE CENSUS ::,,.., 2000 4099 Wee.5000 M ni.m.

"i21 Map 7. Soybeans Harvested for Beans by County:1978 State tote 486,515 r rya

Acres = Pbne 1 - C2 4,869 Rar::01 60:0 -8.928 140:0171717.

Map 8. Tobacco Harvested by County: 1978

St818 total 76,021 eves

U.S. Department of Commerce BUREAU OF THE CENSUS . B 57 122 VALUE OF STANDING TIMBER CUT IN 1981 IN VIRGINIACOUNTIES (Data from Virginia Division of Forestry)

Accomack $1,399,400 Lancaster 235,600 Albemarle 1,054,200 Lee 116,800 Alleghany 446,400 Loudoun 222,800 Amelia 2,144,000 Louisa 1,178,600 Amherst 3,311,800 Lunenburg 1,849,300 Appomattox 801,000 Madison 584,200 Augusta 620,700 Mathews 259,900 Bath 195,600 Mecklenburg 1,915,200 Bedford 1,509,500 Middlesex 399,100

Bland . 62,800 Montgomery 61,100 Botetnurt 368,000 Nelson 1,076,800 Brunswick 4,497,600 New Kent 1,620,200 Buchanan 11,300 Northampton 811,100 Buckingham 1,757,100 Northumberland 474,400 Campbell 1,632,100 Nottoway 1,133,700 Caroline 2,460,700 Orange 1,567,900 Carroll 843,900 Page 39,200 Charles City 1,714,100 Patrick 590,500 Charlotte 1,396,500 Pittsylvania 1,602,700 Chesapeake 144,800 Powhatan 703,500 Chesterfield 1,222,100 Prince Edward 1,178,700 Clarke 40,700 Prince George 2,177,200 Craig. 203,600 Prince William 409,200 Culpeper 721,000 Pulaski 4,200 Cumberland 674,000 Rappahannock 201,200 Dickenson 74,600 Richmond 470,700 Dinwiddie 4,760,700 Roanoke 64,800 Essex 951,2W Rockbridge 1,019,000 Fairfax 44,000 Rockingham 269,800 Fauquier 181,200 Russell 1,065,000 Floyd 527,700 Scott 115,500 Fluvanna 625,400 Shenandoah 252,300 Franklin 771,100 Smyth 124,600 Frederick 475,700 Southampton 5,417,000 Giles 26,800 Spotsylvania 1,037,300 Gloucester 833,200 Stafford 531,500 Goochland 420,000 Suffolk 4,690,000 Grayson 611,800 Surry 1,899,100 Greene 145,400 Sussex 6,435,700 Greensville 2,803,700 Tazewell 87,900 Halifax 1,235,100 Virginia Beach 91,200 Hanover 1,637,400 Warren 179,400 Henrico 430,500 Washington 492,300 Henry 922,600 Westmoreland 901,800 Highland 591,400 Wise 221,300 Isle of Wight 3,461,000 Wythe 41,500 James City 183,400 York 353,400 King & Queen 1,538,700 King George 955,500 King William 1,908,900 State Total $100,903,000

Note: Since county boundariesare not drawn in the woods, there may be slight inaccuracies in thereports totaled for these figures. 859 123 APPROXIMATE LOCATIONS PRODUCINGAND PROCESSING ROCK AND MINERAL MATERIALSIN VIRGINIA

r, GAS FIELD

.t COAL FIELD

CRUSHED STONE QUARRIES dqi AND PROCESSING PLANTS* 11,1 d d e SLAB STONE QUARRIES AND PROCESSING PLANTS ucl d d .5 SAND, GRAVEL, SHALE s s m MANGANESE asd d U URANIUM AREA edd 5 d 5 s e . edd 5dS5 5 d d 5Indde e SS dd S d ddddde .5 jes Ss, ti sd S e 5 .

* Crushed stone includes amphibolite, basalt types, diabase, This map is a simplified feldspar, granite types, limestone-dolomite (the most version'. common(, metavolcanic rocks, Contact Division of quartzite-sandstone, and shale. Mineral Resources for exact information.

124 125 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA Vol. 57, No. 11

This News Letter was reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University of Virginia.

THE GEOGRAPHY OFVIRGINIA By James W. Fonseca

Mr Fonseca ts an associate professor of geography in Virginiasuburbs of Washington, D.C. the Department of Public Affairs. George Mason Beyond the beltway, a suburban landscape Unitersuj. Northern Virginia shares in the relative of single family homes predominates until wealth and dense population of this econom- the rural fringe of western Loudoun and The human geography of contemporary ically complex, urbanized region, but it is Prince William counties is reached. Virginia is the product of complex interac- lessoriented to manufacturing thanis CHESAPEAKE FRINGE tion between the state's physical environ- Megalopolis as a whole. Instead, Northern Despite its proximity to Northern Virgin- ment and its human population. The diverse Virginia is more oriented both togovern- ia, the Virginia portion of the Chesapeake physiographic regions of the statethe mcnt employment and to indirect, Fringe of MegalopolisNorthern Neck, the Coastal Plain, the Piedmont, the Blue Ridge, government-related employment with concerns such as consulting firms, legal offices, Middle Peninsula, and the Eastern Shore the Shenandoah Valley, and the Appala- is a very different area. The Chesapeake chian Plateauare important influences, public interest groups, trade associations, but they are not the only factors explaining and firms specializing in governmentcon- Fringe has preserved enough of its natural environment to be able to take advantage of regional population distribution and eco- tracts. Although the cutbacks in federal spending can be expected to have an adverse the "Four Fs" of farming, fishing, forestry, nomic activity in the Commonwealth. One and fun (tourism, water recreation, and of the more criticalfactors influencing impact upon the region's economy, other recent developments such as the relocation vacation homes). The importance of these Virginia's geography is the location of the activities can be seen, for example, in state in reference to larger multistate regions, of regional and national headquarters of large corporations may counter this effect. Accomack's rank as one of the five counties such as Megalopolis, Appalachia, and the in the state with the largest agricultural Piedmont Manufacturing Belt. The bound- Mobil Oil, American Telephone and Tele- production, as measured in terms of sales aries of these regions are seldom sharply graph, and Time-Life are examples of value; in Northern Neck's role as a vacation demarcated, either on the national or the corporate offices that have relocated in Northern Virginia in the last few years. and retirement home area; in thenumerous Virginialandscape.However, auseful Northern Virginia's population will con- coastal towns dependent upon fishing and approximation of their spatial extent in oystering; and in the rather high dependence Virginia can be obtained by analyzing the tinue to grow, although most likely not so rapidly as during the 1970-1980 period. of Northern Neck and the Middle Peninsula state's physical geography in terms of social upon the forestry products industry. and economic data for nine contemporary During that interval, the region grew by The Chesapeake Fringe thus is still quite regions that are based on the boundaries of almost 20 percent, to more than 1.1 million tied economically to its physical geographic the state's twenty-two planning districts (see people. Recently, however, growth in the qualities, including its scenic beauty. En- Figure1).This analysis entire Washington metropolitan area has will begin in croachment upon the region by the three NorthernVirginia, proceedclockwise slowed, although Northern Virginia continues to grow much fastek than the area as a large, close urban concentrations of Rich- around the periphery of the state, and mond, Tidewater, and Northern Virginia conclude with an examination of the whole. appears inevitable. The Chesapeake Fringe Richmond Region in the heart of the state. The landscape of Northern Virginia is. increasingly an urban rather than a subur- gained approximately 17,810 people between 1970 and 1980, giving it a population NORTHERN VIRGINIA ban landscape. Arlington and Alexandria have characteristics of many of the nation's growth rate of 13.9 percent, compared to the Northern Virginia is an integral part of central cities, including substantial black 14.4 percent rate for the state as a whole. Megalopolis, a region first analyzed by population,diverse ethnic communities, Also, as of 1978, the Middle Peninsula internationallyknown geographer Jean urban deterioration, and population loss (Planning District No. 18), in particular, had Gottman. Megalopolis reaches from the more than 31,000 people between 1970-1980. the second highest net in-migrationrate New Hampshire suburbs of Boston to the The continuing construction of the Metro among thestate'stwenty-two planning subway system and the development of a districts. Author's note: The information and statistics used in the article are drawn from a satiety of sources. including publicsuons of the highrise skyline in downtown Arlington TIDEWATER Tayloe Murphy Institute. University of Virginia: the School of (Rosslyn) add to the urban appearance. Forestry and Wildlife Resources. Virginia Polytechnic Institute Urban Tidewater, consisting of the Census About five miles from the Potomac River, Bureau's two Standard Metropolitan Statis- and State Unis truly. the U.S Bureau of the Census: the Virginia this urban landscape grades into a zone of Employment Commission: and the Virginia State Chamber of tical Areas (SMSAs) of Newport News- dense suburbanization (e.g., condominiums, Commerce. icon Gottman 's texts are Megalopolis (New York: Hampton andNorfolk-VirginiaBeach- Twentieth Century Fund. 1961) and Vimma m An Cannily office parks, and townhouse clusters) that (Charlottesiolk. Unit enity Press of Virginia. 1969). Portsmouth, is a sprawling, polycentric extends to1-495,the Capital Beltway. urban area of some 1.15 million people,

;1;...0;; (s';ti:1,1A 1 cnARLorrEsTILLE JULY 1981

126 FIGURE 1. CONTEMPORARY VIRGINIA REGIONS

NORTHERN VIRGINIA

NORTHERN PIEDMONT

NORTHERN VALLEY ..... - RICHMOND

.1...... / CHESAPEAKE FRINGE /16"...... ,C ...... 4 ,k, \ 4 " We. `/P".'Z... 7 ., 00.110 ri . /I ...... 1.1 ,..;...... :1!

VOt Oe / ...... 1r7. 7"

SOUTHERN P EDMONT-VALLEY SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA INDUSTRIAL ZONE SOUTHSIDE TIDEWATER SOURCE: Constructed by the author froma map of planning districts provided by the Office of Local Development Department of Housing. Programs. Virginia NOTE: The numbers in each region identify the state'stwenty-two planning districts. worthy of being called the "Los Angeles of which is the principal export of the Hampton a low wage type. such as textiles, apparel. Virginia." The Census Bureau's division of Roads area. The coal exports. while not an this area into two separate SMSAs makes it and forest products. Three Southside coun- exceptional generator of employment, also ties are included among the six Virgin' easy to lose sight of the impressive size of this have increased tremendously over recent urban agglomeration. The combined metro- counties that produce the most hard% o. years. timber, and three Southside counties politanregionnot onlyis are the largest among the six highest in softwood timber metropolitan area in Virginia but also, with SOUTHSIDE production as well. the exception of Atlanta. is the largest urban concentration in a vast area of the southern Southside, which includes planning dis- Petersburg and Hopewell are exceptions tricts13, 14, and 19, is Virginia's poorest to the manufacturing pattern in Southside, United States whose boundary to the north region. It is located mainly on the Piedmont The specialties of these cities are cigarette extends to Washington. D.C.. to the southto Tampa. and to the west to Houston. and partly on the Coastal Plain of south and chemical production. both of whichpay central Virginia. Southside forms part of higher wages than other Southside indus- Urban Tidewater's economic base is port- a larger region that includes much of adjacent tries. Petersburg and Hopewell could.:n related. including shipbuilding ship repair, north central North Carolina. This fact, be considered part of the Richmond navalinstallations, area. cargotransfer and which has a large black population, is just Region, in which case the importance of storage, and manufacturing related to the outside the reach of the economic spillover agriculture and forestry to Southside would processing of imports and exports. Associat- effects from Tidewater, Richmond. and be much more striking. Thus, in a fashion ed with the ports' military role are almost Lynchburg. Low incomes, low educational similar tothe ChesapeakeFringe, 50.000federalcivilian the employees. The attainment, high unemployment, and physicalenvironment tourist industry of Virginia Beach and the gener- anditsprimary al lack of economic opportunity make this products,overall, Williamsburg area and the agricultural greatlyinfluencethe activity area one of exceptionally slow growth (2.0 economic character of this region. of Suffolk and Southhampton percent). In income levels, for example, counties add variety to the region'secono- SOUTHERN PIEDMONT-VALLEY Greensville County had the lowest per capita INDUSTRIAL ZONE my. Meat processing (especially pork pro- personal income for all 136 of the state's ducts), soybeans, and peanuts are among Virginia's southwestern Piedmontarea is cities and counties in 1978 ($4,296, only 56 the northernmost extension of the Piedmont that area's specialties. percent of the state's,average). Tidewater's economic future is bright for Manufacturing Belt. This industrial zone. a An important factor in the economic base dynamic belt of small- and medium-sized many reasons. Increased 'defense spending, of most of this region is general agriculture, particularly for shipbuilding, will aid the manufacturing cities. sprawls across the withtobacco aparticularlyimportant Piedmont from northern Georgia to Lynch- region. In addition, Tidewater's hinterland product in the western half of the region. for all types of cargo is a bustling Sunbelt burg. Although the western edge of this Southside's agriculture is characterized bya industrial zone in the rest of the South region that extends well west of the Appala- high rate of tenant farming, a smallpropor- chians into the Tennessee Valley, and well corresponds closely with the Blue Ridge tion of part-time farmers, a large number of Mountains, in Virginia's case the river gaps beyond the Coastal Plain into the Piedmont farms operated by blacks, and a relatively of the Southern Atlantic coast. Tidewater cut in the Blue Ridge by the James any' low investment in farm machinery. Roanoke rivers have helped to shape t' also stands to benefit from its own momen- Manufacturing is also important to the tum. The increasing concentration of popu- state's transportation corridors and hat,. economy butitis not well distributed allowed the industrial development of the lation and manufacturing within the Tide- throughout the region. Most manufacturing Piedmont to spill west beyond the Blue water region itself makes the ports both a is concentrated in Halifax and Mecklenburg Ridge. Therefore, it is appropriate to add producer and consumer of more andmore of counties, adjacent to the Piedmont-Valley Roanoke and several adjacent cities in the their low bulk, high value general cargo. This Industrial Zone, and in the cities of Peters- Southern Valley to the zone. The whole type of cargo generates much more employ- burg and Hopewell, adjacent to the Rich- Virginia region. appropriately called the ment growth in Tidewater than does coal, mond Region. Manufacturing is primarily of Southern Piedmont-Valley Industrial Zone. 127 includes planning districts 4, 5, 11, and 12. and Valley Province and the Appalachian Farming in the three plateau counties is The region is home to about 827,000 people. Plateau. The high, rugged topography of the particularly limited due to topography. The 15.5 percent of the state's 1980 population. plateau is most pronounced in the three Southern Valley has a better quality of land A wide variety of products are manufac- counties of Wise. Dickenson, and Buchanan. but is handicapped by distance from large tured in the cities and counties of this region. Southwest Virginia is also part of two larger, markets. As a result of these factors, a but most employment derives from the overlapping regions of national importance. specialization has developed in the raising of manufacture of textiles. apparel, shoes. and Appalachia and the Tennessee Valley. Both beef and dairy cattle and sheep. A high furniture. Chemicals, primary and fabricat- regions have been designated as areas in need percentageof farmlandisdevotedto ed metals, electrical machinery, and food of economic development and have benefit- pasture. and a high percentage of cropland is processing are secondary specializations. In ed greatly from federal assistance through devoted to hay production. Many farm total, this region employs more than 125,000 the Appalachian Regional Commission and operations are of a part-time nature with manufacturing workers, about one-third of the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA). limited sales: the state's labor force in manufacturing. Almost all of Southwest Virginia (generally, Lynchburg and Roanoke are the two planning districts I. 2, and 3) falls under the NORTHERN VALLEY largest metropolitan areas in the region. jurisdiction of both of these authorities. (The The Northern Shenandoah Valley While metropolitan Lynchburg's specialties is exceptions are Buchanan and Carroll coun- characterized by a nicely balanced. diverse are electrical machinery and primary and ties, which are not included in the TVA.) fabricated metals, all manufacturing catego- landscape combining natural beauty. agri- The last decade has seen the economy of culture. rural towns. and small cities. The ries important to the zone are located in the Southwest Virginia change dramatically. cities and towns have one or more functions Lynchburg SMSA. Roanoke, by compari- Traditionally a poor, predominantly white son, is a more diversified city. Despite a based on agricultural supply, manufactur- area characterized by many of the same ing. college. or resort specializations. The larger population-223.000 in the Roanoke limited opportunities that have hindered economic ties of the Northern Valley to its SMSA and154.000 intheLyncl;.)urg Southside, Southwest Virginia is now an SMSAthe Roanoke SMSA has 8.000 regional continuation northward through area of reduced unemployment, higher West Virginia, Maryland. and Pennsylvania fewer manufacturing employees. Instead, educational attainment, and better incomes. Roanoke is more specialized in transporta- are now weak. due to the eastward pull of the Even with such improved conditions, how- Baltimore,Washington, and Richmond tion, communications, trade, and services. ever. Southwest Virginia is not as well off as markets. Yet thehistoricalties of the This partly reflects the location in Roanoke the state as a whole, according to various of the Northern Valley to the larger Appalachian headquarters of the Norfolk & socioeconomic measures. Perhaps the most Valley region have indelibly shaped Western Railroad. as well as the city's its promising sign is that Southwest Virginia culture and landscape. The northern portion geographic situation at the crossroads of two now not only retains much of its native of theShenandoah Valley was settled major transportation corridors: the north- population but also is experiencing net in- initially by German and Scotch -Irish pio- south 1-81 corridor through the Shenandoah migration. Planningdistricts 1 and 2 neers who traveled through the Valley Valley and Route 460 east to Lynchburg and illustrate this with growth rates of 15.5 southward from Pennsylvania. the Richmond Region. Roanoke is ina percent and 23.6 percent,respectively, The main economic base of the Northern better position than Lynchburg to capture between 1970 and 1980. Valley is agriculture, a specializationex- wholesale and retail trade from all of the The renewed demand for coal, of course, is SouthernValley and from Southwest pressed most fullyin Rockingham avid part of the reason for the renaissance of Augusta counties. Rockingham County is Virginia. Southwest Virginia. But coal production is To the south of Roanoke and Lynchburg the leading county in the state in terms of the not widely dispersed throughout the region; sales value of agricultural products. Live- is the Danville-Martinsville complex.an it is extremely concentrated withinthe stock is the region's agricultural mainstay. urban concentration that could be called plateau counties of Buchanan, Dickenson, Pigs, Virginia's "undesignated SMSA.- These two beef and dairy cattle. sheep. and and Wise, which accounted for about 83 poultry are raised. Alfalfa and grain for cities, only thirty miles apart. together with percent of the state's production in 1976. In their surrounding counties of Henry and livestock are major crops. and the northern the counties of the southern Appalachian counties of the region, especially Frederick Pittsylvania, are home to 183.000 people- Vz.11ey, manufacturing. agriculture, trade. 29.000 more people than in metropolitan and Clarke, also specialize in apples and and transportation-related employment add apple products. Unlike the Southern Valley Lynchburg. Approximately 43.500 manu- substantially to the economy. facturing employees work in these four cities portion of Southwest Virginia. farming is Galax. a Valley city, contributes to the largely a full-time operation: and unlike and countiesa remarkable figure in com- region's urban economy with its specializa- parison to population size. Thus, the urban- Southside, investment in farm buildings and tion in the manufacture of many of the same machinery is high. industrialcoreofVirginia'sSouthern products as the Piedmont-Valley Industrial Manufacturing, the second most impor- Piedmont-Valley Industrial Zone isbest Zone, particularly furniture and textiles. tant activity of the region. is present in all of thought of as centered not simply along the Bristol, located on the Virginia-Tennessee Lynchburg-Roanoke axis. the cities of the Northern Valley: but the but rather as border, is'a Tennessee Valley city and part of largest centered about a triangle whose three points concentrations of manufacturing the Johnson City-Kingsport-Bristol SMSA employment are found in are Danville-Martinsville, Roanoke. and thecities of of 411.000 people, of which 90.500 are in Waynesboro and Winchester and Rocking- Lynchburg: Virginia,WhileBristol alsohas many ham County, each of which hasmore than In addition to manufacturing, this region workers in the textile, apparel, and furniture 5.000 workers. Electrical machinery,appar- also has important agricultural and forestry industries, itis much more specialized in el, and food processing are the region's production. Pittsylvania is one of the five industries such as printing and publishing, manufacturing specialties. Virginia counties with the largest agricultur- fabricated metals, and nonelectrical machin- Per capita income is slightly below the al production, as measured in terms of value; ery. This specialization in less traditional state average in the Northern Valley. while industries and the Valley counties of the region is perhaps responsible for the population growth has been slightly above produce a variety of livestock products and Bristol area's very rapid growth as a average. The three largest cities of the region crops. especially tobacco. Because of the manufacturing center. The value added by are Harrisonburg. Staunton. and Winches- importance of the furniture industry as well manufacture in the Virginia portion of the ter; the counties surrounding these cities as forestry production, the region's Planning SMSA grew by i38 percent between 1972 (Augusta, Rockingham, andFrederick, District 12is dependent on the forest and 1977, a figure far in excess of the state respectively) experienced the majority of the products industry for one-third of its base average growth of 76 percent. Northern Valley's population growth be- employment,thelargestproportion of Agricultureistheleading economic tween 1970 and 1980. dependence among all of the state's planning activity in Planning District 3, as measured districts. by employment, and is second only to NORTHERN PIEDMONT mining in planning districts I and 2. This is The Northern Piedmont isa diverse. SOUTHWEST VIRGINIA true despite the fact that Southwest Virginia rapidly growing. nonmetropolitan region Southwest Virginia straddles two very as a whole presents some of Virginia's concentrated primarily on the Piedmont and different physiographic regions, the Ridge poorestopportunities foragriculture. partly on the Coastal Plain. It is generally the 128 area encompassed by planning districts 9.10, the growth is a spillover both from Northern and 16. payrolls of local jurisdictions. In fact, when Virginia and from Richmond. Growth in the number of state employees as a percen- The economic base of this large region is Albemarle County is tied directly to the tage of population is considered, Richmond diverse and defies simple generalization. growth of the University of Virginia, as well is not heavily specialized ingovernment Employment in construction is important to as indirectly to that institution through its employment. Banking, the manufacture of all three planning districts, due to rapid attraction of engineering firms, high technol- nondurable goods, transportation, and r population growth in the region as well as to ogy firms, and state and federal agencies. are greater relative specializations. long-distance commuting by some construc- The City of Richmond, the major empioy- tion workers living in the region to jobs in RICHMOND REGION ment focus, best illustrates the diversity of Washington and Richmond. Government is the region. Richmond provides employment The Richmond Region straddles the Fall a large employer also. Planning District 16 is foratotalof approximately Line, the meeting zone of the Coastal Plain 193,000 secondonlytotheNorthernVirginia workers. In order of the number of workers, and the Piedmont. It is home to approxi- planning district in the number of workers the major employment categories of the city specializing in public administration; this is mately 631,000 Virginians, a grin in popula- are wholesale and retail trade; services; tion of about 15 percent between 1970 and largely attributable to residents commuting manufacturing; state government; finance, to Northern Virginia to work. Another 1980. Approximately 220,000 of the region's insurance, and real estate; transportation concentration of government workers is residents live in the City of Richmond,a and public utilities; and Richmond city drop of about 30,000 from 1970. However, locatedinCharlottesville and adjacent government.Withinthemanufacturing, Albemarle County. This area has more than this loss of population is more than madeup by category of some 32,000 employees, almost 12,000 state employees, most related to the migrationintothesuburbanring. one-third work in the tobacco industry. Chesterfield, Hanover, and Henrico coun- University of Virginia, as well as 1.000 Other important manufacturing categories ties, in particular, have experienced growth federal workers. Agriculture is a major are printing, paper, food processing, appar- rates of 83 percent, 34 percent, and 17 employer in planning districts 9 and 10. A el, furniture, fabricated metals, and chemi- percent, respectively, over the last decade. variety of crops are grown, and livestock cals. This economic diversity, whichis particularlybeef and dairycattle and Richmond is well situated to play an typical of the entire Richmond region, helps important role among Virginia's regions. It horsesalso contributes to the economy. to insulate it from hardship due to economic is located approximately equidistant from Albemarle fluctuationinparticular sectors of the County-Charlottesville and Northern Virginia, Tidewater, and Lynch- Spotsylvania economy. The region's location also allows it County-Fredericksburg are burg and is very close to the state's center of theregion'stwolargestmanufacturing to benefit from growth in Northern Virginia, gravity of populationwhich, by the 1980 Tidewater, and the Piedmont-Valley regions concentrations. Interestingly, a dispropor- calculation, is located thirty milt webt of and, indeed, the state as a whole. tionate number of industrial workers in the Richmond near the PowhatanGoochland Northern Piedmont workforforeign- County border. The city also benefits from SUMMARY affiliated companies. In particular, in a an excellent position in reference to the continuous strip of Piedmont counties be- As this discussion of Virginia's geography state's transportation network, lying at the has shown, each of Virginia's nine contem- ginning with Loudoun (in the Northern Vir- junction of 1-64 and I-95, two of the most ginia region) and proceeding south through porary regions has a physical geographical heavily traveled highways in the state, as well base that offers opportunities for varying Fauquier, Culpeper, Orange, Louisa, and as along several major rail lines. Fluvanna, ten foreign-affiliated manufac- combinations of agriculture, fishing, fry. The outlook for the Richmond Region's ry, mining, and recreation. The locati turing plants employ approximately 2,400 economic future is a positive one, not workers, or about 39 percent of the manu- each region, both in relation to the rest of 1::e because of any single factor but because of .state and to the larger national regions, also facturing workers inthesixcounties. thediversity of the region's economy. The Northern Piedmont accounted for has an important influence on industrial and Richmond's role as the state capital contrib- urban r velopment. These environmental more than one-third of all the nonmetropoli- utes to, but does not dominate, the region's tan population growth in the state between and loc ttional qualities interact in complex economy, as does government-related em- ways to influence the economic base of each 1970 and 1980. During that same period ployment in Northern Virginia or federal thirteen of the region's fourteen counties (the Virginia region, providing a wide-ranging military spending in Tidewater. While there diversityin employment and economic exceptionbeing Nelson County) expe- are 37,000 state workers in the region, this is rienced growth in excess of the state average activity. Overall, this diversity adds stability only 12 percent of the labor force. Another to the state's economy and provides the of 14.4 percent. A variety of factors appear 9,500 people work for the federal govern- to be contributing to this growth. Some of residents of Virginia with a fascinating, ment, and almost 25,000 work on the heterogeneous landscape.

THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

Entered as second-class matter Charlottesville, Virginia

(ISSN 0042-0271) Editor / Clifton McCleskey Assistant Editor / Sandra H. Wiley Published each month from September throt3h August by the Inititute of Government. Minn/ q of 129 V4Ma, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903. Ttsziews and opinions expressed betein are thou of the author, and are not to be intapttted as representing the official position of the Institute or the University. Entered as amondclaes matter January 2,1923; at the post office at Charlottesville, Virginia, under the act of August 24, 1912. 1961 by The Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia. Printed by the University Printing Office. C CITIZEN POWER IN VIRGINIA

Using Section C - Citizen Power in Virginia C 3 4

CITIZEN POWER IN VIRGINIA- A 4-page Summary of Information Suitable for Student Use, or for Teacher Information C 5- 8

REAPPORTIONMENT (1981-82) AND VOTING RIGHTSIN VIRGINIA A Summary of the Process, with Questionsfor Discussion. Suitable for Student Use, or for Teacher Information C 9-10

A BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE POLITICAL &ECONOMIC HISTORY OF VIRGINIA. For Teacher Background- Not Intended for Student Use. C 11 30

Institute of Government, University ofVirginia News Letters for Teacher Information and as Resourceson Specific Issues The 1982 Election for U. S. Senator in Virginia- Sabato The 1981 Gubernatorial Election in Virginia- Sabato Occupational Background, RecruitmentPatterns, and Party in the Virginia General Assembly, 1970-1981- Gunlicks Virginia's State Corporation Commission(2 Issues) I - Historical Perspective - O'Toole & Montjoy II - Decision-Making Today- Montjoy & O'Toole Virginia's Local Executive ConstitutionalOfficers (2 Issues) - In Historical Perspective - Cook A Contemporary Profile- O'Rourke & Asimos 1981-82 Reapportionment of the VirginiaHouse of Delegates- Schuiteman & Selph

CITIZEN POWER

C 1

131) USING SECTION C - CITIZEN POWER IN VIRGINIA

The resources in Section C are designed to helpteachers teach students how to use their citizen power for greater involvementin the course and in the community, in response to the objectives ofthe Standards of Learning for the Social Studies.

The 4-page segment, "Citizen Power in Virginia,"is planned to be a student handout. Use it as it is, or re-write it to suityour needs. Whether you use the first three pages or not, you might addnames of your current officials to the addresses and salutations notedon the fourth page, and post a chart in your classroom, or duplicate it foryour students, as they become more interested in Virginia issues. Many teachers stimulate citizen power in their classes by offering credit to students whosubmit a copy of a letter sent to an official, along with theresponse they receive.

The 2-page segment on "Reapportionment (1981-82)and Voting Rights in Virginia," may be useful as a student handout,when you are studying elections and voting, the process of reapportionment,or the General Assembly. The supporting data for this summary is in the Universityof Virginia News Letter on reapportionment, included in this section of the notebook. Assign a report on the News Letter to one student, and ask another to findout what happened in your particular area. This is another good opportunity to inviteyour Delegate to visit your classes, to discuss your particular districtor the process, or both. This topic is being studied by the League of Women Voters of Virginia (in 1984-85).and other organizations,and you may see articles in the news in the coming months. Add a few pages of clippings to this notebook, or Cross-reference a file in your department or library.

The "Brief Survey of Virginia Political & Economic History" is for teachers. It is too brief to be anything more than a framework foryour notes, to help You help your students understand today's politicalscene, and, perhaps, to stimulate you to find some sources and doa little reading. Most government teachers already know this information andmore, but some who come from other states may wonder how Virginia arrived at today's politicaland economic status. The bibliography also may be useful for suggesting outside reading to students, particularly those whoare new to Virginia schools. There are many readable books, written from different perspectives,in bookstores and libraries, and you might want to havea collection in your classroom to loan out or to have on hand for reference. See the 11th grade Virginia History teachers and the librarians inyour school for help on bibliography and on specific topics. Second-hand shelves and library sales also can be a goldmine, since people leaving thestate often discard their specific Virginia materials. Look also for the recent pictorial volumes that show the diversity of Virginia-- many of them are very handsome collections.

Use the several University of Virginia News Letters inthis section for your own information. If you read through them at your leisure,you may find several times during the year when bits of informationwill be useful in class C 3

131. Using Section C (cont'd) discussion. If you decide to "posthole" one of the topics in theNews Letters, send for additional copies, or assign News Letter topicsfor student reports, using the bibliography provided here. You will have the advantage of the authoritative News Letter summary atyour fingertips.

Reminder: News Letters are copyrighted. Order additional copies by title and date, from: Teacher Resources Institute of Government Minor Hall University of Virginia Charlottesville, VA 22903

132

C4 CITIZEN POWER IN VIRGINIA

A Brief Look at the Past

Washington, Jefferson, Madison,Monroe, Mason, Wythe, and other founding fathers ofour nation were the leaders of the Virginia. young state of They spoke and wrote eloquentlyabout democracy, but in those citizen participation days, was expected only by white, male,propertyholders. Following the Civil War, as part of the compromise thatallowed Virginia to become again a state, the 1868 Constitutiongave the right to vote to all including blacks. men,

But this partial opening of political participationwas brief, for in 1902, most blacks and poor whites were disenfranchised bya poll tax and literacy requirements. Virginia followed a nationaltrend by limiting the vote to those who were considered most likely to understand theissues, to have a stake in the actions of government, and to continue thepolitical "establishment" in control. A small, "like-minded" body ofvoters remained the pattern until the 1960s.

The most dramatic political and social changes in Virginiasince the Civil War were brought aboutby actions of the national which have opened government, actions up our system and made CITIZEN POWERa possibility, a reality, in the 1980s:

Brown v. Board of Education (1954) This Supreme Court decision outlawed segregation of black and white school children,stating that separate had never been equal. Though it took some years toimplement, this decision makes possible the educationsystem that can provide essential skills to all Virginians. citizenship

The 24th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. This amendment branded the poll tax as unlawful, and began the process ofopening up voter participation as a right of allcitizens.

Baker v. Carr (1963) This Supreme Court decisionrequired fair representation and apportionment in both houses of statelegislatures, disrupting the landed-gentrycontrol of many urbanizing Virginia. states, including

The Civil Rights Act & VotingRights Act (1964-65) of Congress, and the These two acts subsequent legislation andcourt cases, have outlawed government discrimination against minorities in our society andthe diminution of their politicalpower. literacy tests and devices thathad been used to control voter registration were declared illegal, and jurisdictionsthat had used them are still requiredto obtain preclearance for districts or procedures. any changes in voting Some exemptions are allowed, butthe state of Virginia and several particular jurisdictions in Virginiaare still included in these preclearanceprovisions.

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13tt)0 Virginia Citizen PowerToday

Virginia is no longeronly a rural commonwealth, vast areas of sparsely-populated though there are still rural land. The urban corridor and east from Washington extends south to Fredericksburg,Richmond, and Tidewater, attracting new industries, government and militaryfacilities, and people. The growth also has new been felt in scatteredareas around the state. Bristol, Charlottesville,Danville, Lynchburg, and to the list of Standard Roanoke have all beenadded Metropolitan StatisticalAreas (SMSAs) in recognition of their positionsas centers of urban population. the diversity that This growth contributesto characterizes Virginia today-- people from different backgrounds, with wide-ranging skills and contributionsto make to the social, economic, and politicalscene.

Blacks comprise about 20%of the total Virginia concentrated in the eastern population, andare half of the state,where many areas have populations 30% black, and others range from10 to 70% black. registration has increased Black voter in the past fewyears, and the black vote is considered important in now a great many Virginia elections. The 1981-82 reapportionment of theGeneral Assembly created may result in the election single-member districts,which of more black membersof both houses. Virginians, both natives and newcomers,are demanding roads, airports, clean air and water,education, and various those in other states. social programs comparableto Virginia's heritage oflean and carefully-financed government, and the budgetexpansion allowed by almost past few decades, has steady growth in the permitted significantprogress toward many of these goals, but the stateremains behind national levels in many others. Combined state and local taxesare below the national median, though there is such variety among thestates that comparisons are difficult. There is on-going study by legislatorsand citizen groups of the fairness and appropriatenessof all the taxes inVirginia, Watch the news.

In Virginia's transition to a two-party state (duringthe 1970s), party labels were confused,and the word conservative became the key to political success in many parts of thestate. The way to defeatan opponent was to plant the label "moderate"or "liberal" on the candidate sometimes with or the platform. no regard to actual positionson issues of the day. politicians mean bythese words? (What do Know the issues. Ask questions.) The end of the closed political structure brought Virginiaa new challenge. The old "they" isnow "we." How can Virginians improvethe poor percentage of voter participation? How can Virginians candidates for office? encourage better help them win?support their efforts for government? How will you use better your citizen power?(Assignment: Write a list cf points you wouldinclude in an essay ready to write answering these questions,and be or discuss your views inclass.)

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134 Citizen Power in Virginia (cont'd)

Opoortunitites and Challenges for theFuture

The questions that follow call for specific answers thatyou will be asked to write or discuss during the course of this unit. Your answers may come from many sources. Make notes so you will be readyto deal with them.

1 - What kinds of services do Virginia citizens want?Are there basic levels of service that some branch of government should maintain insuch continuing problrins as poverty and malrutrition? health care? education? transportation: management of water resources? juvenile and family aid? care of the elderly? crime control and corrections? other?

2 - How should we pay for theseservices? (Consider general taxes, special or user taxes, at thelocal, state, or national level.)

3 - What is the role of the politicalparties?

4 - What is the role of private,citizen groups?

5 - What is the role of the individualcitizen -- YOU? (Some people say that it starts righthere, in government class!)

USE YOUR CITIZEN POWER

Since fewer Virginians vote andparticipate in party politics, your vote, your interest and participationcount even more! 1 - Register to vote. 2 - Be informed- read, discuss, learn about the issues. Meet candidates.Ask questions. 3 - Help choose candidates. VOTE IN PRIMARIES. Few voters usually participate in these elections, so your vote is much more influential. ATTEND MASS MEETINGS & CONVENTIONS. The meeting you don't attendmay be the one that chooses candidates whom you will not want to support. Oftenvery few people, maybe one, maybeyou, will decide the candidates. 4 - Work for good candidates. Stuff envelopes, drive votersto the polls, baby sit, ring doorbells, distribute literature. Your party will give you lots of choices. Just call or appear and ask whatyou can do to help. (Obviously, if you have worked inthe campaign, yourconcerns are more likely to be considered seriouslyby the office-holder later!) 5 - Be aware of special interest groups and political action committees(PACs) that usually work on onlyone issue. In the real world, legislators must make choices on many,very different issues. Support t' candidate whose views on most issuesagree with yours. (Are single-interest groups active inyour area, influencing candidate selection or voter turnout?) 6 - Vote in the General Election. Urge yoar friends and familyto vote. Offer rides to the polls to handicappedand elderly voters.

C7 ONCE YOU ELECT THEM, DON'TFORaET THEM!

Write! Call! Send a wire! Your representatives probablywant to be reelected. They do care how many votersare pleased or displeased by what they say and how they vote! Include personal reasons foryour request for support of a particular billor action by government.

When you write, write legiblyor type, and use your own stationery.

-Keep your comments toone issue or bill per letter. -Be specific about whatyou want your representative to do. -Be courteous. Do not sound unreasonableor bad-tempered. -Be brief. Your letter will be read, butit is more likely to be processed quickly if it gets tothe point quickly. -Describe personal or community reasons for your request,and mention other people or groups who mightbe affected. -Offer to provide more informationor documentation. -Identify yourself byyour occupation, and don't be shy about admitting that youare a student. Most legislators keep district files that tell them which of their constituentscare about which issues. They are usually impressed whena student takes the trouble to contact them with informedopinions. -Be sure to include your name and address. You do want a reply.

ADDRESS OFFICIALS PROPERLY

Address the Governor: The Honorable Governor of Virginia The State Capitol Richmond, Virginia 23219 Dear Governor Address a legislator: The Honorable The Senate of Virginia (orThe House of Delegates) General Assembly Building Richmond, Virginia 23219 Dear Senator (or Dear Mr./Mrs./Ms.,for Delegates) CITIZEN PGWER DOES NOT STOP WHEN A BILL BECOMES A LAW! Some official or department must administer the program, implement or enforce the law. Public questioning and pressure continues to influence the reactionsof the executive branch of government. Inquire directly to thedepartment or agency. do not get satisfactory If you responses, contact your legislator. Legislators act as ombudsmen to advance or protectthe interests of their constituents, they DO get answers from officials, and since they control executivepurse-strings. CITIZEN POWER ALSO INCLUDES YOUR RIGHT TO FREEDOM OF SPEECHAND PRESS, AND YOUR RIGHT TO ORGANIZE A GROUP ("PEACEABLY TO ASSEMBLE") AND"TO PETITIthd THE GOVERNMENT FOR A REDRESS OF GRIEVANCES." Only a handful of nationsguarantee these rights to their citizens -- we are envied throughout most of the world. It is worth vigilance and informed citizen effort to besure these rights are honored and perpetuated.

DEMOCRACY IS NOT A SPECTATORSPORT!

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136 REAPPORTIONMENT (1981-82) & VOTING RIGHTS IN VIRGINIA

Congressional ReapportionmentEach ten years, after thecensus, district must be checked to be sure that each legislatorin the House of Representatives represents approximately thesame number of citizens. States that have lost population or not gainedas much as others may lose seats in Congress, and states that have gained populationmay gain seats. (Each state has two U. S. Senators in Washington, regardlessof population change.) This process of adjusting district lines to evenup the number of people served by each representative is called reapportionment.

State ReapportionmentThe same process is undertaken in eachhouse of the state legislatures after each census. In Baker v. Carr (1964), the U. S. Supreme Court declared that unequal districtsmake one person's vote more influential than another's and negate the principleof "one person, one vote." The Court opinion stated that "Legislaturesrepresent people, not trees or acres. Legislators are elected by voters,not farms, or cities, or economic interests." Prior to this decision onlyone (lower) house of many state legislatures had been subject to reapportionment.The state senates had been considered sacred preserves of thecounties, the rural strongholds, and until the urban explosion of the last fiftyyears, they had not been too out-of-balance in many of the less populousstates.

Legislatures in most states, including Virginia,redistrict themselves-- and they obviously try everyway to preserve the districts that elected them as individuals, and tAe other members of theirown party.

The Virginia Constitution states thatdistricts are tobe "compact and contiguous." There is no standard for evaluating compliance,but these words appear to outlaw split districts and peculiarly contortedshapes such as the gerrymander that is pictured in many governmenttextbooks.

If your class were the Virginia Houseof Delegates, and ten years ago each of you represented approximately thesame number of people, how would you feel if your district had grown andyou had to give up part of it to a neighbor? You would probably want to keep theareas that had given you the greatest number of votes in thelast election, and you would hope to carve off areas where your supporterswere not so numerous. Since by law you must be a resident of the district you represent,you also would want to be sure that your own neighborhoodwas not cut off and added to another legislator's district. Can you see why the pressures arevery strong to maintain the old lines, even if racialquestions are NOT important ina particular area?

The Voting Rights Act of 1965 (andsubsequent cases) added that when district lines are redrawn, black or other-racial or ethnic voting strengthwas not to be lessened in influence by such devicesas packing all or most of such voters into one district, or by splittingthem in such a way that they would be only minority populations in predominantly whiteor majority-population districts, and therefore less likely to have theirmembers elected to office. Both of these practices had been used inmany states to preserve the districts and positions of those in office. Multi-member and floterial districts hada similar effect in some areas of the South,including Virginia.

1°7 Multi- member districts It was considered preferable fora city or a county to be in one legislative district. When adjoining districts grew at different rates, double or multiple member districtswere sometimes formed, to avoid splitting off part ofa city or county. Multi-member districts tended to be represented by white majoritylegislators, even when a significant black concentration might haveelected a black, had the districts not been combined.

Floterial districts If the lines could not be drawn conveniently,a larger area was drawn to include several over-populatedjurisdictions, and the total excess could support a "floater" seat. Once again, the person elected to this seat would be elected from the wholearea and was very likely to be a member of the majority whitepopulation.

Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act states thatwhere patterns of discrimination had existed, preclearance from theU. S. Attorney General would be required for any changes in districting, registration,or voting. The state of Virginia and some particular areas in Virginiawere identified in this group.

It took 14 months, many reviews by state and federal officials,testimony and litigation by the NAACP and Common Cause, anda special session of the House of Delegates to produce the plan that was finally approved. Virginia now has 100 single-Member districts, though at one point, the confusionwas so great that they found themselves consideringa plan that would have created 101 districts for the 100 seats! This upheaval, with all its political and racial nuances, is thrust into the General Assemblypressure cooker along with over 1500 bills to be considered, and a.budget that cannever stretch to cover the programs requested by thousands of Virginiagroups and individuals...all 'in one hectic 30-day session.. Itseems reasonable to suggest that there must be a better way to do it!

1 - How did your Delegate ristrict change in the1981-82 reapportionment?

2 What part did your Delegate play in the debate?

3 Describe the citizen power used by NAACP andCommon Cause.

4 - A leading voting rights lawyer has suggestedthat Virginia change General Assembly elections to even-numbered years, to allowlegislators a full year to study census data, to use computers to draw possibledistrict lines for consideration, and to. hold public hearings. Look at the Elections Calendar. Do you think that General Assembly elections shouldor should not be changed to even-numbered years. Write at lc.Ist two reasons for your decision.

5 - Do you think the General Assembly should redistrictitself? Write two reasons why they should, and two reasons why they shouldnot.

6 - Can you suggest any other way redistricting mightbe accomplished? (Research question: What methods do other states use?)

7 - Explain.what is meant by "oneperson, one vote."

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138 FOR TEACHER BACKGROUND NOT INTENDED FOR STUDENTUSE

A BRIEF SURVEY OF

VIRGINIA'S POLITICAL& ECONOMIC HISTORY The following pages contain some sweeping generalizations andsome insights into Virginia's past -- to help governmentteachers understand the background oftoday!s issues. THIS IS NOT AN OFFICIAL HISTORIANAPPROVED DOCUMENT. It includes quotations and ideasfrom sources that do not always agree. In fact, the sources mightnot agree on what should be includedin a brief summary.

You and your students would benefit from readingan encyclopedia article such as the one in the Americana, by D. Alan Williams. The Hornbook of Virginia History published by the Virginia StateLibrary offers a broader picture of the Commonwealth, and includesvaluable sections on cultural history and historic landmarks. Other sources are listed at the conclusion of thissegment, and in the Bibliography in Section A of thisnotebook. New 7th grade and 11th grade materials on Virginia historyare available or soon will be appearing in your school. Add them to your bookshelf.

Note: 1984 is the 350th anniversary of the establishmentof the first Englishspeaking localgovernments in the Western Hemisphere...in Virginia. The original countieswere Accawmack, Charles City, Charles River,Elizabeth City, Henrico, James City, Warrosquyoake, andWarwick River, thoughmany no longer retain these names, spellings,or county status.

VIRGINIA'S 1776 CONSTITUTION

Virginia's original constitutionhas been revised six times, at intervals averaging thirtythreeyears. The "founding fathers" frequently mentioned the necessityof amending and rewritinga constitution in each generation to meet the will and the needsof the people; in fact, Jefferson suggested that a specific periodbe stated in the document for revision. Such a provision was includedin the 1868 Constitution, only to be eliminatedin 1902.

George Mason's celebrated Bill of Rights, establishingpersonal rights that are beyond the control of government, becamethe beginning section of Virginia's Constitution. It remains almost unchanged in today's Constitution, and hasbeen adapted for use in the U.S. Constitution and many other documents around the nation andthe world, including the United NationsDeclaration of Human Rights.

State and national documents written during this periodgave the executive almost no power: Virginia's governorwas appointed by the Senate for one year and could serve a maximum of three terms. He could

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1 3 9 act only with the approval ofa Privy Council also chosen by the General Assembly. The newly self-proclaimed stateswere still reeling from the oppression of the British king,so they made popularly-electeC legislatures the decision-making bodies. Voting was a privilege for landowners only.

The ideas of the philosophers of the1700s were basic to the structure of our constitution andour government. Locke and others described the social contract andthe natural law of individuals and their rights to be free from politicaloppression, the responsibility of the community to protect these rights,the responsibility of the government to guard the community, andfinally, the legislature (more important than the executive) tooversee it all, but subject to the peqple's recall if the trust is violated.

If you are teaching college-boundstudents who should be made aware of the political philosophers,you might consider assigning class reports on several of themost important philosophers and their works. There are many sources for summariesof the views of political philosophers. Check your library and second-handbookstores.

The great names in our nation's colonialhistory and struggle for independence were the landedgentry who made decisions in the formation and early days -of Virginia: ThomasJefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, John Randolph, and GeorgeMason, to name only a few. From the words and pens of these leaderscame the ideals and goals that still mark our nation's course today, though manywere very daring -- even revolutionary -- in their time. Equality, individual rights, limited government, majority rule-- all were and still are controversial in most of the world, and all are controversial at times in the U.S. todayas we try to.guarantee them and reconcile conflictsin our society over their interpretation.

In the realm of practical politics, theFederalist Party had dominated Richmond during Jefferson'searly active days, but before 1800, Jefferson's Republican Partywas firmly ensconced in Virginia (as itwas in the nation). The justices of the peace who satas the county courts were appointed by the governor and virtuallyselected the candidates for the General Assembly, which appointedthe ,,:lovernor. The Virginia Court of Appeals superintended thescene from the security of a life appointment. (Such a closed circle of politicalinfluence was the norm in Virginia until electionswere expanded in 1851, and then again when voter participation was restricted from1902 until 1965.)

The colonial population had been clustered inthe fall-line areas around Alexandria, Fredericksburg,Richmond, and Petersburg, with significant landowners scattered in thesurrounding lands, and the plantation areas of Southside. The Piedmont and western regionswere becoming more populated, and by 1800westward migration was drawing increasing numbers of adventuroussouls across the mountains. Reapportionment and a new look atstate government were under discussion as early as 1816, when Jefferson wrote his suggestionthat it was time for revision, since two-thirds ofthe adults alive when the documentwas written had died, and it couldnot be assumed that the wishes of the current generation were represented in itsprovisions. to

C 12 140 VIRGINIA IN THE 1800s

Virginia was a slave state andthe slavery issue has been considered by most authors as the most importantand controversial issue of the century. Slave importers and slave tradershad amassed fortunes shipping them as cargo into Virginia. (James Michener's Chesapeake givesa picture of the influence of slave tradeon the life of Tidewater, and pictures and descriptions of slavemarkets have appeared inmany historic accounts.) As the tobacco crop took its toll ofthe soil, many Southside planters moved south or west,or sold their slaves to planters in the areas where cotton was becoming the importantcrop. Virginia's 'Manumission Act of 1792 led to theemancipation of 10,000 slaves during the following decade, but the economicand legal complications of re-settling former slaves made theproblem a difficult one for the General Assembly to discuss. Freed slaves were not welcome in neighboring states, and therewas a limit to the number that could be trained and absorbed into the fledglingindustries of Virginia. Pressure from northern abolitionists pushedsome Virginians into speaking and writing tracts defending slavery.The state's leaders were alarmed by Nat Turner's rebellion in 1831, and whenthe gradual emancipation proposal in the 1832 General Assemblyfailed, it signalled the end of organized opposition to slavery withinthe state.

Virginius Dabney, in his Virginia: TheNew Dominion, quotes (p.243)a statement made by Charles Dickens whenhe visited Virginia in 1842: there was "gloom and dejection" and an "air of ruin anddecay wherever slavcry sjts broodin." At the time of the Missouri Compromisediscussions (1820), Jefferson had written "Thismomentous question, like a firebell in the night, awakened and filledme with terror. I considered it at once as the knell of the Union." Slavery,once thought by some to be an economic boon to the colonies, becameincreasingly an economic liability, and the moral and philosophical questionsconsumed the thinking population and sent hundreds of capable,ambitious, young people to other states that provided better education,more equitable apportionment, and less preoccupation with "the firebellin the night." In fact, Dabney, in his chapter "The Decline of Virginia,"says that the Commonwealth had fallen from its place of leadershipby the middle of the 19th Century. He quotes a survey by Richard BealeDavis that showed 227men born in Virginia prior to 1810 served inCongress in later years-- but from other states. Nine state governors, twelve territorialgovernors, a president, cabinet officers and variousother government officials, and Cyrus McCormick (inventor of the mechanicalreaper) were also among the native Virginians who made their markin other parts of the nation. If our political system had been moreopen, might some of these leaders have stayed in Virginia? Might we have dealt differently withthe slavery issue?

Internal improvements (canals, roads,and railroads) were political and economic issues as the populationspread west. The eastern power structure began to recognize the needfor improved transportation to coastal ports and farflung markets.The James River-Kanawha Canalwas planned to connect Covington anda water route to the Ohio River in the west, with the Chesapeake and Atlantic. The western connectionacross the mountains was never completed.The Valley Turhpike from Winchester

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141 to Staunton was completed followingan ancient Indian trail and stage road, now near the location of Routh 11 and Interstate81.

After decades of futile efforts to connect the mines and metalsof the western mountains and the grain of western plateausto the ports of Virginia, the lines were run north and the rail link becamethe Baltimore & Ohio, with the port of Baltimore receiving the infusionof development money. The railroads were all independent, often with differentgauge tracks and rolling stock. There was little attempt.to standardize their equipment or link their routes during this period. There were tobacco railroads to haul the crop from the Southside plantationsto Richmond. There were wheat railroads to haul wheat from the ShenandoahValley and northern Piedmont wheat fields to Alexandria and Richmond. The B & 0 petitioned the Virginia General Assembly to extend 8 & 0 railsdown the Valley to connect with the Ohio through the cuts at theGreenbrier and the Kanawha Rivers. The General Assembly deniedpermission, so the connection was made farther north, through Grafton and Wheeling. (The 1957 Virginia history book, Cavalier Commonwealth, is consideredto contain good material on industrial, railroad, and tradedevelopment during this period.)

The 1830 Constitution Sectional disputes bubbledup in the Constitutional Convention in 1829. Thomas Ritchie, editor of the Richmond Enquirer and longtime friend of Thomas Jefferson (nowdeceased) took up the argument for fair representation in the legislature. The opposition declared that property and other interests suchas business must be served in proportion to their economic importance,a view that clearly placed affluent Tidewater gentry in preferred positions. The debate lasted three months, and the result was increasedrepresentation for the northern Piedmont and Shenandoah, though theareas west of the mountains still were not givenfair representation.

The state's western boundary line was being drawn by mountainsand politics. The Shenandoah Valley andSouthwest Virginia men ofpower, tended to favor the eastern Jacksonianagricultural image and platforms, while the transAllegheny sheep farmers, iron and manufacturingpeople tended toward the abolition of slavery, Henry Clay's "AmericanSystem" of protective tariffs, and the Whig Party. The 1850 census addednew fuel to the intersectional rivalrieswhen it revealed that the white population west of the Blue Ridgehad grown to a total ofmore than 90,000 greater than thepopulation of the wholearea east of the mountains. Since only 10 of the 29 statesenators, and only 56 of the 134 delegates came from themore populous west, it was obvious that another reapportionment (andconstitutional convention)was in order. The 1851 Constitution In 1850, the representation inthe General Assembly was changed to reflect the fact that the populationcenter was now west of the Alleghenies. Of the 152 delegates, 83were now to be from *the west." Of the 50 senators, 20were to be from the west, and the number was to be changed again according to the 1360census. The first western governor was elected in the followingyear.

This Constitution gave thevote to every white male propertyholder. It established a poll tax, half of which was to fund schools. The governor, lieutenant governor, judges, andmany other state and local C 14 142 officials were to be elected. County courts were replacedby elected magistrates. This was a sharp departurefrom the closed circle of *pilitical influence that had dominated Virginiaoffice-holding since colonial times.

The 1860s and the Civil War Virginia was the leading industrial state in the south in 1860. It boasted one-sixth of the totalrailroad mileage in the nation, a network of canals, and evena steamship line operating on Chesapeake Bay. Lead and salt were mined inthe southwest. Danville and Lynchburg were tobacco centers. Richmond (with a population of almost 38,000) was the biggest city in the state andthe home of the Tredegar Iron Works, tobacco warehouses and processingplants, and one of the largest grain mills in the world. Norfolk was second largest (witha population of 15,000) andwas in compei.vtion with Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, andBoston for shipping and trade. The Wheeling-Wellshlrg area, (soon to be a key center of thenew state of West Virginia) whirred withactivity in foundries,a steam engine factory, textile and flour mills,sawmills, paper mills, and glass factories -- all shipping tons of products down the OhioRiver.

Virginia had much to lose in the war...and lost much! Dabney (pp. 357-8) quotes a House of Delegates estimate totaled in1877:

Personal property $116,000,000 Realty 121,000,000 Internal Improvements 26,000,000 State's interest in banks 4,000,000 Slaves & other property 163,000,000

$457,000,000 Figures in the millions are tossed around commonly today, buta hundred years ago, these sumswere "of almost inconceivable magnitude." For a population of fewer than 700;000 whites and 500,000blacks to sustain losses close to halfa billion dollars was a catastrophic setback. The reason Virginia's losseswere so great, of course, was that the state was the scene of so much of the war's destruction. The Confederate capital during most of the war was Richmond, thesurrender was at Appomattox, and four of the bloodiestbattles of the warwere fought in Virginia. The economic losses totaled abovedo not really reflect the personal and family losses and disruptions,or the further loss of young and ambitious leaders who might have helpedto restore the fabric of life to Virginia, the only southern state notto recover prewar economic levels by 1870. There is no way to puta dollar figure on the social and personal misery inflicted on the black populationby the institution of slavery or the legal confusions and injusticesthat would persist for more thana hundred years following the Emancipation Proclamation.

A topic worthy of investigation is how the economic dominanceof Virginia in 1860 could have been jeopardized and then decimatedby a war fought over states' rights focusedon slavery, considering that fewer than 25% of Virgi %; owned slaves at all, and that the percentage of slaves in total population had declinedfrom 48% in 1830 to 30% in 1860. Wh, 3cial and psychological forcestipped the

C15 143 balance toward secession? What changes in apportionment,education, and governance might have resultedin a different response from Virginia? If Virginia had not joined theSouth Carolina secession, would there have been a war? If the western Virginians,who opposed slavery, had had their proportionalshare in the state government, would they have split off to formtheir own state? What if..?

In 1866, the General Assembly refusedto approve the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, which granted full citizenship toformer slaves, so Congress installed MilitaryDistrict #1, with federal troops and a federallyappointedgovernor. Virginia was an occupied territory, no longer a state.

The 1868 Constitution In October of 1867, delegateswere elected and two months later a constitutional convention met in Richmond,under the chairmanship of Judge JohnC. Underwood. Judge Underwood had presided over the Norfolk grand jury proceedings against JeffersonDavis in 1866, and his tirades prompted a running battle withThe Petersburg Index, and The Richmond Whig. The Index termed His Honoran "absurd, blasphemous, cowardly, devilish,empirical, fanati:al, ghoulish, horrible, ignorant, jacobinical...Yankeeishzero.' (See Chapter 29, "Reconstruction," in Dabney fora colorful account of the Judge's brief and stormy stay in Virginia,and a description of the moborator, Reverend James W. Hunnicutt,a former slaveowner and secessionist who "blossomed as a fiery foe of theVirginia whites" and provided interim leadership for the Republican Party.)

Congress had passed laws that disenfranchisedall former Confederate or state officials who had fought for theConfederacy. All state and local officers had to "recognizeand accept the civil and political equality of all men before the law"and swear that they had "never voluntarily borne arms againstthe United States." This "Ironclad Oath" kept nearly all white leaders frompublic office, and, in fact, from voting. It should also be recognized that ithad been against the law to teach a slave to read or write, so there were few literate blackswho might be available for public officeor even to vote. (The 15th Amendment was not passed until 1870.)There are stories of some amazing former slaves and freedmen who had managed to learn to read andwrite. Many taught themselves. (Your library should have biographiesand collections of vignettes.)

Two blacks, Dr. Thomas Bayne and LewisLindsay (a Richmond Delegate) were frequent speakers at the convention,and the Delegate from Prince Edward and Appomattox, J. W. D.Bland, was identifiedas "the most thoughtful and able Negro member."Two years later, Bland (thena member of the Virginia Senate) had themisfortune to be among 62persons killed when part of the Capitol's second floor collapsed under the weightof a crowd gathered for a Supreme Court hearing. Might the racial historyof Virginia have been different if thiscapable young leader had chancedto be in another part of the buildingat that moment?

It is generally acknowledged thatapproval of the entire Underwood Constitution (including the IroncladOath and the disenfranchisement provisions) would have resulted inblack control of the politics and government of Virginia. The military governor ordered thereferendum C 16 144 postponed and a "Committee of Nine" worked outa "compromise": suffrage for all men including blacks in return for the separationof the vote into two questions: 1) the oath and disenfranchisementprovisions; and 2) the main body of the constitution. A tense and dirty campaign resulted in the approval of the constitution and therejection of the oath and disenfranchisement, and the election ofa slate of conservatives. The political mastermind responsiblefor this turn of events was General William Mahone, "The Hero of the Crater." (He had ordered the successful attackon Grant's Northern troops when they bogged down outside Petersburg attempting to cut off Richmond's supplylines south and west.) Mahone managed to split theRepublicans by convincing them to nominate a black (Dr.J. D. Harris of Hampton)to be lieutenant governor, then maneuvering the Republicans-who-would-not-support-a-black to nominate a separate and more conservative ticket, which he thentalked the Conservative Party intoendorsing. It was clever-- and successful.

In spite of the chaotic conventiondescribed with great detail and color by Dabney (Chapter 29); the Constitution that emergedcontained some enduring provisions: a statewide system of public schools,a written secret ballot, and a property tax to be equal and uniformfor various types of property, with the greatest burden tofall on land.

The.Underwood Constitution includedthe full citizenship of blacks, thus %otisfying the federalgoverment, which removed the Military Governor and troops, and Virginiawas readmitted to the Union in )870. Some other southern states were under military jurisdiction until1877.

The Underwood Constitution alsorequired a wnship form of county government, which failed to takeroot. The provision was subsequently removed from the document.

Virginians pitched in after theCivil War to rebuild the citiesand More the farms. The tobacco crop in 1866was back almost to the 1860 level, though worldwide depression and played-out soils (thatrequired costly fertilizers) took theirtoll after that. New varieties of tobacco, grows in Kentucky and Ohio, becam more popular andVirginia's share of the market droppeddramatically,

187P_ 1900 Mahone had studiedengineering at Viroinia Military Institute, and before thewar he had been the Preside , Chief Engineer, and SuperinteLdent of the Norfolk & Petersburg Railroad. After the war, he quickly restored the tracks to working order and used hispowers of persuasion and maneuver to push legislation through the GeneralAssembly, authorizing the merger of several small railroad lines into theAtlantic, Mississippi, and Ohio. This through line gave Virginiadirect railroad service across the southern tierof the statefrom Norfolk to Petersburg, Lynchburg, and Bristol. The state also sold its one-third financial interest in the railroads,which dated back to original construction investments.

Mahone used his organizing abilitiesto found the Readjuster Party, dedicated to "readjusting" the state's $30 million debt downwardto $21 million. ($15 million had been chargedto the new state of West Virginia.) This line of reasoningwas opposed ty the Funders, who believed that Virginia could keep its honor only by honoringits full C 17

I ,e,1".*; obligations. Mahone proposed to financeother state services, schools, with the notably money not paid to creditors. The Readjusters majority in the General won a Assembly in 1879 and againin 1881, when they also won the governorshipand elected William Mahone Senate. himself to the U. S. His bid for reelection in1887 failed, as did his governor in 1889. campaign for Mahone's coordination of therailroad lines of Virginia is remembered as a significant aid to thestate's economy. (Chapter 30 in Dabney, "The Era of Mahone," givesa colorful description of the wealthy, dyspeptic, 5'6" general weighingabout 100 pounds, with squeaky voice, bizarre a taste in dress, rareexecutive ability and political prescience. The A. M. & O. Railroad Otelia's." was dubbed "All Mine & Otelia was his wife andmother of his 13 children. grade text, Londy & Adams, The 7th Virginia, The People'sHistory, also has 3-page spotlight on Mahone, a "A Virginia RailroadGiant.") The 1890s were a rough political decade-- full of vote buying, ballot box stuffing, and mounting pressures forsegregation. Washington, a graduate of Booker T. Hampton Institute, becamea national figure, raising money for Tuskegee Institute in Alabama fromaffluent northerners and foundations. He spoke of equality of opportunity with them anddid not focus on the "threatening"aspects of social integration. South, he worked behind In the the scenes trying to headoff the Jim Crow laws that were to become a reality about the turn of thecentury. He was criticized by some for not being more militant,but others say it is doubtful that he could have had muchsuccess at stemming the widespread tide of segregation, andit might have crippled and Hampton. his efforts for Tuskegee

The Newport News Shipbuilding& Dry Dock Company began to work on national was founded and contracts, and the C & 0extended its tracks to provide easier transport of materials to thesite. take some steps toward Virginia was able to recovery from the war, but would be another ninety years (the 1980s) before Virginia'sper capita income would approximate the national average. The last two decadesof the 19th century saw Virginia's agricultu-al economy beginto expand as railroads connected truck-farmingareas to population centers. (i.e., line built up the the railroad Eastern Shore to Washington,0. C.). An interesting development during this periodwas the promoVon and speculation and industrial "deals" of land that centered on theLexington-Buena Vista-Glasgow area. The story features a banker absconding with $180,000of bank assets, the construction of several factories and mills,and the reputed interest of the Duke and Duchess of Marlborough. See the description in Dabney (pp. 419-20).

By 1893, the farmers were organized and searching forleaders to guide them through thefinancial panic. In other states, populistgroups sprang up to advance thecauses of the farmers against the bank, and railroad industrial, interests. In Virginia, the farmersfound the leadership of the landed gentry on their side, andthe movement was turned conservative. The abolition of slaveryand the depress-1w, following the Civil War broughtan end to the plantation system. Marginal growers were forc d out of business andmany plantation owners sold off acreage, reducingthe average farm size from to 119 acres in 1900. 336 acres in 1860

C 18 146 U. S. Senators were still elected by the GeneralAssembly, and the political tempest swirled around Thomas S. Martin,who had assumed leadership in the Demorratic Party, on the death of JohnS. Barbour, in 1892. Martin's era was to last for more than two decadesand lead, in turn, to the forty years of Byrd organizational control. Republicans remained split over the role of blacks in the party,and feuding and shooting still complicated political affairs insome rural counties. Populism never caughton, and "free silver" had lost the new century. its appeal before

VIRGINIA IN THE EARLY 1900s

The 1902 Constitution In reaction to the votebuying stuffing that characterized and ballot box politics in the 1890s,many states in the nation were tighteningup their registration and voting the early 1900s. regulations in Waves of immigration threatenedthe political power structures. Connecticut had adopteda literacy test in 1855, and by turn of the century, most of the the Southern states andothers scattered from coast to coast were instituting literacy tests andpoll taxes in an attempt to limit the voting public to those whom theythought were most likely to understand and have a financial stake in thepolitical and economic issues of the times,and to continue the political in office. establishment

Race was only one consideration in the debates, sincepoor whites were also largely excluded. Research by Dr. Timothy O'Rourkeof the University of Virginia, shows that many Virginianswere reluctant to impose the "understanding" clause as the conditionfor registration (they thought it demeaning), and it stayed on the books lessthan two years. New Yorkers, on the other hand, imposed (in 1921) a muchmore stringent requirement that registrants read and explain passages fromthe New York Constitution, and it remainedpart of the law formany years.

The 1902 Constitution and subsequentlegislation established the tax and literacy requirements poll to limit voting toa relatively small, easilycontrolled group of landed gentry and wealthy urbanmen, generally considered to be social, economic, and political conservatives,dedicated to keeping government lean andtaxes low.

Two other significant changes inthis constitutionwere additional limits on the legislature, including strict controlson bonds, and the removal of the 1868 Constitution provision that requireda referendum every twenty years on the calling ofa constitutional convention. (Remember Jefferson's letter of1816?)

The State Corporation Commissionalso was established to regulate railroads and other corporations. Dabney states (pp. 438-9)that they "conferred on the commssion a wider jurisdiction than that enjoyedby any similar state agency in this country, before or since.The dire predictions of 'chaos' have, of course, not been remotely borneout. And while the commiscion has been subjected to occasionalcriticism, the corporations have been, and are, among its staunchest supporters,while the public has benefitted greatly." Some Virginians have disagreedwith Dabney's view of the publicbenefit.

C 19 147 .Decades later, Henry Howell, legislator and lieutenantgovernor, Democrat and populist, andfrequent gubernatorial candidate, campaigned on the slogan "Keep the Big Boys Honest"and zeroed in on the S.C.C.(State Corporation Commission, whichhe saw as the tool of the utilities and big corporations. He fought for consumer advocates on the board, andtestified repeatedly that the utilities should not be able to raise rates to thepublic to cover the costs of their mistakes and inefficiencies. In 1972-73, all three judges on the Commission retired-- one after 48 years, one after 25 years, and one after 15 yearson the job. A "new" commission has changed the' procedures to bemore responsive to public concerns, but the controversies boilup anew each time there are rate hearingsor appointments to the three-person commission. (The term is now set at sixyears.) Start a file of clippings to augment the information inthe two News Letters in this notebook.Be ready next time the S.C.C. hits the headlioes.

The document that came from the 1902 conventionwas NOT submitted to the voters-- small wonder! it was proclaimed by thedelegates to be the supreme law of the Commonwealth, in spite of public commitments/nd legal stipulations that it wouldbe put to a vote.Obviously, the disenfranchised 90% would have had to be kept from thepoll;,: Appeals went all the way to the U. S. Supreme Court, which refusedto intervene. The first two decades of this century featured theAnti-Saloon League, the Women's Christian Temperance Union, political activityby Methodists and Baptists, and the Reverend Doctor JamesCannon, Jr., who "was almost demoniacal in his driving determinationto dry up the Old Dominion.' (Dabney, p. 461) Dabney goes on to note that"the era of the amphibious statesmen, that notorious species which voted'dry' and drank 'wet' -- had dawnedon Virginia." The Local Self-GovernmentAssociation of Virginia and the PersonalLiberty Association organized of prohibition. the opponents Reverend Cannon dubbed The RichmondTimes-Dispatch "Bold, Brave Boys of the Bottle," and claimed theirmotto was "Give Us Liquor or Give Us Death." The "drys" won the statewidereferendum and all the evils of society were supposed to disappear. Hoarders descended on the liquor stores and quantitieswere sold before the law went into effect. Each householder was allowed out-of-state liquortota'ring a quart a month (or three gallons of beeror one gallon of wine) and it evidently worked well until the 18th Amendment dried up the out-of-statesupplies. Then "moonshiners and bootleggers moved in and thousandsof otherwise law-abiding citizens began violating the law." (Dabney,p. 461)

THE BYRD ORGANIZATION AND THE1928 CONSTITUTION

"Organization?" he said. "Machine? I don't know much about that...I've been too busy in Washington for toomany years...I would say we are just a loose organization of friends who believe insound government..." so said Senator Harry Flood Byrd, Sr.,on his 75th birthday, in 1962.

C 20 1 48 1A very looselyknit group of Virginians, no membersAp,no roll, simply the people of Virginia who think alike, whoare interested in the welfare of Virginia, who are supremely interested in givingVirginia good government." So said Governor John S. Battle in a statementsome years earlier. Both quotes are found in theMorris & Sabato book, Virginia Government and Politics, published by the Institute of Government andthe Virginia Chamber of Commerce(new edition due shortly).

V.O. Key in 6 Southern Politics,"(p. 19) called the Byrd organization a "Political museum piece,' controlled by an oligarchy"that demonstrates a sense of honor, an aversion to open venality,a degree of sensitivity to public op4nion,a concern for efficiency in administration, and, so longas it does not cost much, a feeling of social responsibility."

All sources agree that the restricted electorate allowed thecontrol to remain in the hands of a small number o' 1. The Democratic eaadidate was generally unopposed,and the 'merles were won with the votes of less than 10% of the adultpopulation. There were no blazing issues, no charges of dishonesty, and few candidates willingto challenge the organization that reached into almost every courthouseand local public office.

Harry Flood Byrd was*a politician of great talent and intuition. He was the nephew of Henry D. Flood ofAppomattox, a close associate of Senator Martin, who had been the dominant figure in Virginia politicsin the previous decade. Byrd was elected to the Vire.niaSenate in 1916. In 1923, he led the fight to defeat a $50 million bond issueto build highways. In 1926, he was electedgovernor, with the support of the conservative rural populace. He was a reformer. After his election, he worked with the General Assemblyto appoint a Constitutional Revision Commission, and to pay severaFthousanddollars for a management study of Virginia government by the New York (!) Bureau of MunicipalResearch, to streamline the structure ofgovernment. The consultants, the commission, and the governor introduced efficiensies and economies thateliminated jobs, and reorganized and consolidated departments and agencies. He wooed new industries to Virginiaand increased money for roads, education, and mental hospitals. His moves for economy and efficiency included the constitutional amendment forbidding theuse of general obligation bonds by the state,except under the most limited conditions. This was "pay as you go," the slogan most frequentlyassociated with Harry F. Byrd.

In a University of Virginia News Letter (February 1963),Former Governor Colgate W. Darden, Jr., commented on the ultimate costto taxpayers of financing legitimateand necessary capital improvements through the creation of authorities. Without the "full faith and credit" of the Commonwealth, the authorities had to pay much higherinterest on their loans. Frequently, they put the bondson the market all at once, adding interest "up front," though much of the constructionmoney actually was not needed until later. Hundreds of millions ofdollars in extra interest charges were added to the taxpayers' hills, accordingto Darden's article. Tolls on highways and bridgesof Virginia remain today as another legacy of the fear of borrowingin the name of the Commonwealth. Since the stringent bond controlsalso affected Virginia

C 21 . 149 local governments, cities and counties were forced tocreate authorities for their needed capitalimprovements.

The management consultants, the commission, and thegovernor also cut the number of elected state officialsto three: the governor, lieutenant governor, and attorney general. Judges were to be elected bythe General Assembly, and all other state officials were to be appointedby the governor and/or the General Assembly.The governor also gained control of the State Compensation Board, which controlled thepay for the locally elected Cc.stitutional Officers. (See University of VirginiaNews Letters in this notebook formore information on these offices.)

The 1928 Constitution changes made Virginia'sgovernor one of the strongest in the nation -- some say, the strongest. In spite of these changes, less than half of the 1902 document was actually replacedand the 1928 changes are considered only a revision, nota new constitution. Many anachronisms remained to beexcised in 1971. This constitution is usually remembered as theone that enshrined "pay as you go" provisions in Virginia government.

The Byrd era has been the subject of many articles and books. James Latimer, former political columnist for The RichmondTimesDispatch, wrote a series of articleson Virginia's governors from the 1940s through the 1960s, which may soon be made available in reprintform for your library. (The articles summarizedtelevision programs produced jointly by Central Virginia Educational Televisionand The Richmond TimesDispatch. The television tapesmay also be available.)

1960s THE DECADE OF CHANGE

The Byrd organization controlled Virginia from about 1925 untilabout 1966, overlapping the periods of oneparty rule in other parts ofthe nation. But important changes finallypenetrated the Commonwealth, upsetting the unanimity of the leaders and eventuallybringing about great changes in the social and political structure by whatJames Latimer has called "that pair of federal herovillains, the U. S. SupremeCourt and the U. S. Congress." 1 The Brown Decision Brown v. Board of Education (1954). The Supreme Court overturned the Plessyv. Ferguson (1887) ruling that had allowed "separate but equal" facilitieson railroad cars, and (by extension) in other publicfacilities. Separate was now recognized as not equal, end the dilapidated, poorlyequipped, minimally financed schools for blackchildren offered obvious proof. Segregated schools were orderedto integrate with "all deliberate speed." The Byrd organization devised"massive resistance" tactics of delay, closing of schools, and funding and tuitionmaneuvers (rejected by the courts) topostpone compliance.

2 Baker v. Carr (1962) The Supreme Court declared thatfederal courts could consider cases challengingrepresentation in state legislatures. In 1960, onefifth of thepopulation of the state of Florida lived in Dade County(which includeMiami), yet it was represented by only one of the 38 senators and only 3 of thestate's 95 representatives. Rural representatives dominatedalmost every C 22 15Q state's legislature, and theywere unlikely to redistrict themselves out of office unless ordered to do so by a federal court. Virginia was no exception. The 1962 redistrictingattempt of the Virginia General Assembly was ruled (bythe Supreme Court, in 1964) inadequate, discriminatory, andunconstitutional. The principle of one-person, one-vote was to apply to bothhouses of a state legislature.

3 - 24th Amendment to the Constitution - submitted to thestates for ratification in 1962. This amendment outlawed the polltax as a deterrent to registration and votingin federal elections. James Latimer (in "The Coming Decade: A Political Sphinx," reprintedin Morris & Sabato: Virginia Government & Politics) has likenedthe impact of the 24th Amendment to a dagger "pointed at the heartof the traditional Virginia system of political control, thestate poll tax and its entanglements of legal barbed wire that protected thevoting booths from too-heavy popularinvasion." Under the direction of the governor, the General Assembly met ina special session to introduce a "certificate of residency" thatwas to be filed six months before election day, on the assumption that only the most dedicatedcitizens would bother. This was promptly subjectedto a test in the courts and was struck down.

4 & 5 - The Civil Rights Act & Voting Rights Act(1964-65), These two laws were enacted by Congress to reverse the discriminatoryeffect of state laws. The Voting Risjhts Act prohibitedgerrymandered districts that resulted in the diminution of political power of minoritiesin many parts of the nation. The state of Virginiawas identified as one of the jurisdictions that had used the literacy test, andseveral specific areas in the statewere cited for discriminatory practices. This means they are required to obtain pre-clearancefrom the U. S. Department of Justice before changingany districts, provisions, or practices of registrationor voting. In the past, many federal regulations had spawned state and local adaptations maximizingevery loophole and requiring vigilanceand court monitoringover a cunsiderable period of time. The pre-clearance provisionsof Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act prevent this short-circuitingof

compliance. .

It was a period of tremendous change, and the social andpolitical life of Virginia was permanently altered. Some historians have said that a hundred years of resistance f.inallyended in the 1960s, when southern states were forced to giveup the legal discriminations of slavery.

Mills Godwin became governor in1966 and followd throughon the move by his predecessor, Albertis Harrison, to inauguratea sales tax. More than a dozen localities in the state had already instituteda local sales tax, and the state feared that if it did not act, more localgovernments would follow suit and the state would be unable to tap thischannel of revenue in the future. Governor Godwin won approval ofthe 2% sales tax, with the local "piggy back" 1% (optional) anda commitment to add another 1% two years later. (We have hdd no change inthe sales tax since that time, though there are - in 1984 - suggestions that thesales taxes in some other states are Fairer, particularly for low-income people. The alternatives being proposed include a higher sales tax, butwith food and drugs exempt, at a sales tax that include's services,as well as goods. Section F of this notebook will include informationon these alternatives. C 23 Governor Godwin also achievedpassage of an $81 million bond benefit higher education issue to in Virginia. His successor, Linwood almost every other political Holton, and figure in the state joinedthe citizens' group supporting the referendum. The sales tax and bond government much-needed issue gave state revenue and voter approval toacceleraLe the recovery and progress of Virginia's institutions andprograms. should be noted that Virginia (It state and local taxes combinedare still below the nation'saverage, though there are some questions of equity-- who pays how much-- being addressed by legislators around the Commonwealth. and citizen groups Section F of this notebookwill include information on these questions.)

VIRGINIA'S 1971 CONSTITUTION

Portions of the 1902 Constitution, principallythose related to the powers of the governor, had been revised in 1928, butmost of the document had not been touched. The old dueling provisionwas still there, taking away theright to vote from thosewho duel and lose dueled. ("Lose the your life -- Win the duel andlose your vote!") Innumerable amendments,some of which belonged instead had swollen the document in the legal code, to 35,000 words. It was neither brief, clear, nor easily understood -- three of the usual criteria fora "good" constitution.

The Bill of Rights was given a significant addition. Citizens are now protected against manygovernmental discrimination religious conviction, upon the basis of race, color, sex, or nationalorigin." your Delegate and Senator (How did vote on the Equal RightsAmendment? What reasons did they give for theirvotes?)

Slight modifications were made in the restrictionson bonds and debt, but Virginia's fiscal conservatism was maintained. Voting laws and tax laws were changed to conform to national legislationand court decisions. A process of succession and disability provisionsfor the governor were included, and the judicial articlewas overhauled. A strong statement on compulsory education for all childrenof school age was also included, with standardsof quality to be established State Board of Education, by the subject to control bythe General Assembly. Conservation of our natural resources and comsumer protectionalso were mentioned for the firsttime.

Changes in the Virginia Constitution must be approvedby two successive sessions of the General Assembly, withan election between them, and then the amendments must be approved by thevoters. The 1971 amendments were broken into five public questions,all of which were approved by the voters ofVirginia.

This revision cut the words to 18,000, reorganizedand consolidated 17 articles into 12, and 226 sections into 123. Albert L. Sturm analyzed the document (in a University of Virginia NewsLetter, vol. 53, and concluded that it no. 4) was not the far-reaching, innovative,and imaginative document that might have come fromour 18th Century Virginia political thinkers, but itwas considered to be an improvement 1902 aocument and it over the was approved by Virginia'svoters. Sturm and other political scientists have already suggestedsome topics for discussion by

C 24 152 the next revision commission: 1) changing the reapportionmentprocess to put the responsibility in thehands of some body otherthan the General Assembly itself, 2) the tenure of thegovernor -- whether more thanone term should be allowed, 3) the question of thegovernor and lieutenant governor being elected as a team, as is done in many other states, 4) the granting of more power to local government, 5) the state involvement in the positions of the local constitutionalofficers, and 6) Jefferson's concern in 1816,some provision to facilitate public involvement in the calling of a constitutional revision commission. (Our Virginia Bill of Rights says the power t^ make and alter theconstitution rests with the people, yet the voters' only act is tosay yes or no to specific wordings after thecommission's work is accomplished.)

Now, let's stop and revlewa bit...with two columns by Charles McDowell, who summarized the whole history and situation inNovember of 1977, and again during thegubernatorial race in 1981.

VIRGINIA POLITICS: A SHORT HISTORY Charles McDowell

Reprinted by permission from Richmond TimesDispatch, Nov.4, 1973 The leading politicians in Virginia once included GeorgeWashington, Thomas Jefferson, George Mason, James Madison, James Monroe andPatrick Henry, all at the same time. Things have thinned out somewhatin Virginia politics since thattime, haven't they? Nor was there any real profusion of giants prior to theRevolutionary period. In the beginning, at Jamestown in 1607, Capt. John Smithpretty much ran the show. He believed strongly inthe work ethic, carrieda sword and wore an iron hat,and his leadershipcame to be generally, if grumpily, respected. I am embarrassed to report that I don't know how John Smith stoodon fiscal integrity. The Smith administration, working through Pocahontas, tried to makea coalition with the Indians. The degree of success varied. Sometimes it worked and sometimes therewere massacres. Pocahontas, thought she was an ethnic American, or member ofa heritage group, married a wellknown farmer named John Rolfe. He made a success in the tobacco trade and becamethe first Byrd Democrat in Virginia. In 1619, Gov. George Yeardley arrived from England witha plan to set up "a generall Assemblie...for the better establishinge ofa Commanwealth heere."The spelling was funny butthe Virginians instinctively understood that Yeardleywas talking about politics. They promptly elected 22 burgesses,two from each of the 11 major plantations in the colony. Nearly all the burgesseswere either the owners or sons of the owners of theplantations. Virginians continued to elect the same kind of representationto the state legislature until the 1950s when Northern Virginia beganto elect an occasional real estate man. Virginia politics rocked along under increasingly irritatingBritish restraints until the last third of the 18th century whena group of young men, most of whom had been radicalizedat the College of William and Mary, met at Raleigh Tavern in Williamsburg and decided to foundthe United States. C 25 (McDowell article cont'd) Jefferson then wrote the Declaration ofIndependence. the Constitution. Madison wrote Mason wrote the Bill ofRights (whichwas controversial from the first, to tell the truthabout it). At crucial points in thecourse of the country's founding, strongest speeches Patrick made one of the ever heard in the 3rd CongressionalDistrict, and George Washington defeatedthe British army. After the United Stateswas founded, Washington, and Monroe took turns Jefferson, Madison being president of it. Sohn Marshall, another friend of theirs, became chief justice: andfor many years stavedoff the Supreme Courts's long slideto the left. Although Washingtondisapproved of politics, all the others seemedto like it all right. Jefferson, for example, founded both theDemocratic and Republican parties inAmerica. A short history like to try to explain how this is no place Jefferson managed tofound two parties, butthe orators of both stillregularly attest that he did. The Civil War, whichwas the next really big thing after the Virginia to come along Dynasty quit runningthe country, had a definite effect on politics in Virginia. This became apparent after the two main parties in the war when Virginia turned out tobe the Funders and Readjusters. the Parties with suchnames obviously could not long endure. The Funders were conservatives, I think. The Readjusters coalition of former were a Conservatives, Democrats,Republicans and Whigs led by William Mahone. It was the oddest coalition until Linwood Holton put together in Virginia put together ByrdDemocrats, Republicans, labor, black voters organized and assorted antisalestaxersin 1969. Mahone was a railroad tycoon -- Virginia's original"big boy." He also was a populist.What do you think of that? The collision of theFunders and the Readjusters stirred up a terrible cloud after the Civil War of dust. People switched parties both parties' factions a lot, and fought a lot. Parties changed their times. names a few For several years,everyone was quite overwrought. Out of it all came the Democratic and Republicanparties that we know today, or, anyway, thoughtwe knew until recent years. the upper hand The Democrats got over the Republicans, andThomas Staples Martin's organization got the upper hand within the Democraticparty. That was just before the turn of the century, andit was the beginning of the Byrd Organization. Harry Flood Byrd Sr.came along to take over the organizationin the 1920s. The Republicans had retired to the mountainsand the valleys in the western part of the state.Although they controlled there, they were heard some counties out from rarely and then mostlyprotesting that the Byrd Democrats in Richmondwere appointing their judges boards and treating and electoral them badly in all kinds ofways. When the Byrd Organization would be challenged bythe antiByrd wing of the Democraticparty, the Republicans would come into theDemocratic primary and help-- who? -- the Byrd Organization. this seems strange, but Looking back on it, it must have madesense at the time. The Byrd Organizationfinally began to suffer to the failure of "massive reverses attributable resistance," the growth ofthe urban population, the rise ofa new generation of moderate sort of thing. Democrats, and that (n the late 1950s,political analysts began announce the demise of the Byrd seriously to Organization. They have continued to announce its demise everyyear or so until the present.

C 26 154 (McDowell article cont'd) The Democratic party split into three factions. The Republican party, being smaller, split into two. Internal warfare and general confusion kept both parties weak. Harry F. Byrd, Jr., a Democratwith a Republican following, becamean independent senator neither party beat. could Mills E. Godwin, Jr.,a Democratic governor and ally of Byrd, became a Republican and promptly was elected governor again. Henry Howell, a liberal Democrat, became an independent and thenreturned to the Democrats less liberal for the experience. Political scientiscs determined, meanwhile, that Howell had a unique appeal bothto liberals and to some rural conservatives who voted for Byrd. Not knowing what to make of that, they dubbedHowell a populist. In the gubernatorial election of 1977, the Democrats putforward the populist Howell at the head of a ticket containinga Lyndon Johnson Democrat and a Byrd Democrat. The Republicans offereda ticket blessed by Godwin and headed by Lt. Gov. John N. Dalton, theconservative son of a fabled old foe of the Byrd Organization.

(McDowell concluded this articlewith the comment: "There actually are people who think we are going to clear up the whole thingon Tuesday."

VIRGINIA POLITICS: A SHORT GUIDE Charles McDowell

Reprinted from RichmondTimesDispatch, April 11, 1981

Virginia and New Jersey willhave the nation's on'y gubernatorial elections this year. That means many reporters fromother states will be visiting Virginia in search of national trends, local colorand firsthand evidence that Charles Robb and Marshall Colemanare not the same person. The following Short Guide to Virginia Politi.s is intendedto help these visitors. .Virginians can read the guide without serious riskof encountering any new ideas.

BACKGROUND: Virginia is in transitionfrcm Byrd Organization politics to media consultantpolitics. The once dominant conservatives of the Organization havenot been a major factor in the for 15 years. Democratic Party They have settled for dominatingthe Republican Party, which they had kept inreserve for a rainy day. The Republicans have carried Virginia for president, U. S.senator, and governor ever since, and they have occupied nineof the state's 10 seats in the House. Now the Democrats are fighting back. iney are trying to beas conservative as the Republicans. They have hired a national media consultant to put on a televisioncampaign for their candidate for governor, Charles Robb, a handsome young man with a dark suit anda striped necktie. The Republicans have increased their effort similarly. They, too, have hired a national media consultant to put ona television campaign for their candidate for governor, Marshall Coleman, a handsomeyoung man with a dark suit and a stripednecktie.

STRATEGY: To win, each candidate mustbe more conservative than the other.

C 27 155 (McDowell article cont'd) TACTICS: Robb, who is perceivedas conservative but as not being specific enough about it, has to be very definite and forceful,even in casual comments about theweather. Coleman, who is perceived insome quarters as not always having been entirely conservative, has to be comprehensively and aggressivelyso. Coleman also is handicapped bya reputation for humor; he has to be absolutely grim.

POWER OF THE PARTIES: The relative power of the parties inVirginia is important to this election. The Democrats are weak. The Republicans are not much stronger. Most Virginians are independents, whatever they say theyare, or even feel they are, on a given day. Like Sen. Harry F. Byrd,Jr., they tend to vote with the Republicans. But, also like Byrd, theyare unwilling to break completely with their Democratic heritage. Why close doors? These people have been able to elect Mills Godwin as their governor twice,once in rich party. They enjoy electing a heavy majorityof Democrats to local office and the legislaturewhile stocking Washington with Republicans.

Virginians are skeptical of theparties, and especially skepticalof people who attend dull party meetings, make phone calls and knockon doors. Virginians assume, frankly, thatDemocratic workers are liberal kooks. They suspect that Republicanworkers are just climbers.

CRUCIAL SUPPORT: Some heavy Richmond businessmenknown as The Main Street Crowd or The Coalition couldhelp either candidate by signifying that they are distinctly less unenthusiastic about him than hisopponent. Former Gov. Godwin could help his fellowRepublican Coleman, by giving him halfheartedendorsement. So far, his one-tenth-hearted endorsement seems to hurt. Senator Byrd probably could tip itby saying somethidg-- almost anything -- publicly. But he won't Henry Howell, Virginia's liberal, coulddamage either candidate by getting enthusiastic about him. Sen. Warner will be helpful to Colemanin conventional political ways, but also to Robb in an inspirationalway -- proof that Virginia will accept a relative novice forhigh office if he is conservative and industrious and has a touch ofcelebrity, a datk suit anda striped tie.

NEWS MEDIA: The most important part of the campaignto see on television will be Bob Squier'sspots for Robb and Bailey/Deardourff's for Coleman. That will In the simple version.The newspapers will carry the subtleties and complexities, whichare the stuff of Virginia politics. Sample the Times-Dispatch for thedetail and mystical insight with which the Vatican newspaper covers the Curia; The Roanoke Timesfor the flavor of a mountain feud;The Washington Post for the observations of an urbane traveler in Bulgaria.

EARLY LINE: Both candidates are looking betterthan a guide like this is likely to let on. Robb seems to have a slight edgenow. He will need it when President Reagan decidesto make a trip to Virginia and tell us who is more conservative than whom.

C 28 156 VIRGINIA.IN THE 1980s -- A TWOPARTY STATE

John Dalton won that election that Charles McDowellmentioned at the end of the first article above.The Republicans elected three governors in a row, though both houses of the General Assemblyremained under Democratic control. In 1981, Charles Robb led a Democratic ticket that won the races for governor, lieutenant governor, and attorney general. In 1984, Virginia's two U. S. Senators and the majority ofVirginia's Congressmen are Republicans. Voters are electing Republicans in some local elections, in addition toa scattering Of independents. University of Virginia political analyst Larry Sabato constructeda political scale for comparing the ten Virginia Congressional Districtsas they voted in 1982:

Most Democratic Closely Divided Most Republican

4th 2nd, 1st, 9th 6th, 7th

8th, 10th 5th, 3rd

In 1983, Virginia was 47th in the nation in percentage of eligible voters registered and last in percentage of those eligible who actually voted. A statewide effort was begun to improve these percentages. See the News Letters which follow in this notebook for detailson recent elections, and some historic backgroundon elected and appointed offices. PARTIAL BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR THE STUDY OF VIRGINIA HISTORY. MORE BOOKS ARE LISTED IN SECTION A. SEE YOUR LOCAL LIBRARIES AND BOOKSTORES.

Bass, Jack, and DeVries, Walter. The Transformation of Southern Politics New York: Basic Books, Meridian, 1977. Chapter 10, "Out of the Byrd Cage," is an easy-to-read, 30-pagesummary of events, 1945 to 1975.

Bowles, George, Pages from the Virginia Story. Charlottesville: Maiden Lane Press, 1979. Short and readable articles, written bya talented story-teller, highlighting interesting people andincidents.

Buni, Andrew. The Negro in Virginia Politics (1902-1965). Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 1967.

Morris, Thomas R., and Sabato, Larry J. VirginiaGovernment & Politics. Institute of Government and Virginia Chamber ofCommerce, 1984. (Your school library should order at least one!)

Dabney, Virginius. Virginia, the New Dominion. New York; Doubleday & Company, 1971. This work, now available in paperback, offersa great quantity of information and insightson the personalities and political intrigues of different periods.It is useful as a major reference work, and you wil' : it valuable to use in conjunction with other books and artic !lot offer different points of view

Federal Writers' Project, Lay My Burden Down; A FolkHistory of Slavery. Ed., B. A. Botkin. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1945. A 410 volume of interviews with former slaves.Available in many libraries, and well worth reading. Recommended for students.

Key, V.O., Southern Politics. New York: Random House, 1949. An entertaining and critical summary of each state's politicalhistory until the time of writing. Obviously out of date. Frequently quoted and well worth reading.

League of Women Voters of Virginia, Your Virginia State Government, 190.

Moger, Allen W., Virginia: Bourbonism to Byrd, 1870-1925. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia, 1968. Recommended for insights on Virginia political history.

Virginia State Library. A Hornbook of Virginia History. Virginia State Library Publications, 1983. A well-written narrative plus lists of documents, governors, historic places, and other information. Many illustrations beautifully printed, and a bibliography organizedby historic periods. Your school library should have at least one copy.

Wilkinson, J. Harvie III, Harry Byrd and the Changing Face ofVirginia Politics, 1945-1966. Charlottesville: University Pvess of Virginia, 1968. An important source for any research on this period.

C 30 158 This NL has been reproduced by the University of Virginia, use in. Resources for Teachine the copyright hclder, for Virginia Governnent. Copyright 1986by the Rector and Visitors of tha Universityof Virginia. VOL. 6: 'O S,

University of Virginia Institute of Government January 198e

THE 1985 STATEWIDEELECTION IN VIRGINIA: HISTORY QUIETLY WRITLARGE by Larry Sabato

The author u associate professor in the and he carried all ten congressional districts.' Terry attracted the broadest electoral coali- Woodrow Wilson Department of Govern- Only in the traditionally Republican Pied- ment and Foreign Affairs at the University tion of all in her successful bid for the attorney of Virginia. mont Sevei.th and Richmond-area Third dis- general's seat over Republican candidate Wd- tricts was the gubernatorial contest reason- liant'lluster- O'Brien. Her 61.4 percent state- ably close. Baliles' sireabk triumph was built wide vote enabled her to add all but 6 counties mainly on large margins in Tidewater, North- and 4 cities to her column. Not only did she This News Letter is an excerpt froma ern Virginia. and the far Southwest. carry all ten congressional districts, but she chapter in the forthcoming Virginia Votes Douglas Wilder beat Republican John Chi- 1913 -1986, to be published by the Institute received 60 percent or more of the votein chester to win the lieutenant governorship in all but one of them (the Piedmont Seventh). of Government in 1937. Many tablesand a much closer contest. He secured 51.8 per- footnotes have been deleted for lack ofspace. The Democrats built their victories on cent of the vote, and carried 48 of 95 counties strong support from the young. from blacks. and 25 of 41 cities. Seven of theten con- and to a lesser degree. from women. Those gressional districts gave Wilder a majority; under the age of 40 were especially likely to Every election is significant in itsown the Democrat lost only the Piedmont Sev- place and time, but few elections gain have backed the Democrats, with their elders more enth, the Southside Fifth, and his home than passing mention in the pages of history. tilting relatively more toward the GOP. Just district, the Richmond -area Third. Mary Sue The 1985 Virginia statewide electionwill a year earlier, younger voters had fueled almost certainly be one of the longremem- Ronald Reagan 's landslide presidential se- bered few. Not only did voters elect the first election in Virginia; those aged 18-24 had I Was * the km fohewaseertal oehMelot sem Otandast black and the first woman to statewide office. given Reagan his largest lead of anyage Aileen* Sr Kansas to MI tit am 5maewyrstwaY4 MU but they signalled the political moder- group. ation srttheir state and the emergence of Virginia as a leader in the New South.And while the political rulebook in the Old Do- minion has not been thrown away, it has CALENDAR OF UPCOMING EVENTS dearly been revised, and both patties andall February 4, 12, and 20: Social Studiesteachers are invited to pick one of these future candidates must take note. The irony data to attend a I-day Legislative Seminar is that such a dramatic, history-making at the General Assembly in elec- Richmond. These seminars, sponsored by the tion failed to engage the voters; the 1985 Teacher Resource Service at the Institute of Government, will increase educators'knowledge of Virginia government election witnessed one of the lowest turnouts and the political process. Each seminar will include in recent years. meetings with General Assembly members, briefings by legislative staff and lobbyists,an introduction to the Office of Legislative Services, and time GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS to attend committee hearings. The registration fee is $5.00, and space in each Election Day 1985 brought Democrats seminar is limited. For more information, call Melanie Bierman at theTeacher Resource Service in Char- their second consecutive sweep of the three lottesville, (804) 924-0955. statewide offices. GeraldBaliles won the governorship over his Republicanopponent February 27.21: Regional Seminar for LocallyElected Treasurers, to be Wyatt Durrette with 55.2percent of the vote. held at the Charlottesville Omni Hotel (formerlythe Radisson); sponsored by the Treasurers' Association of Virginia. Seminars will That was an even larger proportionthan also be held in Blacksburg on Charles Robb's 53.5 percent in 1981 (though March 6-7 and in Williamsburgon Much 13-14. To register or get more slightly less than Republican John Dalton's information. contact Alfred Anderson. Treasurer,Roanoke County. P.O. Box 3700. 1977 victory margin of 55.9 percent). Barites Roanoke, VA 24015; phone (703) 387-6089. swept 68 of 95 counties and 31 of 41 cities, 28

Black_ voted overwhelmingly Democratic still relatively infrequent: in 1977.55.9 (as will be ,:iscu.ssed shortly), but the percent but Gerald Bellies secured white of all localities split their tickets, a slim 51.5 percent vote was more split and less Republican and in 1973 majority there. Mary Sue Tern than fully 85.1 percent did so. cal.* % or. usual. No Dt.:Incratis nominee forgovernor. the suburban centers with 5b.6percent, .S. senator, or president since Statewide, nearly a quarter (23 percent)of proportion not far off her statewide 1965 has all voters split their tickets, while pace. i0: received a majority of the almost half all statewide and national Democrat:c white vote in (47 percent) voted straight Democratic can- Virginia, and 1985 proved and didates since 1968. Terry's suburban to be no exception. close to a third (30 percent) voted straight major. ;: Nevertheless, Bali les' 48percent showing is second only to Andrea P. Miller'ssuburban Republican. Ticket-splitterswere concen- among whites was the highest inthe two landslide in his 1973 reelectionas attorney trated more heavily in normally GOPter- decades since 1965, bettereven than Robb's general.) Of the three Democrats.on* ritory, thanks mainly to thecross-party ap- 46 percent share in 1981. WhileWilder lost Douglas Wilder lost the suburbs,but I:* a peal of Mary Sue Terry. Thetraditionally white votes by a sizeable margin(44 percent remarkably narrow margin of 48.bpercent for Wilder to 56 party-oriented Southwest areawas more in- to 51.2 percent. While the suburbs snows;. percent for Chichester). his clined than any other region proportion of the white to vote a straight a trend toward voting Democratic in I9V.. vote. in and of itself. party ticket in 1985 (in this case, for the was no small achievement for the firstmajor- their GOP vote was stillproportionate.; Democrats). Younger voters (49years and greater than in any other demographic c.. party black statewide candidate in Virginia's under) were slightly more likely history. Nearly three of to vote split vision. Thus, the Democrats wereaidca. every four votes (74 tickets than their elders. percent) that Wilder received the Republicans hurt, by the diminution0: on election day The major distinctions of those who voted were cast by whites. Of the three Democrats. turnout in the suburbs. Statewide. the suburos split tickets are ones of sex andrace. inter- only Terry won a majority of thewhite vote provided just 47.5 percent of the 1985turnout. estingly. Women and whiteswere much more (55 percent). The onlyother Democratic as compared to1984, when the suburn$ inclined to split their tickets thanmen and candidate for attorney general (orlieutenant blacks. Men cast comprised 49.3 percent of the total statewide governor) to win a white vote majority proportionately more vote. This suburban decline in the proportion since straight-party votes for both parties. Only 1966 was Andrew P. Miller. in 14 of the statewide vote was the first recorded his 1973 percent of blacks voted for even one Repub- reelection landslide. since 1977. lican, and just 3 percent voted straight Women were slightly more likely Re- to vote publican. The central city vote, by contrast,was 17.1 Democratic in 1985. but the surprise ishow The 1985 ticket-splitter, then, percent of the statewide total (up from 16.8 small the so-called "gender gap" was most was. In the likely to be a younger white percent in 1984), and this trend also favored governor's race women voted woman. Ticket- more Demo- splittersalsowere the Democrats. Democrats swept these cratic than men by only about 3 heavilyconcentrated lo- percentage among Durrette supporters. While 39 percent calities, as usual, but witheven larger than points, and there was no difference at all of the Diuretic voters also voted for usual margins: Bales with 66.2 between the sexes in the lieutenant at least percent, governor's Wilder with 64.4 percent, and Terry contest. Even in the election for one Democrat, just 18 percent of the Batiks with 71.3 attorney backers s..ayed from the party fold. percent. Rural Virginia joined hands with general, which featured a major-party its woman Most of the ticket-splitting benefitted urban neighbors in backing Democratsin candidateonly Virginia's third for statewide Re- publican Chichester and Democrat Terry,of 1985. Even Wilder narrowlywon rural lo- office in historywomen votedmore Dem- course. But even there, the patternsare in- calities (with 50.3 percent), while Sablesand ocratic than men by just 2percentage points? triguing and not always clearcut. Acompar- Terry secured majorities closely paralleling This compares with a 9percentage point gap ison of the votes for governor and their statewide totals. Wilder's winning between the sexes in the 1984 presidential lieutenant co- governor shows that about 7 percent of the alition was the rare one of ruritania cantoin Virginia. a 7 percent difference in and core voters backed &shies (D) and Chichester (R), city: ironically, only one other statewidecan- the 1984 U.S. Senate race, anda 6 percent while 3 percent supported Durrette didate in recent dm= has won with the spread in the 1982 U.S. Senate election. (R) and same (In Wilder (D). A comparison of the coalitionGerald Balks, in his close each case women voted more Democratic votes for race tor governor and attorney general shows that attorney general in 1981. than men.) At least in onestate, the "gender about 5 percent of the voterscast a ballot gap" in 1985 was less of a cha;.mand more for Baliles (D) s o d O'Brien (R), of a crevice. while I I BLACK VOTING PATTERNS percent chose Durrette (R) and Terry (D). With Douglas Wilder on the Democratic Overall, of those who voted for Bales.87 ticket, many in both parties had expecteda TICKET-SPLITTING IN 1985 percent also voted for Wilder and 92percent massive black turnout on electionday. Yet Even though 1985 resembled 1981 inits for Terry, his two Democratic ticketmates. On the Republican side, 90 blacks comprised only about 14percent of Democratic sweep, the margins of Demo- percent of all the election-day voting population, Durrette voters also backed Chichester, down cratic victory varied muchmore widely but slightly from the 15 percent level of only 75 percent cast a ballot for 1981. among the three candidates in 1985 than four O'Brien. And, while the black turnout of 53.9 Thus, a slightly larger percentage of percent years earlier. This resulted from an increase Balks in forty-four selected sample precincts voters (13 percent) than Durrette voters (10 was in ticket-splitting. Whereas in 1981 only22.8 marginally higher than the overall percent) defected to the other party in turnout percent of all localities split their tickets (i.e., the of 53.0 percent, this difference of lieutenant governor's contest, while only 0.9 voted for at least one Democrat andat ii.ast a much percent in 1985 was considerably reduced larger proportion of Durrette voters (25 one Republican), in 19115 39.0 percent of all per- from the 2.6 percent differential registered cent) than Babies voters (8 percent) defected in localities did so. In the perspective ofrecent 1981 (when blacks proportionately in the attorney general's outvoted Virginia history, however, ticket-splittingwas race. whites by a wide margin).

THE URBAN VOTE Blacks, then, exhibited nearlythe same degree of voter apathy as whites In 1985 the suburbs produced a majority in 1985. and 2 The other he* lobate candtdetes the turnout decline from 1981 ttatewide office were Harel for a Democrat in a governor's to 1985 was K Urger. the Republican 114,111014T fur htutesaatganthet car race for the even greater for blacks than for whitesall 404 taste. C. tlateinon, the Ikauarbin. *wan toe ti 1. first time since 1961. Even Charles Robbhad ecetatue 1V14 this despitt the presence ofa black in the narrowly failed to carry the suburbs in1981, statewide election of 1985 and theabsence

160 21

of one in 1981. Perhaps this shouldnot be the polls cast a ballot for lieutenant governor, potential voting population ttheve Is so surpriving in light of Douglas VAIder's compared to 91.6 percent who voted for -broad net and older) participated in the 191.5 strategy. Wilder campaigned not governor and 89.5 percent who voted for as a Jesse Jackson, concentrating his time compared to 64.9 percent of the reg :st : :ec attorney general. This is a reversal of the ezoal and attention on the black voters and 37.3 percent of the pole rniai vain; community, but pattern: more black (and white) voters usually rather as a Tom Bradley (the Los Angeles population in the previous gubernatorial eie: cast a ballot for governor than for any other tion For the first time since 1961. an absolute mayor)-amainstreamblackcandidate state office. decline occurred in the number of irginiar.-. widely acceptable to whites. Thesuccess of Ballot fall-off--the tendency of ...nits to voting from one gubernatorial election to nit Wilder's strategy is clearly reflected in the44 vote for top offices whit' abstaii, from next: in spite of a growth exceecting percent of the white you he secured: the lesser contests lower down on the ballot-is chron- in the potential voting population (tom 19t, cost of such a strategy may have been reduced ically high among black voters. Even in the enthusiasm in the black community, resulting to 1985, 60,000 fewer voters showed up a: in a paltry turnout. lieutenant governor's contest in 1985, a larger the polls in 1985 than in 1981. percentage of the general voting population Based on past turnouts, about 1.63 million Among blacks who did get to the polls, cast a ballot than did black voters. Among voters could have been expected to cc c the entire there was certainly no lack of enthusiasmfor voting population (black and the polls in 1985-yet only 1.38 milhr Wilder andhisDemocraticticketmates. white), 97.5 percent voted for governor, 95.9 so. Who were the `missing" 250.0Cit..tcrs. Wilder received 96.6 percent of thevotes cast percent for lieutenant governor, and 96.3 and could their absence have changed tne by blacks in forty-four selected blackpre- percent for attorney general.' White vote:), outcome in any of the three races? No firm cincts-a slightly better showing than the 96.4 then, were much more likely than blacks to conclusions can be reached using ag percent garnered by Rstib in 1981. Wilder's vote in all three statewide contests. Even so, gregate voting data, but a careful examination fellow Democrats die nearly as well. Repub- ballot fall-off for both black and white voters of voting patterns on election day suggests lican gubernatorial candidate Wyatt Durrette was actually lower for lieutenant governor some tentative answers.) made a concerted effort during his campaign and attorney general in 1985 than in the last Certainly, floods and heavy rain in some to attract black votes, yet it hardly showed two statewide et-ttions. This finding suggests parts of Virginia on election day contributed in the results, with Baliles taking 94.1percent that the unusual degree of publicity accom- to the low turnout. Three congressional div- of the votes in the sample black precincts. panying the campaigns of Wilder and Terry tricu-the Roanokerea Sixth, the South- Terry can slightly better than Batiksand did indeed increase participation in those west Ninth, and the Piedmont Seventh-were slightly worse than Wilder, winning 95.6per- lower ballot contests among voters who went particularly hardhit, and their turnouts cent of the black precinct votes. Overall, to the polls-even though the two campaigns ranked among the lowest in the state. Yet Republican John Chichester's 3.4 percent of and the extra preis coverage given themwere Northern Virginia's two conereisional dis- the black votes is one of the loweston record not 'efficient to :ncrease overall voter turnout tricts (the Eighth and the 7 .1th) recorded on election day. lessened or tied only by US. Senator Harry dropoffs nearly equal to the devastated areas. F. Byrd, Jr., in 1975 (3.0 percent) and GOP The low voter turnout may have been far despite being relatively unaffected by the bad presidential nominees Barry Goldwzner in more attributable to the relatively lackluster weather. Weather alone, then, can explain 1964(2.6percent) and Ronsld Reagan in 1980 race for governor, which featured two rather only part of the decline in turnout, And. of (3.4 percent). subdued white male suburban lawyors with course, inclement conditions influence voters seemingly similar positions on many major in the same locality in different ways: Blacks who went to the polls in 1985 also rain issues. In fact, while voter participation in might discourage some less enthusiastic voters recognizedthehistoricalsignificance of the No. 2 and No. 3 races increased, it was more easily than those strongly committed Wilder's candidacy in far greater numbers down in the governor's contest. A smaller than whites. When a statewide sample of to their candidates. proportion of all voters pulled a gubernatorial Some pieces of the turnout puzzle are voters leaving the polling places on election lever in 1985 than in the two previous elec- day was asked, Are you aware of anything already in place. The turnout in the relatively tions, while higher proportions voted for more Republican suburbs dropped in 1985 historically significant savout this year's Vir- lieutenant governor and attorney general. In compared with 1984, while the heavily Demo ginia state election?", 46 percent of blacks black precincts, the 91.6 percent that voted mentioned Wilder's unique status, compared cratic central cities provided a greaterpro for governor in 1985 was down from 97.6 portion of .the state vote total in 1985 than to just 27 percent of the whites.) By contrast, percent in 1977 and 97.0 percent in 1981. 1984. Also, black voters, while not whites and blacks were neater equally aware panic' of the barrier Mary Sue Terry was attempting pating at the high expected rate, still cast VOTER TURNOUT: ONE KEY TO ballots at a slightly higher level than white to break: 26 percent of th" whites and 31 THE ELECTION percent of the blacks volunteered information voters in 1985. In 1984, in contrast, white about Terry's status. Only rarely does a political scientist find turnout exceeded black turnout proportion- an election statistic that startles. But such is ately by at least 10 percentage points. These The importance that voting blacks attached the case with voter turnout in 1985. De'pite trends alone suggest that Democrats sere to Wilder's candidacy can be measured in one the novelty and the drama of a campaign better able to motivate their partisans in 1985, other way. Blacks were more like!: to vote featuring both a black and awoman, and and that Republicans had trouble generating in the lieutenant governor's contest than in despite the record spending in all threestate- excitement among their natural supporters. either of the other two statewide races. Re- wide races, a precipitous drop invoter turnout (Pre-election surveys revealed much the same, ferring again to the selected black precincts, was recorded. Only 53.0 percent of the reg- withDemocraticrespondentsexpressing 94.2 percent of all black voters who went to istered population and 32.2 percent of the much stronger support for their party's none. noes than did GOP respondents for theirs )

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161. 30

These suspicions are confirmed by a corn- another important way, the 1985 election an incumbentIn featiq ii sac Ba.at: wt. panson of the Republican vote of 1984 with served as a confirmation. not a repudiation, was the quasiincumbent. both ber.tai: the 1985 GOP vote. In the 520 Virginia of the past. Voters cannot predict the future, was the crown pnnce of the Robs reg. ;r.: precincts where Ronald Reagan garnered 70 particularly when no incumbent is running. and because he had defeated Durrett: in tee : percent or more of the vote in the 1984 so they are left to judge the immediate past. 1981 matchup for attorney generalMos: presidential election, the decline in turnout Just as voters nationally often choose pres- political consultants agree that. absent a scan between 1984 and 1985 was 25.8 percent. But idents retrospectivelypicking a candidate dal in the incumbent's midst, about the on'y in the 106 precincts where Walter Mundak based on their judgment of the success or way for a challenger to defeat an incumtv received at least 70 percent of the vote. the failure of the last administrationthe Vir- is by an aggressive, relentless, attackonent:.: turnout fall-off was just 21.3 percent. This ginia electorate selected Gerald Baliles in effort. Yet it was "challenger Durrette 4.5 percent differential in turnout decline. if good measure because of Governor Robb's was on the defensive for most of a remarkae!y projected statewide. suggests that if GOP achievements. Not only was Robb overwhelm- quiescent campaign. and Incumbent" Bai :les voters had turned out to vote in 1915 in the ingly popular, with approval :stings well who was almost constantly on the aunt. same proportion as in 1914. with the turnout above 70 percent. but he managed to mod - Donate was kept oflbAlance not only b: at the expected level of 1.63 million, then crate Virginia's political culture over his four but also by a strife-torn and faction- 73,350 net additional GOP voters would have years in office, winning widespread accep- ridden Republican party, whose byzantine shown up at the polls on election day.' tance for the appointment of blacks and politics extended into the Durrette campaign Democrats would still have won the contests women to high offices and thus helping to stall*itself. With the staff swollen to An for governor and attorney general with re- pave the way for Wilder's and Terry's bids. unhealthy sizeat kast sixty-one atone duced margins, but the lieutenant governor- Robb also blunted one of the GOP's best pointinternal and ekitrnal leaks of cam- ship might well have been tipped to Repub- And often used anti-Democrat issues by run- paign disputes and documents hccanic lican John Chichester.' ning a tight-fated, fiscally conservative ad- monplace, taking the spotlight off Durrette ministration. Both socially progressive and issues and leaving the impression of A can- A LANDMARK ELECTION financially sound. Robb's four years were didate who could not put his own house in IN PERSPECTIVE firmly rooted in mainstream value:: a nd Robb order. !Wiles' campaign. by crintrast. was run The irony of 1985 is that an election little himself war ideologically' and personally by a much smaller staff, and every available noted by an apathetic electorate will likely tailor-made for the modern Virginia elector- dollar was husbanded for media advertising be considered a landmark political event for ate, which increasingly is concentrated in Even though Batiks and Durrette raised and decades to come. But while the 1915 election burgeoning. sophisticated, cosmopolitan sub- spent approximately the same amount of may be long remembered. haw it will be urban centers. Money. Bales outspent his opponent by remembered is a question still unanswered. about 2-to-I in television advertising. going Robb's presence in the campaign was en- on the air a full three weeks earlier and There are those who will contend that the hanced by the Democrau'sekstion of Gerald election of the first black and the fast woman shaping voters' critical early impressions of Baliles. Unlike Dick Davis. his major con- two little -known gubernatorial contenders nominated by a major party in Virginia tender (or the Democratic nominationwho Finally, as any honest candidate or campaign history signalled a sheep departure from the is a gregarious, rough-and-ready, indepen- past, and that Virginia politics can never be manager would admit, a little (or a lot of dent-minded, and more liberal politician luck is an essential ingredient in a winning the same again. In one sense this assertion Batiks is in many ways a Robb look-alike; campaign. Not a singk major campaign es ent cannot be disputed. Wilder's and Terry's sue- careful and cautious to a fault, quiet and calm broke Durrette's way: he even lost every coin Ceases open the door to nontraditional can- of manner, articulate and lawyer-like, sub- toss used to determine the order of speakers didates for offices at all levels in Virginia. urban-polished and conservatively tailored. just as their predecessors' elections in other at debates and joint appearances Balks appeared to be the perfect surrogate In the race for lieutenant governor, luck states have done. At the same time. Virginia for Robb, and the voters made a credible has not undergone a radical transformation and skill were much in evidence. Douglas assumption that a vote for Batik; war a vote Wilder had once been a long shot virtually of philosophy. The state is still moderate- for more of the same. On election day fully written off by most leaders of his own party, conservative in ideology and relatively staid 48 percent of those who cast a ballot for and his campaign threaded the eye of a needle, in manner. Wilder and Terry were hardly Baliles admitted that they voted for Wm elected as liberals: to the contrary. both At the outset Wdder's perceived handicaps "primarily because (they) approve(d) of thz were many: his race, his liberal record on strived to wrap themselves intraditional job performance of fellow Democrat Charles many social issues during fifteen years in the Virginia values; both conducted sedate and Robb as Governor for the last four years.'' subdued campaigns; and both eagerly em- State Senate, and some personal problems braced the moderate-conservatism of Gov- Certainly, though. Robb we not the; only (including a reprimand by the state Supreme ernor Robb and their ticket leader, Gerald major factor at work in o g the Dent- Court for poor representation of a client. Baliks. Had the Republicans succeeded in ocratie sweep. Each oft. tad its own reputed late payment of taxes, and building painting %der and Terry with liberal hues. dynamics. In the gubernatorial contest, a code violations on some of his Richmond the election results might well have -been fundamentalstrategicmiscalculationby property). Resentment also lingered in some different. Wyatt Durrette made much of his effort futile. quarters of the Democratic party because of Fooled by the early polls that suggested he and Babies were locked in a nip-andtuck battle.. Durrette undertook a play-itsale, pos- 6 TUB e. 141475 Werra GOP wren rel 114.3t3 saireaa itive. and upbeat campaign more suited to Thew p14 44.7 terra tar erred el pent rte a. rer Cherruat weer arid Mr are Wet. curry as Wiper r GAeort IVO .6.11 1..pre War reap ere Dereneu later. a age. ar true atafer. I Sart err. h44 1.44 444 err 53 pr em. car Trny Ira el Yelper errs IA lam 04144# 11.444.4,,/ 5:444 paiww. th prow Tam earreeree Moo I« 1441 lals 141.41 4614444. IOWA 144o iY GOP 441 a 43 pitimm A 'ewe' GOP alwarees Oreern were Low rarer raw SO2 remote Sarre &ern der MUM' 411 ia.e purr id W sul44461 444 HI 1/4440 44 I prem. earn 114 la4 coaralk of erg pert ...rot 010/00111 enfoures....1 00~4 lea WIN leara are GOP *arum* me 444. Free ra MarrOure eie pea rue! earl.. 6111rfl was. km..

162 11

his threat to bolt the pan) and run as an Wilder began to gain ground and Chichester independem for the C.S. Senate in 1962 Democrat to outspend he: Repuo...a. began to fight, the Republican madea serves a threat that forced moderate-conservative ponent b) a large margin. anti O'Bncr. aa of tactical mistakes. He dramatically reduced Delegate Owen Pickett to withdraw ouuhov.n in television advenising o; a rata. as the the potential usefulness to him of Wilder's likely Democratic candidate. of about 3-to-I, Of the four candidate: past liberal votes on criminal justiceissues lieutenant governor and attorney gencra.. But once on the campaign trail. Wilder by claiming ",hat Wilder had the criminal's Terry's ads were seen and recalled tnteress at heart"a rhetorical overstate- ma.a, overcame his difficulties. First, he put the frequently. By campaign's ers. 4:pirreera. GOP on the defensive and made Republicans ment that caused a backlash. Similarly, his remembered having watched Tern s currnt:- running of newspaper advertisements reluctant to attack him by charging that their that cials, comparedtojustlhpercentta- use of the term "liberal" to describe him had suggested Wilder was "soft" on spousal abuse O'Brienal seemed almost comically harsh. At the racial implications. Second, he tooka nearly same time. Chichester failed to make wide 4,000-mile trek by stationwagon through use of legitimate issues at CONCLUDING REMARKS rural and small-town Virginia. inan attempt his disposal (such as Wilder's late pr meet of taxes) that would With apologies to those who bear.: to meet the white voters supposedlymost have proven far more effective and predestination, elections are not foreorza.r.::. resistant to a black candidacy.An enormous were irrefutable. in end in victory for one particular cand.caa. amount of free, favorable publicity in local Certainly, Chichester suffered from a critical and unfriendly and statewide media was generated along the press throt 'h- or party. Unpredictable events and circurra stances along the way can change the poht.ea. way. Third. Wilder adopted a relaxed. sedate out his campaign, but in the final analysis campaign style that belied his earlier repu- that is only part of the story. Overconfidence calculus almost week bee week. andtne zan- followed by incompetence contributed didate who u a lung shut ata aampaian tation as a firebrand. His smooth,direct might- ily to Chichester's defeat. outset can beann the vanilla U16 OW601 delivery made him perhaps the best television 1./..1 (as Douglas Wilder proved for all tosee) personality of the six statewide candidates in The contest for attorney general is the 1985. In that, he had a decisive edgeover easiest to analyze. Mary Sue Terry simply In the most general terms, the Democrda John Chichester. whose television performan- started earlier and labored much harder won in 1985 for the most fundamental reason ces were often stiff, uneasy, and inarticulate. and longer than her opponent: By the time her they ran more experienced and better-testa._ Fourth, Wilder cleverly shaved the liberal RepublicanopponentWilliam candidates who conducted bettercampaign, edges of his public record, instead focusing "Buster" O'Brien had received his pany's nomination But better candidates and bettercampaign \ on his legislative achievements, his Korean and started to work seriouslyon his general are aumetimes not enough and it is east la War record, and the patrioticvirtues and election campaign, Terry had alreadyaccu- imagine circumstances that might him,.rt. moderate-conservativeVirginia values he mulated a half million dollar and had visited versed the outcome in one ormore rates claimed to possess. Fifth, much as his guber- virtually every major financier and If Lieutenant Governor Dick Davishad nat rustorad ticket mate did, Wilder carefully political con- powerbroker in the state, securingsupport been so magnanimous and had &ciaoto served his resources, paying onlya skeletal and money from most of them. Terry carry his intrapany challenge to Batiks into staff in order to purchase con- as much television structed the broadest coalition of all a bruising convention fight. could Baines advertising time as possible. Parallelling for the instance,theRichmond limes-Diva:ch, (assuming he would have won thenomination, top contest, Wilder outspent his opponent by which backed the othertwo Republicans in the end) have pieced the Democraticpan) about 25-to-I on television (despite Chiahes- refused to endorse O'Brien and together again fur the tall election? If D ter's lead in cverxll fundraising). The ad most instead commended both candidatesto its had secured the nomination, woulda Ca\ frequently aired faWilder featured a rural readers. Moreover, Terry had followeda ticket have appeared too liberalto the geaeral white sheriff's acpery witha Southside drawl careful, calculated path during herpolitical electorate? If the agile, politicallysavvy Mai- endoniag the D-mocrat--a memorablespot career, and there was almost nothing shall Coleman had won the GOP that helped to -atridize GOP charges unpop- nomination that ular or controversies; in her record for for lieutenant governor instead of Chichester. Wilder had not been tough enough O'Brien on law to find and use. Tory's sex, much like Wilder 's would he have beaten Wilder? And if the GUP and order" issues. More gentrally, of course, race, actually WAS an advantage rather than ticketeven as actually constitutedhad fo- Wilder was also the beneficiary of Robb% a disadvantage in the end. The novelty cused early on the weaknesses of the popularity and, on election day, of Baliles' at- Dem- tracted more free coverage than mightother- ocratic ticket, and had attacked the:. %agar- large marten of victory. Lastly, Wilderen- wise have been given a candidate forattorney ously and steadily, might the ,a.t.ubticans joyed a remarkably positivepress, and he war: general, and the vast majority of Terry'snews have won at least c of three races? These the editorial choice of most of theleap coverage was favorable--extraordinarily queries are unanswerable circulation newspapers. teasers, =runt), positive" for a candidate, asone prominent but they also suggest thecourse of events that might have been. For all of the strengths of Wilder's newspaper editor noteda, Terry's sex (like cam- Wilder's race) also may have shielded paign, he still arguably wouldnot have won, the candidate from certain kinds of attacks, History as it actually unfolded hasother considering his liabilities, if he had faced and an O'Brien's limited attempts to capitalize lessons, however. The second straight lam- able, mainstream opponent who could on her have gender and her single status fell flat (or ratic sweep of statewide offices marksthe run a strong campaign. In John Chichester, may even have backfired). coming of age of the new Democraticparty howaver. Wilder had a foe who unwittingly a moderate party (urged in the wilderness of contributed to the Democrat'supset. For the All in all, nothing proved twelve fruitless years, a party that has first two months of his tenet:a election so important as turned cam- Terry's financial edge. Shewas the only away from liberal extremes and towardcen- paign. Chichester seemed to follow the errant trism, a party that once again i wholeand advice he had been given bya number of high-ranking Republicans: lay low,say nothing controaarlial, and be graceful in incvit aole 10 Wakens H War! a Om h.11.11, Yegrus.P4Aw W p...', victory. Ow:kw autiag his shrewd prna.'Wutt. 014a. lip IM Pecs' sit ii w.w,', 011. a.., . Iwo a.a bit Chthesti, s oppo- Lows. it pilaw io 22*WM 61 iNupp.mot holui twiwamrAw. but II. 1,12, ikl gotwmAut1.1....1.1.1ts volttwat, nent was just Chiaata er's ir, iial error. Once A10 OP mit is pinto lot 11,1.1.,, 02 'whim la Dwitioe MI biodit aculca M.. tot tkiwtto,

163 32

financially healthy rather than splinteredan 1 of television. The ideologue in broke. For two-party competition a pan) looks candidates greatly outspent on telesision, to only to the candidate's views on litmus-test so on. strengthen, however, the Republicanparty issues; the pragmatist who cares about win- 4. Republicans must providea 'loyal op. must halt and reverse its recent decline, much ning has other items on his checklistand as the Democrats did in the early 1980s. Just position " worthy of the name during theensue foremost among them should be suburban life of a Democratic administration, as the need for party renewal and regeneration not just palatability and televised appeal. at election time. Char:es Robb had four has passed from Democrats to Republicans, 2. Republicans must reduce factionalism. so too must the "recipe for recovery" first virtually criticism-free years asgovernor. an,: During the 1970s, it was the Democrats who the GOP made no organized attempt proposed for Democrats in thepages of an to offer suffered from a "majority mentality"a belief alternatives to his policies. Having go%erned earlier volume of Virginia Votes.12 Thereare that as the majority party they had the luxury four main ingredients in this recipe, essentially unopposed, and well, for fo.: now of fighting among themselves while stillemerg- revised and concocted for a GOP intent years, Robb had accumulated from soters an on ing triumphant on election day. Twelveyears recapturing statewide offices. enormous reservoir of goodwill. which he of electoral disaster cured Democrats of the to use for his party's candidates. The GO ?. 1. Republicans must nominate moderate- ailment (or at least sent it into remission). consenative, mainstream candidates who by contrast, had accumulated nothing.ar: But twelve years of victories for the GOP all too late it attempted to demolish thesturc: have suburban appeal andcan inc the med- convened its useful "minority mentality" ium of television well. Too often Republicans house that Robb had built. No gmernor the attitude that, as a minority, theparty had or any official, for that mattershould be have assumed that nominatingmore conser- to remain unified to wininto the damaging given a free ride during his or herterm of vative candidates than the Democrats, in and opposite. Since 1980 Virginia Republicans of itself, is enough. First of all, Virginians office. In a democracy a loyal opposition11.: appear to have forgotten the essential element an obligation to do better than the Repot are not far to the right of center; they are of winning elections in the United States: . slightly to the right of it; the term "moderate lican party in Virginia h.,s done and:Le building coalitions. In 1981 the GOPex- conservative" best describes the ideological irony is that doing the right thins fordem- cluded all "Old Guard" representatives from ocracy will also pay dividends to the pony midpoint in an Old Dominion that iscon- its ticket, and it lost; in 1985 all "Mountain at election time.12 servative both fiscally and culturally,yet Valley" representatives were purged, and the If Republicans learn the lessons born socially modern and even progressive insome 01 ticket lost again. A grand coalition for the defeat, then the 1985 electron will yield ways. Grand Old Party is a basic ingredient of more The GOP should also take note that sub- historically than the election of the firstbide), restoration. and first woman to statewide office. Virginia urban voters are merely receptive,o Repub- 3. Republicans must restore parity in their can lead the South in two ways: in standing lican philosophy; they are not enrapturedby campaign organization, fund-raising, and for full and equal opportunity inelectoral it. The suburbs are owned byno one, and technology. Itis rather incredible that the they will generally lean toward candidates politics, and in providing andpromoting Virginia GOP finds itself falling ."..thindon who are attractive, personable, and healthy, vigorous, two-party competition commu- this store, considering the long lead itonce nicate effectively through the difficult medium every level of government. enjoyed over state Democrats. But theev- idence was everywhere in 1985: a deteriorating 13 Is !mane 10 the Repute...6,-s. the nenithleis3. mh.tt 12 See the wthory Vrthwt and much less effective state phone bank (Chati01411,6112' mate Mag. IMId ISOU Rilmdfl.sh S .cmsiot. end tertercht.l.te 14+14,4e 01 GosrsIsed. Lisoctviy of huelettre, 19411DD 52. operation, bloated campaign sit eating up recent the Woe lift .41 Juntit, Itud Ictrns why Katurtala .4411 ill.afte cl...liortig en. um Dull kett.0 resources better spent elsewhere, Republican Icon ,usittluntft

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UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA Entered as second-dass manor Charlottesville. Virginia

NEWS LETTER

ILSSN 00424211) Executive Editor / Jaws A. (Dolphr Norton Managing Editor / Sandra H. Wiley Published monthly by the Institute of Governroent, University of Virginia, Chulownville, Virginia 21903. The views end opinions expressed herein are those of the authors. and are not to be interpreted as representing the official position of the Institute or the University. Eaten 1 as socondciaas tauter January 2, 1925. 164 Si the post ,Ilia al Charlottesville, Virginia, under the act of August 24, 1912. 1946 by The Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia. Primed by the University Pointing Office. This News Letter was reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University oui,g4,91.

NEWS

UniversityofVirginia InstituteofGovernment JANUARY :983

THE 1982 ELECTION FOR U.S.SENATOR IN VIRGINIA By Larry Sabato

Virginia and American politics. (Byrd and interested in the nomination: these included Mr Sabato is assistant professor of government at the his father had continuously held the Senate University of Virginia. This News Zeiler is excerpted former Attorney General Andrew P. from a chapter in the forthcoming Virginia Votes 1979- seat for nearly fifty years.) Byrd's decision to Senate Majority Leader Hunter B. Andrews. 1 982. to he published by the Institute of Government in retire served to reinforce the new era of two- and Delegate Owen Pict ett of Virginia the spring of 1981 All footnotes in that chapter have been party competition that had begun more than Beach (the state party chairman). In order to deleted here, because of space limitations. a decade earlier, and it set off a flurry of reducefratricide and give the eentual activity in both parties. Democratic nominee a headstart equal to Among Republicans. First District U.S. that of the unopposed Trible. Demoemuz Representative Faul Trible, who had made leaders, including Governor Charles Robb. The resultsof the November 1982 no secret of his senatorial ambitions since his initiated a series of meetings and informai electionsinVirginia gave both major first days in the House of Representatives. surveys that involved the potential candi- pcliticalparties reasontorejoice. The and who had been campaigning :or the dates. the key party offic:als. and other...1:: Republicans gained a U.S. Senate berth and ncmination for over a year in case Byrd designed to arrive as a - .nsensus choice :or the Democrats won three U.S. House seats. retired, immediately became the GOP front- the Democratic nomination. Etentuall. ire But the clearest message of the Old Domin- runner. Despite grumblings from many in consensus formed around Pickett. min the ion's elections in 1982 was that Virginia, in the party that Trible was too young and too other potential candidates dutitul4 with- its elections at the state and congressional ambitious, senior Republicans like former drew from consideration. district levels, had become one of the most Governor John N. Dalton, U.S. Representa- As the Democratic parq repeatedlha. competitive two-party states in the nation tive Stanford E. Parris, and forma- Delegate proven, its coalition is tenuous and tritzke astate where close elections are now Wyatt Durrette declined to challenge Trible; In this case. Pickett in his campaign 1,:ck-;:: comoonplace. where reversals of power are and so Trible received his party's nod by reverent,. invoked. without quad:cr.. t:. frequent. and where neither party can take acclamation in a June convention. name of Harry F. Byrd. Jr. That. ,-our le,: any election for granted, even those featur- The Democratic story was more compli- with the failure of several black-sr( ing incumbents. At the same time, the GOP's cated. A number of major Democrats were bills in the recent legislative ses5ion. t%.t, victory in the statewide U.S. Senate contest, while narrow, suggests that this two-party competitiveness still has a Republican tinge; THE 200th ANNIVERSARY OF THE UNITED STATES CONSTITUTION when all campaign advantages and disadvantages arerelatively equal or balanced, the In 1987 Virginia and the nation will celebrate the 200th anniversaq, ofthe United state's electorate will lean to the GOP's States Constitution; the final page of this News Letter discussessoma of the special nominee. This News Letter reviews the 1982 significance that this commemoration holds for citizens of theCommeqvcalth. Governor Charles S. Robb has designated A.E. Dick Howard. electionforU.S.senatorinVirginia, Counselor to the Governor, as the member of the governor's staff responsible for offeringencouragement examining the voting results that gave the and support to groups and institutions planning activities during victory to Republican candidate Paul Trible this Decade of and analyzii.g the major campaign issues Constitution. Professor Howard, who was the chief architect ofVirginia's current that contributed to Trible's win. constitution, has written extensively about constitutional law andhistory. Governor Robb has also designated the Institute of Governmentat the Univermty of THE PARTY PRELIMINARIES Virginia to offer staff assistance and to be responsible foractual coordination of. and assistance to, groups and institutions as they undertake plans forevents marking aspects The unpredictable twists and turns that of the constitutional decade. Under the aegis of the Institute.an ad hoc steering committee have come to characterize Virginia politics has met several times to share informationoa activities being planned arourn, the since the demise of the Byrd Organization Commonwealth. Timothy G. O'Rourke. a research associate and assistantprofessor at were much evident in the winter and spring the Institute, is specifically responsible for overseeing the Institute'srole of info:ma:Ion of 1982. Ironically, the son of the machine's gathering and sharing and of assistance to those wishing it. longtime boss was primarily responsible for ;Individuals or groups desiring further informationare invited to contact either kit. the tumult. In late November 1981 Harry F. Howard (address: Office of the Richmond, Virginia 23219) or Mr. O'Rouese Byrd,Jr. unexpectedly announcedhis (address: Institute of Government, 207 Minor Hall, University ofVirginia. Charlottes. retirement from the U.S. Senate, thereby ville, Virginia 22903). ending a remarkable era in the annals of botn 165 18

enough to send black state Senator L. THE GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS the Roanoke Sixth, and the Piedmont Douglas Wilder into thefray.Wilder Seventh) by substantial, though not over- declared Pickett unacceptable and threa- After an acrimonious general election whelming, margins. Trible's Fifth District tened to run as an independent in the general campaign. Republicans elected a senator in majority of 52.9 percent was unusually low. election. thereby drawing crucial black votes November. and Trible narrowly defeated perhaps reflecting the success of an earlier away from the Democratic candidate and Davis by 724.571 votes to 690.839 votes.or a black voter registration drive there that almost certainly resulting in the election of margin of 51.2 percent to 48.8 percent. Trible helped to produce a large, heavily Demo- the Republican nominee. Mediation efforts carried fifty-eight of ninety-five counties and cratic black vote on election day. by Governor Robb failed and. in the end. nineteen of forty-one cities in fashioning his Even while losing. Davis won five of the statewide victory. Wilder's threat and the coincident failure of state'stencongressionaldistricts:the the low-key Pickett to excite the party forced Geographically. the key to Trible's elec- Norfolk-Virginia Beach Second. the Tide- Pickett to withdraw in early May. Inciden- tion was hi home congressional district. the water Fourth, the Southwest Ninth, and the tally, at the time of his withdrawal. Pickett Fiist, which includes :Newport News, Hamp- North an Virginia Eighth and Tenth dis- already had secured a pledged majority of ton. the Northern Neck area. and the Eastern tricts. In the Second, Eighth, and Tenth the Democratic convention delegates (the Shore counties.Normally amarginally districts. however, Davis's pluralities were mass meetings having already been held). Democratic area. the First District, with a well below expectations. primarily due to and therefore was the nominee-presumptive. high turnout, generated a plurality of 28.375 disappointing showings in the suburban He is thus one of the few candidates in an votes for its fat, oi ite son. Since a strong localities of Fairfax County and the City of American state ever voluntarily to have Democratic candidate usually can count on Virginia Beach. (Davis lost the latter by a turned down a certain U.S. Senate nomina- a First District plurality of at least 10,000- shattering 10,000-votemargin,perhaps tion for a reason other than scandalor 12.000 votes. Tribe's margin in the First reflecting in part a residue of bitterness personal illness. represented a net gain for Republicans of about the Democrats' treatment of native Wilder withdrew the day after Pickett's almost 40.000 votesmore than Trible's son Owen Pickett earlier in the year.) The withdrawal, and Democrats began a mad statewide plurality of approximately 35.000 Ninth District also proved to be a substantial scramble to find a standard-bearer. Candi- votes. disappointment to Davis; his narrow 52 dates tested the waters. took the plunge. and Besides the FirstDistrict, Trible also percent majority was surprisingly small in a then retreated to the beach with dizzying carried four normally Republican districts Democratic-leaning area with substantial speed.Party leaders overwhelmingly fa- (the Richmond Third. the Southside Fifth, unemployment. voredLieutenant Governor Richard J. Davis as a proven vote-getter and the 1981 ticket-leader.Yet Davis. fearing that a sufficient campaign war chest could not be Table 1.The Urban Vote in the 1982 Virginia General Election for U.S. Senator raised. took his name out of consideration. Percent of Percent of Votes Cast for Ana:her potentially strong contender. state Urban Measure Total Vote Davis (D) Trible (R) Senate Majority Leader Hunter B. Andrews, also became discouraged and renounced a Urban Corridor a 58.1 49.5 50.5 possible candidacy. Standard Metropolitan Other more willing contenders did sur- Statistical Areas b 64.9 49.2 50.8 face. most of them with regionally concen- Central Cities 18.0 ,...''s A 39.6 trated followings. These included liberal Suburbs 46.9 -.k.9 55.1 former U.S. Representative Joseph L. Fisher of Arlington.the Secretary of Human Rural Areas c 31.8 48. 51.9 Resources inthe Robb administration's cabinet; moderate Fairfax County Com- SOURCE: Compiled from official election results provided by 'he State Board of monwealth's Attorney Robert Horan; and Elections. populiststate Senator Virgil Goode of Rocky Mount. None of these candidates a Includes eighteen cities and eighteen counties located in a geographic area that proved entirely satisfying to party leaders, stretches from Northern Virginia through Richmond to Tidewater. who once again began pressuring Davisto accept a draft. Finally on convention eve b The nine Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs) for Virginiaare (June 4), Davis announced that he would Charlottesville, Danville, Lynchburg, Washington, D.C., Newport News-Hampton, accept a draft. Finally on the convention's Norfolk-Portsmouth-Vir&ia Beach, Petersburg-Colonial Heights-Hopewell, Rich- opening day (June 4), Davis announced that mond, and Roanoke. The Charlottesville and Danville SMSAs were first designated after he would accept the Senate nomination, the 1980 census. The Johnson City-Kingsport-Bristol SMSA of Tennessee and Virginia which he won easily the followingdayon the has not been treated as metropolitan in this analysis. "Central cities" and "suburbs" are second ballot. Ironically, the Democratic included in the SMSA figures. %party had emerged from all the tumult unified and with one of :Is strongest possible cAll Virginia localities not included in either the Urban Corridor or the Metropolitan nomineesa man who could not haverun in categories. normal circumstances, having been first elected to statewide office less thana year earlier.

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THE SUBURBAN VOTE plurality.In addition, Trible won rural Davis's own 95.5 percent a year earlier. The most important demographic feature Virginia narrowly, by 51.9 percent to 48.1 While Trible had had some success in of the vote in the 1982 Senateelection was percent for Davis, thereby adding another attracting black votes in his earlier U.S. the return of the suburbs to the Republican 17,000 votes (net) to the GOP's column. The House races in the First District, his 5.7 party. In the 1981 gubernatorial contest central cities, tho.....%, held firm for Davis. percent statewide black proportion was little Democrat Charles Robb and Republican The Democrat's 60.4 percent of the central- better than Marshall Coleman's unusually Marshall Coleman had almost equal support cityvote was reduced somewhat from low 3.6 percent in 1981. Trible received the from suburban localities; and Democrat Robb's 1981 margin of 64.5 percent (thanks same percentage as Republican gubernato- Richard Davis, in his successful bid for in good part to Triblc's Newport News- rial candidate Mills Godwin in 1973, and less Hampton lieutenantgovernor,hadsecured52.3 pluraliti73);however,Davis's than the 7.1 percent won by John W. Warner percent of the suburban vote (the largest central-city net plurality of 53,000 voteswas in itis successful 1978 senatorial bid. majority of any Democrat running statewide still above average for a Democrat. The Not only did blacks vote overwhelmingly since 1973). The 1981 suburban margins for suburbs cast 46.9 percent of the total 1982 for Davis, but also their turnout was ata Democrats had broken a twelve-year pattern statewide vote, an all-time record; and when record high level for recent off-year elec- in which the suburbs had fueledevery that is compared with the central cities' total tions. The sample of predominantly black statewide GOP victory by giving sizeable statewide vote of only 18.0 percent, it is clear precincts indicates that approximately 68.9 majorities to Republican candidates,en- that Trible had the more substantial demo- percent of registered Virginia blacks partici- abling them to overcome Democratic plural- graphic base. pated in the 1982 midterm contests. up from ities in the central cities and ru:al areas. 67.5 percent in 1981 and far above the 56.4 percent level of the last off-year senatorial In 1982 the suburbs reverted to form and THE BLACK VOTE awarded Trible 55.1 percent of the vote, a election in 1978. Black turnout exceeded showing comparable to the GOP's past Much of Davis's central-city majority was white turnout for the second consecutive winners and almost five percentage points provided by blacks. As Table 2 shows, a year, and by a slightly larger margin in 1982 higherthanMarshallColeman's198; sampling of forty-three predominantly black than in 1981. Black opposition to Reagan- suburban proportion (see Table 1). Trible's precinctsindicatedthatDavis received omics and an extensive registration drive in suburban majority was about 68,000 votes, about 94.3 percent of the total black vote. Southside Virginia sponsored by the state fully double that of his statewide winning not far from Robb's 96.4 percent showing or NAACP and the "Virginia Action" coalition were two possible explanations for the large turnout. Whatever the cause, Davis received more than a quarter of his total vote from blacks: Trible. by contrast, carried about 56 percent of the white vote to fashion his slim Table 2.Voting in Selected Predominantly Black Precincts inVirginia Cities, 1982 General Election for U.S. Senator statewide victory. Total Percent Turnout City Number ofVotes of Registered Percent of Votes Cast for VOTER TURNOUT Precincts Cut Voters Davis (D) Trible (R) The turnout of voters was larger than Black Precincts: usual. not only in the black community but also across the state. About 63.4 percent of Charlottesville 1 616 60.1 :34.4 15.6 the registered voters and 34.7 of the potential Virginia Beach 1 647 61.2 82.7 17.3 electorate (those aged eighteen and over) Hampton 2 2,479 68.1 83.0 17.0 cast a ballot in the 1982 senatorial contest. Newport News 8 6,329 74.5 93.8 6.2 While turnout was down slightly from the 1981 level, it was marginally higher than the Norfolk 10 11.058 71.8 94.7 5.3 Portsmouth 2 3,025 78.9 participation rates in the last two off-year 97.6 2.4 u.S. Senate elections (in 1970 and 1978). Richmond 15 13,628 64.0 95.9 4.1 Emporia irginia was following the national trend in 1 278 70.2 92.9 7.1 1982; in the U.S. as a whole, voter turnout Petersburg 3 2,939 67.8 97.3 2.7 was up from 37.9 percent in 1978 to about 41 percent of the potential electorate in 1982. Totals 43 40,999 68.9 94.3 5.7

DISSECTING THE TRIBLE VICTORY SOURCE: Compiled from official election results providedby the State Board of Elections art complex creatures, andany Elections. fair analysis of an election-priicularlya close one such as the 1982 Senate contest- NOTE: Identification of the specific precincts used in this analysisis provided in the must allow for the wide variety of factors forthcoming Virginia Votes 1979-1982, tobe published in the spring of 1983 by the that shaped the outcome of 1.4 million Institute cf Government. individual voting decisions.

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The setting of an election is especially was unable at a crucial moment in the Perhaps in part because of these issue important. and state and national politics campaign to reach undecided votersas differences, Trible was able to secure the sened as vital backdrops to Virginia's U.S. frequently. Moreover. most of Davis's ads. backing of important "conservative coali- Senate race. First of all. the Democratic while giving voters "good" reasons tovote tion" independents such as former Delegate sweep of state offices in 1981 raised the against Trible. did not really give votersa W. Roy Smith. who had supported Demo- stakes in the 1982 contest. Republicans were compelling reason to votefor Davis. The last crat Robb in 1981. (While Davis also was anxious to prove 1981 an aberration. and to vital phase in campaign advertisingmust abletoattract some of the important reestablish their statewide dominance. Thus. provide such positive motivation to the coalitionists, including former U.S. Repre- despite the serious doubts that party elders electorate. and in this crucial respect the sentative Watkins Abbitt, the number was had about Paul Trible. Republicans rallied Davis commercial program fell short. far fewer than the number that had been around the young congressman since his active in Robb's camp.) Trible also received campaign organization was already in place The Trible media expenditures were the active campaign support of conservatives and party unity would be essential to a supplemented by extensive. sophisticated in the Republican party who had never been general election victory. The Democrats in national GOP advertising and personal enthusiastic about Marshall Coleman (such 1982. by contrast. wanted to sustain their appearances by President Reagan urging as former Governor Mills Godwin). newly generated momentum. But. flushed votersto "staythe course" and elect Despite his advantage on policy issues. with victory. Democrats proved unable to Republican congressional candidates. Na- cope with success. as the party once again Trible was kept effectively on the defensive tional GOP pollsters reported that such for much of the general election rtmpaign. dissolved into bickering factions and torpe- advertising helped to increase President doedits"consensus" candidate. Owen First. the Davis forces centered their attack Reagan's popularity by several percentage on a Trible ";^ernal campaign memoran- Pickett. in a spring season full of recrimina- points in the last few days of the campaign dum" that w is sent to several hundred party tions. The popularifreluctantDavis. a gain that also seemed to register for many workers andcontributors.This memo acceptable to all factions as a compromise of the GOP's Senate contenders across the inaccurately claimed that in a New York choice. restored party unity: but Davis was nation. In Virginia. the advertising may have meeting labor leaders, after viewing Davis drafted so late that he began the race with helped to draw GOP strays back to the fold television ads. secretly had pledged a large severe financial and organizational handi- and to increase turnout in Republican areas sum to the Davis campaign. to be delivered caps. The financial gap was so enormous like the Sixth and Seventh congressional in the campaign's final days. No such pledge that. barring free spending from his persona! districts. where pollsters earlier had detected or presentation apparently was made; in fortune. Davis never had any hopes of a tendency among some Republicans to sit matching Trible's expenditures. In addition. fact. no Davis ads had even been produced at out the Senate race. and a tendency among the time of the alleged presentation. The Davis's age (sixty-one years. compared with some conservative independents to favor inability of the Trible campaign to document Trible's thirty-five years) and comparative Davis. Trible's war chest also permitted a far lack of ambition and drive for the Senate more extensive 'get-out-the-vote" phone the charges. and its refusal to retract them, post ensured that the Democrat could not bank effort than the Democrats could kept the issue alive for weeks, depriving Trible of momentum at a crucial time. make up on the stump what he lacked in afford. Republicans traditionally have out- money. performed the Democrats in this crucial Secondly, Davis focused. on Trible's The national political setting also was electoral task. though Robb's well-heeled participation in U.S. House votes durir2 crucial. Midterm gains for the Democrats campaign came close to matching the GOP 1982. Trible, who harp promised not to let his were to be expected by historical standards: effort. campaigning interfere with his duties as a but the national Republican. party. far better congressman. compiled only a 75 percent financed and organized than the Democrats. The Trible campaign used its advertising voting record in 1982. the lowest in the would try to minimize those gains. Virginia. to highlight the Republican's conservatism Virginia delegation for at least a decade. with its history of support for the GOP in andtheDemocratic nominee'salleged (Trible's overall voting record for his six general and President Reagan in particular. liberalism. One of the GOP candidate's clear years as a House member was over 90 was a natural target for the GOP's money advantages in a campaign that wasdominat- percent. however.) Whatever the actual and campaign technology. ed by negativism on both sides w;!:, his importance of the missed votes, the charges In the end, Trible's financial and techno- adherence toconservative positions on clearly had some effect politically and kept logical advantage was perhaps the most certain policy issues, such as military and Trible off balance. crucial factor in his narrow victory. The defense spending, capital punishment, the Finally, the Davis camp skillfully stressed Republican candidate outspent his Demo- third year of the Reagan tax cut, a:In the the stylistic contrasts, as they perceived cratic opponent by close to a 2-to-I margin Reagan administrationgenerally. While them, between the oldeil, white-haired Davis, (about $2.02 million for Trible to $1.18 Davis was able to narrow the differences on whose manner was relaxed and straightfor- million for Davis). In the vitally important these and other issues, Trible's position was ward (if uninformed on key issues) and the final ten days of the campaign, the Trible closer to the Virginia mainstream, at least as young, intense, and ambitious Trible,, whose camp was able to invest close to $500,000 in measured by public opinion polling. Virgin- public utterances and gestures often ap- television and radio advertising alonea ians. for example, consistently have given pearedartificial and rehearsed.Davis's Virginia campaign record for that time higherpopularityratingstoPresident assets, and Trible's faults, were enthusiasti- period. The Davis organization, by contrast, Reagan than has the country as a whole, and cally advertised on television and on the spent little more than half that amount for they overwhelmingly favor capital punish- stump by the Democratic candidate's fore- media advertising in the firal days and thus ment. most supporter, Governor Charles Robb,

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who realized that a Davis victory would suggests one major reason for the poor Davis the Democrat. Virginians with a high school boost his national stock. showing: he received just 53 percent of the education or less were inclined to cast their If Davis had the better of Trible for much Catholic vote. This percentage was remark- votes for Davis: the more highly educated of the fall. Trible did well when it mattered ably low. given the fact that Catholics in voted for Trible. except that those with the mostin the closing days of the campaign. other states wee: supporting Democratic highest levels of education (at leastsome In an age of looser party identification and candidates in 1982 by a margin more than 10 graduate or professional school training) growing numbers of independent voters. percent higher than Davis's margin. Davis were Davis voters by 56 to 44 percent. events inthefinaldaysare becoming himself was an active Catholic, unlike the increasingly important. In Trible's case. not protestant Trible; Davis apparently would only his large adrrising and organizational have been the first Catholic ever elected U.S. CONCLUSION expenditures but also a number of last- senator from Virginiaa fact not lost to Paul Trible, then, won election to the U.S. minute events worked in his fa% Jr. In the many Catholicsinan overwhelmingly Senate in 1982 with a voting constituency final week of the campaign. the National Protestant state. that was heavily Republican, independent. Rifle Association used radio and direct mail Further insight into the Senate contest can white, and conservative and was dispropor- to its membership to attack Davis as being be gained from some other demographic tionately male. white-collar and profession- pro-gun control. Davis was, in fact. on breakdowns provided by the NBC/AP exit al, high-income, non-union, Protestant. ;nd record as opposing gun control. Some poll. The "gender gap" was a factor in the well educated. Mc Trible constituency was a individuals, acting independently of the Virginia race: men favored Trible by 52 to 48 classically Republican coalition. And even Trible campaign. spread a false rumor that percent. while women preferred Davis by a thoughitisloosely aligned,this GOP black state Senator L. Douglas Wilder of larger 54 to 46 percent. (Across the country, coalitionwith the exception of 1981 has Richmond would be Governor Robb's too, women voted disproportionately De- held together to produce a series of Republi- choicetoreplaceDavisaslieutenant mocratic.) Davis won 82 percent of the can victories in Virginia, some narrow and governor should Davis win the Senate race. relatively scarce liberals and 55 percent of others expansive, for more than a decade. And perhaps most importantly of all. anti- the moderates. but Trible scored heavily Yet viewed in another perspective. the abortion handbills and pamphlets. labelling among the more plentiful conservatives, elections of 1982 merely underlinethe Trible "pro-life" and Davis sympathetic to winning 73 percent of their votes. While both growing two-party competitive secs that has abortionists. were distributed at Catholic candidates ran very strongly among their cow': to characterize statewide political (andsomeProtestantfundamentalist) party adherentsTrible winning 92 percent contests in the Old Dominion. The narrow churches throughout the state, especially in of the Republican vote and Davis 94 percent Republican statewide victory in the U.S. Northern Virginia and Tidewater. on the of the Democrati, votethe crucial swing Senate race was balanced by th major Sunday prior to election day. (Significantly, independent bloc chose Trible by a decisive Democratic gain of three U.S. House seats neitherTriblenor Davis supported a 61 to 39 percent margin. Blue-collar workers and the preservation of the large Democratic constitutional amendment to ban abor- and union members favoredDavisin majority in the Virginia House of Delegates. tions.) overwhelming numbers; non-union, white- So if 1982 provided an important boost for There is some electoral evidence that the collar. and professional workers backed Republicans reeling from their 1981 elector- abortion issue had political consequences. Trible by more narrow proportions. Those al disaster, it proved as well to be a year of Davis ran considerably worse than expected with annual incomes under $25,000 were in considerable consolation for the Democrats. in both Tidewater and Northern Virginia, Davis's camp; higher-income. individuals The vigorous two-party competition on the two areas in the state with the greatest favored Trible. Perhaps because of appre- display once again in Virginia was yet concentrations of Roman Catholics. An hension about possible changes in social another welcome sign of the health and NBC News/Associated Press exit poll of security, the normally Republican-leaning vital' y of the state's modern political 2.252 Virginia voters as they left the polls retired population voted 56 to 44 percent for tern.

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16 22

THE CONSTITUTION AND THE COMMONWEALTH: COMMEMORATING THE 200th ANNIVERSARYOF THE U.S. CONSTITUTION IN VIRGINIA By A.E. Dick Howard

In 1987 the nation will celebrate the 200t1. even thought of.Virginia served as a it was Virginia's attachment of anniversary of the drafting of the United a proposed laboratory for spawning and shaping the bill of rights to its ratification of thenew States Constitution, which took placeat the ideas of constitutional government. Virgin- PhiladelphiaConvention Constitution that led. with the convening of in1787. The ians took a leading role in the actual making the First Congress. to the adoption of the bicentennial of the Constitution providesa of the Constitution. Finally, in the ensuing special opportunity for Americans and federal Bill of Rights. two hundred years, Virginia has proved to be In :he ensuing two hundred years, Virginia Virginians in particularto study andto a testing ground fee constitutional precepts. think about the fundamental principles of repeatedly has been the scene of struggles As early as the seventeenth century. over the shape and meaning of constitutional our political system and to look ahead to the American constitutionalism was stirring in imperatives. challenges facing American democracy Itis perhaps ironic that a as we such Virginia developments as the drafting Virginian, James Madison, refused William enter the third century of constitutional of Virginia's 1606 charter, with its proclama- order. Marbuy a commission that gave another tion that the colonists should enjoy the Virginian. John Marshall, the opportunity The 200th anniversary of the Constitution "privileges, franchises, and immunities" of to declare the power of judicial review in calls for a commemoration not only of the Englishmen. In 1619. the New World's first Marbury v. Madison.Later generations grand convention at Philadelphia: it also representative assembly met at Jamestown. have seen clashes arising from Virginia in requires recogn.tion of events leadingup to In the eighteenth century. as the colonists such areas as school desegregation,voting thatconventionandofsubsequent broke with the mother country, Virginiawas rights. and freedom of the press. developmentssuch as the adoption of the at the fore. The same convention at Wil Whether the events have been sources of Bill of Rightsthat collectively comprise liamsburg that, in May 1776, calledupon pride, such as the Statute for Religious what we call the founding period. Thus, the Virginia's delegates in Congress to introduce Freedom. or less praiseworthy, such as the bicentennial of the Constitution is rightly a resolution 'for independence created a era of "massive resistance." Virginia seems committee regarded as a celebration of theevents todraft aconstitutionfor destined to have been a forum for the leading from Revolution to the establish- Virginia. Virginia's Declaration of Rights working out of constitutional norms. Front ment of the constitutional orderand beyond; proved the model for bills of rights .in the the beginning. constitutional development in indeed, some have called the 1980s the other states and ultimately fora federal bill Virginia has taken the form of a dialectical "Decade of the Constitution"and, ina sense. of rights and, an ocean away,even influ- dialogue between competing ideasstates' the cokamemoration of two centuries of enced the drafting of the French Declaration rights and nationalism, liberty and equality. constitutional government is already under- of Rights. judicial activism and restraint, and other way. In the years between 1776 and 1787. d ualities. Virginiamilestones 'along As the American people seek to under- theroadof George Mason. in his 1776 declaration of constitutionalism included, on the domestic rights for Virginia, called upon Virginians stand their constitutional heritage, Virginia scene, such events' as the adoption of to has a special opportunity to contributeto the undertake a "frequent recurrence to funda- Thomas Jefferson's Statute for Religious mental principles." As we mark two hund red process of reflection and discussion. More Freedom and, looking to the states general- than any other state, Virginia can claim to be years since the making of the United States ly. the call for the rr"Iting of commissioners Constitution, Virginians should carry the fulcrum in which the principles of at Annapolis, which led a America's in turn to the special responsibility for reflectingon what constitutionalheritagewas Philadelphia convention. Once the federal shaped. Long before the Constitution our constitutional system has become and was Constitution had been laid before the states. what we want it to be.

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

NEWS LETTER

gSSN 0042-0271) Editor / James A. (Dolph) Norton Assistant Editor / Sandra H. Wiley Published monthly by the Institute of Govern- meat, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virgin. la 22903. The views and opinions expressed herein are thou of the authors, and are not to be interpreted u sepresenting the official position of the Institute or the University. Entered as second-dui matter January 2,1925, at the post office at Charlottesville, Virginia, under the act of August 24,1912. 1 7 0 1963 by The Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia. Printed by the University Printing Office. TIlE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA VOL. 58. NO. 6

This News Letterwas reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University of Virginia. t.

THE 1981 GUBERNATORIALELECTION IN VIRGINIA

By Larry Sabato

The crathor. an assistant pro lessor ofgovernment at the 49.0 percent (682,410 votesto 656,284 nrly identical percentages of the black vote University of Virginia. is on leave until July 1982 to serve votes).' as the Thomas Jefferson Visiting Professor at Downing (97.4 percent and 96.4percent, College. Cambridge University. England. This article is Robb's victory was a comfortable and respectively)setting modern records in based on a more detailed chapter of the forthcoming broad one. The Democrat carried sixty-two that area for presidential and gubernatorial volume. Virginia Votes 1979.1982, to be published by the of ninety-five counties and thirty-three of contenders. '..stitute in 1983. forty-one cities, and won nine of the ten The longest losing streak in the nation fo: congressionaldistricts.Losing only the In the contest for lieutenant governor, a state Democratic party was finally broken SeventhCongressionalDistrict(inthe Richard Davis eroded normally Republican 0in November 1981 with the election to the Valley-Piedmont area), and that very nar- margins practically everywhere. The Demo- state's three top poittions of a moderate- rowly, Robb buii. sizeable majorities in both cratic nominee swept sixty-six of ninety-five conservative slate of Virginia Democrats. the Tidewater-area Fourth District and the counties and thirty-two of forty-one cities, For the first time since 1966. Democrats in Norfolk-Virginia Beach Second District while also carrying eight of ten congressional the Old Dominion were able to garner a and, to a lesser extent, in the far Southwest districts. His massive majorities in Tidewa- victory for their candidates for high office Ninth and the Hampton Roads-Northern ter's Second and Fourth districts (the latter (governor, U.S. senator, or president). Neck First districts. Robb's identical majori- his home area) were the largest won by any The returns of the 1981 gubernatorial ties of 53.7 percent in the Northern Virginia's statewide candidate, and the former Ports- electionofferedVirginiaDemocrats a Eighth and Tenth districts approximated his mouth mayor also easily overcame minim- needed opportunity not only to govern the statewide plurality and represented some- mal Miller pluralities in the Southside Fifth statebut also to restore vibrancy and thing of a hometown endorsement for the District and Miller's native Valley-Piedmont momentum to their 'neleaguered party. But first Northern Virginia resident to capture SeventhDistrict.Davis was the only the strains of "Happy Days Are Here Again" the governorship since Westmoreland Davis Democrat to carry the Richmond-area Third did not signal a return to the old order of in 1917. Winning margins in the usually District by a substantial margin, and he one-party Democratic rule. Virginia is still Republican Richmond-area Third, South- exceeded Robb's majorities in all districts strongly two-party competitive; and while side Fifth, and Roanoke Sixth districts (very except the Southside Fifth and Southwest the state GOP suffered a setback in 1981, the slim pluralities, but remarkable nonethe- Ninth districts. Republicans, with nine of the state's ten U.S. less) rounded out Robb's strong statewide representatives and one of two U.S. senators performance. Only in the attorney general's race did a. still in their corner, will survive to fight again Interestingly,Robb'sVirginiavictory aepublican candidate come close to recreat- another day. closely resembles that of his famous father- ing the electoral pattern that had kept in-law, former President Lyndon B. John- Republicans in the winner's circle for a GENERAL ELECTION RESULTS son. No other Democratic presidential dozen years. Wyatt Durrette',, geographic nominee has carried Virginia since 1948; showing was much broader than th D On November 3, 1981,DemocratCharles f his Johnsot received 53.5 percent of the state's Republicanticketmates,panic; in Robb was elected governor with 760,357 vote inthe 1964 presidential election votes(53.5percent)to Northern Virginia and the Piedmont. and he Republican J. exactlythe same percentage as Robb was the only Republican to run reasonably Marshall Coleman's 659,398 votes (46.4 received in 1981. The regional pattern of percent). Democrat Richard Davis easily well in parts of Tidewater. Durrette's major victory for both candidates was similar, as electoral weakness was in Southwest Virgin- feated Republican Nathan Miller for the 'well as the proportion of Virginia's counties ia, where he was unable to stem the .utenant governorship, with 750,743 votes and citics carried by the two candidates. In 4)(55.4 percent) to 602,714 votes (44.5 per- Democratic tide and actually did slightly addition, Johnson and Robb garnered worse than his running mates. Despite his nt). The attorney general's race was much closer, with Democrat Gerald Baliles edging Wnte-tn votes accounted fors tenth of* percent or Seismal! thme Southweszern failure, however, Durrette did Republican Wyatt Durette by just 51.0 to contests Total wnteins cast for governor were 856; for Ikut,,tant manage to carry forty-one of ninety-five governor, 621: and for attorney general. 520. counties and seventeen of forty-one cities

INSTITUTEor. corERNmEN"r lInGINi 1 C11.110.0 rTli\l'ILLE FEBRUARY 1982 24

statewide. and to win decisively in his home TABLE 1.The Urban Vote in the 1981 Virginia General Election areaof NorthernVirginiaevenwhile Coleman and Miller were being swamped there. Percent of Vnten Cast for Percent of Governor Lieutenant Governor Attorney General Democratic candidate Gerald Bali les was Total Vote RobbiniColtman (R) Davis (D) Miller (R) gables (D) Durrett (R) able to secure the attorney general's post by Urhan Corridor ' 56.9 54.4 45.6 57.3 42.7 50.3 49.7 overcoming Durrette'sleadinthe two Standard Metropolitan Northern Virginia districts and a similar Statistical Areas b 64.3 53.6 46.4 56.4 43.6 50.1 49.9 edge in the Valley-Piedmont Seventh Dis- CentralCities 17.8 64.5 35.5 67.2 32.8 62.7 37.3 trict with majorities in all of the seven tattier Suburbs 46.5 49.5 50.5 52.3 47.7 45.4 54.6 congressional districts. While Bali les ran Rural Areas c 32.3 53.4 46.5 53.9 46.1 53.0 46.9 several percentage points behind his ticketmates in most localities. thereby let:ding credence to theories that he was helped to SOURCE: Compiled from official election results provided by the State Board of Elections. victory by a "coattail" effect, he bettered Note: Percentages occasionally do not sum to 100 percent because write-in candidates receiveda fraction Robb's showing in the Richmond-area Third o.' 'a percent of the vote. District (Bali les's home district) and narrow- includes eighteen cities and eighteen counties located in a geographic area that stretches from Northern lyexceeded bothRobb's and Davis's Virginia through Richmond :o Tidewater. margins in the Southside Fifth and South- hThe nine Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs1 for Virginia. as designated by the U.S. west Ninth districts. Census Bureau. are Lynchburg. Washington. D.C.. Newport News-Hampton. Norfolk-Portsmouth. Petershurg-Colonial Heights. Richmond. Roanoke. Charlottesville. and Danville-the lasttwo being first Ba liles's narrow victory completed the designated after the 1980 census. "Central cities" and "surburbs" Democratic 'atewide sweep of offices and are included in the SMSA figures. produced the first "ticket election" since c All Virginia localitiesnot includedineither an SMSA or the Urban Corridor. 1965. This fact was clearly reflected in the voting returns, as those localities that split latteramodern record, exceeding even to that of the central cities. In 1981 the their tickets by giving a plurality of votes to Robb's vote in the 1977 lieutenant gover- suburban vote was two and one-half times candidates of different parties were unusual- nor's contest). larger than the central city vote, about the ly rare in1981. Just 22.8 percent of all Robb, Davis, and Baliles all carried the same ratioasinthe 1980 presidential localities (twenty-three counties and eight Urban Corridor (an area stretching from electio.n. This historical and demographic cities) had split tickets, compared with 55.9 Northern Virginia through Richmond to trend will almost certainly continue, at least percent in the 1977 gubernatorial election Tidewater), the state's nine Standard Metro- in the short run, suggesting again that both and 85.1 percent in the 1973 gubernatorial politan Statistical Areas, and the rural areas parttes will need in the future to be even mor election. of Virginia, but there are differences among electorally attentive to the suburbs. the voting patterns. Davis was the only The 1981 election also drew proportion- Democrat to win a majority, in the suburbs THE BLACK VOTE ately more voters to the polls. A total of 64.9 (52.3 percent), with a margin even larger An estimated 200,000 black voters cast percent of thestate'sregistered voters thanRobb's51.1percentinthe 1977 participatedinthiselection.setting a lieutenant governor's election. Moreover, ballots in one or more of the 1981 statewide modern record. Voting participation lagged Davis led his ticketmates in the central cities. contests.2 These black voters were clearly a behind only in Northern Virginia, where in rural Virginia. and in the Urban Corridor. decisive factor in the outcome of all three about '39 percent of the registered voters By contrast, Baliles lost the suburbs substan- statewide races since blacks voted over- went to the polls. This difference in partici- tially, even though he carried the central whelmingly Democratic in all three contests pation between Northern Virginia and the cities and rural areas. The fact that Baliles and since the black vote total exceeded the remainder of the state is an enduring one. was still able to forge a winning coalition plurality amassed by each victorious Demo- crat. attributable in good measure to the fact that makes the attorney general's race the most Northern Virginians concentrate their inter- demographically interesting of the three A survey of selectedblack precincts est on government in Washington D.C. contests. In the 1976 presidential race and around the state indicates that Charles Robb rather than in Richmond. Even when some the1978 election for U.S. Senate, the secured about 96.4 percent of the black vote. of the statewide candidates reside in North- Democratic candidates had won both the with Marshall Coleman receiving 3.6per- ern Virginia, as was the case in 1981, this central cities and the rural areas but still lost cent.' In recent years only two candidates turnout differential does not disappear. statewide because of the large GOP margin have garnered lower percentages of the black vote: U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd in his 1970 inthesuburbs.(Infact,Republican election, with 3.0 percent. and GOP presi- THE URBANVOTE Durrette's 1981 proportion of the suburban vote-54.6 percent-was ev :a larger than dential nominee Ronald Reagan in 1980; One of the keys to Robb's victory was the that of Republicans who has won in several with 3.4 percent. (Only four years earlier, Democrats' ability to reduce the usual previous statewide races.) Yet Baliles still Coleman had won almost a third of the black Republican majority in tl : suburbs, as Table won in 1981, succeeding where others had vote in his race for attorney general.) The I indicates. Republican Coleman won the failed in fashioning a majority coalition of total black vote was nearly twice that of suburbs by the wafer-thin margin of 50.5 the;entralcities andtherural arcas. Robb's statewide victory margin, a fact that percent, compared to an average GOP pr narily because his. victory margin in the underscores the importance of the black vote majority in the suburbs over the last decade central cities was considerably larger than in an election where Robb, Davis, and of 56.5 percent. Because the Democrats were that achieved by Democrats in earlier close Batiks all lost the white vote by varying able to neutralize the GOP's demographic races. base of support, the central cities and rural The ability of Robb and Davis to blunt the , This general estimate was arrived at b, using preelection supe areas played a decisive role in the election, data and actual turnout data for selected black precincts arou nd GOP's suburban strength andBaliles's state Obsiously. no precise figure can be cited and Robb secured majorities in both. The increased margin in the central cities were , This surscy used the same standard set of black precincts Democratic candidate carried rural Virginia essential for their victories in 1981 simply contained in the au.hor's *gimes Porn series. for identification with 53.4 percent of the vote and the central because of the sin of the subtil ban vote as a of these precincts. sec L Sabato, Virginia Varet 1975.197$ cities by almost a two-to-one margin (the (CholottmllIC Institute of GoNernment.Univers11% of Virginia, proportion of the total vote, when compared 1979). p. 19, 1'72 25

margins.' Of significance, too, is the fact that election campaign, although Coleman was demeanorand instead began unrelentingly e proportion of registered black voters perceived as making gains in the campaign's to link Coleman to other GOP luminaries. .arning out at the polls-67.5 percent final weeks. A number of circumstance:. especially President Reagan. In contrast, exceeded the proportion of registered white conspired to prevent Coleman from win- Robb's media consultant, Robert Squicr. voters that turned out (about 63 percent) for ning, however. took pains to introduce the electorate to the first time since 1977, and by a greater "Robb the man," allowing voters to accus- First, and most significantly, was a split in margin than in that year. Blacks obviously tom themselves to elements of his personali- Republican ranks and the unified posture of considered the 1981 gubernatorial election ty rarely communicated in newspapers or on stateDemocrats.ConservativeHerbert an important one, for reasons that will be the television news. discussed shortly. Bateman's defeat for the lieutenant gover- nor's nomination at the Republican conven- Events in the last week of a campaign can tion by the more moderate Nathan Miller as always be crucialto the outcome, and INTERPRETING THE RESULTS well as lingering doubts about Coleman's especially in a campaign where candidates As in any election, many superficial conservatism fractured the GOP's coalition are not clearly differentiated, as in the 1981 reasons can be identified for the Democratic with the state's independent conservative gubernatorial race. In this case, last-minute victory in 1981. The races for lieutenant establishment, and Coleman was never able events not only affected the outcome but also governor and attorney general are the easiest to repair the damage. By contrast, the almost certainly expanded Robb's winning tointerpret.RichardDavis'slandslide usually contentious Democrats were imbued margin. Just a week before the election, victory over Nathan Miller as lieutenant with a missionary zeal, fully realizing that President Reagan made an appearance for governor was tied closely to serious conflict- another statewide defeat might turn their Coleman in Richmond, and survey data of-interestchargeslevelledagainstthe desperate posture into a hopeless one for the indicatedthatReagan's strong personal Republican nominee. Alr-ady in a weak near team. The party positions, then, were endorsement did indeed give Coleman a position after a divisive convention nomina- oddly reversed. For years Democrats had temporary,thoughshort-lived,boost.5 tion over a conservative favorite,state suffered from a "majority mentality"; they However, the Reagan visit also generated an Senator Herbert Bateman, Miller was never had continued to act just as they had done unanticipatedelectoralmovementthat able to gain the offensive or successfully ride during the years of one-party Democratic gained momentum as the week wore on: the out the charges during the autumn cam- rule in the state, allowing themselves the galvanizing of the black vote for Coleman's paign. The voting patterns suggest that even luxury of factionalism as though the Demo- opponent. While black leadership earlier has inheavilyRepublicanlocalities,Miller cratic nomination were still tantamount to madeitspeace with Robb. the black suffered from large numbers of abstentions election. Similarly, the Republicans had community appeared to have little enthusi- or outright defections by GOP partisans. continued to operate under a "minority asm for the conservatively leaning Demo- mentality," submerging their differences and crat. In fact, a black write-in slate for the As fo r me a.torney general's race, its result %uld to as:ribed primarily to a coattail presenting a united front just as though they three statewide posts had emerged as a were still a distinctly minor force in a hostile potentially serious drain on black Demo- ,sect. ttobb's winning margin was suffi- political environment. However, by 1981, cratic support III the Southside area. But ciently large to provide Gerald Babies with an unexponed victory over his favored years of unbroken success for Republicans Reagan's appearance for Coleman helped to and of unrelieved disaster for Democrats change that. Never a favorite of black voters, opponent, Wyatt Durrette. The attorney apparently had reversed the philosophical Reagan and his budget-cutting policies had general's race had been the most subdued of poles, producing a role reversal that pre- becomeincreasingly the three statewide contests, overshadowed unpopular among saged the final election results. blacks during 1987. Coupled with Reagan's by the boisterous gubernatorial election and visit was a strong endorsement of Coleman the scandal-charged lieutenant governor's Coleman faced other major problems as by former govenor Mills E. Godwin. Jr.. race.BothBaines andDurrettewere well. His opponent had no extensive public regarded as serious, competent, and expe- record; and since Robb's only public office, another highly unpopular figure in the black community, who emphasized Robb's "pro - rienced contenders who had conducted that of lieutenant governor, is a showcase black" positions on several racially tinged generallypositivecampaigns.Durrette, position where few substantive decisions need to be made, proving Robb's "liberal- issues (postcard voter registration, congres- however, was regarded as the likely winner sional represem2tion for the District of because he was the undisputed choice of the ism" and tying him to unpopular Democrats Columbia, ana rMnority hiring quotas). In "conservative coalition," the only one of the became a very difficult task for Coleman. retrospect, Godwin's emotionally charged three Republican nominees to have pre- Moreover, Robb was a man whose very speech backfired, accomplishing little for served the GOP's winning formula. (Indeed, temperament and essence were conservative, Colemaninthe overwhelminglywhite even Roy Smith, leader of the independent a fact clearly sensed by the state's establish- suburbs while providing a spark to Robb's "Virginians for Robb" forces, was in the ment, who saw in Robb no threat to the elite. get-out-the-vote efforts in minority neigh- Durrette Camp.) But the electorate never Robb's stolid manner and handsomP visage borhoods. In addition, the Reagan-Godwin focused on the attorney general's race; and also gave him an advantage over Coleman in combination probably kept black defections with either candidate viewed as acceptable, television appearances. to the write-in slate to an absolute min - Robb's margin in the end proved decisive. Coleman's image was considerably less imum 6 Unlike the attorney general's contest, the reassuring,andhis image-makers were governor's race was very visible and media partly at fault. A man cf considerable charm Two other last-minute events probably oriented, and there is reason to think that it and self-deprecating humor, Coleman was expanded Robb's victory margin. On elec- was also closely contested until the final advised totone down hiswit and to tion eve, when undecided and independent hours of the campaign. Robb had led every deemphasize the elements of his personality public poll conducted during the general and style that were not in keeping with the comprehensivelyconservative image he 1 The data were compiled during a VoitnionPilot poll of 1.65$ adult Ihrginums; the results are discussed in the rirgimanPi/or doh black voter turnout estimated at 200.000, and with 97 "needed" to win. Similarly, his television Nov. 1. 1931, p. A.I. rant of that number participating in the governor's contest. advertising program, after having built his .obb reeeiked an estimated 96.4 percent oftht black vote. or a bout- name identification to a level approaching Cora Tucker of Halifax County. the black writein candidate tor 187.000 totes Of the remaining wh''.. te. Robb received 46.'i Robb's, skipped the crucial middle step of tow mr. received just 526 voles. while her running mat,;. 410percent to Cokman's 53.3 percent. Using the same method of lieutenant governor candidate Jesse Jeffres, of Lknehburg an calculation. Davis secured 49.6 percent of the white vote. whik defining Colemz. as an individual, of filling attorney general candidate James Ghee of Farmkille. secured on t' Battles won 44.6 percent. in the outline of CcAeman's personality and 393 and 380 votes. respectively.

172 26

voters traditionally are paying close atten- CONCLUSIONS tion to the contest that they will decideon the million compared to Coleman's approximately $2.83 million. morrow, the Reverend Jerry Falwell broke An examination of the underlyingcauses his self-imposed silence and announced in a of the Democratic resurgence in Virginia, The third ingredient of the Democratic radio interview that he would vote for the 1981 election reveals that the Democrats recipe for 'recovery was reduced factional- entire Republican ticket.It was an an- returned to a fully competitive position ism. That, too, was finally achieved in 1981, nouncement that Republican strategists had because theyfulfilledathree-ingredient mainly because of the do-or-die nature of the feared because of Falwell's unpopularity, recipe for recovery. contest for the Democrats. The coalition assembled by Robb in 1981 rivals the especially among thecrucialsuburban 'First of all, the Democrats nominated one population.' The endorsement, widely car- moderate candidates with suburban appeal. that electd Mills Godwin as a Democrat in ried on radio and television, came so late that They recognized Liat in conservative Virgin- 1965, stretching as it did from the conserva- it could not be defused or mitigated by other ia, liberal candidates'normallyare doomed tive coalition to blacks, elements of organ- campaign events; in fact, it was virtually the to general election defeats. They saw that ized labor, and liberals.9 The Robb "umbrel- last new piece of information that undecided only more moderate candidates would be la" sheltered a diverse group of political voters received before the election. ableto reduce the massive Republican interests, all of which were there for different Finally, there was Robb's thirty-minute margins in the politically potent suburbs reasons. Robb had to walk a tightrope during the campaign to television nrogram on election eve, where margins that had fueled GOP victories fora preservethis Robb, in a relaxed family setting, talked dozen years, even in years when Democrats disparate coalition; governing will present to about his campaign and answered the managed to amass large majorities in the him much the same challenge. questions of a friendly audience. While central cities and rural Virginia. In the The recipe for recovery worked for state lengthy political broadcasts are considered Robb-Davis-Baliles ticket, the Democrats Democrats in 1981, and Democrats were relatively ineffective, one exception is an nominated a team that fit the recipe precise- able to regain the vibrancy and momentuma election-eve broadcast.* Voters (especially ly. party needs to maintain itself and to prosper. undecidcds) are exceptionally attentive then, Second, the Democratic party began to Virginia now is firmly two-party competi- since voting is on their agenda of activities close a yawning technological and organiza- tive, and becomit more so. The 1981 House for the following day. Robb's election-eve tional gap between its own capabilities and of Delegates elections suggest as much, with program. which did not compete with any that of the state GOP. The Robb campaign Republicans posting a gain there of eignt similar Coleman broadcast, may have was able either to match or to exceed the seatsdespitethe statewide Democratic helped to solidify his partisans and attract to Coleman campaign's media and polling sweep. While the gubernatorial election Siscamp some remaining undecideds, sophistication, and the Democrats came results were a setback to the state GOP, the particularly in the suburbs (the program's closer to the level of the Republicans'get- strengthened two-party competition can appeal seemed especially directed to that out-the-vote activities than ever before in the only be regarded as gcod news for the state group). modern era. The only campaign techniqu; as a whole, because a healthy and competi- that remained primarily a GOPpreserve in tive political system offers the best chance or 1r a September Virginian. Pilotpoll. Falwell receiveda.. 1981 wasdirectmail;the Republican good government. The Old Dominion'. metwhelcongly negative rating. the highest of any public figure mailings were much better designed and electorate, just as it had done in the GOP's recorded in the poll. When asked whether they felt "positive. gubernatorial breakthrough in 1969, once neutral, or negative" about Falwell. 54 percent of the respondents more effectively targeted than the Demo- said 'negative whik only 10 percent *turreted -positive (20 cratic variety. In good measure, the Robb again helped to preserve and extend two- percent were 'scot ral. 10 percent didn't know Falwell. and 6 percent campaign was able to accomplishso much party competition in 1981. That is a welcome refused to &ama. Interestingly. suburb&- tes and city dwellers. technolugically because of its fund-raising development for Virginians of all ideological whose political views arc often drama*, ,y different horn each and partisan hues. other. felt equally negative atout Falwell. success. For the first time since the 1973 See the authol's The Rise of Pohneal Conruhani New kbt s of gubernatorial election, Democraticcam- WannirlX Elections (New Y0110 Basic Books. 1911). pp. 122. 189. paign expenditures approached the Republi- 190. 192. and 210n While Robb was denied the AF1.C10 endorsement. he was can total, with Robb spending about 52.45 supported by many indisidual unions.

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Evvs Entered as second-class meter Charlottesville, Virginia LETTER

r**; ..f. (ISSN 0042-0274 ;. , Editor / Jentoe,A. (Dolp))iitiitrieF. issaistant Editor I Sends* lirINOL Publiehed usooddy by. the . not, University etViefria,Cletetetlee410114iis: is 22903.Thelimand opielomespreissolbiieleseire thaw of the 'ashore, and anent so beiniseprisedan, repreeenties tie *aid posidon,otthiAinekinerf. the University. "-- Entered es eacoodclese atstket7nnY7 .M: the post office at Charlottesville, Vkliminierlat.dvi"; so of Avast 24, 1912. 174 1912 by The Rector end VisitoneftheOliveisiii; of Virginia. Printed by the University Ptiwiii THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA VOL. 58. NO. 8

This News Letter was reproduced with permisfdon from the Institute of Government, University of Virginia.

OCCUPATIONAL BACKGROUND, RECRUITMENT PATTERNS,AND PARTY IN THE VIRGINIA GENERAL ASSEMBLY, 1970-1981 By Arthur B. Gunlicks

Mr Gun's"( k% is prufegior of pohucal scienge at the 212 in the House of Delegates) served at one nine:vit. of Richmond. lawyer-legislators from 56 percent in 1970 to time or another in the Virginia General 49 percent in 1980 possibly suggests a slight The social. economic. and educational Assembly. In this twelve-year period. 62 trend away from this occupation's dominant backgrounds of political decision makers at Democrats and 18 Republicans served in the position. This declining trend also has the national, state, and local levels have been Sena while 151 Democrats. 55 Republi- occurred nationwide. with a corresponding a focus of inquiry for several decades in the cans. "lid 6 independents served in the House decrease from 26 percent in 1966 to 20 United States. An underlying assumption of of Delegates. percent in 1979. this inquiry is that background analyses can As Table I shows, lawyers composed a Even with this continued dominance of provide clues to understanding the represen- significant proportion of the members of the lawyersinVirginia'slegislature.other tative quality of political decisions. The General Assemblyindeed, a sizeable ma- groups have gained ground slowly during the patterns of recruitment and -.election of jority of the Democrats and a plurality of decade of the1970s.Business owners. Political decision makers at different levels Republicans were lawyers. Farmers took a managers. and executives have increasein in different state and localities and the distant second place among both Democrats numbers inthe Senate atthe apparent Amila rifles and differences among these and Republicans in the Senate; 1;1 other expense of both lawyers and farmers. In the patterns, can be s..;:t as important though occupational group was re; 'esented to any House of Delegates, the numbcr of business not necessarily decisive factors in helping to significant degree among Senate Democrats. people has nearly doubled. and educators explain the politics of a particular area. while business owners occupied a respect- have increased in accordance with national This News Letter will provide a back- able third place among Senate Republicans. trends. What effect reapportioned, single- ground analysis of the members of the In the House of Delegates, lawyers again member districts may have on the occupa- Virginia General Assembly. The article first dominated the Democratic delegation with tional distribution of future House delega- presents aportrait of the occupational businessmen and educators taking distant tions remains to he seen, although in other backgrounds of members of the General second and third places, respectively. Law- statestheinstitution of single-member Assembly during the decade of the 1970s. yers were first, though not a majority, among districts in place of multimember districts Then the discussion focuses on the process of HouseRepublicans,followedatsome seemsto have contributedto a more recruitment of candidates for Virginia's state distance by those in business; in real estate, diversified legislature both occupationally elective offices, based on information ob- insurance, and sales; and in education. and racially. tainedin personal interviews conducted The data in Table I suggest that while among members of the General Assembly in DemocraticandRepublicanlegislators PARTY AND LEGISLATIVE the winter of 1981.1 Because few candidates generally were quite similar in occupational RECRUITMENT background. some differences did exist. are elected without party labels. the role of The 1981 gubernatorial election broke a the political party in this recruitment process Democrats appeared to attract lawyers as series of dramatic successes for Virginia candidates even more than Republicans did. is investigated. The final section explores the Republicans in presidential. statewide, and and Republicans drew candidates more extent to which Virginia's legislators per- congressionalelectionsthroughoutthe often from the ranks of business. ceive any partisan patterns of philosophical preceding decade. The disappointing results Table I dearly reveals the overwhelming and policy differences between Democratic for Republicans in the statewide races of role of lawyers in Virginia state politics, as in and Republican legislators, assuming that 1981 were made up somewhat by the rather the U.S. Congress. Even so. it would not be there are certain identifiable differences in remarkable gain of eight seats in the House the backgrounds of the two groups. accurate to conclude that this is a "natural" ofDelegates.bringingtheRepublican state of affairs in American state politics. A delegation to a et ry high of thirty-three OCCUPATIONAL BACKGROUND study of state legislators in 1979 demonstrat- (having varied from a mere seventeen to ed that of 7.485 state legislators nationwide. From the 1970 session through that of twee ty-five seats during the I970s). Recent 20 percent were lawyersranging from a 1981, a total of 292 persons (80 in the Senate, Republican successes obviously have been low of zero percent in Delaware to a high of accompanied by the growth and effective- 53 percent in Virginia? In most states. These memos/ were conducted under the author's superkisinn ness of the Republican party organization. / students in a political research class at the Univerut) of including Virginia. the percentage of lawyers In contrast, the Democratic organizational Richmond. is higher in the Senate thin in the House. In apparatus appearsto have declined Virginia the reduction in the percentage of in The author wishesto thank the Universit of effectiveness and "member" support. though Richmond Faculty Research Committee for support Imurane Information Institute. Or, uponunof Profik of. tate this could change now that the Democrats received for this project. Lexulutufet. 1979. (New York. 1979). p, 6. again occupy all three statewide offices.

Ig'' APRIL 1982 1 75 In any case. one might ask what organiza- dent) in the educational backgrounds of state manuals. 30 of the 80 senators who tional role thc parties play in thc recruitment their candidates. The candidates of both served during the ch.-de 1970-80 previously of state legislative candidates and whether parties are highly educated; however. the had been members of the House.) the two parties differ it; their recruiting Democrats (59 percent) are more likely to One other factor concerning "certifica- efforts. Figures from other studies suggest have a graduate professional degree than the tion" should be mentioned here. Fewer than that the party's role in recruitment vt.ries Republicans (43 percent). This educational 20 percent of ou General Assembly rc widely among the states. For example, one difference is reflected in thc occupational spondents were under forty years of age is study found that 69 percent ,1 the state differences between the respondents of the 1979, while about one-fourth were sixty or legislative campaigns in New Jersey wcrc two parties, as seen in TableI. These above. Significantly more Democrats (about initiated by the parties, whereas thc party differences between the parties in Virginia one-third) than Republicans (about 14 appeared to be relevant in only 17 percent of are rather minor. however, in comparison to percent) were in the older age groupwhich the legislative candidacies in Tennessee.) more industrialiicd American states. isperhapsnotsurprising,given InVirginia's their 1979 General Assembly Relatively few middle-class Americans. numbers, past dominance. and the factor of election, only one independent was elected to even. those that may be socially certified. incumbency. the House and none to the Senate. Given the consider seriously running for an elective Selection. The question of how persons minimal prospects of election as an inde- public office. One's lifetime experiences and who meet most of the requirements for pendent. the growth of the Republican the opportunities that these present arc "certification" become actual candidates is party. and the traditional importance .1 the obviously important in helping to develop not easily answered, and little information is Democratic party in the state, one might such aninterest. When those General available from studiesinother states. hypothesize that therole of the party Assembly members interviewed were asked, AmonC our respondents. 30 percent indicat- organization in the recruitment of candi- "Can you tell me when you first became ed thatthey wereself-starters.having dates for the state legislature in Virginia interestedinrunningfortheGeneral "decided on my own" to become a General would be rather significant. Assembly." a slightly higher percentage of Assembly candidatefor thefirsttime. Certification.Candidates forpolitical Democrats than Republicans -16 percent of Another 38 percent said that they were officeinthe United States are not a the Democrats and no Republicanssaid asked, and one-third gave "both" as a representative sample of the general public. that their interest had developed either in res-lnse. Demomts were more likely to o become a candidate. one must generally childhood or as teenagers. In contrast, 61 have been self-starters, while Republicans be "eligible." i.e.. be of a particular social and percent of the Democrats and 71 percent of were more likely to have been asked to run economic status and be active in public the Republicans said that they became (as might be expected from responses affairs and activities. It might be said that interested during their thirties, forties, or discussed earlier). candidates are drawn from a "pool of later. In addition. 29 percent of the Republi- If respondents said that they had been socially certified activists who are ready or cans. as opposed to only 12 percent of the asked to run. then who had asked them? The willing or able to seek political office."' Democrats. said that their interest developed variety of answers to this question makes it Socially certified activists in Virginia, as as a result of being asked to become a difficultto generalize; however, "party" seen in Ir able 1, include above all lawyers and candidate. clearly played some role in the decisions of at those in other middle-class occupational These responses suggest some possible least half of our respondents. Republican groups. Other than farmers, no blue-collar difference between the parties in terms of the respondents (at least 60 percent) were more occupations are socially certified to become political socialization of their candidates. likely than Democrats (less than 50 percent candidates for state office. (A review of the There appears to be a slightly greater to have been approached by someone biographical notes inthe state General tendency for Republicans to be political connected or identified with a Party. Assembly manuals reveals that not one of latecomers and to consider a political career Another indication of party influence on the 292 officeholders in the 1970s indicated only when the opportunity to enter politics the decision to become a candidate is the membership in any union except for one literally comes knocking at the door. This extent to which our respondents were active membershipintheVirginiaEducation hypothesis. if correct, is probably due to the in any way in the party before becominga Association. while 69 legislators indicated business orientation of a higher proportion candidate for the first time. Only 12 percent membership in a local chamber of com- of the Republicans and to the traditionally of the Democrats and 14 percent of the merce.) closer connection in Virginia between a legal Republicans said that they had not been To he socially certified for candidacy in career and Democratic politics. active in the party in any way. In contrast, 87 Virginia, and elsewhere, one also should Given the importance of family tradition percent of the respondents did indicate some have an above-average education. Only a in the Virginia legislature-28 of the 140 party-relevant activity prior to nomination. handful of the successful candidates for state members of the 1980 House and Senate were Nevertheless,the datacollectedinthe office in Virginia have had no education named after their fathersand the relatively interviews make it clear that "working up beyond high school, and most have had slowrate of turnover inthe General through the ranks" is not a requirement of professional or academic training beyond Assembly in comparison to other states, one eitherparty for nomination. Based on college. might hypothesize that a high proportion of biographical data in the state manuals from Social certification embraces the charac- the current membership comes from a 1970 to 1980, only 16 of the 80 senators (or 20 teristics of sex and race as well. In Virginia in tradition of family officeholding. In actuali- percent) who served during this decade had 1979, all but 8 of the 100 House members and ty.three-fourths (72 percent) of the Demo- occupied any kind of party office; 37 of the Iof the 40 Senate members were male; cratic respondents and two-thirds (64 per- 212 delegates (17 percent) indicated some women held only 6 percent of the seats in the cent) of the Republicans said that no one in active involvement in their party organiza- General Assembly, versus a national average their families had held any political office, tions. of 10 percent for all state legislatures in the either elected or appointed. Furthermore, When asked how important party activity same year. Blacks held less than 4 percent of almost half (46 percent) of the Democrats was for the first nomination for state office, the seats in the Assembly in 1979. In short, and one-third (36 percent) of the Republi- about 62 percent of our respondents thought most successfullegislative candidates in cans had not held any political office that the party had been very important or at Virginia and elsewhere are white males. themselvesbefore entering the General least somewhat important in their Results of personal interviews with 65 Assembly. Only 17 percent of the Democrats nominationsand Democrats and Republi- members of the House and 29 members of and 14 percent of the Repullicans indicated cans differed very little in this regard. In the Senate in the 1981 session of the General that they had held local elected office, as other words, given the fact that virtually al Assembly do indicate some differences opposed to the 20 and 25 percent, respective- members of the General Assembly art. between the two parties (65 Democratic ly, that had held a local appointed office. elected with party labels, fewer than two- members, 28 Republican, and I independ- Nine percent of the Democrats and 14 thirds thought the party was important in percent of the Republicans said that they had their nomination. To those who believe that Lew, G, Sellgrtun. halms of Reauumeni (ChicsioRind been either commonwealth's attorneys or parties should be strong linkage institutions McNally. 191.11. p. 5. city attorneys before entering the General between the legislature and the general ' Assembly. (Based on their biographies in the public and, as such, should play a leading 176 role in recruiting candidates supportive of the party's principles and policies, these TABLE I.Occupations of Virginia State Legislators, findings will be a disappointment, even if not :;eriate and House of Delegates. 1970-1981 a surprise. Senate Home of Deltzete. InA ,111Group Once they became members of the General Democrat RepubScart Republiam tsembly, did The successful candidates N I%) N (%) N(%) N(%) aticipate in some way in the party that Lay...er 38 (61) 8 (44) 84(56) 22(40) nominated them and whose label they Lawyer -businessman. -farmer. -banker, etc. 3 (5) continued to wear? More than 60 percent of 2 (I) I (2) Medical professional 3 (5) 1 the respondents (66 percent of the Demo- (6) 5 (3) 2 13) crats. 54 percent of the Republicans) held no Other professional 3 (2t party office of any kind; indeed, about 20 Educator. administrator 10 (7) 4 (I) percent did not participate in their party Business owner, manager. executive. 5 (8) 3 (17) 23(15) 13(24) organizations in any way. Of those who did consultant not hold an office, only about 12 percent Banker, stockbroker, investment consultant a I (2) 5 (3) 2 overall (14 percent of the Democrats, 7 (4) Real estate, insurance, sales 4 (6) 1 percent of the Republicans) ever bothered to (6) 2 (I) 8(15) Publisher, editor attend party meetings. Others said that they I (2) I (6) 4 (3) I (2) Farmer. - businessman. -real estate, -banker, participated in a variety of party-relate, 7(II) 4 (22) 8 (6) 1 (2) activities, ranging from attending conven- -engus.,cr, etc. Other, e.g., housewife, politician. tions or rallies to contributing money, time, 5 (3' 1 (2) or other work to the campaigns of other professional volunteer Totals party nominees. One-fourth of the respond- 62 (ICO) 18(101)b 151(100) 55(102) b ents, mostly Democrats, said that the' -.pent either less than one hour or no time a, all on SOURCE:Biographical sketches in General Assembly of Virginia,Manual of the Senate and House of Delegates. party activities, whileI 1percent of the for years 1970-1980 (published in even-numberedyears only). Democrats and 21 percent of the Republi- NOTES: The Virginia House of Delegate' has 100 members; 212members served from 1970- cans claimed that they spent more than four 1981, in six electoral periods of two years each. The VirginiaSenate has 40 members; 80 hours a week on party activities. One-third members served from 1970-1981 in electoral periods of fouryears each (1968- 71,1972 -75, and so forth). of the respondents from each party said that they could not separate time spent on party From 1970-1981, the General Assembly had 6 independent memberswho wereelected activities from other kinds of activities. without party affiliation (i.e., not including those conservativeDemocrats who abandoned CAMPAIGN FINANCE AND THE PARTY their party affiliation in response to liberal and moderatestate party gains and the McGovern presidential candidacy in 1972). Of that number, 4were lawyers, I was a medical professional, American party organizations generally and I was in business. do not have dues-paying members, and party candidates in the same city, district, or Although's category includes only 8 legislators, 47 legislators (16percent) indicated in their biographies that they had connections with banksor savings and loan companies in -egion do not always campaign together and positions such as members of the board 301their assets; indeed, campaigning in the or legal counsel. United States is frequently a very independ- Percentag:s do not always equal 100 percent dueto rounding. ent and individualistic affair.Itisnot percent (6 percent of the Democrats, 14 surprising, therefore, that the parties are money, considering the cost of comparable percencof the Republicans) claimed to have services for candidates without party assis- usually of little relevance in financing the received a "substantial" sum, i.e., more than campaign costs of their candidates. A study tance. Indeed, only 22 percent of 93 party 5500, from the party. respondents said that they had receivedno by the author of campaign finance in the If one looks only at those candidates who help of an 1973 House of Delegates election in Virginia kind, whereas the remainder had opposition in the 1979 election, party acknowledgedreceiving some assistance found that only 15 of the victorious party financialsupport appears tobe more candidates and 26 of the 61 losing candidates ranging from the provision of patty workers important than the above figures suggest. (34 percent) and ,arty literature (9 percent) had received financial aid of any sort from One-half of the Democrats and even more of to other kinds of help. their party or a party-affiliated organization; the Republicans (60 percent) who had PARTY IN THE LEGISLATURE and while some of this aid was quite opposition received some financial support The Virginia General Assembly never substantial, it was rarely enough to cover all from the party. Nevertheless, relatively few has been characterized by sharp or even or even most expenses.' While few studies of those candidates who had opposition and discernible partisan differences, with a few exist to help determine whether the Virginia received financial support receiveda "sub- possible exceptions concerning such issues experience is typical of other state legislative stantial" sum. as the appointment, of judgeships and, of elections, it is probably safe to assume that While the party organization itself may course, the organization of the House and the role of the party in supporting party not supply a great deal of money to its Senate. Indeed, differences ttrit do develop candidates varies considerably among the candidates for campaign purposes, the party between groups of legislators. appear often states and even within each state.' label may be crucial to candidates in their to result from individual personalities, the Of the respondents in this study, 64 individual efforts to raise money. In the regions represented, or conflicts between percent (68 percent of the Democrats, 54 study of campaign finance in the 1973 House the House of Delegates and the Senate percent of the Republicans) indicated that of Delegates election, significant differences rather than from partisan considerations. they had received no financial support from were noted in the expenditures by party Members are seated by party in each body. their party in 1979; however, 20 percent of candidates and independent challengers. As andeachpartyhasitsown caucus: this figure consists of those respondents who that study stated, "in mostcases, serious however, the Republicans. perhaps due to admitted that financial aid from their parties contenders must be identified with either the their relatively small numbers, caucus only was unnecessary due to a lack of opposition. Democratic or Republicanparty, and infrequently, and the Democrats rarely Two Democrats said that "the ticket" had onlyseriouscontendersaregenerally take up substantive issues outer than those received money from the party, while 19 successful in raising substantial campaign mentioned above when they caucus. One merit of the respondents from both parties contributions. ..."7 observer of the Ge "eral Assembly has .ndicated that they had received a "small Of course thz party can. help in other ways arguedthat,totheextent sum" of Money, i.e.. 5500 or less. Only 9 thatthe to getits candidates elected, and these Democratic majorityhas demonstrated Arthur 0, cunlieks. 'Campaign Finance In Viteflia: TIN: 1973 services might be more important than some cohesiveness. "only minority (i.e.. House of 04-pin Election: Elmira:itsof MimsNews Letter. Nunissbct 1971. p. 11, iinalcial contributions alone. Or they could Republican) control of the governorship in Fora companion of campeita 'pendia:in 1973 in nine mates, see be equivalent to substantial contributions of the 1970s has given Democrats a sense of Alan Restudied. Legislative Life (Net. York: Harper and Bon. party sufficient to allow their leaders to 19111. p. 33. ' ocks."Csmpeign Finance in Virginia: p. 10. -.loveasfaras they haveinpolicy 177 development." This movement has been more likely to perceive such differences than This difference appears to be more profound limited. however. by a number of factors. were Democrats (31 percent). a reflection Including the fact that "the Democratic at the level of state politics than at the perhaps both of Republican minority status nationallevel. Only 8 legislators are so diverse in their constit- percentof the and the tradition among older Demt. :rats of Democrats and no Republicans placed uencies and outlooks that a binding party factional rather than partisan politics. themselves left-of-center according to na- position simply cannot be forged on most The data collected from the respondents tional substantive policy issues."' ditical standards. whereas 22 per- also suggest some differences between the cent of the Democrats and 11 percent of tht The diversity of the Democratic delega- parties according to the particular house of Republicans classified themselves as left-of- tions in the House and Senate can be the General Assembly. Whereas one-fourth center by Virginia standards. A few respon- demonstrated by looking at the kinds of of the Senate Democrats said that they saw dents were bothered by the failure of the constituencies that Democrats represent. In no policy differences between parties, all of questionnaire to distinguish between eco- 1980 the Democrats in both houses were the Senate Republicans perceived certain nomic and other issues, and some of these almost evenly divided throughout most of differences. In the House the proportions of legislators refused to classify themselves on the state between urban-suburban districts Republicans whoperceiveddifferences either scale. and those comprised of small towns and between parties in the interests that they rural areas. Republican strength, in contrast. represent and in ideology were larger than CONCLUSION is concentrated in both the urban and the the Democratic proportions; however, 40 rural areas of the Valley and in ti,e urban The evidence presented in this article percent of both Democratic and Republican suggests that, in terms of occupational and Northern Virginia area. Whereas in 1971 the House delegates perceived no differences Republicans tended to represent more small educational background, recruitment pat- between the parties. terns. policy. and ideological perceptions. town and rural districts in the Senate and A large majority or tespondentsfromeach some, though not dramatic, differences exist more urt.an-suburban districts in the House, party opposed the proposition that "there between the two major praties in the kinds of in1080the Republican delegates were should be more perceptible and identifiable state legislators who wear their labels. The balanced in the representation of urban and policy differences between the parties"; only evidence also suggests that a greater poten- rural districts in both houses of the General one-fourtheach of the Dem sus (25 Assembly. tial for partisan conflict ma;' now exist in the percent) and Republicanstc percent) General Assembly than has been seen in the While few if any observers of the state's concurred with this statement. While a political scene would areue that the General pastespecially if the Republicans should rather wide range of reasons was given for become more successful in future legislative Assembly's politics are partisan politics. the the lack of enthusiasm for parties represent- elections. With a statewide party organiza- legislators themselves may perceive differ- ing different policy stands. it is apparent that tion noted for its hard-line conservative ences between the parties that are too subtle most Virginia legislators accept an ideology image and an enlarged for outsiders to notice. To ascertain whether contingentof of individualism and consensus politics at Republican legislators with a consciously this' might be the cast. our respondents were the expense of "responsible parties." conservative orientation. the more centrist asked to "describe the policy differencrs, if While the policy consensus in the Virginia Democratic t tajority may be forced to any. between Republicans and Democrats in General Assembly is matched in consider- assume a more unified policy stance to the General Assembly." One-third of the able measure by ideological consensus, some counter the conservative Republican chal- respondents saw nodifferences,while interesting ideological differences between an the18 percent saw differences only lenge. Ori the other hand. the Democrats in the two parties did emerge when respondents theGeneral under certain conditions or in response to Assembly couldreactby were askedto place themselves on an matching the Republicans' orientation to the certair 'ssues. On the other hand. 29 percent ideology scale for the national ievel as well as right. thereby giving the electorate no r, .1 perceived differences in terms of the particu- for Virginia. where politics are notably more choice between the two parties' legislative lar interests represented and the resulting conservative. As expected, respondents of candidates and therefore no reason to focus on the appropriate role of government; both parties favored the conservative side of another 8 percent mentioned ideological change delegates. A third possibility is that a the scale; however, to a greater extent than moderately conservative Democratic gover- differences. Republicans (47 percent) were one might have precticted, the kepublicans nor could be pulled to the center by the party J Aulmn."The VsrInnta General Assembl).111 Influent. appeared to perceive themselves as more outside of the General Assembly. thus giving my Nth, ttttt lircsour Nei.. Gm,. %member 1977. p. conservative, while the Democrats thought conservative Republicans the opportunity to of themslIves as somewhat less conservative. campaign against the "liberal Democrats."

THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

Entered as secondc'ass matter NEWS Ch, lottesville, Virginia LETTER

(.SSN 0042-0271) Editor I James A. (Dolph) Norton Auistant Editor' Sandra H. Wiley Published monthly by the Institute of Govern.: ment, University of Virginia. Charlottesville, is 22903. The views and opinions impressed hereinam those of the authors, and are not to be interpreted as representing the official position of the militate or the University. Entered as second-clam matter January 2,.1923, at the post office at Chuiottesville, Virginia, under the act of August 24, 1911 1982 by The Itmtor and Visitors of the University of Virginia. THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA VOL. 56, NO. 4

This News Letter was reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University of Virginia.

VIRGINIA'S STATE CORPORATIONCOMMISSION, HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE By Laurence J. O'Toole, Jr. and RobertS. Montjoy

Mr. O'Toole and Mr. Montjoy are associate professors of political science at Auburn University, where Mr. states as well, but not by a single agency. commission acts autonomously from the Mortjoy is also assistant director of the Office of Public Even after the shift of the Fire Marshal's Commonwealth's chief executive. Service and Research. Office and the Division of Aeronautics to the Since the constitutional revision of 1971, This news letter is the first of two. consecutive articles administrative control of others, the Virginia on the SCC. Both cn.:cles are drawn from a largerstudy the General Assembly has had the potential of the commission supported by the Institute of SCC still retains the broadest jurisdiction of to give significant direction to some SCC Government, where the authors were formerly staff any such regulatory body in the United activities, but thus far the legislators have members. The authors gratefully ockrowledge the help States.(It also performs a number of continued to give much freedom to the provided by many atthe SCCand in the Virginia nonregulatory duties, but these will not be commission. The chiefregulators,for regulatory community who have given so freely of their discussed in this news letter.) time and information. However, the authors are solely instance, have complete control over their responsible for th-.: contents. This unmatched jurisdiction is not the entire staff of more than four hundred, who SCC's only distinctive characteristic. The are not covered by the state's civil service Despite thefact thatthe American commission also possesses an extraordi- system. The SCC can even declare acts of economy is predofninantly a private enter- nary degree of formal independence from the General Assembly unconstitutional, a prise system, government regulation of the rest of Virginia government. It is a power that has been exercised on occasion business has been an important and some- constitutionally established body, not a during the course of the commission's times controversial component of public creation of statute. The three commission- existence. The only appeal from SCC policy throughout this century. States as ers are elected by the Gene. al Assembly for decisions is one by right to the Virginia well asthenational govt -nment have staggered sixyear terms; this method of Supreme Court. pursued regulation in order to correct an legislative e:action is used by only one other Internally, the commission has longor- array of perceived marketplace imperfec- state, South Carc"ia. In practice the choice ganized its staff into divisions stru:tured a tions or abuses. Regulation may be designed of commissioners made in the legislature's round the industries to be regulated or proc- for a variety of goalsfor example, to Democratic caucus, and the norm has been esses used in the regulatory task. At present control the potential for monopoly profit, to to treat the commissioners as "judges" (the the commissioners supervise more thana ensure solvency in certain businesses, or to term by which they are customarily ad- dozen subunits, which vary greatly both in guarantee that consumers have accurate dressed) who holdofficeduring good size and in the amount of responsibility exer- information before engaging in transactions. behavior.Furthermore,the SCC has cised. As has been the case for decades, In the Old Dominion many of the state's considerable budgetary independence. Ap- each "judge" carries out day-to-day adminis- most difficult regulatory decisions are in the proximately 89 percent of its revenues come 'rative direction over approximatelyone hands of a single organization, the Virginia from special funds that are not subject to third of these divisions, coordinating infor- State Corporation Commission (SCC). competition, from other state activities. In mally withhiscolleagues on matters The SCC is a regulatory body of unparal- practice the governor's budget office is not crossing jurisdictional lines. Obviously, the leled scope and formal pottier among the involved in its budget preparation, and the present SCC is a complex institution. American states. Since its creation for the regulation of railroads in 1902, the commission has acquired a variety of responsibilities The Institute of Government is pleased to in many differentindustries,including announce the following new publication: financial institutions (s...,h as banks and savings and loan companic insurance, VIRGINIA VOTES 1975.1978 securities,re' ailfranchising,intrastate by Larry Sabato motor and rail transportation, and utilities (electricity,gas,telephone, water, and This report provides an analysis of, and city and countyreturns for, major Virginia sewerage). Today, the same commission elections during these years. Included are elections for the national offices ofpresident and `hat decides multimillion dollar rate eases senator and for the state offices of governor, Neuter -nt governor, andattorney general. affecting the cost of electric power through- Single copies are available free to individualsupon written request to the Institute of out the Commonwealth also grants bank Government, 207 Minor Hall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22903.Additional charters and licenses taxicabs. Similar copies are priced at $6.00 each. regulatory activities are performed in other

isvrin-rr or GOVERNMENT UNIVERSITY OFFMNIA I CHARLOTTESVILLE /DECEMBER 1979 4(.7 14 Yet despite the formal independence of they became increasingly concerned with popular election of the commissioners. the SCC, it has not existed in complete putting an end to political corruption.' Similarly, Braxton was not opposed to the isolation from the ememal forces that have When the constitutional convention was railroad companies,butonlytotheir shaped Virginia'shistory.Infact,the held, many delegates "felt a sense of urgency unlimited economic influence. He later commission was founded in reaction to the in resolving the railroad problem before became counsel for a railroad and once even political and economic turmoil of the time. popular agitation wrested the issue from declined an offer of its presidency. Furthermore, the same sentiments that led responsible hands. It was the consensus of to the SCC's creation also nurtured the the convention that government ownership Byrd Organization, and for many years the had to be avoided atall cost.'2 Allen THE SCC AND THE BYRD commissioners were active supporters of Caperton Braxton, a Staunton attorney, ORGANIZATION the Organization. These links influenced the drafted a constitutional article to create the Braxton had a clear idea of who should philosophy and operating style of the SCC SCC, and he guided his handiwork through serve on the commission. He suggested that during the Byrd era, and many characteris- the convention. one seat be occupied by a lawyer, one by a tics of today's commission can be under- Disfranchisement of blacks and the businessman, and one by someone knowl stood as continuations of or reactions to the establishment of the SCC may have been patterns that were established earlier. This edgeable of freight rates and shipping. He the two most important results of the also felt strongly that: news letter concentrates on the founding of convention, and they were of a piece. Both the SCC and its operations before 1972; the The office provided for here is a actions appealed to the desire of many matter that has no more to do with next news letter will focus on current SCC convention delegates to allow careful prog activities. politics than has the cashier of 'a ress while also preserving ix .estoring the bank. It ought to be filled by men virtues tHey perceived to be a product of who are not politicians. It ought to THE FOUNDING OF THE SCC Virginia's old order. The race/electoral issue be filled by men whose past was most important to the delegates from experience has been in the line of The creation of the SCC by the Constitu the eastern part of the state, while regulato tion of 1902 was a political response to an practical business, and not in the ry reform was on the minds of those from the line of political matters!' economic problemthe difficulties caused nearly all.white western portion. Braxton'scaveatwas by monopolistic power intherailroad From the record of Aebates. in systematically the ignored from the beginning. however. All of industry. The problem was nationwide and convention, it is dear that Braxton was the first three commissioners had previously :stimulated the creation of regulatory com- careful to justify his proposal for the new missions by many states and the federal held elective office. In fact, of the twenty. commission as a conservative move, argu four men who served on the commission government. But Virginia's approac!' caring that to the best of his ki...wiedge it was before 1972, only three had not had prior ried the unique flavor of the Old Do. ninion. It supported by every board of trade in the was certainly not a struggle of the Common political experience. Moreover, some of state. Iinplementation of the SCC them left the SCC to run for other offices. Man vs. Big Business as depicted by populist would enable Virginia to be conservative Two men became governor after serving on rhetoric elsewhere. Instead, the solution and progressive simultaneously. Another the commission. (Two others subsequently embodied in the SCC fits into a long Virginia delegate, Eugene Withers, put the matter tradition of government support for busi- took seats on the Virginia Supreme Court. more strongly: but that body is not elected.).Nor were the ness. Nov, this demand for railroad politicalactivitiesof the commissioners Historians have suggested a number of commissions is not local; it is not always suspended while they served on the reasons to explain why Populists wer I not populistic; it is not anarchistic; it is SCC. With the ascendency of Byrd in the directly successful in Virginia. One of these not unreasonable; it is not in the early 1920s, a long period began in which the was the perceived connection between interests of the rabble and the hoi Populism and the earlier Readjustormove- commissioners were active members of the polloi, and the prdetariat; but it is Organization. ment. "Billy" Mahone and his Readjustors demanded by the business inter- An exchange between Thomas Ozlin, (so named for their desire to restructure the ests of Virgii:a; it is deman ied by who served as a commissioner from 1933 to state debt in a manner less than satisfactory the chaOler of commerce, by the 1944, and Senator Byrd is illustrative. Ozlin to the financial interests) had been a boards oftrade, the business had written Byrd about the in'portance of powerful force it the 1870s and 1880s. men's associations, the tobacco electing the right people to the legislature in Mahone had parkd unorthodox tactics, associations.3 the summer of 1939 and of ensuring that the radical-sounding lode, black support, Thus, while it is clear that the founding of opposition not electits and class conflict uo the debt issue into a the SCC was not a victory of the Common allies. Byrd re- political machine of some significance. Even sponded by stressir l the necessity for ',Ian over Big Business, it is not dear that the coordinating the Or,anization's electoral so, the Democrats had managed to play commission's proponents considered the upon the race issue, the crudeness of activities at the grassroots level. He suggest. reverse to be true, in spite of their rhetoric. ed that Ozlin lead the way in the state's Mahone's methods, and a superior organi Being untutored in the modern literature on zation to stimulate a backlash and drive him interest group politics and class conflict, Fourth Congressional District, while other from power. By the 1890s Mahone was they may have genuinely believed that a loyalists would manage the election else where around the Commonwealth. The viewed as an irresponsible, indeed embar- properly balanced business system was in rassing, figure. The Democrats were then the interest of all people, although the attitude of the SCC in its dealings with the Organization and its leader was perhaps able to associate the Populists with "Ma- uaeducated and easily led might not recog- hone and the Negro." nize this fact. Such a belief would permit best exemplified by ,ongtime commissioner Lester Hooker. For example, when Hooker Even if the Readjustors and the Populists Braxton to argue that the commission would could not win control to enact their own started his fourth sixyear term in 1942, his benefit the "people" and protect the "con firstaction was to write Senator Byrd programs, however, they did prove to be an sumer" at the same time that he opposed the important stimulus for the movement that expressing his loyalty and willingness to help led to the founding of the SCC. The political the senator or his friends in any ,..ay they desired .5 instability of the era led many Democrats to 'R. H. Pulley, Old Virginia Restored. An Interpretation 0/ the support a constitutional convention for the However, there is little evidence that the Progressive Impulse. 18701930 (Chide/ UnNersity Press relationship between the commission an? purpose of cementing their gains and of Virginia, 1965), pp. 57. 106 the Organization was used for personal gait restoring order. Further, the railroads were ?Thomas E. Gay. Jr,. "Creatmg the Virginia State Corporation tainted by their use of money to control the Commission." 78 Virginia Mogossne ol History a nd BiogroallY 465 votes of blacks and poor whites, even (October 1970); cf. Poky, Old Virginia Restored. pp. 96.97. 'Debates. p. 2565. though their efforts had been instrumental in ;Debates oi the Constitutional Convention is/ 190/1902 the election of some Democrats. As the 1Byrd to Ozhn.Feb.3.1933.Hooket tn Byrd. Feb I. 1942.Harry (Rtchrnond; Hermitage Press. Inc.. 1906). p. 2304 See also pp. F Byrd Sr Papers. Marar.cripts Department. University of Democrats established control in the state, 2171 and 2255. Mtge. Artary. Chtulottesvak 1 0 15 on either side. On the contrary, the integrity 1928 to 1943, practically served as a de facto leadership,theirs was a regulationof of government had been an essential tenet of attorney for the Organization, undertaking informality, speed, and consensus. the Organization from its very beginning. many legal assignments that had iittle to do Decision making at the "old commission," finlikepolitical machines that bartered withhisofficialposition. Organization as this group is now called, tended to be an .pecific inducements such as jobs and leaders also helped fill staff positions with the uncomplicated affair. A relatively small set of money for votes, the Organization %,-.as in "right" people. Ozlin once wros. to Byrd attorneys,lobbyists,and businessmen many ways an ideologicalparty.(The concerning an opening on the SCC staff. interacted frequently with those at the top of problem of how to manage the vote of the The commissioner was seeking suggestions the SCC, These regular:, knew the personal- masses without such material inducements for the position; he wanted a congenial itiesare:: informal rules of the game in was largely irrelevant in Virginia because college graduate from the Second District. Virginia's regulatory process, and issues participation was restricted to a tiny portion Byrd forwarded the name of an individual were usually settled quickly. The commis- of the potential electorate.) The philosophy proposed to him by another leader with sion seldom wrote opinions unless there was of the Organization was the philosophy of Organization ties, Colgate Darden, then an appealand there were few appeals. By the commission for most of its existence, temporarily out of office as a member of the the early 1960s, fo, .nstance, there had been and this shared set of beliefs seems to U.S. House of Representatives? On the more than 15,000 formally numbered cases explain a good bit about both the style ark other hand, little written evidence exists of decided by the SCC. Yet only 166 appeals substance of regulation in Virginia.. any conscious coordination between the had been taken to the Supreme Court of Whatwerethebeliefsofthe SCC and the Organization on policy Appeals; and of those, a paltry 43 had been Organizationor the "dub," as Governor matters. Of course, explicit policy coordina- reversed. Almond called it? "The cardinal tenet of the tion was probably deemed improper; how- Under the old commission, the state's machine's rationale was that Virginia and ever, it was also largely unnecessary, given regulatory process was expeditious. "Regu- her people would best be served by the the shared attitudes and beliefs of Organiza- latory lag," that familiar phenomenon of honest, wise, and benign rule of this political tion members. contemporary American government elite."6 Members of the Organization were The SCC did struggle long and success- whereby commissions take considerable not very partial to theory, preferring instead fully to maintain its formal independence time to hear a case and reach a decision, was the commonsense of practical business (but from other branches of state government. virtually absent. The SCC's unique cornbi- not the massive planning of giant corpora. Particularly on such matters as personnel nation of formal powers made quick action tions) that was the foundation of the state's and budget, the commission insisted upon possible. The commission, which was a greatness. Nevertheless, they seemed to the right to exercise its own authority, relr.dvely passive body, neither went search- have a theory of sorts, which was that the should it choose to do so. These issues were ing for cases to decide nor encouraged its rpvemment should limit, but not abdicate, not especially important during the years staff to io so. The very broad jurisdiction of its role in the economy. The state'seconom- of the Organization's rule since officials the SCC meant that not much time ms ic function was to promote the long term heading the various branches of state spent on any one task, and therefore growth, prosperity, and balance of the government were alike in so many respects. regulation itself in any one field was far from business community. Even working people However, the precedents of SCC indepen- oppressive. Over time the "judges" acquired and consumersindeed,allsortsof dence established in these earlier times are so much experience making decisions in personswere advantaged by strengthen- significant today, when commissioners are their major jurisdictions that many cases ing the business climate of hestate; selected by a Democratically controlled were decided directly "from the-bench?' therefore, divisive forces like the labor legislature an the governorship is occupied Rules of thumb, intuition, arid pitilosophi- movement were dangerous and even unpa by a Republican. cal similarity made even complex issues triotic. Consensus, atleast among the While the relationship between the SCC simple to hendle. In the mold of Virginia's politically active, was highly valued. Consen- and the Organization was significant, so was politics of the day, most differences of sus meant that political forces would bolster the manner inwhichthe commission opinion were hammered out in private. economic os, that stability would prevail, actually conducted its regulatory business. Informal contact and the exploration of and that the productive capacities of the The SCC's distinctivestyle during this alternatives by regulated businesses via state's citizenry would be efficiently devoted period can be seen b.) examining the pattern quiet sessions inthe commission's to positive results. Conflict wasted time and of activity under the immediate predeces- chambers meant that tedious litigation was energy, and it was bad for business. sors to the current commissioners. usually avoided. Ex parte commu- In many cases, the SCC served this goal of nicationsthat is, information passed be- consensus by regulating otherwise disrup- THE OLD CCMMISSION IN OPERATION tween commissioners and some part:es to a tive economic fords and by removing the casewere commonplace features of regu- issue of their regulation from the public eye. In less than a year between 1972 and 1973 latorydecision making. However, few For irstance, within a few year after its a new set of commissioners took the helm of people aside from the concerned businesses establishment the commission had brought the SCC, a turnover in lee iership that paid systematic attention to SCC activities, order to the 'chaotic railroad industry. After symbolized the end of a period of extraordi and there was seldom unpredictable opposi- astringof bank disasters during the nary stability for Virginia regulation. Of the tion to any course of action; therefore, the Depression, the commission received au- three departing commissioners, Jesse Dillon commission itself frequently convened and thority to control the creation of new banks. had been the relative newcomer, retiring managed the conferencel and bargains from This same pattern persisted as the commis- after fifteen years at his post. Ralph Catterall which flowed the state's regulatory policies. sion acquired new mandates. Between 1903 resigned after a quarter of a century's As one of the commissioners put it: and 1977 there were sixty-four major service, and Lester Hooker left after serving Our public hearings are continua- additions to the SCC's jurisdiction. an incredible forty-eight years. tions of our investigations and it Despite tin. SCC's impressive formal Hooker and Dillon had been longtime would not be feasible to draw a line independence, its leadership was closely Byrd loyalists; Catterall was also a choice of between proper and improper e) tied to Organization leaders who occupied the Organization, although he had not been Parte oral communications.... We key posts in various branches of govern- politically active prior to his appointment treatevery communication as ment. For example, gubernatorial corres- The commission's style under the leadership proper, and anybody can wait, in pondence indicates that William Meade of these three men differed considerably any time and discuss any subject. Fletcher, who was a commissioner from from that observable today in many regula- The advantages of efficiency over the tory commissions. In step with the opera- tedious extremes of due process pleased E. C. Williams. "The Anti Byrd Organization Moverne.it a. tionsof the Commonv.with's political many who dealt with the SCC. Among the Virginia. 1948.1919." MA . thesis, University of Virginia. p. cf. most satisfied with the system were the Ralph Eit ,nberg.-Virginia: The Emergence o: Two-Party Politics," commissioners themselves. Catterall, for in w. C. Hewed: ed. The Changing Polmcs the Sough (Baton 'Ozbn to Byrd. July 11. 1938:Byrd to JAN July 16,1938, Byrd instance, wrote a classic defense of the Rouge. La : Louisiana State University Press. I612). p. 46. Papers. "comparatively t.rcedian simplicity" of the 181 16

Virginia regulatory structure andprocess, in In many respects this defense of the contrast to the "horrors" of the federal old actions of an SCC that many felt was out of commission in operation makesan impres- touch with the public and the times. Three maze. The Commonwealth, said the judge, sive case. Nevertheless, sucha system was blessed with an exceptional regulatory days before Christmas 1%9, the SCCwas might also contain some disadvantages. For hearing a tariff increase request filed by the unit. The SCC's stature as a "fourth branch" instance, independent commissioners of of government with combinedpowers "save Chesapeake and Potomac Telephone Com- long tenure may ignore new issues and pany. Before presentation of either the [cl; time" and eliminated "red tape."The interests. Minimizing red tape and formality commission's operations company's evidence or that of opponents, were "so simple might create the potential for unequal and while a preliminary motion that the most careless lawyer couldnot lose was still access or treatment. Regulators who decide pending, Judge Hooker surprised observers a case on a procedural point." Delays were cases very quickly may also act without almost nonexistent. "Briefs [were] seldom by reading the commission's decision in the consideringallthe evidence or novel case. The fact that the ruling preceded filed and most cases [were] decidedas soon approachestoproblems. When F,taff as the evidence [was] in." In complicated presentation of the case W2.5 driven home to members are agents of a commission, they the astonished spectators when Hooker utility rate cases, efficiencywas served by may be rnore likely to act in a coordinated finished reading the decision and handed having the companies pre-file their testi- fashionbut also less likely to be innovative, mony and by requiring the SCC's staff copies to those in attendance. The casewas active, and assertive. In summary,a regula- accountants to work out with the businesses later overturned on appeal? tory system built around informant,. and Although this was an unusupl instance, it ahead of time the adjustments neededin independence may well maximize decisive- was perhaps symptomatic of the clash company balance sheets, "leaving for the ness and speed, but these ends may exact between decision-making styles duringan Commissioners only legal questions to certain important costs. Eventually charges decide." era of transition. Pressure continued to of this sort were levelled against the SCC. mount at the SCC, and the trio finally retired Nevertheless, most important staff deci- The old commission had been popular sions were tightly controlled by the commis- at a time when the commission, which had during the Byrd years, but by the late 1960s served as a key element of stabilization in sioners. In several SCC divisionsvery icicle times had cher ,ed. Harry Byrd was took gone, the Commonwealth for decades, was itself place v Aboutcheckingupstairs. and the politics of consensus began to break According to the focal point for major controversy. Even Catterall, the staff were down under the onslaught of new partici- "agents of the Commission. What they this most independent of regulatory bodies pants, an invigorated two-party system, and was not immune to changes stimulated by its know and do the Commission knows and newly voiced demands on government. does." This arrangement meant that the surroundings. The "new commission" of the Interest group conflict, especiallyon insur- 1970s would be faced with the task of state's regulato:y unit was "Imhampaed by ance and utility matters, emerged in the the doctrine of the separation of powers and adapting Virginia's regulatory systemto regulatoryarena. Organizeo consumer today's political and economic realities. the theories that cluster around the prefix gaups made their first major appearance. 'quasi'."8 As the old commission continuedto 'The above discussion of decm,on malree; by the 'old follow its established style of operation inan commission' draws upon the anek by Corrammuoner Ralph T Rehmond Tents-Dap:4th. Jan. V, 1971 and June 23.1975: era of new regulatory politics, conflict was Board of Supervisors of Fairfax County Cantu 11. 'The State Corr.raton Commission of Vagrnsa," 48 v. ChesapecJce & inevitable. One fabled case providesa lregoura Low Review 139 51. Al quotations are from that a.mcle Potomac Telephone Company of Virstiva, 212 ya. 57, 1825 E2d useful, albeit extreme, illustration of the 30 (1971)

Note: It has been called toour attention that a statement in the November 1979 the State Corporation Commission for news letter ("The Study of Small Towns in Virginia ") critical of not helping small towns in their rate battles withgiant utilities may be misleading. Section 56-234 of Code of Virginia prohibits the SCC fromregulating the utility rates charged governmental the legislation to give it jurisdiction units. The SCC has supported past proposed over such rates, but such legislation has not been passed bythe General Agsembly. The Editors

THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

I'F'1.1 ". Entered as second-class matter. st- 'tgik IS Charlottesville. Virginia 11.16 E R

(ISSN 0042-0271) Ecitor/Clifton Assistant Editor/Sandra Wildman_ Pubfehed eich'month from Septimbeelkrii#:: August by the institute olGovemment,UriusnillPst; Charlotteovik, Virginia 22903.-The and spoors emreseed limitare More:silhe author, and are not to be imerpretedas the official position of the kisttuteor the lkdv 182 Entered as second-cos mattes los.iary2192S,at, the poet office at Chorkmesvils, act of August :A, 1912. Vrginb,undesibe 1979 by The Recto: and Visitors of ofyrginis. the Ualrfaivil;" Printed by the University Prileing Office. . . TIIE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA VOL. 56, NO. 5

This News Letter was reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, Uhiversity of Virginia.

VIRGINIA'S STATE CORPORATIONCOMMISSION, II: DECISION MAKING ODAY By Robert S. Montjoy and LaurenceJ. O'Toole, L.

Mr. Montjoy and Mr. OToole are associate proles. more, significant sons of political science at Auburn University, where Mr. internal changeslave prove insufficient to determine bank char- Montjoy is also assistant director of the Office of Public taken place at the SCC. In 1972 and early ters, the commission is to consider "any- Service and Research. 1973 the three sitting commissioners, with thing else deemed pertinent."3 With its This news tenor is the second of two consecutive tenures ranging from fifteen to fcrty.eight responsibLities encompassing utilities, in- articles on the SCC; the first appeared os the December years, all retired. While the new commis- 1979issue. Both articles are drawn from °larger study of trastatetransportation,financialinstitu- the commission supported by the Institute of Govern. sioners seem toshare much oftheir tions,insurance,securities,andretail mere. where the authors were formerly staff member predecessors' philosophy about the proper franchises, the SCC has the broadest The aw.tors gratefully ockrscwledge the help provided role of the government in the economy, they jurisdiction of any state regulatory body in by many at the SCC and in the Virginia regulatory have embarked upon a number of reforms the nation. community who have so freely of their time and to information. However, the authors cc? solely responsi increasestaffexpertise, s.rengthen One may reasonably wonder how the ble for the contents. internal manageme it, ensure due process, three commissioners of the SCC cancope and increase acce s to the SCC by the with such responsibilities. The answer is that public. This news letter outlines and illus- most of the time they must depend upon For many years economic regulationin trates some of the ways in which the SCC others to discover problems in the regulato- Virginia was a relatively quiet affairof operates in today's more complex regulatory environment or in current policy and intense concern to the participants but not a ry environment. practice, to gather and analyze information, matter that commanded the public's atten- to develop proposals and arguments, and tion for long. Beginning in 1902 with the often even to make decisions for the SCC. perceived abuses by the railroad industry, THE ORGANIZATION OF DECISIONS Issues can arise at the SCC in a variety of whenever monopolistic power, destructive ways. In many cases the commission relies c ,.-npetition, or the effects of techno:ogical The commission's responsibilities are vast upon the regulated companies to initiate a innovation brought sejous economic dis and diverse. For example, the Code of request for a change in the status quo. For ruption, the. normal response of the Com- Virginia devotes 203 pages, not counting example, insurance companies must get monwealth was to assign the problem to the recent amendments, to the operation of SCC approval of changes in the forms by StateCorporation Commission (SCC). public service companies (principally utili- which they sell policies to their customers, After a period, sometimes mat iced by court ties and motor earners), and provides that and it seems fairly safe to expect that utility challenges to the SCC's new authority, the "Any person or corporation aggrieved by companies will inform the commission when commission and the industry would settle anythingdoneoromilIedinviolati- they feel a rate increase is needed. the into a pattern of routine regulation. In on . .. shall have the right to make com- commission also maintains a tollfree tele- keeping with the politics of the era, the plaint ... and seek relief. . before the W.:one line by which individualconsumers SCC's operating style emphasized speed. State Commotion Commission, sitting as a can register complaints or request informa- informality, and consensus. After World court of record. "1 Furthermore, while some tion. Some of the SCC staff routinely War II public satisfaction with the system mandates are extremely detailed, others monitor reportsfromregulated industries; was undoubtedly boosted by increasing require a great deal of judgment. Forand others, such as bank examiners, prosperity and declining utility rates (per- example, public service companies are to actively search the environment for relevant haps the most visible target of regulation). provide "reasonably adequate service and information. The stafflso suggest new Recent events have brought some pro- facilities at reasonable and just rates."2 policy initiatives when they discover prob- found changes in the environment and Similarly, in determining whether a new lems in the administration of current laws. operations of the SCC. The rise of con- bank is in "the public interest," the SCC is to To a considerable extent, therefore, the sumerism, interest group activity, and two- consider "all relevant evidence" on matters commissioners rely upon their staff of more party competition has significantly altered such as convenience, efficiency, and compe- than four hundred employees, organized in both the regulatory anr "vs political climates tition and to ascertainthe"moral fitness, sixteen bureaus and divisions. Theseem- of Virginia. In addition, the nationwide surge financial responsibility, and business qualifi- ployees gather information and make most in construction and fuel costs has produced cations" of the proi ,sed officers as they of the routine decisions. When problems dramatic increases in utility bills, especially may rAfect community confidence in the new cannot be handled by the staffand, in for electric power, in Virginia as elsewhere. institution. In case these guidelines should some cases, when the law requires it Thus, public scrutiny is much greater, and more parties seek active participation in 'Code o Virgnia. sec.564. commission decisions than before. Further- Ns. Code. sec.56.234. Mi. Grit. Jed. 6.1.13.

I.V5TIT(71. 01 GorE11.V311.;:\-1' UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA / CHARLOTTESVILLE JANUARY 1980 I R3 decisions are pushed upward to the commis- THE VEPCO RATE CASE sioners. Many of the most important defined as a "legislative" decision, the commission conducts the hearing as if it commission decisions are made after formal On December 6, 1976 the Virginia Electric were a judicial hearings. Here, too, the staff as well as other and Power Company (Vepco), whichis the proceeding. The utility parties are important, for they present Commonwealth's largest electric utility, was presents its case while other interested information and arguments beforethe awarded a rate increase of $65.9 million by parties may cross-examine company wit commission. The courtlike proceedings not the SCC. But as 1977 wore on,company nesses and present their own. The SCC staff only ens° a a certain amount of due executives decided that further "rate relief' ordinarily participates in this fashion much process; they also reduce the facts and would soon be needed. Therefore,on April as the other "parties of interest" do, the major difference being that the staff positions from a variety of cases toa 24, 1978, after a request for an interim rate is common format. Many times the commis- increase and some hearings at the SCC, charged with representing the overall public interest. Attorneys represent all parties who sioners become involved only whena case Vepco applied to the commission fora reaches the formal hearing stage. In those permanent increase in itselectric rates want to participate fully in the case. Since instances, the commissioners are depend- totalling $246 million. No utilLy hadever the commissioners are required to resolve ent upon their staff and other parties to before petitioned a state for a rate increase the case from the evidence presented before develop the official record upon which they of this magnitude. The SCC suspended the them in this manner, their decision making is must base their decision. proposed rates and scheduleda formal made somewhat more manageable. Current SCC proce6;res differ from hearing on the matter. Action on the Vepco cast- neither began those formerly used in some important Although the size of the utility's proposed nor ended in the courtroom, however. Even before Vepco filedits respects. Perhaps most important is the increase certainly made this case unique, formal request, emphasis on due process. Considerable the manner in which it was handled at the company officials had met with the commissioners and informed them of the impending effort is made to ensure that allpa: ,,es of SCC was fairly typical of Virginia's utility interest have a fair chance to influence the regulation in recent years. Ultimately, the application and the key issues that would be decision. Fairness is largely defined by con.missioners had to decide whether raised. The SCC staff had also anticipated the case and thus had actually been working judicial procedure. For example, the SCC Vepco deserved more money from its on it for months prior to the filing date. Eight providesconsumerrepresentativesan customersand, if so, which customers opportunity to present their case in should pay how much more. In dingso, the members from the SCC's Accounting a utility Division checked the company's books for hearing, but the fact that mostconsumer regulators were charged with balancing the representatives interests of the private corporation and its more than six months prior to the opening of lacktheresourcesto the hearing in September 1978. The acquire technical and legal expertisecom investor owners with theinterestsof comparable to that of the utilities does not arise consumers who purchase power. These mission's Division of Energy Regulation had as an issue. The Commonwealth represents interests are rA simple oppo4i.es, for responsibility for investigating the company's proposal for distributing rates, the consumer interest through the Attorney consumers have interests in the availability across General's (Mee. of power as well as its cost. customer classes (e.g., large manufacturers A result of this emphasis on due vs. residential consumers). And the newly- process is A number of factors helped to guide the created Division of Economic Research and that the commissioners appear to bemore commissioners. Corsiitutional and statuto- Analysis worked with a staffretainedcon careful about their dealings with theirown ry provisions and court decisions estab- sultant on a proposal for determining the staff during a c7.se. Before a hearing the staff lished some criteria that constrained the rate of return to be allowed the company. members involved are largely free topursue decision makersfor instance, the "rate their own vision of the public interest, within These tasks are a normal part of the base/rate of return" method by which the commission's staff preparation for a major the guidelines of the law and precedent. In SCC calculates how much a utility should be utility rate request. But there were some the absence of direction from the commis- given a chance to earn. This method additional wrinkles in the work on this case. sioner, the legal staff, who must present the basically requires the regulatoryagency to For the first time, the SCC's staff also cases in hearings, seem to play an important determine the utility's adjusted net valueor rolein coordinating staff positions and analyzed some information on a company's "rate base." Then a "rate of return" is efficiency. The head of the Division of interpreting the relevant laws. The commis- selected; i.e., a percentage of the rate base sioners also try to avoid giving the staff Energy Regulation prepared testimonyon an that shouid provide enough income fora fair how oftem Vepco's oower generating units extra opportunity to influence a decision return to the company's investors. if, with had been out of ...:rvice. He intended after thehearingisclosed. Yet they the passage of time, the company's adjusted to provide some evidence that thecompany frequently need the staffs expertise. Often net income is not sufficient to produce this was not operating them as efficiently as the staff attorney in the case, who takes the "fair return" (the rate base multiplied by the role of counsel to the commissioners after rate of return), regulators normally autho- otn..: utilities ran theirs. An economist in the the hearing is closed, mediates between the rize a corresponding increase in Division of Economic Research and Analysis rates to took adifferent commissioners and the technical staff. permit the company an opportunity to tack. She statistically earn analyzed some of the company'sexpense Of course, not all SCC decisionsare more. made as a data and concluded that althoughsome of result of formal hearings. Many issues that influence a utility rate Vepco's controllable expenses were rela However, This process does account for decision recur in case aftercase. (For tively low compared to those of similar some of the most imptant and most visible example, s'aould a company be allowedto decisions. And white there are different earn a return on money it spends for electric utilities, others were unjustifiably types of hearings, they all share certain high. These experts were raisingan impor charitable contributions?) The SCC itself tant issue. But it was one that vrJuld be elements, including the relianceupon the sets policies on how these matters are to be parties at interest to gather information and difficult to address in the routine ofa normal treated. In a large rate case, one usually finds rate case, which traditionally has amounted present issues, the use of courtlike proce- that supporters and opponents of the to a succession of accounting decisions dures, and the emphasis on dueprocess. utility's request each defend certainprece- Hearings can be very time consuming, made in the context and within the norms of a dents and attack others. Therefore, much of a judicial proceeding. Neither staff member feature that advantages the customers when rate regulation means applying previously the issue is a proposed rate increase. These could find a satisfactory way of translating established principles to the facts ofa new individualconclusions points are illustrated by the Virginia Electric case, whiie at the same time considering the about company and Power Company rate efficiency into a specific recommendation case that was possibility of a change in policy in light of about the amount of money Vepco should decided in March of 1979.' circumstances. be allowed to earn, so both prepared The commissioners receive other guid testimony without any specific "dollars and- ance, as well. Significant utility rate cas,., are 'This description of the case, %Ouch is much satokfted. dorms cents" recommendation. invariably decided after a formal hearing in The activities of these technical special. from the authors' observattons at the SCC dunny the case, the the SCC's courtroom on the top floor of the ixarnriabOn of pertment documents at the comnassran, and ists were guided, as usual, by an attorney commission's Blanton Building. Despite the from the General Counsel's Office, Interviews yath key paronpants. factthatrate the regulationistechnically SCC's legal staff. As the summerwore on, 184 testimony was readied and a number of different parties had already met and agreed pany? Should property that the utility was meetings were convened. At these meetings upon a set of thirty-seven major issues that holding for future construction be included the staff case was polished and considerable had to be decided in the ccse. They had in the rate base? What amount of interest coordination took place. Sometimes sign conveyed this understanding to the judges expense should be allowed for tax pur- cant issues cut across the Pirisdiction of the by a memo, and this list served as a guide to poses? Decisions on such issues would ;tall subunits, and occasi. tally disagree- the commissioners. The total rate increase affect the total amount of money awarded to ments surfaced. One instance was a to be allowed would result from the dollar Vepco, a figure calculated without reference differenceof opinion on how Vepco's values attached to the decisions on these to the consumer& ability to pay. However, expenses for construction work should be individual issues. one of the issues explicitly raised in the handled for purposes of rate regulation. In For the net several weeks the attorneys consideration of how to divide the costs such circumstances the SCC attorney, who and witnesses for the company, the SCC among customers was whether and how ultimately must lead staff witnesses through staK, and the various consumer representa- low-income residents might receive subsi- their prepared t .timony in the commission tivrs occupied center stage. Vepco present- dized rates. Ultimately, the SCC decided courtroom, often provides leadership in the ed a detailed case for its point of view. Its against such a policy. The commissioners staff preparation, to ensure some consisten- prefiledtestimonyalone amounted to felt that although high electricity rates would cy in the staff case. The final staff case hundreds of pages of information from eight cause a hardship for many people, the consisted of testimony from three staff witnesses. Further, each company execu- problem of distributing the burden should be members and three ccatsultants hired oy the tive or consultant who took the stand on resolved through the "political process." i.e., staff for their expertise on certain points. bealf of the utility had to answer questions the legislature. Unlike their counterparts in The commissioners themselves were from the array of attorneys for the other some ;Aates, Virginia's regulators view their certainly aware of the upcoming contest, but parties. These lawyers usually tried either to primary goal as compe- sating for imperfec- they took no real role in directing the find flaws in the company's request or to tions in the market economy, such as the preparation of their staff's case. While some demonstrate that a certain portion of the l.ck of competition in the utility industry. staffers natural look to the judges for clues consumer population should not have to As the hearing proceeded, the SCC staff about the specific areas in which theyare bear much of any approved increase in assigned to the case were not idle. Commis- most likely to be interested, others keep the rates. The same procedure was followed as sion attorneys traded off chores in the commissioners relatively ignorant of their the various consumer parties presented courtroom. They and the technical staff also preparations until the case is presented. their own technical experts. The judges, planned cross-examinations and practiced In a case with so much at stake, other conscious of the time being consumed and lines of questioning. Such tactics might parties took an interest in Vepco's request. familiar with many of the issues from earlier make a difference in the outcome, since the A variety of consumer representatives also cases, tried to keep things moving. commissioners Ire required to make their prepared to take part in the proceedings. The positions of the combatants were decision from the record as developed These included the Division of Consumer interesting. The company, of course, was a before them. Finally, direct and rebuttal Counsel of the Attorney General's Office, clear advocate of all facets of the case that it testimony was completed and the formal which always participates in such events;a had prepared. The SCC staff,with a hearings were closed. After twenty-nine group of large manufacturers; the Consum- mandate to represent the "publiz interest," witnesses,4,462pagesoftestimony, er Congress, a residential electricity consu recommended that the commission allow seventy-five exhibits, and much money mer organization; attorneys for low-income $170 million of the company's $246 million expended (Vepco itself listed V.09,054 in clients; and others. Inall,twenty-eight request. The consumer advocates proposed costs directly associated with the hearing), attorneys representing Vepco, the SCC various figures ranging as low as $82 million. the decision wan, in the hands of the judges. staff, and twelve other parties got ready for These latter representatives had a common A month after the hearing closed, the the opening, which was scheduled for early interest in trimming Vepco's total award, but various parries filed legal briefs that drew September. theydisagreed about which consumer from the record and legal precedent to argue Meanwhile, the utility began a public should pay what proportions of any invarious positions. But even before then the relations campaign aimed at convincing crease. So the hearing was more complex commissioners had begun the process Virginians that Vepco's request was justi- than simply consumers vs. utility. which would culminate in an official order. fied. Consumer groups,especiallythe Much of the testimony involved abstruse As soon as the record was closed and while Consumer Congress, disagreed; and as the arguments about accounting, economics, the case was still fresh in their minds, they hearing date approached, the company's engineering, finance, and law. One example met to discuss the issues and reach some application was the focus of intense political of an issue debated before the regulators tentative judgments. Then, after the briefs and economic conflict in the Old Dominion. was the question of what "test year" tc use were submitted, the commissioners began The Vepco case became front-page news. for purposes of calculating how well (or to meet in earnest. They used the attorneys' poorly) Vepco was doing under its existing Many among the general public were summary of 'the issues agreed upon at the rates. Which time period should be used to pre hearing meeting together with notes interested in the case as well, and the check the utility's financial condition? An commission set asid4 the first three days of they had taken during the hearing to guide formal hearings so that those "public examination of a year eke -1y past would their decisionmaking process. They first provide relatively "hard" data, but in a sought agreement on the "easy" issues witnesses" who so desired could speak fora period of rapid inflation reliance on such few minutes before the regulators. These those on which they readily agreed with little data wot id mean that new rates would be doubt. Then they worked their way toward sessions were convened in cities within out of date before they were even adopted. Vepco's service areaWilliamsburg, Ches- the more tendentious ones. They checked apeake, Fairfax, and Richmondand at- Vepco proposed the use of a "projected test their notes, occasionally reread portions of year," which was based upon necessarily the massive transcript, and engaged in tracted hundreds of citizen.4. Most of these less certain estimates of future conditions. were people who lacked technical knowl- discussions on the issues. All three of the Because the decision on this matter would commissioners desired consensus, and on edge of utility regulation, and many oppose determine which figures would be used for the proposed increase because of financial most matters they tv_re able to rear:, it after many of the accounting data, the choice some "give and take." hardship that would be created thereby. would make a difference of many mill Ins of Some, especially representatives of the During this phase of decision making the dollars. commission staff played more the role of ousiness community. urged the SCC to Other issues raised in the case varied favor whatever rates seemed necessary to aides or advisors to the judges. They had greatly in importance and substance. For taken positions during the hearing :n order ensure an adequate supply of electricity for example,which economic growth. groupinvestorsor to "develop the record"; but while the customersshould have to pay for the commission deliberated, the staff evaluated On September 9, after the last of the premature replacement of steam generator the entire reco:d, wrote memos to the public witnesses had given their testimony, tubes required at Vepco's Surry tu.clear judges, and chattc.; casually with one the technical portion of the hearing began in units? Who should pay for some of the another about the issues raised in the case. the SCC courtroom. The attorneys for the litigation expenses incurred by the corn- Once again the General Counsel's Office nK coordinated the staff to ensure that their While parties on several sides expressed cases, general policy discussions beta en recommendations kept "on track with the mixed feelings about the results, no one the commissioners and the staff, and even record." On one key issue, for instance, the appealad. The staff's new emphasis on utility the questions that the commissioners ask staff recommended against the conclusions efficiency seemed to havelittledirect of its own consultantwitness, who was during hearings. However, the persor bearing on the immediate commission function seems particularly important ir.i. judged not to have developer' his case decision, but the SCC did call for the regard. Being free of the state's personne, adequately. The staff also engaged in less company to work with the regulators' staff formal give and take with the commissioners system, the -ommissioners have moved improving efficiency in the 'uture. By mid- people around in the organization, brought on issues raised in the case, and ultimately 1979, however, the utility claimed that it was in aggressive leadership for several subunits, the staff also assisted in drafting the final again confronting severe financial problems. and increased the prominence of decision. This process took months, and some part of the SCC's time during this period types of technical expertise within the SCC. was also taken up with decision making on For example, the research on efficiency the commission's myriad other regulatory would not have been available in the Vepco duties. case if the commissioners had not created an office devoted to economic research and Eventually, in March 1979, the commis- CONCLUSION analysis.Thus,thejudges'regulatory sioners had a decision ready. They had Even this brief summary ofsome of the philosophy can be highly influential over reached unanimous agreement on all but major events in the disposition of one SCC SCC activity ever, in the absence of overt two issues (one judge dissented in part from rate case illustrates some important charac- direction on specific cases. the majority view). Drafts of most of the final teristics of contemporary decision making at Finally, the Vepco case illustrates the opinion and order were circulated among the commission. It is obvious, for instance, some staff members to eliminate inconsis- point that trade-offs are always a part of the that regulation can be a complex and regulatory process. Prior to the turbulence tencies and polish language. The judges contentious process that is nonetheless of the 1970s the "old commission" regulated made some final choices, and the decision rendered manageable at the SCC through was issued a year after Vepco first filed its expeditiously, but many complained abouta reliance on previous decisions, set proce- lack application. In a seventy-eight-page opinion of procedural fairness. The "new dures, and a formal record developed by commission's" emphasis on due process and final order the SCC .iwarded the relatively few parties (when compared to the seems to have quieted most of these company $148 millionmuch less than number of those potentially affected). The Vepco had concerns, but regulation in Virginia is now a sought, much more than facts that the contesting partiescan rgree more complicated, lengthy, and expensive consumer groups had proposed, and a little upon the issues and that the commissioners activity than ever before. There is also the less then the SCC staff had recommended. hear many of the same arguments incase As in all major rate cases, the regulators dilemma of the staff's role, a problem that after case simplify things considerably. apparently did not trouble the old commis- affirmed certain precedents, set or reversed It woi2d appear from this description that sion. The desire to make the best use of the a few, and created policythat would the commissioners are relatively passive undoubtedly influence numerous staff's expertise may conflict with the desire cases in decision makers relying upon others to to provide equal access to all parties. Su the future. (For instance, the judges adopted initiate cases, gather information, define trade-offs are not peculiar to Virgil a version of the hi ,tonic test year method; issues, and develop arguments. How, then, but they also made some "forward-looking" indeed, they appear to be inherent in the do the commissioners direct the organiza- regulatory process. The way in whicha adjustments to correct for certain predict- tion and how does innovation take place? able cost increases ar particular commission resolves them can the door open for Direction comes from several sources: the have a major influence on the nature of a possible change in method in later years.) opinions of the commissioners in earlier regulation in a state.

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Entered as second-class matter (SEWS J. Charlottesville, Virginia L E T T E R

0G4i027i) *: Etstoricstralmtaiskek.,pi....ra- Assistant EdWx/SsindraWilltinetit:*4 : Published Odi motharan SeptinibieNallehi. Augoby the instidaleeiGovernmont.LhWonicn-. Chadettewilb.VIrsilie mastrivia4 and oniony estrowentlorein: we -frwerwi,the . outherandseettot bbabbottregoolooreg=lti theacidwindon of 16 &oblationor the Entered es weaMtleowetterJorerwyZ 1925;at 1 the TOR olio at Owtottesvilik Vininktellheaho:: actTAR ak Int 0 1963 by The Rector ,and ?the; lhivenity of ViryYrw . POW by the Urbanity Printing ONce.:', THE UNIVERSITY of' VIRGINIA VOL. 58. NO. I

This News Letter was reproduced with permission frum the Institute of Government, Ur ,arsity of Virginia.

VIRGINIA'S LOCAL EXECUTIVECONSTITUTIONAL OFFICERS IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE By Stanley A. Cook

Mr Cook is a research assistant on the staff of she mostpowerbilfigureinEnglishlocal Institute of Government. the peace, who collectively constituted the government. Appointed by the King, not county courts.' In a revision of the laws .1 In common parlance in Virginia, the term only was he in charge of law enforcement but 1661, the Assembly directed that one of the "constitutional officers" refers to a set of five alsohea iministeredroyalproperties, members of the county courts should be elected local officials specifically designated presided o% er the shire court, and collected sheriff on a rotating one-year basis. Thereaf- in the state constitution: sheriffs, commis- taxes.Th sheriffacquiredadditional ter, the sheriff was usually the ranking justice sioners of revenue, treasurers, court clerks, powers in the early years of Norman rule, but of the peace who previously had not held the and commonwealth's attorneys. Ast:.e thecombinationofpowerandthe office. Generally, he would serve for a year heads of more or less independent depart- opportunity for financial gain apparently led or, if his term was renewed (as it frequently ments. they provide administrative services to widespread abuses. As a consequence, a was), for two years. to the state and to their respective localities. series of measures, including some provi- During colonial times, sheriffs were not Historically, the number of local constitu- sicis of the Magna Carta, were instituted in only law enforcement officers and court tional offices and the responsibilities as- the thirteenth century that diminished the executive officers, but also finance officers signed to them have varied greatly from one authority of sheriffs. In the centuries that and election supervisors. As law enforce- era to another. For example, the offices of followed, the office gradually declined in ment officials, besides generally maintaining county coroner and of constable were importance until by the end of the nineteenth the oeace, they pursued fugitives, arrested established by the 1776 constitution but were century the sheriffs role in England had been offenders, cared for prisoners, and executed omitted from later constitutions. And not reduced to that of being an executive officer orders and sentences of the courts, the until 1870 were the cities' counterparts to for the courts. Assembly, and the King. During the French county constitutional offices given recogni- and Indian wars, they also were charged with tion in the state's fundamental document, Colonial Period. Sheriffs appeared in summoning county draft boards, composed although some of them already ocisted on Virginia with the establishment of shires Ci of militia officers and one justice of the the basis of statutory and municipal charter counties in 1634. Prior to that time, the role peace. In their role as county executive provisions. of sheriffintheVirginia colony was officers, sheriffs attended sessions of county This news letter examines the origin and performed by the provost-marshall, whose court in order to assist the justices, they development of each of the present five local duties, in contrast to English sheriffs of the summoned witnesses and jurors, and they constitutional offices in Virginia; a later time, apparently were confinedto law served writs and subpoenas. issuewill report data on some of the enforcement and to summoning soldiers and characteristics and political experience of citizens in general to assist in the suppression contemporary officeholders. Because the of uprisings. A principal institution et local government, the county courts office of sheriff is one of the oldest of the set The colony's first sheriffs were appointed exercised importsnt executive and legislative powers, in addition to their judicial responsibilities: for more than two hundred yam, being consideredhere,and because some of by the governor and his Privy Council. they exercised a major influence in Virginia affairs. Sec Stinky A. itspowers and duties were eventually Within a short time, however, thegovernor Cook. "The Role of Judges to Virginia Local Government: A reassigned to newer offices such as treasurer and Council began to select the sheriff from a Historical Overview' University of nryinia News Letter. June and commissioner of revenue, the sheriffs list of candidates submitted by the justices of 1911. office is discussed first and most fully. This issue marks a change in editor for theUniversity of Virginia News Letter. SHERIFF Clifton McCleskey is leaving his position as editor of the News Letter and director of English Heritage. The forerunner of the Institute of Government to devote full time to teaching in the Department of today's sheriff originated in pre-Norman Government and Foreign Affairs at the University of Virginia. Mr. McCleskey has England, near the end of the tenth century, been the editor since SepteMber 1973; this is the final issue to be completed ruder his when the office of King's reeve appeared. .editorial direction. Early in the next century, the position Under Mr. McCleskey's able guidance, the News Lett'r has continued its tradition became known as the scirgerefaor shire- of providing thoughtful and informative discussions of tne public affairs in Virginia. reeve, from which the title of sheriff was Moreover, his commitment to good writing has made the News Letter's clear and derived. direct style a hallmark of his tenure as editor. In the years before the Norman Conquest The new editor is James A. (Dolph) Norton, who also succeeJs Mr. McCleskeyas in 1066. the sheriff was given a wide range of director of the Institute of Government. responsibilities, making him perhaps the

INSTITUTE OF GOVERNMENT I UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA I CHARLOTTESVILLE ISEPTEMBER 1981 187 2

From the time that the office of sheriff first they obtained these fees or not, they could be of communication and the inability ofmuch appeared in the colony, sheriffs playeda held liable for the amounts due to the other major role in financial affairs. Sometimes of the populace to read the existingones. officals. For all types of collections, sheriffs widespread ignorance undoubtedly existed their duties involved the listing of taxable were required to he bonded. They could property or people (assessment), but more among the general population about what distrain and sell property tosecure payment. often it took the form of actually collecting the correct fees were, despite an Assembly although this power did notszem to be act requiring the county courts or clerks to and distributing the taxes or other fees and invoked in regard to quit rents, for which assessments. This responsibilityfor tax publish tables of the approved rates. collections normally were taken in the form Owing in no small part to its funding by collection. which continued well intothe of tobacco. For all of thetaxis and various nineteenth century. was a source of recurring fees, the position of sheriff in the colonialera fees except the county levy of the polltax, the problems. was customarily a lucrative one. Along with sheriffs responsibility endedonce collec- its power and prestige, this characteristic Until the requirements of the Revolution tions had been made and conveyedto the made it normally a highly desired office. forced major changes in the tax -ystem, the appropriate official and a proper accounting although an unfavorable relationship be- sheriff collected two principal taxes: the quit had been rendered. In the case of thecounty tween the value of tobacco 'and the fee rent and the poll tax. The quit rent was a tax levy, however, the sheriff had the additional schedule set by 'he Assembly sometimes on land, payable to the King. Sheriffs found task of distributing to each official men- diminished its .attractiveness (as did.per- quit rents difficult to collect, in part because tioned in the levy the sum assessedon his haps. Assembly acts prohibiting sheriffs people particularly resented paying the tax behalf, and then accounting for his disburse- from serving as clerks or burgesses). Some of on uncultivated land and commonly under- ments to the county justices. the colony's foremost citizens at estimatedtheir one time or holdingscultivatedor another served as sheriffs, including such otherwisewhen the sheriff came aroundto A final important activity of the sheriff in colonial Virginia was the management of peopleas BenjaminHarrison,George obtain payment. Even when the sheriff Maser'. John Page. Laurence Washington. obtained the rents, he sometimes didnot elections for the county's two members of the House of Burgesses (settled communities dohn Chstis. William Ball, John Taliaferro, transmit them to colonial authorities. The and Hancock Lee. Assembly reacted tothiscondition by such as Jamestown. Williamsburg, and moving the forum for lawsuits to compel. Noriolk had an additional seat).After ThePost-Revolutionarygheriff. The settlement from thecounty courtsto receiving the governor's writ orderingan election, the sheriff would set a time for the office of sheriff was little altered by the 1776 Williamsburg and by increasing the collec- Constitution and the Revolutionary period tion fee from 4 percent to 6 percent. election, perhaps bearing in mind what date might best serve the interests of the candi- statutes, except in the area of revenues. Sheriffs also collected (and 'sometimes dates he backed. Typically, it Under the new constitution. the method of assessed) the poll tax, the chiefsource of was several weeks in the future and on a day that the appointment continued as before. By act of revenue until the Revolutionary years. It the Assembly, the assessment of taxeswas consisted of three parts: the public levy, county court was scheduled to meet. The sheriff then would publicize the date through transferred from the county court justicesto assessed by the General Assembly for the commissioners of the tax, predecessors of expenses of the colony; the county levy, set such means as posting public notices, having the ministers of parishes in the county our contemporary commissioners of rev- h, the county courts for suchexpenses as apprise their congregations, and going door- enue. The sheriffs were to account monthly roads, buildings, and burgesses' salaries; and to the commissioners for all funds collected. the parish levy, fixed by the vestry for to-door in person or by deputy and inform- ing the inhabitants. By this time, payment of taxes and feeswas support of the church and the poor. At first generally by money instead of tobacco. The these lew:f.s applied to all males, free or slave, By tradition and legal requirement,the uncertainties and hardships associated with over sixteen.In the middle 1600s the election normally was held at thecottnty the Revolutionary War impededrevenue coverage was revised for males and was courthouse and was presided over by the collections, however. Not onlywere state extended to females if theywere either sheriff. Usually, elections would be finished and local governments' finances placed in imported Negroes or Indian servants ofat in one day and the results publiclyconfirmed grave condition but also sheriffs' commis- least sixteen years; later, the cri:criawere by the sheriff before most of the participants sions were sharply curtailed, making the revised again to include all males sixteen and returned to their homes. The sheriff would position substantially less attractive. over and all Indian, mulatto, ant. Negro then certify the outcome to the colonial In 1818. the General Assembly instituted women sixteen and above who were not free. secretary's office. major revisions in the election laws,some of Originally, the sheriff was to prepare a list which affected sheriffs. Perhaps themost of taxpayers or tithables, based on info-ma- While sheriffs received a small salary fora important of the changes was the creation of tion provided to him by planters. However, certain portion of 'their duties, for the most election commissioners, to he appointed by for a variety of reasons, that procedure part they were paid in fees. The fee system the county courts, with each voting station createdseveral proved unsatisfactory. and the Assembly in problems.Becausethe having five. Their duties, which included medium of exchange was generally tobacco, the middle 1600s transferred the responsibil- passing on the qualifications ofvoters. for which the market value fiuctuatet:, fees ity for compiling the tax rolls to thecounty resembled those of today's registrars. The had to be revised periodically. The charge for courts. Sheriffs alon occasion were fount establishment of election commissionerswas not to be sufficiently prompt or thorough in an arrest, for example, could vary from one a significant inroad into the sheriffs' elector- toten pour ds of tobacco. A second collecting the poll taxes, to the extent of al powers and signaled the beginning ofa impairing the public credit. The Assembly difficultychar Iteristic in one fashionor process that would in time remove sheriffs responded to this deficiency in 164i by another of fee sysi,:ms even in modern from involvement in elections. authorizing county courts to appoint special timeswas that sheriffs tended to direct An important shiftin the procedure collectors. However, the degree that the law their labors to duties for which theywere according to which sheriff.: nandled revenue was implemented varied with the year and best compensated, in the process neglecting was accomplished by an 1829 law requiring the county, and by the end of the century the less financially rewarding responsibilities. sheriffs to turn over to the state all themoney To counter this tendency, the Assemblyat sheriff had been generally reestablishedas that they collected. The state would then the tax collector. times instructed sheriffs to give priorityto transfer the localities' shares to them. This some of their less remunerative tasks. The differed from the long established practice of In addition to the quit rents and poll taxes. chief trouble with the sheriffs' use of the fee having sheriffs pay local funds directly tathe sheriffs also gathered fees for the colonial system in the colonial days seems to have officers and other local officials. Whether counties. The 1830 Constitution itself only been overcharging. With few printed means minimally touched sheriffs, mainly in the 188 3

method of selection. Whereas previouslythe the local governments. The Commonwealth that was allocated mop thanone commis- county courts' nominations for the office would provide two-thirds of the salaries, sionerbeingpartitionedintodistricts. had required approval by thegovernor in with the balance furnished by the respective Commissioners were to maintaina tax book, consultation with the Privy Council, under localities. (For counties operating under one visit each person sub!ectto taxation. and the new document they needed onlythe of the optional forms, salaries would be set under oath secure a record of his taxable governor's acquiescence, since the Council by the board of supervisors withinstatutory property. had been abolished. After interviewingall of the limitations.) Under recently enactedlegisla- inhabitants of their communities, they T: state's constitutiot of 1851was the were tion, however, the statenow pays the entire to compiL four duplicatelists of the result of many years of efforts by reformers salary of sheriffs, both city and county. property in their districts or counties. While (helped inthis instance by the tide of In cities and counties in which police retaining one copy for themselves, theywere Jacksonian democracy spreadingacross departments have been established, much of the country) to democratize the to send one to the clerk for determining the principal role of sheriffs is that ofcourt Virginia local government. Members of county levy, one to the gl eriff for guiding the executive officer. although they andtheir him in his tax collections, and county courts, including sheriffs and certain one to the deputies retain all of their legalpowers and state solicitor for evidence of taxes due from otherlocalofficials,were now tobe duties as law enforcement officials.Duties the sheriff. Fcr their work. the commission- popularly elected. Unlike the other officials, related to their role as officer ofthe court the sheriff could serve no ers received a per diem salary. Later, they more than two include attending court sessions, providing also would be paid fees. successive two-year terms; and both whilein security for the courtroom and courthouse, As the number of people and items subject office and for one year following histerms, summoning juries and witnesses,transpor- to taxation rose and government budgets he could hold no other posts. The factthat ting criminal defendants to and from the jail expanded. the importance of commissioners these last two restrictions appiied onlyto the and the court, serving and returning civil of revenue increased. In 1851 they acquired sheriff, out of a tot; f ofseven officers, process, and executing judgments. In locali- cr-astitutionalstature,being among the undoubtedly reflemd dissatisfaction with ties where police departments havenot been the general performance ofthose in that county officers enumerated in that year's established, sherls remain the chief law constitution. Under its terms. they office. The 1870 Constitution did relaxthese were to be enforcement officers, affording protectionto elected for two years. and the number of restrictions somewhat, makingthe sheriff's the citizenry, pursuing offenders, making commissioners per county was to be decided term for three years (extended to fouryears arrests, and operating jails. shortly thereafter) and removing the prohi- by statute. The office appearedinthe municipalities the followingyear, when bition on the number of terms he couldserve. COMMISSIONER OF REVENUE -voters in Richmond, Norfolk, and several The legislature divested sheriffs of their As noted earlier, the responsibility fortax remaining electoral other municipalities began to elect commis- responsibilities soon assessments was transferred from the sheriffs after adoption of the 1851 Constitution, sioners of revenue. to the county courts in the mid-1600s. At The 1870 Constitution did not include the assigning authority for management ofmost first. the court justices delegated the assign- elections to the previously created election commissioner of revenue as a county officer, ment to special appointees, while lateron though the commissioner was listed commissioners, with assistance fromoffi- among they themselves assumed the task. Under the the new municipal officers to be elected for cials selected by the countycourts. Then, latter arrangement, the countieswere di- an unspecifiedterm. when the 1870 document created thenew Even though the vided into precincts, with a justice incharge commissioners of revenue were not, for office of county treasrer, sherifa alsolost each. a a time at least. among the county constitution- the rest of their fiscal duties, which untilthen During the Revolution, however, the need al officers, they were continued via had included collection, custody, and distri- for increased taxes placed statute. an intolerable They were to be appointed by the auditorof bution of state and localrevenue. burden on the system of having justices make public accounts for oneyear, with the The 1870 Constitution gave signilcant assessments. As an alternative, the Assembly number per county ranging fromone to recognition to municipalgovernment, in- providedfor commissioners of tax. As three.If a county had more thanone cluding an enumeration of officers (some orig rally constituted, these commissioners commissioner, each of them would represent already created by statute) generallyparallel were to be elected annually, three per county. to those of the counties. Among these a district: these districts wcrc to be laid off by was They were todivide the counties into tht county court. In addition the city sergeant, to be elected fortwo years, districts, choosing two people for to sharing each assessing with assessors in the newly created with duties comparable to those ofa sheriff. district to be assessors. The assessors were townships, commissionerswere to issue all togetherto 'sit The Modem Office, By each person in their licenses mandated by law. 1875, as a territory, (NA:ling under oatha list of consequence of accumulated constitutional An amendment adopted in 1874 restored taxable property, fixing a valueon each and statutory changes, most of the basic to commissioners their status as constitu- class, determining the tax due, and giving tional officers. They were to be elected for characteristics of the modern Virginia sheriff each owner a statement of his taxes. Upon were in place: a person elected for four years four years. with the numberper county completion of their work, theassessors were to serve as a la ./ enforcement officer andas determined by the legislature, andwere to be to present their findings to commissioners of compensated primarily through fees. The an executive officer of the court. The tax for review. Dissatisfied citizens could essential features of the office have been same amendment ended the short-lived appeal assessors' decisions to the commis- township system, which had decentralized altered little by twentieth century develop- sioners. ments. The ban on holding more than one some of the responsibility for real and After experimenting with several varia- personal property assessment. office has been extended to make all of the tions of the assessment procedure under local offices specified in Article VII of Dissatisfaction with the performance of the commissioners of tax, the Assembly in 1786 1971 Constitution mutually exclusive. That commissioners of revenue, particularly with created commissioners of revenue. Though regard to the quality of assessments, led same article applied the label "sheriff" to the methods for selecting and compensating to considerable debate about the officeat the office previously called "city sergeant." them have changed over the years, commis- The old tradition of compensating sheriffs 1901-02 constitutional convention. When sioners of revenue today have duties similar the convention could not agreeon whether largely through fees was finally ended in to those of their original predecessors. By the 1942 (except in a few minor instances). In commissioners (bothcounty andcity) 1786 act, commissioners were to be appoin- should be elected or appointed, it left place of fees, sheriffs as well as citysergeants ted by the county courts. Depending the were paid upon decision to the Assemblywith salaries Exed by the State the size of the county involved, the number the proviso Compensation Board in consultation with that if that body were to opt for election, varied from one to three, with eachcounty commissioners would not be ableto succeed 189 4

thernsches. In :mother decision. the conven- latter to the state treasurer: they also were to and as general record preservers for the tion decided that each city would have one pay warrants properly issued by county or commissioner. but that the number for counties. In the first category, they kept circuit court judges or by county boards of minutes of court proceedings, filed docu- counties would he determined by the Assem- supervisors. For these activities, they were ments associated with actions before the bly. requiredtogive bond, and they were The Assembly vacillated in its exercise of courts, prepared dockets. probated wills, compensated via commissions. and issued writs, summons, and this potter. It initially chose election, making processes. A record of arrears and defaults, coupled As the county record commissioners ineligible for a consecutive preservers, they with irregularities in accounts. made the registered deeds. wills, contracts, liens, and second term. Then in 1906 the legislature position of treasurer another focus of other papers. and they stored infornationon providefor appointment of commissioners controversy at the 1901-02 constitutional b., local judges. Two years later. it reversed births. deaths, marriages, election results, contention. Many delegates to the conven- and other vital statistics. As the county itself again and declared that the commis- tionfeltthat thereal condition of a sioners should be elected. The issue finally courts developed into institutir.ts of general treasurer's office was never known until his government, exercising administrative and was resolved by the people in 1910, when books were turned over to his successor. In they approved a proposed amendment that legislative functions in addition to judicial support of this view, they cited evidence that ones, the clerks assisted the courts in their county commissioners should be elected and major defaults were assoc' .ed with long new nonjudicial responsibilities. For in- allowed to succeed themselves. Two years tenure, and that deficits accu.aulated gradu- stance, in 1670 clerks were delegated the task later, voters took the same action with ally over a long period while treasurers were of issuing marriage licenses; this activity respect to city commissioners of revenue. collecting popularity instead of taxes. After A 1928 constitutional amendment pro- previously had been handled by the senior much discussion, the convention decided justices. vided that each county was to have one that treasurers should not be elected or serve For most of the seventeenth century, commissioner. the same as provided for for more than two consecutive terms of four cities. Then in 1932 the Assembly passed the clerks were compensated through fees at years each, nor should they act as deputy to rates established by the General Assembly, legislationallowingcountiesto adopt their immediate successors. 'Th est.. restric- although other fees might be established by optional forms of government; in a county tionswere removed byconstitutional the county courts. As with sheriffs, there adopting one of these optional forms, the amendment about ten years later. offices of commissioner of revenue and were problems with clerks overcharging for In the middle 1930s, the General Assembly their services. The Assembly responded by treasurer would be replaced by a department enacted laws on two subjects pertaining to ordering clerks to publicize their Cates and by of finance. Only a few counties have chosen treasurers. Under the Optional Forms Acid to use this alternative. imposing a sizeable fine for takit g in excess 1932, already discussed, counties could of %vim the law permitted. Commissioners of revenue traditionally adopt an alternative fr of government in Although fees provided ample incomes for had been compensated through per diem which the offices of arer and commis- most clerks, especially those in '.ounties with payments. commissions and fees, or some sioner of revenue would be abolished in a substantial amount of legal ousiness, clerks combination of these. However, legislation favor of a department of finance. In 1932 and did have additional sources of income. Some in I932 and 1934 abolished the feesystem for 1934, through the same legislation that commissioners and some other constitution- acted as attorneys, and until 1658 they could applied to commissioners of revenue, the fee even practice before their own courts. On al officers as well. The new arrangementwas system was repealed in favor of salaries at occasion, clerks also held other income- . the same as that adopted for the sheriffs: levels set by the State Compensation Board, producing offices. Toward the end of the commissioners were to be paid salaries to be paid joint:y by the state.and loe.alities. seventeenth century, clerks were paid sala- determined by the State Compensation While in matters of elections and methods Board. The Commonwealth would provide ries for official duties not compensated by of compensation today's treasurers differ fees. one -third of these salaries, and the remain- somewhat from their original predecessors, der would be furnished by the respective The termination of colonial status signifi- they arc relatively the same with respect to cantly affected the Virginia county clerks. counties and cities. their duties. Treasurers are elected for four Thus. by the middle 1930s, the office of Beginning in the spring of 1774, much of years and are paid by salary, now equally their work ceased as a byproduct of the commissioner of revenue had taken its proportioned between the state and the struggle between the last royalgovernor, contemporary shape. Each city and county respective locality. As in the last century, Lord Dunmore, and the colonial legislature has one commissioner, elected for four years r principal responsibility remains the and paid by salary. The commissioner that Dunmore prorogued in Aptil 1774. collection, custody, and distribution of That action precluded the Assembly from maintains real and personal property tax public funds. renewing the last fee act, which had been books, sometimes assessing real estateas COURT CLERK well. In addition, the commissioner assesses enacted in 1745. Without legally collectible While clear evidence is lacking, court fees, many of the clerks' activities stopped. In tangible personal property and determines clerks probably originated in 1619 with the license taxes. Under either the Optional the fall of 1777, the Assembly reconvened establishmentof monthly courts,fore- Forms Act of 1932 or provisions of the 1971 and reenacted the fee law. During the runners of the long enduring county courts. interval, Constitution. the position can be eliminated. Virginia had adopteditsfirst At first they were appointed by the royal constitution. Under that 1776 document, TREASURER governor, but in the middle 1600s that appointment of clerks was returned to the responsibility was transferred to the county The office of treasurer, though not nearly county courts. They were to hold office courts. Still later in the century, the power of during good behavior, as determined by the so old as that of commissioner of revenue, selection was given to the colonial secretary, has paralleled the latter in its development General Court, one of the state'stwo who retainedituntiltheRevolution. supreme courts. over thelast century or so. The 1870 Characteristically, an appointee came from a During the first half of the nineteenth Constitution created the office of treasurer distinguished family, in a number ofcases century, the Commonwealth edged toware to collect, maintain custody of, and disburse succeeding a family member or a close rne major change of its local government public revenue, all duties tint previously had relative, and had a long tenure. These structure that was accomplished in the 1851 been performed by the sheriff's. Treasurers features were associated with the clerk's were to be elected for three years (shortly Constitution: however, little changeoc- office for many decades, in some communi- curred in the office of clerk during this thereafter changed to four years). They were ties even into modern times. period. Occasionally, county to receive county leviei and state taxes, court clerks From their earliest days, clerks acted as would hold simultaneously another clerk- depositing the former locally and sending the recorders for the courts in judicial matters ship for one of the local district, superior,or 5

circuit baches that existed during this equally as far. Where there has been a an 1870 statute, attorneys were made legal period and would draw income from both noticeable break with tradition is in the area advisers to the recently established county positions. Clerks also took on naturalization of management. In the past. clerks at tin._: hoards of supervisors. Beginning in 1877 and of alicns.';n one of their activities. The 1830 became so involved with their duties for continuing. with an interruption from 1884 Constitution provided that the tenure of hoards of supervisors and the administration to 1887. unit 1928. commonwealth's attor- clerks he set by law. Pursuant to that of county affairs that they sometimes seemed neys in counties served as members of the provision. the legislature established a term to be de facto county manager. As a selection body for school boards ("school of seen years. with indefinite eligibility for consequence of legislation such as the trustee electoral boards"). After experimen- reappointment. OptionalForms Act andthe County ntion with shorter periods, a four-year term The democratization of local governme:u Administrators Act. however. clerks, with a of office for commonwealth's attorneys in thr occurred inthe1851Constitution Yew exceptions, have been largely divorced counties was set in 1874, though not for affected the clerks along with the other from general administration. those in cities until 1902. constitutional officers. County ;rks, in- The current ustntury has brought some COMMONWEALTH'S ATTORNEY stead of being appointed by county court alteration in the method of pay and the scope justices. were to be popularly elected for a Although the position of commonwealth's of duties for commonwealth's attorneys. In six-year term (kmger than that for most of attorney was not established until after the 1934. the General Assembly eliminated the the other officers). Circuit courts were to Revolution, its American antecedents go fee system for attorneys and designated the have their own clerks. also elected for six hack at least to the middle 1600s. to the post State Compensation Board tofixtheir years. with duties confined to the judicial of King's attoiney. The holder of that office salaries. except in counties using one of the operations of thosc courts. was charged with prosecuting all cases, civil optional forms of government, where their The 1870 Constitution made county and criminal. in which an alleged offense compensation would be determined by the (court) clerks also the clerks of the circuit been committed against the public. Ordinar- board of supervisors. Initially half of the courts in counties of less than15,000 ily.he was appointed by the colonial commonwealth's attorneys' salaries were to population. In cities of ies: than 30,000. the attorney gene:,with one person being be paid by the state, but more recent corporation or hustings court' clerks served designated King's attorney for each county. legislation provides for full funding by the also as clerks of the circuit coons. Counties In a few cases, he was chosen by the local state. In recent years, the Assembly. with and cities above the indicated populations county court justices. some exceptions, has transfermd the respon- could have separate cleaK,. for the circuit By the early 1700s, the power of appoint- sibility for representing the ;oval governing courts. ing prosecuting attorneys, the former King's body in civil matters from the common- The 1870 Constitution created county attorneys, had been assumed by the gover- wealth's attorney to the county or city boards of supervisors, who received some of nor, who named an attorney for each county. attorney. appointed by the local governing the administrative and legislative powers Prosecuting attorneys were consideresi to be body. formerly assigned to the county courts. An deputies to the attorney general. The cases At present. commonwealth's attorneys are 1870 statute made county court clerks ex- they prosecuted in the county courts would primarily involvedwith enforcement of 0 officio clerks to the boards of supervisors, a be pursued by the attorney generalif criminal lawinthnr jurisdictions./n role similar to that which the clerks had appealed to the higher courts. In addition to counties having fewer wan 15,000 residents performed when they assisted the county handling prosecutions, attorneys were to or in counties and cities having a joint courts in their nonjudicial functions. They report to the colonial secretary all fines criminal justice system with a combined keptminutesof theboards,recorded imposed by the county courts. population of less than 15,000. they also decisions and votes of the boards, signed Commonwealth's attorneys were created represent the community in civil law affairs. warrants issued for payments of money and in 1788 as part of an act providing for district unless the county has appointed a county recorded reports by treasurers on receipts courts. Under that legislation, the state's attorney. and disbursements of funds, andfiled attorney general was empowered to appoint accounts acted on by the boards. "proper persons to prosecute for the Com- CONCLUSION At the constitutional convention of monwealth" in the courts that he was unable This brief review of thehistory and 1901 -02. the major action regarding to attend himself. At the beginning of the development of the present constitutional clerks was to extend their terms from six to nineteenth century, the district and county offices in Virginia has highlighted a process eight years. a practice that has prevailed to courts were authorized to select attorneys to through whict .hanging ideas about govern- the present. For counties, the clerks also prosecute on bd.-zit' of the state in those mental accountability and changing respon- would be clerks of the circuit courts. In cities Courts. sibilities of 10 al government led to gradual having a court of record, there would be a According to a law enacted in1819, redefinition of le major offices of cities and clerk for that court. The General Assembly commonwealth's attorneys were permitted counties. The present scope of the constitu- could prescribe additional clerks of courts= for circuit courts and required for county tional offices bears the heavy imprint of long as no city under 30.000 people had more and corporation (city) courts. They were to Jacksonian theory that officers in charge of than one clerk. That individual was to be the be appointe? by the respective courts for the most important services of government clerk for all courts of record in the city. four-year terms. They would be compensat- should be made directly accountable to the Unlit other constitutional officers, clerks ed through fees, although counties could citizenry through popular election. The still are compensated largely by fees. Some supplement these by an allowance of not continued existence of these elective offices, localities supplement these with salarit, !n a more than 5100. ere in localities that could take action to few instances, such as communities oper- In 1851, the commonwealth's attorneys abolish them, may be a testamei,to the ating under the county executive or county achieved constitutional status. The 1851 political and administrative effectiv,..tess of manager optional form, clerks arc paid Constitutionprovided thatcommon- those who fill these offices. although that is exclusively by salary. a wealth's attorneys be e:eeted to four-year point beyond the scope of this news letter. It Viewed in terms of functions, today's terms. At least one attorney was elected in may also be a reflection of the attraction that clerks in some respects are a continuation of each county, to serve both county and circuit the Jacksonian principle of ..ccountability long established practice. As clerks of the courts. Where a circuit court existed for a through election still holds for many ofus, in circuit courts. they perform tasks similar to city ana county, however, a second spite ofor because of?the prevalence of those identified with court recorders from attorney was chosen by 'county voters for the bureaucratic model, with its emphasison early colonial times onward. In intaining that court. replacing elected administrators with profes- general records for a commur :hey are During the 1870s several changes in the sionals chosen by and responsible to elected engaging in an activitythat goes back law affected commonwealth's attorneys. By policymakers. 1 0 1 6

SUBJECT INDEX, VOLUME 57

ELECTIONS-VOTING BEHAVIOR GEOGRAPHY MEDIA The 1980 Election: Understanding the The Geography of Virginia, James W. Virginia's Capitol Press Corps, John T. Reagan Victory in Virginia, David B. Fonseca,vol.57,no.II(July Whelan, vol. 57, no. 6 (February 1981), Magleby, vol. 57, no. 7 (March 1981), 1981). pp. 41-44. pp. 21-24. Mistakenly issued as vol. 58, pp. 25-28. no. 6.

The 1980-81 Virginia General Assem- REGIONALISM bly,Robert J. Austin and Bernard INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS Caton, vol.57, no.12 (August TheFrostbelt-SunbelControversy, 1981), pp. 45-48. Managing Federal Grants in the City of Timothy G. O'Rourke, vol. 57, no. 8 Richthond, Donald F. Kettl, vol. 57, no. (April 1981). pp. 29-32. 2 (October 1980), pp. 5-8. ENVIRONMENT Hazardous and Toxic Waste Disposal, John Gilmour, vol. 57, no. 1 (September 1980), pp.1-4. LOCAL GOVERNMENT The County Tie Breaker in Virginia, Virginia's Climate, Bruce P. Hayien Mary Jo Fields, vol. 57, no. 9 (May and Patrick Michaels, vol. 57, no. 5 1981), pp. 33-36. (January 1981), pp. 17-20. Municipal Electric Utility Systems in FINANCE-TAXATION Virginia, Michael F. Digby, vol. 57, no. 4 (December 1980), pp. 13-16. The Movement to Limit Government Spendingin American States and The Role of Judges in Virginia Local Localities, 1970-1979, David B. Ma- Government: A Historical Overview, gleby, vol. 57, no. 3 (November 1980), Stanley A. Cook, vol. 57, no. 10 (June pp9-12. 1981), pp. 37-40.

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Entered as second-class matter Charlottesville. Virginia

192 THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

roe VOL. 58, NO. 9

This News Letterwas reproduced with permission from theInstitute of Government, Universityof Virginia. fib

Virginia's Local ExecutiveConstitutional Officers: A Contemporary Profile By Timothy G. O'Rourke andGeorge Asimos, Jr.

Mr. CY Rourhe it a research associate and Mr. recorder for the board of supervisors. The "filmic a graduate assistant on thestaffortheInstituteof peculiar to Virginia's local governments. Government. commonwealth's attorney is responsible for According to the 1977 Census of Govern- the prosecution of violations of criminal law ments (vol. 1, no. 2), for instance, sheriff's, Each of the counties and ;Wes in Virginia, within a city or county.' clerks or recorders, and prosecuting attor- with the exceptions described below, is Undoubtedly. some students of local neys were elected either by county or judicial served by five elected "constitutional offi- government regard these offices as modern district in about nine out of every ten states; day anachronisms that surdive in spite cers," so named because they are provided of counties in nearly two-thirds of thestates for under Article VII, Section 4 of the state important changes in the duties associated elected treasurers or tax collectors; and with these positions.2 The traditional law constitution. These five officersare sheriff, counties in more than half of thestates commissioner of the revenue, treasurer, enforcement responsibilities formerlycar- elected either assessors or revenue commis- circuit court clerk, and commonwealth's ried out by the sheriff, for example, largely sioners. attorney. Although there are ninety-five have been preempted by police departments counties and forty-one cities in Virginia, the in a number of cities and in theCommon- To a considerable extent, the fact that number of positions for each category of wealth's most heavily urbanized counties. various local executive officersare elected in constitutional office is less than 136, in part The view that local constitutional officers Virginia and elsewhere reflects the impor- because a number of smaller cities share the are dated, however, does not.rest solelyon tance traditionally attached to the duties of offices of clerk, s heriff, and commonwealth's the changing character of theformal theseoffices.Stanley A. Cook inthe attorney with the counties in which they are responsibilities of these positions. This view September 1981 News Letter examined in located. Moreover. under special provisions reflects as well the thinking of twentieth detail the historical evolution of the five of law, four counties and one city have century Progressive reformers that executive constitutional offices in Virginia. This News replaced the offices of treasurer and commis- authority ought to be brought under the Letter attempts to provide a profile of sioner of the revenue with an appointed control of a single executive,as in the constitutional officers in mid-1981, giving director of finance; a second city has council-manager plan for example, and that special attention to the characteristics of the abolished the commissioner's office alone. various executive offices be made subjectto persons who filled these offices and to the In brief, the sheriff is a locality's chief law the appointive control of the chief executive. electoral process through which the office- enforcement officer (unless the locality has Thus, the prescription of the Progressive holders had reached these positions. The established a police department), custodian model both for administrative centralization analysis first presents brief portraits of each group of constitutional officers and then of its jail, and process server for itscourts. and for the short ballot (which would make The commissioner of the revenue is responsi- only the most visible and significant public summarizes the significant features of the ble for the preparation, of a locality's real offices elective) has reinforced the tendency electoral landscape for constitutional offi- estate and personal property tax books and /toseethe contemporaryconstitutional ces. The News Letter then looks briefly at the ' offices as a throwback to relationship between local governing bodies bills, for the assessment of personalproperty an era. and constitutional officers and concludes and various business taxes, and insome Whatever the merits of the Progressive localities for the assessment of real estate. view, the persistence of the constitutional with some final observations aboUt thecosts and benefits of electing officers. The treasurer "is charged with the collection, offices in Virginia suggests that theycon- custody, and disbursement of [city or] tinue to enjoy considerable popular and officialsupport in The principal source of data for the profile county funds." The circuit court clerk addition to a long is a mail questionnaire survey of constitu- tradition. Such elective officesare hardly maintains the records of proceedings in tional officers conducted during thesummer circuit court, is responsible for the registra- of 1981. Although nearly three-fourths of all tion of various legal documents suchas Maxis Mx.haw. The Vicvnia Colony Supervisor's Manual.4th constitutional officers responded to the deeds and wills, and in some counties actsas ed. rev. (Charlowesvilk: Virginia Association of Counties andthe survey, the questionnaires have been aug- Instituteof Government.I9132). pp. 33-35. The duties of The authnci milt to acknoidedge the atnitanre of the Virginia mented wherever possible by additional constitutional officers. as described here. admit to some variation. State Shettfli' Association. the Commisuoma of the Revenue depending on special statutory provisions and local data, such as complete rosters and official AISOCH1111.1 of Viegonta, the Trem.aere Association of Virgtnta. arrangement. 2 Sea. tot example. Celestine Bohlen. "Virginia Slowly Outgrows election returns, that permit one to drawa and the Vuginia Giant Coins Clerk' Association in At conduct Its County Fiscal0flicers." The Washington Post. Jan.3.1982. of the mod smemonnaue surer dricalted in tha ankle, pp. more comprehensive picture for all officers, BI, B2. nonrespondents as well as respondents. INSTITCTI, fir GOVERNI1E.:"F UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA CHARLOTTESVILLE, MAY 1982

.1. 9J SHERIFFS commissioners of the revenue in 1981 were more infrequently than for sheriff and All but two of Virginia's 125 sheriffs in women; one commissioner was black. The commissioner. Seventy-six percent of re- 1981 were white males? Among the 87 average age of the119 commissioners sponding treasurers had never faced serious sheriffs who responded to the mail survey, answering the survey was fifty-four years. opposition in any general election for the the average age was just under fifty years old. Sixteen percent of the commissioners helda office. A review of election returns showed In terms of educational background, one- bachelor's degree and 3 percent helda that more than 70 percent of elections over ninth of the responding sheriffs held a master's degree, while another 48 percent the period1979 through1981 involved bachelor's degree, while an additional one- had completed some college. Commissioners candidates who ran without opposition. Of third had completed some college work. thus were slightly better educated than the treasurers in the survey, 47 percent had Most of the other respondents listed a high sheriffs. Like sheriffs. commissioners were run as Democrats, only13 percent as school diploma as their top educational likely to have brought relevant job expe- Republicans, and 36 percent as indepen- degree.Although thegenerallevel of rience to office; about two-fifths of the dents. At least one-fourth of the treasurers educational attainment among sheriffs was commissioners had served as an employee in who had run asparty nominees had not high by comparison with some other the commissioner's office prior to becoming encountered opposition for the nomination categories of public officials, most sheriffs commissioner. Forty-nine percent of the one or more times. entered office with previous training and commissioners first obtained office by way experience in law enforcement. Forty-two of interim appointment. Commissioners on balance were an even percent of the respondents had been deputy CIRCUIT COURT CLERKS sheriffs and another 28 percent had been more experienced group than sheriffs. The employed in police departments. About one- average commissioner in the survey had When compared to the commissioners of third of the sheriffs in the survey had first served in office for thirteen years, and nearly the revenue and treasurers, circuit court reachedtheoffice by way of interim one-half of all responding commissioners clerks tended to be slightly better educated appointment (although only two respon- had won election three or more times (the and to have been reelected to office less dents had not yet faced election for the term for cc mmissioners is four years). About frequentlythe latter because clerks serve office). 32 percent of the commissioners had been eight-year terms. In most other respects. The term for sheriffs is four years, and elected four or more times. including percentage of women, average age, nearly two-thirds of the sheriffs who re- Like sheriffs, commissioners in general years in office, and competition for office, sponded to the survey had been elected to had not faced significant opposition during the profile of clerks closely approximates the office two or more times; the average tenure general elections. Nearly 69 percent of the profiles of commissioners and treasurers. commissioners responded thatthey had for those surveyed was about eight years. Nearly one-third of the 122 court clerks in Nearly one-fifth of the responding sheriffs never encountered "serious" opposition in a general election, and a review of returns for mid-1981 were women; two clerks were had been elected four or more times, a black. The average age of the 97 clerks who finding that suggests that for a substantial the most recent elections involvingall commissioners indicated that 66 percent of responded to the survey was fifty-four years. minority of sheriffs the office had become a About three-fourthsof the clerkshad kind of career position. the winning candidates were not opposed. About one-third of the commissioners had completed some formal education beyond That a number of sheriffs are electorally high school: 5 percent held a law degree, 7 run as independents, according tothe secure is suggested by other data from the percent a master's degree, 26 percent a survey,whilenearlyhalf had runas survey as well as from official election bachelor'sdegree, and 36 percent had returns. Examination of the most recent Democrats and one-tenth as Republicans. About one-third of the commissioners who completed some college. Four-tenths of the election returns through 1981 for each of the clerks had been deputy clerks prior to 125 sheriffs' offices indicated that in two- had been elected on a party ticket responded that they had encountered competition for assuming office and 54 percent had taken fifths of all contests the winning candidate office through an interim appointment. Even had run without opposition.' Moreover, the party's nomination during at least one campaign for office. though only a fourth of the clerks had been about 73 percent of the survey respondents elected to office three or more times, the said that they had never faced serious average tenure of respondents, owing to the opposition in a general election"serious" long term for clerks, was twelve years. being defined as an election in which an TREASURERS opponent drew at least 40 percent of the Closely contested races for the office of vote. The characteristics of treasurers in 1981 clerk occur infrequently; more than 80 Two-fifths of the sheriffs in the survey had closely resembled the profile of commission- percent of thekespondentssaidthat they had run as Democrats, one-fifth as Republicans, ers. Two-fifths of the 130 treasurers were never faced serious opposition in a general and one-third as independents. Among those women and 3 percent were black. The election. Examination of official election sheriffs who had run as a party candidate, average age of the 94 treasurers who returns involving the most recent election of about 45 percent noted that they had been responded to the survey was just over fifty- clerks found that about half of the races had opposed for the party's nomination on at two years. About two-thirds of the treasur- only one candidate. Among the clerks least one occasion. ers, like the commissioners, had pursued responding to the survey. 55 percent had run formal education beyond high school; 4 as Democrats, 12 percent as Republicans. 2ercent had advanced degrees, 13 percent and 28 percent as independents. Two-thirds COMMISSIONERS OF THF, REVENUE held bachelor's degrees, and 48 percent had of the clerks who had run as party nominees some college training. Two-fifths of the had never faced opposition within the party In contrast to the exclusively male world treasurersinthe survey had been an for the nomination for office. of sheriffs,one-thirdof Virginia's131 employee in the treasurer's office before advancing to the position of treasurer. Only one-third of treasurers, versus one-half of ' Data on the number of blacks for shenffs and other officers are the commissioners, first reached office by the COMMONWEALTH'S ATTORNEYS taken from Natrona! Roster of Black Elected Officials. Vol.11. route of interim appointment. 1981 Washinstun. D.C.: Joint Center for Political Studiu. 19821. To this point, the portraits drawn of pp. 290. 292. The average treasurer had served eleven clerks, treasurers, and commissioners have The ekuural data and the questionnaire survey draw upon a years (terms are for four years). Just over been remarkably similar; the picture of slightly different roster of sheriffs. since the electoraldata included half of the treasurers had been elected to sheriffs has differed from the other three the results of elections held in November 1931about two months office on three or more occasionsa picture after the survey had been completednoteveryrespondent to the primarily in terms of the complete domi- questionnaire is represented in the ekction MUMS. This same very similar to the one for commissioners. nance of males in the sheriffs' group and the routilkanon applies to the examination of ofticialeketion returns The survey responses indicate that close lesser tenure among sheriffs when compared for other constitutional officers. contests for the office of treasurer occur even totheotherofficers.Commonwealth's attorneys, in contrast, seemed to have little independent candidacies; indeed, roughly of the remaining respondents considered in common with the members of the other one-third of the officers had run as inde- themselves to be"middle-of-the-road"; those four constitutional offices: attorneys were pendents. Moreover, a review of actual who viewedthemselvesas "somewhat significantly younger and better educated election returns in recent years found that liberal" or "very liberal" accounted for no than other constitutional officers and had only asmallproportion of elections more than 5 percent of the total respondents accumulated much less tenure in office, varying from 12 percent for treasurers' races for any group of officers. particularly when compared to commission- to 24 percent for sheriffs' electionspitted a ers. treasurers, and clerks. Democratic candidate against a Republican RELATIONS WITH LOCAL GOVERNING All but 4 of the 126 commonwealth's candidate. BODIES attorneys in 1981 were males; one attorney Close contests for office were exceedingly As the preceding discussion demonstrates. was black. Among the 78 attorneys who rare, and large majorities of each of the responded to the survey, the average age was the questionnaire survey of constitutional groups of constitutional officers surveyed officers was intended principally to deter- forty-two years (versus fifty or above for the indicated that they had never faced serious other constitutional officers). About 96 mine what kinds of people became constitu- general election opposition. This relative tional officers and thenatureof the process percent of the attorneys had had a formal lack of competition in a large majority of legal education and thus held an advanced through which they were recruited and races for constitutional offices is hardly an degree in law. The overwhelming majority of elected. The questionnaire, however, also atypical phenomenon of American politics; asked officers about certain aspects of their attorneys in our survey had moved from indeed,the pattern of competition for private legal practice into the office of relationships with local governing bodies various other federal, state, and local offices and with the State Compensation Board. commonwealth's attorney; only 21 percent is often similar to that for constitutional had advanced from deputy commonwealth's The Compensation Board is responsibit offices. attorney to head of the office. This pattern for approving the salaries and expenses contrasts with the career path for the other Certain features of the constitutional connected with the operation of constitu- constitutional officers, two-fifths (or more) offices may make them somewhat more tional offices; approved salaries and ex- of whom had previously served as deputies exclusive in an electoral sense than some penses then are eligible for state reimburse- or employees within the offices they now other state and local offices. First of all in ment according to schedules fiAed by statute. directed. contrast to state legislative or local council- For the offices of sheriff and common- As noted above, commonwealth's attor- manic seats, the constitutional offices are wealth's attorney, the state reimburses the neys as a group had served less time in office widely thought to require some specialized county or city for the entire amount of than other constitutional offices. Attorneys knowledge or experience that relatively few approved salaries and expenses; for treasur- averaged between six and seven years in potential candidates for public office pos- er and commissioner of the revenue, the state office, and only 28 percent had been elected sess. Seventy percent of the sheriffs, as we reimburses the locality for one-half of the three or more timesalthough three-fifths have seen, had been deputies or police salaries and expenses.Historically, the had been elected at least twice. In terms of officers prior to assuming office, while four- compensation of circuit court clerks has electoral success and tenure among the tenths of the commissioners, treasurers, and been tied at least in part to the collection of constitutional officers with four-year terms, clerks previously had been employees or fees. Although a 1982 law will convert the attorneys most nearly resemble the sheriffs. deputies within their respective office. The compensation of clerks into a straight salary With respect to electoral competition, the office of Lommoawealth's attorney is. of dependent on the population of the locality, portrait of commonwealth's attorneys again course,restricted to lawyers. Moreover, the collection of fees will continue (as it did departs slightly from the pattern for other once in office, a number of constitutional in 1981) to provide most or all of the funding constitutional officers. About two-fifths of officers, particularly commissioners of the for office expenses as approved by the the attorneys. a much greater proportion revenue and sheriffs, had acquired addition- Compensation Board, as well as for the than for other officers, stated that they had al specialized training. clerk's salary. (Not surprisingly perhaps,a faced serious opposition in at least one Two other factors may account for the majority within each group of officers general election. This finding, however, is relative lack of competition for constitution- surveyed, with the exception of the clerks. hard to reconcile with the data gleaned from al offices: the low visibility of the offices and felt that the Compensation Board underesti- a review of election returns for attorneys' the usual electoral advantages associated mated the expenses of theirrespective races over the period 1979 through 1981; with incumbency. Although the data do not offices.) more than 70 percent of those elections permit firm conclusions, it appears that a Implicit in the above discussion of the involved only one candidate running anon- sizeable proportion of electoral contests funding of constitutional offices is the fact posed. Of the attorneys in the survey, 46 involve incumbents. About half of commis- that the operations of these offices are conducted primarily, percent had run as Democrats, 16 percent as sioners and treasurers, for instance, had won ifnot exclusively, Republicans, and 31 percent as independ- three or more elections. In addition, a large within the framework of state laws and ents. More than two-thirds of those who had percentage of the officersranging from regulations, rather than within the structure run as party nominees had never faced one-fourth for attorneys to one-third for of policies established by local councilsor opposition within the party. sheriffsand treasurerstoone-half for boards of supervisors. As a matter of law, commissioners and clerkshad reached then, constitutional offices esseriallyare ELECTING OFFICERS: SUMMARY office initially through interim appointment; independent of local governing bodies. In practice. however, the various responsibili- Althoughthe patterns of elections vary this suggests that many officers entered their ties of constitutional officers and of local somewhat from office to office, certain first election as incumbents. governing bodies require some measure of common elementsstandout. Political Whatever might be said about the elector- consultation and cooperation. A city council parties appear to play an important but not al process through which candidates become or county board, for example, must provide dominant role in the recruitment of candi- constitutiond officers, the candidates who dates for the constitutional offices, and office space and various equipment for each are selected clearly tend to share a similar of the locality's constitutional offices. In competition between parties' atgeneral philosophical outlook. The proportion of addition, a locality may supplement the election time is the exception rather than respondents in the mail survey who consid- salary of a constitutional officer for the rule. About two-thirds of the officers in each ered themselves to be "somewhat conserva- provision of additional services notman- group had run for office as party candidates, tive" or "very conservative" varied from 66 dated by general law.5 and a majority of officers in every group percent of the sheriffs to 76 percent of the Employees of constitutional officers, except sheriffs had held at one time or at court clerks and 76 percent of the common- the discretion of the relevant city councilor another a position of some responsibility wealth's attorneys; conservatives comprised within a party organization. General election 75 percent and 70 percent, respectively, of Sec Ode of *gotta. §04.1.53. la 155 through 13.1.58. and la 1.143 ISee Also H.B 560. as enacted b) the 1982 General contests, however, often involved strong the treasurers and commissioners. Nearly all Assembly ° county hoard of supervisors. may be brought percent for commonwealth's attorneys to 77 have bro tight to office relevant training r.nd under the coverage of the locality's grievance percent for treasurers offered some response. experience. procedure.accordingtoSection2.1- A commonwealth's attorney. for instance. Plainly the constitutional officers who 114.5:1(C) of the Virginia Code." Under the stated, "The Board has been very supportive responded to the survey viewed the election same statutory provision, employees of a in budget matters. in providing better office of officers as superior to an appointive constitutional officer can be covered by the facilities, and in supporting my request for model. Asked to list the disadvantages of locality's personnel system if the officer and modern equipment." A commissioner of the electing officers, respondents had difficulty locality so agree. Over 40 percent of the revenue made a more general observation. citing any. Indeed, a majority of clerks, sheriffs. commissioners.treasurers.and noting that he and the city council had the treasurers, sheriffs, and commissioners said commonwealth's attorneys in the survey "ability to communicate with each other." there were no disadvantages. Common- stated that their employees were covered by When asked if they had disagreed serious- wealth's attorneys were more likely than their locality'sgrievance procedure: for ly with a local governing body over a policy other constitutional officers to see disadvan- clerks, the figure was 29 percent. Roughly or issue, about one-fifth of the treasurers, tages in election. Among the responses of the the same proportions of each group of clerks, and commissioners, one-fourth of the 45 percent of attorneys who saw drawbacks officers said that their employees had been commonwealth's attorneys, and nearly one- were comments such as the following: taken into the local personnel system. (In third of the sheriffs indicated that such "Makes it nearlyimpossible to make a career most, but not all cases, when an officer's conflict had occurred. One sheriff stated. in the prosecutor's office"; and "lack of employebs were covered by the local grie- "[The Board will not provide adequate continuity in method and vigor of prosecu- vance procedure. they were also covered by equipment, radios, radar, protective equip- tion." thepersonnelpolicies.) Thefactthat ment, etc." Another sheriff noted, "I don't In contrast to the general reluctance of employees of constitutional officers need not have a very good relationship with my city constitutional officers to find fault with be brought under the local personnel system council because they are against the [city's] election, majorities ranging from 76 percent on occasion has led to political controversy having a sheriff." A commonwealth's attor- for sheriffs to 'V percent for clerks were able when raises granted by the Compensation ney pointed out disagreements arising over to cite the virtues of election. Said one Board to anofficer's employees have the governing body's "conflicts of interest." respondent, "The community is more willing exceeded the pay increases for a locality's to cooperate with a commissioner of revenue employees under the personnel plan. CONCLUSIONS they have elected." A sheriff saw advantage Although compensation-related problems While this analysis has provided some in the "electing of an individual who is a and other issues sometimes generate highly insight into the characteristics of constitu- permanent resident, one who has personal publicised confrontations between constitutional officers, the patterns of electoral ties with the community through his family, tional officers and governing bodies, an competition for constitutional offices, and his church and civic clubs" and in having "a overwhelmingmajorityofrespondents the relations between officers and local sheriff that answers to his community on among each group of constitutional officers governing bodies,ithas not sought to election day by the performance of his duties generally viewed their relationship with the evaluate the political wisdom of electing during the years." local council or board of supervisors in a local executive officials. Although (as the Whether popular elections do, in fact positive light. Asked to comment on the introduction noted) one school of thought make officials more accountable to the "best aspects" of relations with the local regardstheelectionof local executive public than an appointive system would council or board. majorities ranging from 59 officers to be inconsistent with administra- must remain an open question. However, tive rationality and professionalism, the data one may take more than a little comfort from Deputic. of cerbiltunorul officers are not ernp1oyees wahan the presented do indicate that, even apart from the fact that constitutional officers do feel mos n ta sect poi Opmonsof the A wane' Genral. 1978. commonwealth's attorneys, sizeable propor- responsibleto thepublic by virtue of p. 114 Waled Dec. 28. 1978) tions of each group of constitutional officers election.

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Entered as second-class matter NEWS Charlottesville, Virginia LETTER

(ISSN 0042.0271) Editor / James A- (Doipb) Assstant,Editor-/ Saadi* 11....Vrier7F;' 'Peblielsed isootbly by. tbrialdossitiel,Goeisse;, mem. Us/verity of 196 122903.Tbeviewssadopmiossexpreesedbereisese GKA1C of the motion. and stem' to be iatetpreese, representing the official position of the !Minas ar the Uoiversity. Entered as sexed-chat maser January 2. . the pod office at Charlotteeville,Virginia. trader the act of August 24. 1912. 1912 bribe Rector and Visitors of the I:siren/0 of Virginia. Printed by the University Printing Office. This News Letter was reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University of Virginia.

LETTER UniversityofVirginia InstituteofGovernment June 1983

THE 1981/1982 REAPPORTIONMENT OF THE VIRGINIA HOUSE OF DELEGATES by John G. Schuiteman and John G. Selph

Mr. Schutteman is assistant professor of political science When final legislative and gubernatorial LEGAL BACKGROUND at Virginia Commonwealth University. Mr. Selph is a approval is secured, the plan must be submit- TO REAPPORTIONMENT senior political science major at Virginia Commonwealth ted to the Civil Rights Division of the U.S. University and a legislative aide in the Vwgtnia Hogue of The reapportionment decisions handed Delegates. Department of Justice, as required by the 1965 Voting Rights Act. The Justice De- down by the U.S. Supreme Court in the Between March 1981 and,April 1982, the partment may reject all or part of a reappor- 1960s and early 1970s placed legal con- Virginia House of Delegates devoted a major tionment plan if it concludes that the plan straints upon state legislative reapportion- portion of its energy to the task of reappoi- has the effect of discriminating against black ment. In Baker v. Carr (1962), the Court tionment. During this period, the General voters. In addition, challenges to reappor- ruled that federal courts have jurisdiction Assembly adopted six different reapportion- tionment plans may be brought before the over lawsuits challenging the apportionment ment plans. The final plan, adopted on April federal courts if a plan is thought to violate of legislative districts, on the grounds that 1, 1982, is radically different from the initial constitutional and s!atutory prohibitions malapportioned districts may violate the plan enacted in 1981, and also from the plan against racial discrimination as well as the "equal protection" clause of the Fourteenth that was in effect during the 1970s. Most "one person, one vote" guidelines used to Amendment.2 Two years later, the Court significantly, the final plan prescribes single - enforce the Fourteen& Amendment's "equal ruled specifically that the "one person, one member districts for all delegates, thereby protection" clause. Challenges may also be vote" p rinciple must be applied to the appor- improving the chance for minority candi- brought before state courts on the basis of tionment of legislative districts in both dates to be elected. the Virginia constitution's requirement that houses of state legislatures.3 Each of the six reapportionment plans legislative districts be composed of "contig- Although the Court maintains very strict considered during 1981 and 1982 can be uous and compact territory" and equal in requirements for the population equality of viewed as an attempt by the delegates to population "as nearly as is practicable.. ." congressional districts, it upheld a 1973 Vir- satisfy a set of legal requirements and politi- (Article II, Section 6). ginia case with a "total population devia- cal goals. Over the course of the reapportion" among newly treated state legislative tionment process, various participants inter- districts of 16.4 percent:, Total population vened and forced the delegates to place FORMAL AND INFORMAL deviation is determined by adding the abso- greater emphasis on the legal requirements PARTICIPANTS lute value of the deviation (from the ideal and, consequently, to modify or to change population figure) in the most and least pop- the priority of their political goals. This The General Assembly, the governor, the ulous districts. For example, according to News Letter will trace the evolution of the Justice Department, and the federal and the :980 census the ideal population of a final House plan and explain why these state courts were the formal participants ilt single-member House of DeIrcates district is changes were necessary. the 1981/1982 reapportionment; i.e., the 53,463. If the smallest district contained 5 participants who possessed legal responsibil- percent fewer people than the ideal figure, THE REAPPORTIONMENT PROCESS ity for the development and approval of the and the largest district contained 5 percent new House reapportionment plan. The inform- more than the ideal, then the total popula- During the reapportionment process in al participants were those members of the Virginia, each house of the General Assem- tion deviation would be 10 percent. (The General Assembly who lobbied before the U.S. Supreme Court has indicated that a bly develops its own reapportionment plan. House P & E Committee on their own In turn, within each house the Committee on plan with a total population deviation under behalf; local officials or groups who repre- 10 percent is prima facie constitutional.) Privileges and Elections (P do E Committee) sented local governments; minority-interest- carries out the redistricting task. A reappor- The Court allows substantial variance in group lobbyists from the Virginia chapters the population of state legislative districts so tionment "plan" is actually a bill that des- of the National Association for the Ad- cribes the boundaries of each legislative dis- that unique geographical features, socioeco- vancement of Colored Peop le (NA ACP), the nomic communities of interest, and the bene- trict. The bill goes through the same legis- Southern Christian Leadership Conferences lative process as other bills, although the fits of maintaining political subdivision (SCLC), and the American Civil Liberties boundaries can be taken into account in the usual custom is for one house of the General Union (ACLU); spokesmen for public-interest Assembly simply to give "rubber stamp" construction of reapportionment plans. In groups such as Common Cause and the Vir- Mahan v. Howell (1973), for example, the approval to the other house's plan.' ginia Municipal League; and concerned individual citizens. All of these participants 2. Baker v. Carr, 369 U.S. 186 (1962). I. This eust om VMS not followed in the 1981/1982 reap- attempted to influence the placement of dis- 3. Reynolds v. Sims. 377 U.S. 533. 568 (1964). portionment. however. About 25 percent of the Vir- 4. Mahan, V. Howell. 410 U.S. 315 (1973). This is the ginia Senate consistently voted against the House trict boundaries in order to promote their highest total population deviation ever upheld by the plans. Figures are availabk from the authors. own specific goals and objectives. U.S. Supreme Court. 197 Court recognized the geographical unique- CHRONOLOGY OF EVENTS On September 29, 1981, P & E Committee ness of the Virginia Eastern Shore peninsula The Democratic leadership of the House Chairman John D. Gray (D., Hampton) by upholding the assignment of an entire had hoped to receive preliminary census data appointed a special subcommittee of five district to the two counties there. by December 1980 in order that reappor- Democrats and two Republicans, who were tionment could be completed during the to work with other delegates representing the USE OF SINGLE-MEMBER January through March 1981 session of the ten congressional districts to draft a new ANDMULTI-MEMBER DISTRICTS General Assembly. Because the final data plan. A plan was devised, but formal action The Virginia House of Delegates tradi- did not arrive until late February, however, by both the full committee and the House tionally has used a mix of single-member, Governor John N. Dalton was forced to call was delayed until after the November 3 elec- multi-member, and "floater" districts. The a special session of the General Assembly for tions. On November 24, the House approved House reapportionment plan adopted in March 30. By that time, the House P & E this new plan by a vote of 61 to 33. The new 1971 contained twenty single-member dis- Committee had held statewide public hear- plan contained a primacy plan that would go tricts; twenty-eight multi-member districts ings on the reapportionment issue and had into effect upon the court's approval, as well (eighteen two-member districts, six three- devised a preliminary plan that, after further as a "back-up" plan that would go into effect member districts, three five-member dis- hearings in the first days of the special ses- if the primary plan was declared un- tricts, and one seven-member district); and sion, was sent to the full House. The plan was constitutional. four floater districts. approved without amendment on April 8, The November 24 plan never reached the A floater district encompasses either two 1981, by a vote of 87 to 11. The bill cleared court, however, because Republican Gover- adjoining districts or a district and an adjoin- the Senate the following day and was quickly nor John Dalton vetoed the entire proposal ing political subdivision. It is created either approved by the governor. It was then sent to and called for the exclusive use of single- (a) when one district has excess popttlation the Justice Department. member districts. On December 14, the (i.e., more people than that implied by the The Justice Department completed its House failed to override the governor's veto, number of delegates assigned to the district) review of the April 8, 1981 plan within the voting 49 to 44 against the motion to and an adjoining district has too few resi- sixty-day period prescribed by the Voting override. dents to warrant a delegate of its own, or (b) Rights Act, and notified the General Assem- Then on December 21, 1981, the House when each of two adjoining districts pos- bly that it had rejected ten districts in the P & E Committee presented z new proposal sesses excess population. The floater dele- Southside area. These districts were judged that again contained both primary and back- gate represents the people of both geo- to be discriminatory because their bound- up plans. The primary plan proposed single- graphic areas. aries would have the effect of diluting black member districts for most of the Common- Multi-member districts possess several voting strength. An informal compromise wealth, the exception being multi-member properties that make their use particularly regarding the Southside districts was worked districts to be used in eight urban areas: the attractiye to incumbent legislators. First, out between the P & E Committee and the cities of Richmond, Roanoke, Alexandria, they allow incumbents to run as a team and Justice Department and was taken up by the Chesapeake, Portsmouth, Norfolk, Hamp- thus offer the benefit of collective resources General Assembly on August 11, 1981. All ton, and Newport News. The back-up pita during a campaign. Second, they make it attempted floor amendments were rejected, was similar except that these eight urban more difficult for challengers to unseat and the boundaries of the compromise areas were also apportioned into single- incumbents because the larger district makes agreement were adopted intact. The Justice member districts. The General Assembly ap- it harder for a challenger to develop name Department approved the plan the next day. proved this proposal on December 23, but familiarity among voters. Third, they often In the meantime, the ACLU, NAACP, Governor Dalton returned it on December permit legislators to follow subdivision lines seven local governing bodies, and other citi- 30 with a number of recommendations for in constructing legislative districts and there- zens and local officials had filed suits against amendment. fore produce districts recognizable by voters. the House plan of April 8. These suits were By January 12, 1982, a compromise Finally, the use of multi-member districts not rendered moot by the August II revi- between the governor and the House Demo- may be helpful in reducing population devia- sions; they were consolidated and heard cratic leadership had been forged. tions in a reapportionment plan. For exam- before a special three-judge federal court While this compromise rejected several of the governor's amendments, it did impose ple, one county may contain 5 percent fewer panel in Richmond on August 13, and a single-member districts across the Common- people than the ideal population fora single - decision was released twelve days later.' The wealth, with the exception that the five dis- member district. A neighboring county may court found the plan unconstitutional be- tricts in the City of Norfolk would be consol- contain 5 percent more people than the same cause its total population deviation of 26.6 idated and, for electoral purposes, would ideal population, producing a total popula- percent violated the "equal protection" tion deviation of 10 percent. By combining clause of the Fourteenth Amendment. It function as a five-seat multi-member district The bill incorporating this agreement was the two localities into a two-member district, ordered the November 1981 General Assem- the population deviation would be reduced bly elections to proceed as scheduled, using written so that if the court objected to the five-member district, a back-up plan voiding to zero. the August 11 plan, but with the proviso that the consolidation of the five districts would On the other hand, the use of multi- the delegates be elected for only ene year. A take effect. member districts is thought to make it more special election was ordered for November On March 12, 1982, the eve of final difficult for minority populations to elect 1982 to elect delegates who would serve for minority candidates than if single-member adjournment of the 1982 regular session of the remainder of the 1982-1984 term. the General Assembly, the Justice Depart- districts are used. Although this seems logi- The court also instructed the General ment notified the General Assembly that its cal, it is interesting to note that the four black Assembly to devise a new reap portiol.ment newest plan (the fifth major plan to be consid- members of the 1981 House of Delegates all plan prior to February 1, 1982. If the new ered) was unacceptable. The Justice Depart- came from multi-member districts (two from plan was not acceptable, the Court then ment objected to the plan because it sub- a five-member district, one from a three- would impose its own plan, one in accor- merged black population concentrations in member district, and one from a seven- dance with U.S. Supreme Court guidelines the Norfolk multi-member district, divided member district) .3 that required single-member districts for black population concentrations in Ports- court-ordered plans.' 5. During the 1981/1982 reapportionment, the four mouth and Hampton, and overconcentrated black delegates disagreed about the desirability of member district plan subsequottly proposed by Dele- single-member districts. The Iste James S. Christian gate Christian (Delegate Robinson abstained). Lead- black population in a Newport News Jr. and Benjamin J. Lambert Ill (both D., Rich- en of black constituent groups, on the other hand, district.1 mond) advocated their use for all areas. Delegate were unanimous in their opposition to multi-member Newly inaugurated Governor Charles S. William P. Robinson Jr. (D., Norfolk) opposed districts. Frank R. Puker, "The Virginia Legislrsive Robb subsequently called a special session of single-member distncts for urban areas, fearing that Reapportionment Caw Reapportionmem Isms of the minority populations would become politically iso- 19801," 5 George Mason University Law Review 6 the General Assembly for April 1, so that lated and that incentives for radii cooperation would (Spring 1982). another planyet another compromise be- be diminished. Delegate Robert C. Scott (D., New- 6. Cotner v. Dolton. 522 F. Supp. 350 (E.D. Va. 1981). tween the P & E Committee and the Justice port News, now a state senator) generally took the 7. Conner v. Finch, 431 U.S. 407 (1977): Chapmanv. 8. Puker, 'The Virginia Legislative R:apportionment same view as Robinson. yet he voted for the single- Meier. 420 U.S. 1 (1975). Case,' p. 48. 198 Table 1. Characteristics of the 1971 House Reapportionment Plan and Plans considered during the 1981/1982 Reapportionment

Districts that are Single- Multi- No. of District largely black Date member member Floater localities Population (number of delegates elected) Plan adoptedDistrictsDistrictsDistrictsdivided* Deviations Total40-49% 50-59% over 60%

1971 Plan 20 28 4 1 + 9.6% -6.8% 16.4% n/a n/a n/a Group

April 8, 1981 21 29 2 1 +12.5%-14.1%26.6% 7 (8) 1 (4) 0 Aug. 11, 1981 17 31 1 +12.5%-14.1%26.6% 4 (6) 2 (6) 0 Group II Nov. 24, 1981 Primary 10 34 1 1 +6.4% -6.1% 12.5% 2 (4) 2 (6) 0 Back-up 12 32 2 1 +4.9% -4.9% 9.8% 2 (3) 2 (6) 0 Group III Dec. 23, 1981 Primary 77 8 0 37 +2.5% -2.5% 5.0% 4 (5) 3 (6) 0 Back-up 100 0 0 43 +2.7% -2.5% 5.2% 3 (3) 3 (3) 5 (5) Jan. 12, 1982 Primary 95 0 40 +2.7% -2.5% 5.2% 3 (3) 3 (3) 3 (3) Back-up 100 0 0 41 +2.7% -2.5% 5.2% 3 (3) 3 (3) 5 (5)

April 1, 1982 0 0 41 +2.7% -2.4% 5.1% 3 (3) 4 (4) 5__(5) SOURCE: Compiled by authors from information provided by the state Division of Legislative Services. aThe word "divided" applies when the area of a single city or county is dividedamong two or more legislative districts. The 1971 figure does not include subsequent city or county boundary changes due to annexation.

Department-could be considered. This com- (3) enhanced prospects for Republican gains adopted on April1, 1982, which finally promise also prescribed single-member dis- in the House (promoted by Governor Dalton gained the approval or acceptance of all par- tricts for the entire state. After House and and the Republican party); (4) improved ticipants. These Group III plans are radically Senate approval of this compromise plan, chances for the election of minority candi- different from those that came before. They Governor Robb signed the bill and sent it to dates (promoted by the NAACP, SCLC, and mark the phase in which the House Demo- Washington. The Justice Department's ap- ACLU); and (5) increased use of single- cratic leadership was forced to reckon with proval was granted on April 14, 1982. member districts to promote delegate ac- the goals and power of both the governor The April I plan was accepted by the Vir- countability (promoted by the Virginia and the minority-interest groups. ginia chapters of the NAACP and the Municipal League, Common Cause, and ACLU, but it was challenged in federal court other g3od government groups). The prior- GROUP I PLANS by five counties and by the Town of Chris- ity given to these legal constraints and politi- An analysis of the first two reapportion- tiansburg. The court rejected the Christians- cal goals changed as the situation facing the ment plans show that incumbency protec- burg challenge on June 23 and the other suits delegates changed. tion was the goal to which the delegates on September 28.9 No other challenges or For ease of discussion, the six major reap- initially gave highest priority. Incumbency appeals were made. portionment plans adopted by the House protection can be enhanced by either pre- GOALS AND PRIORITIES OF have been divided into three groups (see serving existing legislative district bound- THE HOUSE PLANS Table I). These groups correspond to three aries or revising the boundaries to improve distinct phases of the reapportionment pro- Each plan or group of plans cor.-;6ered by electoral chances for incumbents. With each cess. The Group I plans include (a) the initial delegate looking out for his own individual the House involved an attempt to satisfy a plan of April 8,1981 (rejected by the Justice mix of legal constraints and political goals. interests as well as those of his colleagues, the Department) and (b) its revised edition of Group I plans look very similar to the 1971 The main legal constraints were (I) state August I I (rejected by the federal court). constitutional requirements of compactness, reapportionment plan. More than half the Both of the Group I plans were designed to districts remained exactly the same, and a contiguity, and equal population; (2) federal achieve two goals: re-electing incumbents court guidelines enforcing the "one person, number of others were altered only slightly. and preserving tne boundaries of political Common Cause determined that only 8 of one vote" principle; and (3) provisions used subdivisions and existing districts. by the Justice Department to enforce the the 100 incumbents would have been dis- The Group II plan consists of the primary placed by the April 8 plan, and at least 3 of 1965 Voting Rights Act. The major political and back-up plans of November 24, 1981 goals sought during the process were (1) these had announced that they were not seek- (vetoed by Governor Dalton). The primary ing re-election." By preserving the 1971 dis- incumbency protection (promoted by incum- and back-up plans of Group II mark an bent delegates of both parties); (2) mainte- trict lines wherever possible, the relative pol- intermediate phase in the process, in which itical party strength was preserved in the nance of political subdivision boundaries so the delegates yielded on the issue of popula- that local jurisdictions would not be divided House, with the Democrats easily retaining tion deviation but remained adamant in their their majority status in the 1981 elections. among legislative districts (promoted by promotion of incumbency and boundary incumbent delegates and local officials);10 Ninety percent of the incumbents running protection-even if this promotion required were re-elected (59 Democrats and 18 the creation of more multi-member districts. 9. Cline v. Robb, 541 F.Supp. 613 (E.D. Va. I982)(the Republicans). Christiansburg challenge): and Comer v. Robb, 54E The three Group III plans are (a) the The goals of increasing black or Republi- F.Supp. 128 (E. D. Va. 1982). Surry County also filed December 23, 1981 primary and back-up can representation in the House were not suit but later withdrew its objectives. plans (returned by Governor Dalton); (b) the 10. Until 1971, no locality had ever been divided into compromise primary and back-up plans more than one district: With the 1971 plan, Fairfax adopted January 12, 1982 (rejected by the U. Parker, The Virginia Legislative Reapportionment County was divided into two five-member districts. Justice Department); and (c) the plan Case," p. 9. incorporated in the Group I plans, except The improvement made in population that one new black-majority district was House leadership with little choice but to deviation was accomplished through the develop a plan containing significantly more created by the revised plan of August II. incrzased use of multi-member districts, (Only two black-majority districts had a single-member districts. The P & E Commit- strategy that also furthered the goal of tee .quickly formulated a plan that was a existed under the 1971 reapportionment incumbency protection. Both the primary plan.) composite of three single-member district and the -ack-up plans conta.::teda number The increased use of single-member dis- plans that had been drafted and introduced of nodal* add-looking and non-compact separately by the late James S. Christian Jr. tricts was a goal of the minority and public- districts, few of which were the sameas those interest groups, and eventually of the Repub- (D., Richmond), who acted on behalf of a in the 1971 plan. Furthermore, onlyten coalition of minority-interest groups; Clin- lican party. However, it was nota priority of single-member districts were created in the the House Democratic leadership. In fact, ton Miller (R., Shenandoah County); and J. primary plan (twelve in the back-up plan),a Samuel Glasscock (D., Suffolk). By making the August 11 plan contained fewer single- reduction that continued the downward trend member districts than the 1971 use of these proposals, the committee hoped reappor- established by the August 11 plan. No at- to expedite legislative approval of a plan tionment plan. tempt was made to increase the number of The Group I plans pleased most localities before the 1982 General Assembly convened, black-majority districts. since that Assembiy would include eight because, with the exception of heavilypopu- The Group II plan marks the point in the lated Fairfax County, the plans did not split more Republicans than the Assembly of reapportionment process at which partisan 1981. any city or county among more than one concerns began to equal those of incum- district. The objections that were raised On December 23, 1981, the House P & E bency. Although the House adopted the Committee sent to the House floor the plan came from those localities that had been P & E Committee's plan without ameld- placed in a district represented by a delegate that assigned single-men.ber districts to all ment, the 61 to 33 vote broke strongly along but eight urban areas, with the back-up plan with whom the voters were unfamiliar. partisan lines. Fifty-seven of the 72 Demo- The August I I plan was rejected because composed of 100 single-member districts. crats present favored the plan, while 17 of 21 This move to mostly single-member districts the 26.63 percent population deviation clear- Republicans opposed it. More surprisingly, ly exceeded the 16.4 percent guideline that (a total of 77) had been almost unthinkable a opponents of the plan garnered support few weeks before; it was now necessary, most observers believed was the outer limit within the Senate. Seven of 9 Republicans that the court would allow. Both Governor however, to gain the governor's approval opposed the plan, as raid 8 of 27 Democrats. and to retain a degree of incumbency pr)tec- Dalton and House Speaker A. L. Philpott There was only I Republican vote on the yea (D., Henry County) had expressed doubts don for House Democratic leaders, most of side of the 19 to 15 Senate vote. whom came from the eight urban areas. The about the constitutionality of the plan Until his consideration of the Group II because of this discrepancy, yet they did little P & E Committee took pains to protect plan, Governor Dalton maintained that incumbents, even to the point of splitting a to prevent its passage. The governor pro- reapportionment was a matter whose resolu- precinct to ensure that two incumbents fessed that reapportionment was a matter tion was best left to the General Assembly. best left to the General Assembly. would not have to oppose each other. The fact that the November 24,1981 primary With the shift to single-member districts, The delegates' willingness to support a plan reduced the number of single-member the goal of preserving political subdivision prima Jack unconstitutional plan under- districts, included obviously non-compact boundaries largely was abandoned. Twenty- scores the importance that they accorded the districts, and produced relatively highpopu- one of Virginia's 136 counties and cities are goal of incumbency protection (even though, lation deviations jeopardized the court's larger than the ideal district population of ironically, a plan likely to be declared uncon- approval and invited the governor's veto. In 53,463 and would of necessity have to be stitutional would afford no protection). The vetoing the proposal, the governor presmred divided to form two or more districts. The preservation of existing districts was simply the House leadership, saying that the best primary plan of December 23 divided 37 more important than the need to obtain interests of Virginians would be served bya counties and cities, while the back-up plan reasonable equity among district popula- plan that contained more single-member dis- divided 43. The use of single-member dis- tions. In fact, the initial plan of April 8,1981 tricts. Ostensibly, the governor andsome of tricts also reduced the total population devi- was approved by the House P & E Commit- the Republican delegates favored single- ation to roughly 5 percent, leaving little tee "without any statistical analysis to member districts because they would make doubt that the court would uphold the new determine the population variances of the the Virginia legislature a more democrati- plan. proposed districts."I2 cally responsive body. A stronger motiva- Concern about the underrepresentation of The House leadership apparently thought tion, however, lay in the fact that theuse of blacks in the Virginia House was only mar- that the court might tolerate a high deviation single-member districts might increase GOP ginally evident in the December 23 primary for the same reason it did in deciding Mahan representation in the House. Many longtime and back-up plans. While the primary play v. Howellnamely, to maintain respect for incumbent Democrats were shielded, in a increased the number of black-majority dis- subdivision boundaries and communities of sense, by multi-member districts in which tricts from two to three, the number of dele- interest. In any event, the delegates were will- Republican challengers had to ehlist the gates elected from these multi-member dis- ing to risk court rejection rather than to face support of a greater number of voters than tricts remained at six. The back-up plan up to the reality that real change must occur. would be required if single-member districts would have created eight black-majority, GROUP II PLAN were used. These same multi-member dis- single-member districts, all located in urban tricts aLo ensured that Republican enclaves In response to the court ruling that the areas. would remain submerged within Democratic Governor Dalton indicated his displea- August 11 plan violated the "one person, one majorities. vote" principle, the delegates became much sure with the December 2iplan by returning more concerned with population deviations. The governor, sensing that the timewas it to the House with his recommendations At the same time, they still gave highest ripe, rallied the Republican delegates to the for amendment.Two of his recommenda- priority to incumbency protection and the call for single-member districts. On tions were designed to separate incumbent December 14 the House leadership failed to maintenance of political subdivision bound- Republican delegates whose residences were aries. Consequently, the total population obtain the two-thirds majority necessary to placed in the same legislative district in both override the governor's veto. Only 44 dele- the primary and back-up plans. Two Repub- deviation of the November 24, 1981 primary gates voted in favor of the motion to over- plan was 12.5 percent, and 9.8 percent for the lican incumbents from the Lynchburg area ride. The Democrats split with 43 in favor and two Republican incumbents from the back-up planboth well under the 26.6per- cent deviation of the Group I plans. This and 27 opposed, while the Republicanswere Chesterfield County area were faced with unified against the attempt by a margin of 21 this predicament. The governor also objec- reduction was necessary to avoid a court- to 1. imposed plan that, in all likelihood, would ted to the remaining multi-member oistricts not take incumbency protection into GROUP III PLANS and recommended that the primary plan be consideration. abandoned in favor of the bank-up plan. The governor's veto (and the subsequent The House Democratic leadership struck 12. ibid. failure of the House to override it) left the a compromise with the governor that rejected his partisan recommendations but left 200 only the City of Norfolk apportioned as a First, the larger size of the Senate's forty as well as the withdrawal of the governor's multi-member district. Some delegates districts (ideally, 133.657 people per district) proposal to assist several Republican in- commented that the five-member Norfolk made it less likely that charges of racial cumbents. The governor, in return, succeed- district (home of Majority Leader Thomas gerrymandering, violation of political sub- ed in forcing a plan that established single- W. Moss Jr.) "stuck out like a sore thumb." division boundaries, or failure to respect member districts for all but five delegates. The compromise was approved on Jan- "communities of interest" would arise. The final plan substantially reduced the uary 12, 1982, however, with the House Unlike the smaller House districts, racial total population deviation, improved oppor- adopting it by a vote of 68 to 25. minorities inevitably and undeniably are tunities for the election of black candidates, On March 12, the Justice Department submerged within all but a few senatorial and created better conditions for the devel- rejected the January 12 plan because various districts. The larger districts increased the opment of democratic accountability in the Tidewater districts would have the effect of probability that district boundaries would legislature. These outcomes were largely the diluting black voting strength. The NAACP follow traditional subdivision boundaries. byproduct of the shift to single-member dis- and ACLU exerted their power at this point, In contrast to the House, which ultimately tricts. With the court, the Justice Depart- and the General Assembly yielded by agree- created 100 districts containing an average of ment, the governor, and the minority- ing to create a black-majority district in 53,463 persons per district, the Senate plan interest groups urging the use of single- Hampton, and to abandon the multi-member afforded fewer opportunities for challenges member districts, the House Democratic district in Norfolk. Buoyed by Justice by racial groups or local officials. In addi- leaders simply had to yield. In doing so. Department support, lobbyists for the tion, larger districts may increase the similar- however, they did not abandon their goal of ACLU and the NAACP forced a few other ity of socioeconomic composition among incumbency protection. marginal, yet symbolic, boundary changes, districts and make it more likely that sena- Only four incumbents were forced from making it possible for these organizations to tors will share the same legislative goals. This office as a direct result of reapportionment in accept the agreement. The new plan, passed also would reduce contentiousness during 1982: two in the September primaries, one in on April I, 1982, increased the number of the process of reapportionment. the November 3 general election, and one black-majority districts from six to nine Second, the original 1971 Senate plan who chose retirement. Each had been placed single-member districts. prescribed forty single-member districts, in a district where he or she had to compete As noted earlier, six localities /lied suit with this number being reduced to thirty- with another incumbent in order to win against the April 1 plan in federal court. seven when a federal court ordered the con- renomination or re-election. One incumbent Augusta, Rockingham, Fauquier, and Taze- solidation of three Norfolk districts into a was defeated in the primary election by a well cout.iies each were split among three single, three-member district. Thus, the nonincumbent challenger, as visit six others districts, and the Town of Christiansburg Senate did not face a radical transition to in the general election. Of the ninety incum- was divided between two districts. These single-member districts, as did the more than bents attempting to win re-election, eighty- four counties and the town argued that their eighty delegates from the house's traditional one (90 percent) were successful. The result- fragmentation diluted their clout in the multi-member and Material districts. ing 19 percent turnover rate for the entire House and denied each locality and its citi- Third, the senate reapportionment pro- House is exactly the same as the turnover zens equal protection under the law.13 They cess was less affected by electoral pressures. rate that the House averaged in its previous also claimed that the districts in which they House elections were scheduled for Novem- four elections)* were placed violated the Virginia constitu- ber 1931. This meant that House districts The new plan may or may not be the blue- tion's mandate that districts be compact and had to b drawn and approved between the print for partisan or racial change in the contiguous. Middlesex County, the sixth tithe the U.S. Census data arrived in late E use of Delegates. Although the Republi- party filing suit, made similar claims in February 1981, and the date of the primary can party fielded a record sixty-five candi- objecting to the fact that it had been placed elections, scheduled for September 9. Dele- dates, the November 1982 elections did not in a district with the Eastern Shore counties gates whose districts were altered would produce the Republican gains that the lead- of Accomack and Northampton. have but a few months to gain visibility and ers of both parties had anticipated. The The court heard the Christiansburg suit in acceptance by their constituents. This in- defeat of a total of four Democratic incum- June and the other challenges in September creased the pressure to maintain House dis- bents was balanced by the loss of a newly 1982.It rejected all suits, implying that tricts as they were. Senator:, on the other created seat and the defeat of two Republi- "equal* protection" should be invoked in hand, knew they had until November 1983, can incumbents. This left the party ratio in reapportionment cases only when racial dis- the date of their next election, to gain this the House of Delegates at sixty-five Demo- crimination or equal population is an issue. visibility and acceptance. In addition, they crats, thirty-four Republicans, and one in- The court also declined to accept jurisdiction knew that their efforts in the 1982 and 1983 dependent, a net gain of one for the Republi- in matters involving interpretation of the sessions of the General Assembly would be cans. The real test may be the 1983 elections, state constitution. Thus, the constitutional- grist for their re-election campaigns. when the two patties will be seeking two-year ity of the final plan was upheld. Finally, the smaller number of senators terms and the elections will not be over- LESSONS FROM THE Also helps to explain why the Senate's reap- shadowed by congressional campaigns. SENATE'S REAPPORTIONMENT portionment was a more manageable pro- Virginia's new reapportionment plan cre- The 1981/1982 House reapportionment cess. Few senators meant fewer opportuni- ated nine black-majority, single-member dis- experience can be understood fully only by ties for personal conflict and disagreement. tricts. Yet the number of black delegates was contrasting it with that of the Virginia Sen- CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS unchanged following the November elec- ate. Except for conflict that arose when the tion; all four black incumbents were re- Justice Department rejected two attempts to The final reapportionment plan of April I, elected without Republican party opposi- divide the black residents of Norfolk into 1982 is radically different from both the 1971 tion. Four black nonincumbent candidates two districts, each of which would have been plan and those initially proposed by the (one Democrat and three independents) were 35 percent black, the Senate plan met little House leadership. During the course of defeated. These tight black candidates rep- opposition and was approved by the gover- reapportionment, the goal of preserving po- resent an increase of one over the seven who nor on November 30, 1981. The Justice litical subdivision bound aries and, to a much ran in the 1981 election (under the Department's approval followed on January lesser degree, the goal of incumbency protec- August II, 1981 plan), and an increase of 21, 1982. tion were de-emphasized in order to satisfy four over the four incumbent black candi- The relative ease of Senate reapportion- the Court's"one person, one vote "guidelines dates who ran in 1979. While a small rise in mentor, conversely, the relative conten- and the requirements of the 1965 Voting black candidates is evident, the extent to tiousness of the House reapportionment Rights Act. Partisan concerns emerged most which the new black-majority districts will processis largely the product of four dif- clearly during the negotiations leading to the stimulate political ambition within Vir- ferences between the two houses. House adoption of the fifth plan in the pro- ginia's black community remains to be seen. cess, on January i2, 1982. In this plan, the D. Shelley Rolfe, "Federal Judges to bear Redistricting 14. Two additions/ vacancies occurred following the Challenges Tuesday,"Richmond Times-Dispatch. House Democratic leadership obtained pro- November MU elections: this increased the total turn. June 13, 1912. tection for some of its rndaft,sfnjor members, over rate in the House of Dekgater to 21 percent. Lt THE BICENTENNIAL OF THECONSTITUTION Announcement from the National Endowmentfor the Humanities The 200th anniversary of the United 1.History of the Period 5.The Character of Democracy States Constitution offers a singularoc- This includes the Constitutional Conven- casion for encouraging renewed scholarly This would include the relation ofcurrent tion and relevant events and documents interest in and public reflection on the prin- that American life and culture to the Constitu- preceded it (such as the Articles of Confed- ciples and foundations of constitutional tion and the principles underlying it; the erztion and the Annapolis Convention) and connection between democratic government. Toward this end, the Endow- followed it (such as the State ratification government ment has initiated a number of new catego- and the cultivation of human excellence; and debates, Federalist and Anti-Federalist Pa- ries within each of its regular grant-making the American character as itis revealed pers, and political and legal debates concern- divisions to promote the study and public through American art and literature, andas ing the scope and meaning of the Con- seen through the eyes of non-American appreciation of the history and principles of stitution). the Constitution. observers. 2.Constitutional Principles 6.American Federalism Accordingly, the Endowment welcomes Work in this area might include the theo- In this area, the Endowment would proposals involving studies by scholars en- over retical antecedentsancient, medieval,and courage exploration of the principles of the whole range of philosophical and histori- modernof the constitution; the founders' compact and agreement underlying the Fed- cal questions raised by the constitution and understanding of human nature and its rele- eral structure; the relation of state constitu- the founding period. Moreover, the Endow- vance to Constitutional politics; the charac- tions to the U.S. Constitution; and the intent ment wishes to encourage the wide dissemi- ter of the novous ordo seclorum that the and reality of federalism. nation of the results of such studiesas well as Constitution was intended to inaugurate; the of the best work now existing throughcon- 7.Political Institutions relation of civil to natural rights; and the Study here would include the institutions ferences, public lectures and exhibitions, tele- founders' views respecting the connection vision, radio and movie productions, and of the Presidency, the Congress, and the between the Constitution and national char- Supreme Court as they are related to the through summaries and analyses for high acter and culture. whole of the Constitution andas seen school and college students, and for general 3. audiences. The United States Constitution and the through the disciplines of the humanities. World E.Constitutional IntepretatIon Proposals ere solicited on the philosophi- Under this heading, projects mightex- cal, literary, historical, and political origins plore similarities to and differences between This could include projects which seekto of the Constitution, the relation of the struc- the U.S. Constitution and the constitutions examine the history of scholarlytreatments ture of the Constitution to American politi- of other nations, as well as possible differ- and popular conceptions of the Constitution cal, social, and intellectual culture, and the ences of principle and purpose among mod- as well as projects that seek to understand connection between self-government andpur- ern democratic countries that can be seen by the meaning of the text through legal, histor- poses of human life. a comparison of the U.S. Constitution with ical, and philosophical studies. the constitutions and laws of other countries. All divisions of the Endowmentare panic 4.Individual Rights ipating in this special initiative for theBicen- Topics of Special Interest Work here could include the relation of tennial of the U.S. Constitution. For addi- the original structure of the Constitutionto tional information, guidelines for proposals, the preservation of natural and civil liberties; or other assistance, write to the Public the connection between the rightsenumer- Affairs Office or the Office of the Bicenten- (The following is not meant to restrict the ated in the Bill of Rights and elaboratedby nial. The address is: areas in which applications will be accepted. the Supreme Court and the broader princi- (Division or Office) but is intended to indicate possibleap- ples of republican gove. nment contained in proaches to the study of the Constitution. National Endowment for the Humanities the preamble and body of the Constitution; Washington, D.C. 20506 Proposals are welcome from all fields of the and the pursuit of individual happiness humanities.) and or call the Public Affairs Office at (202) the national well-being. 786-0438.

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

NEWS LETTER , C.. Or .1":"Nr40,11.7....r1C," (ISN 1:04:14271)....1. :* EieCutive Editor, /lames A.::(1);i1Pi)t4Z44414 2 2 . . ,Mani Metre /.'SandraR Wiley;' Peltiblud. at* b the Iodate, et 42eiiri.,% Mat` MIMI* *Milli& rblikaMegidahlkt. 229123.21s qpittioeistprersed honk sea.: t h o d e ( t h a t w a l k e r s , sad moot babe itestylnited as yolorleattiqr Op Obeid, poshataiii the lestitese et' the Usielnicf. , ;' t;,,, ...... lietenal at weeteadeessitterliaireey Z 023,6itt* tilt put dike at Ciatiotsavips,i:wo,LTtir. act of Meat 34,1!12.. . S 1913 by The Rectorate! Vieito;s eitiiiptvere4y.,

Pissed by the Uaiinetity * lades gi45se;.j,:.- *. - - Virginia Standards of Learning, SocialStudies: 12.1 THE STUDENT WILL PARTICIPATE IN CIVICACTIVITIES. Focus will be placed on such activitiesas voter registration and voting in simulated andior realelections, communications with public officials, attendanceat public meetings, and involvement in civic activities.

D CITIZEN POWER: POLITICS & ELECTIONS

17-YEAR OLDS VOTE IN VIRGINIA (chart) 0 3 Lesson Plans & Ideas D 3- 4 Virginia Elections Calendar, 1984-1991 0 5 What Difference Does One Vote Make? 0 6 Facts Mout Registration - Facts About Absentee Ballots 0 7 how to INe a Voting Machine...And Have YourVote Recorded 0 8 Virginia's Perpetual Elections- Information & Questions 0 9- 10 A -andidate Forum in Your School (Teac'terInstructions) 011- 12 Student Notebook Ideas for Election Information 013- 14 Student Worksheets: Propaganda,dalf-Truths, & Distortions 015- 16 Bandwagons 017- 18 Candidates & Issues 019-.20 The Party & 1he Campaign Process 021 22 Poll-Watcher Check List 023- 24 Precincts & Registered Voters by Counties& Cities 025- 26 :,--;'1!ate Selection in Virginia- Primaries, Mass Meetings 1 'e'tions 027- 28 liming Simulation (Teacher Instructions) 029 30 Olanning Simulation (Student Instructions) 03 - 35 D1 17 YEAR OLDSVOTE IN VIRGINIA !!!

REGISTRATION AND FULL PARTICIPATION INPRIMARIES, MASS MEETINGS/ CONVENTIONS, AND SPECIALELECTIONS ARE OPEN TO ALL WHO WILL BE18BY THE NEXT GENERAL (NOVEMBER) ELECTION.

17 on or before 18 on or before CAN REGISTER

Nov.6,1983 Nov. 6,1984 IMMEDIATELY Nov.5,1984 Nov. 5,1985 Nov. 7, 1984 Nov.4,1985 Nov. 4,1986 Nov. 6, 1985 Nov.3,1986 Nov. 3,1987 Nov. 5, 1986 Nov. 8, 1987 Nov. 8, 1988 Nov. 9, 1987

BY MID-NOVEMBER, A GREAT NUMBER OF 12th GRADE STUDENTSCAN REGISTER TO VOTE AND BEGIN TO RECEIVE POLITICAL MAILINGS, ATTENDPARTY MEETINGS, AND PARTICIPATE IN PRIMARIES AND SPECIAL ELECTIONS. THEY WILL BE MORE AWARE OF THE NEWS, THE ISSUES, PARTIES, CANDIDATES, POLLS& PACs.

IDEAS ! VOTER REGISTRATION - Encourage students to register as soon as they are eligible. - Suggest a registration ray with a registrar at the high school. - Publicize registration deadlines before each election. Posters? BEFORE AN ELECTION - Contact the Electoral Board. Ask about a voting machine demonstration or use of the machines for your student government elections or class elections. Many Virginia electoral boards do this! If you have a League of Women Voters in your area, they might helparrange this and conduct the demonstrations. - Hold a mock election/straw vote early in the campaign. Do NOT count the votes... yet! Have students vote again shortly before the election. Compare and analyze the votes. - Have a Candidate Forum at school for government students...see step- by-step instructions, 0 11- 12. - Use election news, issues, polls...See resources on the followingpages. - Use bulletin boards, class discussions, student errands to party headquarters. Consider giving credit for candidate or party work reported to the class. - Use panel discussions,.debates, or pro and con statements focused on ISSUES. Have students develop background/fact sheets. Who would be concerned about this issue, and why?What values are involved? How many different viewpoints can you list? AFTER AN ELECTION - Discuss the role of political parties in an election.How were the candidates selected, financed, and supported,by the party? How were they supported by oth-&.organizatiiins? - Were special interest groups or PACs involved in the effort? in the financing? What were they hoping to gain? - What financial reporting was required? Did the disclosures provide any surprises? How much money was spent?Where did it come from? - Invite speakers to class: campaign chairmen, party officials,candidates. How did they get involved?What did they actually do?How do they use volunteers?Were students helping?How? D3

2f'A CLASS ACTIVITIES A SUGGESTED CALENDAR

- CHECK WITH YOUR LOCAL REGISTRAR Find out precisely when registration booksclose -- the date and hour. Find out if there are extra hours/locationsplanned for the final weeks. PUBLICIZE THE INFORMATION IN GOVERNMENTCLASSROOMS &.ON BULLETIN BOARDS. - CHECK YOUR STUDENTS. ARE THERE ANY WHO ARE ELIGIBLE &INTEND TO REGISTER? See D3 and D7 for information. - MAKE YOUR PLANS - Check with other teachers and appropriate administrators. Select ideas from all of this notebookand tailor plans to your particular area and school, campaign, and special interests.

- How about a Candidate Forum for your school? See D 11- 12. - Start students looking for the names of candidates.Who is running for what offices? Use the forms D 13- 14 for the list as the information becomes available. See the Virginia Election Calendar,D 5, to be sure your students are listing all the contests.

ANYTIME ACTIVITIES

- Virginia's Perpetual Elections (D9 - lq)and Propaganda, Half-Truths, and Distortions (01.5 - 16) are optional- use anytime, though both are particularly useful during a campaign.

READ THROUGH THE INFORMATION ON THE SIMULATION --.WHICHOF YOURCLASSES WOULD BENEFIT FROM THIS. Many classes would regard.ita challenge to pick the brains of the active campaign personnel inthe parties in your area. If so, here's the excuse...and the vehicle. imar /I AFTER THE CANDIDATES ARE IDENTIFIED ANDBEFORE THE CAMPAIGN HEATS UP...Conduct Straw Vote #1. Ask students to write their voteson notebook paper, or duplicate ballots if you havemany offices to vote. Put the completed ballots in a boxwitha sloton top. Seal up each class' votes ina brown envelope -- DO NOT REVEAL THE RESULTS...YET.

KEEP STUDENT ATTENTION FOCUSED ON THE ELECTIONBY DAILY OR EVERY-OTHER-DAY DISCUSSIONS LSee A 11- 12) QUIZZES (See A 9). Start a bulletin board.

ABOUT 10 DAYS BEFORE THE ELECTION-- GIVE OUT THE REMAINING SHEETS -- Bandwagons (D 17 - 18). Plan student discussions of the opinion questions.

- - CHART - Candidates & Issues (D 19- 20 ). THIS IS A CLASS ACTIVITY.Ask students to fill in theirown opinions in Column 1 and to add the candidates' opinions (from their notebook lists) inthe other columns. They then assign tentative weights to the issues and traits,BUT SAVE PARTS 2,3,4, & 5 for DISCUSSION AND WORK IN CLASS

-- THE PARTY & CAMPAIGN PROCESS(0 21-22) includes questions that will take some research. Student cooperation is suggested to find the information.

ALL THREE OF THESE SHEETS CAN LEAD TO GOODCLASS DISCUSSION. IF YOUR GRADE PLAN INCLUDES PARTICIPATION, HERE IS YOURCHANCE! If you move around the room while students are sharing and filling in pointsand information, you will be able to use a check mark forstudents who are "on task" on the sheets. Being very precise about gradescan cut off the sharing and structure some of the valuable opinions and ideas OUT of the discussion. Note: As students complete D 20, it willbe time for the second straw ballot. Count #1 and #2 andcompare the results for each class. DISCUSS. WHAT HAPPENED ON THE WAY TOTHE ELECTION? D4 205 VIRGINIA ELECTION CALENDAR

CITY ELECTIONS: 1ST TUESDAY IN MAY. ALL OTHERS LISTED: GENERAL ELECTION DAY, TUESDAYAFTER 1ST MONDAY IN NOVEMBER (Special elections may be called at other times)

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 ...1

.1E PRESIDENT PRESIDENT V. PRESIDENT V. PRESIDENT SENATOR A SENATOR B SENATOR A = U.S. HOUSE U.S. HOUSE U.S. HOUSE U.S. HOUSE GOVERNOR GOVERNOR LT. GOVERNOR cc LT. GOVERNOR ATTORNEY ATTORNEY z . GENERAL Z; GENERAL bic VA. SENATE VA. SENATE °14 :-.. HOUSE OF HOUSE OF HOUSE OF HOUSE OF DELEGATES DELEGATES DELEGATES DELEGATES

-J Count CountCounty_ cc c.JAY Sheriff-- City z Sheriff Sheriff CD V) Commonwealth's Sheriff I.Ct Commonwealth's Commonwealth's I- IJJ Attorney Commonwealth's =L.) Attorney Attorney }..6.4 Treasurer Attorney ILL. Treasurer Treasurer }-- Li. Commissioner Treasurer ulcp Commissioner Commissioner of Revenue Commissioner c) of Revenue of Revenue (..) of Revenue City Clerk of Court Clerk of Court

>- i.- MOST MOST z Some/ Some -z) SUPERVISORS SUPERVISORS Arlington2 Supervisors Supervisors 8 Arlington Arlington Arlington 3 E COUNCILORS Alexandria4 COUNCILORS COUNCILORS L.) COUNCILORS . Alexandria Alexandria 1 .

1. More than 1/4 of Virginia's 95 counties stagger supervisorterms -- some electedeach odd year. 2. Arlington has a Special County Manager Plan, with supervisorson staggered termselected in even years. 3. Some cities elect all council members to 2-year termsevery even year. Other cities elect councilors to 4-year terms, butstagger the terms so some areelected each even year. 4. Alexandria elects its City Councilevery three years. 207 WHAT DIFFERENCE DOES ONEVOTE MAKE ? In November 1982, 56 contested seats in theHouse of Delegates were voted, each in districts of about 60,000 people.

17 were won by a margin of less than 1000votes. 6 were won by a margin of less than 100votes: 1 by 84 votes (H.D. 87) 1 by 40 votes (H.D. 91) 1 by 29 votes (H.D. 66) 1 by 27 votes (H.D. 24) 1 by 25 votes (H.D. 58) 1 by 4 votes (M.D. 6)

In a 1970 special House of Delegates election, now-Senator-TomMichie won by 1 vote.

OTHER ONE-VOTE DECISIONS IN HISTORY:

- One vote made Rutherford B. Hayes Presidentof the U.S. That vote was cast by an Indiana Congressman who had been electedby one vote. - One vote made Thomas Jefferson President in1800. - Woodrow Wilson was elected President in 1916by carrying one state by less than one vote per precinct.

- One vote saved the Selective Service System only 12 weeks before Pearl Harbor.

- One vote made Texas part of the United States in 1815. That vote was cast by a senator who had been elected by one vote.

- One vote saved President Andrew Johnson from impeachment in 1868.

- One vote admitted California (1850), Idaho (1890), Washington (1898), and Oregon (1859) to the Union.

- One vote caused Charles I to be executed.

- One vote in 1776 decided that Americans wou'dd speak English rather than German.

- One vote made Adolph Hitler head of the Nazi Party in 1923. - One vote made Oliver Cromwell Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England (in 1645).

- One vote changed France from a monarchy to a Republic in 1875.

CAN YOU FIND MORE? You never know when our vote might be the crucial one.

You never know when the mass meeting you do not attend will be takenover by a group whose views you cannot stand, who will then choosethe candidates and run your community. Democracy is a high-risk political system...it is not a spectator sport! Take your rights and responsibilities seriously! Be an'active citizen...participate ina party organization to help choose the candidates...then VOTE! 06 2P FACTS ABOUT VOTER REGISTRATION To register to vote in Virginia, a person must be - a U. S. citizen - a resident of Virginia, and - 18 years of age by the next general election day (November). Anyone eligible to vote in the next general election may register and vote in special elections or in the primary, and participate in mass meetings or conventions in which the candidates are chosen. Registration books close 30 days before a general election and 6 days before a special election. Registration must be done in person. Registration is permanent, provided you vote at least once in four years.- Registration requires the recording of name, address, Social Security number, birthplace and date, occupation, where the applicant has been registered previously, and any other names used. The Code of Virginia (24, 1-42) states: No person who has been convicted of a felony shall be qualified to vote unless his civil rights have been restored by the Governor or other appropriate authority. No person' adjudicated to be mentally incompetent shall be qualified to vote until his competence has been reestablished. Virginia has open registration. No party preference is asked or recorded. Registrars are 1.-ted in the phone book -- or call the city or county office or informat on number. III/ When registered voters move within the city or county, the Registrar should be notified in person or in writing. If they move during the 30 days before an election, they may vote once at the former precinct. If registered voters move away from the city or county during the 30 days before an election, they may vote once by absentee ballot.

FACTS ABOUT ABSENTEE BALLOTS A registered voter who will be out of town on election day may vote absentee ballot in the Registrar's office, in person, not less then three or more than forty days prior to an election. A registered voter who is ill, in military service or on government duty, or a student, may vote by mail with an absentee ballot. This is a two step process:

1 - An application must be filled in, signed, and returned to the Registrar. 2 - The ballot will be mailed to the voter, who must have his/her signature witnessed by another person.The completed ballot must be sent back to the Registrar by election day. Completing step #1, the application, ahead of time simplifies the process.

D 7 (Rev. 1984) HOW TO USE A VOTING MACHINE

2 - Enter the voting booth the election official has ready foryou and pull the large red handle in front of the machine all theway to the right until the curtain is closed and you heara loud click, 3 - Notice the pointer nearest each name you choose. Turn the pointer toward the name. (If it will not turn, you may have turneda pointer for that office already, The machine will accept only one choice for each office.) If you make a mistake, correct it-- return the wrong pointer, and push the one you intended.

NO VOTE IS RECORDED UNTIL YOU OPEN THE CURTAIN. In almost every election, votes are lost when voters turn the pointers thinking that is thevote, then they return the pointers to their original positions, leavingno vote foi. the machine to record. CHECK YOUR CHOICES. LEAVE THE POINTERS POINTING TOWARD THE NAMES YOU SELECT TO RECEIVE YOURVOTE. 4 - Move the large red handle in front of the machine allthe way back to the left until the curtain is open. The loud click means your vote has been recorded and the machine has popped the pointers backso nobody can see how you voted,

Public questions (referenda) are sometimes hard to find,as is the slot for write-in votes, which are permitted for all offices exceptPresident and Vice President of the United States. If the instructions are not posted and clear, ask for help. The machine attendants are trained to answer questions andto give help whenever it is needed. They cannot tell how you vote from outside the booth -- the record is sealed in the machine and isnot opened until the polls are closed and official judgesare there to verify the count.

HOW TO USE A PUNCH CARD VOTINGSYSTEM

1 - When you arrive at the polling place foryour precinct, verify your identification with the elections clerkwho has your name in the Registration Book, (Ifyou are registered and your name is not there, ask for help,) You will then be given a punch card, 2 - Walk up to an available voting stand and insert the card in the slotat the top of the book and push it downuntil the two little red buttons pop through the holes in the card. If you are not sure it is inserted properly, ask the attendant to checkit, 3 - Start at the front of the "book," and use the stylus attached to thetray to punch deep into the hole next to each name you wish to receiveyour vote. 4 - Check through the book before you remove your card, (If you have madea mistake, ask the attendant fora new card and start again.) 5 - TAKE YOUR PUNCHED CARD TO THE RECORDING MACHINE and feed it top-firstinto the machine BEFORE YOU LEAVE THE VOTINGROOM. Those little punches are hard to see, protecting thesecrecy of your vote, but the machine lines them all up for a provable totalat the end of the day,

VOTING IS MUCH EASIER TO DO THANTO DESCRIBE- HELP IS ALWAYS AVAILABLE..ASK:

D 8 (Rev, 1984) Worksheet VIRGINIA'S PERPETUAL ELECTIONS

III/ Virginia, New Jersey, Louisiana, Kentucky, and Mississippi schedule major state elections in odd-numberedyears. The other 45 states hold their contests for state office either with thepresidential election or in the off-year, when members of Congressare elected. * Virginia cities elect their officials in May of even-numberedyears. Why are we different?What difference does it really make? Are voters more confused by what some call."perpetual elections,"or would they be more confused if offices at all three levels of governmentwere on the same ballot? What would we gain and what would we lose if city officialswere elected in the November General Election?

In the days of the Byrd organization in Virginia,when one party ruled the state, the primaries were the only election thatmattered, and the outcome of the primaries was often preordained.The small number of citizens eligible to vote really didn't bother about the details,and the rest were not involved. Today, Virginia is a two-party state with contested elections at every level, and voter turnout is a matter of greatconcern. The questions raised by the elections calendar are boundto be discussed more often. In the next few years:

1984 - City council elections in May. In November, elections for president, vice president, a senator, and all 10 members of the House of Representatives.

1985 - Elections for governor, lieutenantgovernor, attorney general, and 100 members of the Virginia House of Delegates,some county supervisors, and all city constitutional officers except clerk of court.

1986 - City council elections in May. In November, elections for all 10 members of the U. S. House of Representatives.

1987 - All 40 members of the Virginia Senate.All 100 members of the Virginia House of Delegates, all county_ constitutional officers except clerk of court, most county supervisors, and the city clerk of court. ... PLUS referenda, bond issues, primaries, conventions, mass meetings, caucuses, and all manner of special elections. Incumbents and challengers announce their intentions months before each contest, and the political winds are blowing almost all the time!

Some people say that the voters are tired of electionsevery year, and twice in even years...that the campaigns areso long they overlap. Issues and candidates become confused, officials and volunteersworn out, and voter registration and turnout is reduced below the levels for otherstates. Other people support the separation of the state and local elections from the confusion of the national candidates and issues. - It allows voters to focus on the state and local issues and questions. - It keeps ballots shorter, minimizing voter fatigue that sometimes means offices and questions at the bottom of the ballot are not even voted. - It prevents candidates from "riding into office on the coattails" of another candidate for another office who may have more power to mobilize voters (i.e., a local candidate benefitting, regardless of local issues, from the strong party turnout for a presidential candidate). 2 11 D9 Virginia's Perpetual Elections (cont'd)

Those who support the nonparty localelections in the Spring, fear that elections would be politicizedin November. Since there is no official party way to collect trash or run buses, some say party labelsare not so important in local issues. A further complication isthat the Hatch Act forbids federal employees from runningfor office with a political party designation, and a change from thenonparty election plan might affect local candidates in Northern Virginia.

Those who favor a change to party electionssay that the health of the party depends upon its local identificationand action-- that partisan local contests are vital in maintaining thegrassroots of their organizations, bringing potential state and nationalcandidates through the learning experiences at the local level.

Look up elections in the VirginiaConstitution (Article VII, Sec. 5), and you will find that itsays "Unless otherwise provided by law, the governing body of each cityor town shall be elected on the second Tuesday in June and take officeon the first'day of the following September." Virginia Election Law does, in fact,provide otherwise. City and town elections are on the first Tuesday inMay. The 1970 Election Law also stated that officials would take officeon July 1st, "unless otherwise provided by charter." Some town officials still take officeSeptember 1st, as provided by their charters.

Look for, clip, note, and share with theclass any news stories about voter registration and voting patterns inVirginia. There will be stories about the turnout (male-female, ethnic, religious,black-white, new registrations, weather and other factors).

Pick a position-- for or against change in Virginia's election calendar.

- Write a position paper documenting your point of view. OR - Organize a debate for your class. OR

- Call your legislator and ask for his/her view andany information or materials on voter registrationor voting patterns in Virginia. - Word some questions and conduct an informal test ofyour questions, in your neighborhood, your bus,or your homeroom. Study the responses and decide how you would improveyour questions. Select a sample for a real silrvey of your community. OR - Talk to local political party officials and office-holders. Is there a difference in the reactions of people in each party?Would they prefer not to have electionsevery year and twice in even years (for city voters)?Write a brief summary of your research and shareit with the class.

212

D 10 A CANDIDATE FORUMIN YOUR SCHOOL, FOR YOUR STUDENTS !

MAKE THE DECISIONS & START CONTACTSAT LEAST 6 WEEKS BEFORE ELECTION !

Please read this material all theway through BEFORE you decide to have a forum. It can be a very rewarding learning experience for all, butyou and your school can be embarrassed if it is not handled professionally !

1 - Talk with your department chairperson, your principal, andother key or concerned adthinistrators. Be sure that you have their supportand their assistance. Students will have to be excused fromother classes to attend, and the presence of administratorscan be very helpful at the forum if the campaign is a heated one. 2 - Select a moderator. If you have had experience with thiskind of meeting and you feel competent, do it. If not, call the League of WomenVoters nearest you for suggestions, aska revered local leader whose political affiliations are not too obvious,or an administrator or fellow teacher who can handle a crowd ina dignified way and who knows the issues in the particular campaign to be featured in theforum. The moderator should be consulted on all the plans and arrangements.

3 - Decide which classes and teachers shouldattend. In most cases, include all government students and teachers, plusother teachers who may be free because you are corraling their students thatperiod, and as many administrators as possible or appropriate.

4 - Check the school calendar and availabilityof the auditorium or area with appropriate accoustics, sound equipment, andseating capcity. 5 - Decide which offices/contestsyou will cover in your forum. If you include candidates for different officesor levels of government, plan. how to divide the program so you don't confuseyour students. To avoid criticism and possible legal repercussions,you must invite all qualified candidates, all registered candidates, or all announcedcandidates, whichever category fits your particular election. If there is a serious write-in candidate, it is better to include him/her than tobe accused later of denying a chance to be heard. Sometimes "off-the-wall" candidatescan be skipped with a clear conscience by restrictingyour participants to one of the categories (qualified- registered - announced). If you are in doubt, ask for legal guidance. Decide what you'll do if (for.any reason) a candidate doesn't show. Also decide if you will permitan alternate to represent a candidate, Unopposed candidatescan offer valuable information about the office and the issues: include themwith other candidates, 6 - Decide on the program and the groundrules, in consultation with your moderator. Here is a suggested format:

- Moderator welcomes candidates, explains program to all. If audience questions will be written, the arrangements (runners,selection panel to eliminate duplications should be described clearly.

- Introduce candidates (alphabetical order? flip a coin?some definite plan) Allow each 3 (?) minutes to describe theoffice and his/her particular qualifications, interests, and reasons forrunning. (If all seek the same office, the moderator might begin bydescribing the office and qualifications, then each candidate couldsummo his/her_backorcund and views on relevant issues.) Half a minute before time is up, the timer signals the speaker. When time is up, the timer stands and remainsstanding until the speaker stops.

D 11

2 ....2 A Candidate Forum (cont'd)

- Allow one minute rebuttal/clarification to any candidate who wants it.

- Questions from the audience; decide whether they will be writtenor oral. Written questions require a trusted, knowledgablegroup of students and teachers (perhaps 3, total) who will beresponsible for eliminating irrelevant or personal questions that shouldNOT be brought up, BUT allowing questions that might be important tothe voters' right to know. Oral questions are more interesting,sometimes even exciting! The spon- taneity is worth it, if you have enough teachersand administrators in the audience to be sure you have control. Station teachers around the room (at microphones, if you are using them) andhave students line up to ask their questions. Teachers can help them with the wording, and shout out the question if the student's voiceis not heard, and the moderator can call on different areas of theauditorium in rotation, without having to know each student'sname. The moderator should repeat all questions before referring them to thecandidates. The moderator should be sensitive to the flowof the meeting. If no new information is forthcoming on an issue, themoderator should ask for questions on another topic. If too many questions are addressed toone candidate, the moderator should ask for questionsdirected primarily to other candidates. All candidates should be permittedto respond to each question, but they should be asked to bevery brief on questions not addressed primarily to them. (If the issues are complex, but important,background information might be distributed to classesfor discussion prior to the forum, particularly if you're notsure all are focused on the election.) If you have reason to suspect long-windednessamong the candidates, you may want to set a time limit on answers to questions. One minute? At an appointed time, after appropriate warning ("Only 2more questions." "One more short question."), the moderator concludes the questionperiod. - Each candidate should be alloweda concluding statement (one minute?) and the order of speaking should be reversed from theintroductory remarks. The opening speaker should have the last word, the finalrebuttal. - Moderator closes the forum, reminding allwho are registered to vote election day, suggesting on that students help others tovote by baby-sitting, driving or volunteering toassist candidatesor parties of their choice. "Democracy is not a spectatorsport." 7 - Contact the candidates with a preferred date and two alternatedates. Two to three weeks before the election works well--the excitement isbuilding, and there is still time to use student enthusiasm in class discussion.Candidates can usually make meetings first period in the morning. If a candidate avoids you, send a registered letter to besure you can prove you made the effort. 8 - Once the date is established, write a confirmationletter to each candidate and to any other people involved in the program, outliningthe plan, exact time, where to park, how tofind the meetingroom, how many students and others you expect, and anythingelse they might need to know. 9 - Notify government teachersand suggest ways they might help for the forum prepare students -- clippings, bulletin boards, background dataon candidates and issues, questions to ask. Unprepared studentscan make the forum a dud! 10 - ii:tify all administrators and teachers whose schedulesmight be affected. Appoint timers. Locate andreserve stop-watches (coaches usually cooperate). 11 - Enjoy the forum. Then thank everybody and getthe story in the school paper! 012

214 ELECTION WORKSHEETOR NOTEBOOK CHART IDEAS

NAME TEACHER PERIOD

THESE PAGES ARE TO HELP YOU. They may or may not be checkedor graded .y your teacher. Different classes, rows,or students might even be checkedon different days. Find and record the information when you hear iton the radio or TV, when you find it in the newspaper. Help each other. Helpyour grades and your understanding of elections and government. Start TODAY ! WE WILL USE THIS INFORMATION ANDYOUR IDEAS IN SEVERAL CLASSES BETWEEN NOW AND ELECTION DAY- Tuesday,

WRITE IN THE FIRST COLUMN THEOFFICES TO BE FILLED BY THE VOTERS THIS YEAR IN

PUT THE NAMES OF THE PARTIESIN YOUR AREA AT THE TOPS OF THESE COLUMNS & START FILLING IN CANDIDATES' ii/V.ES !

* Incumbent D 13

21.1 , ELECTED OFFICES NOTEBOOK CHARTS

>1.1] FILL IN THE INFORMATION EARLY IN THE CAMPAIGN 4-) 0 or M 0 0C or L0 4-1 W L 060 Write these column-headings on the board. U 4.1C C M Students set up notebook pages to record rU4- L basic information, as shown. L 0 W0. 0. E Xr- 0 we 0 Additional assignments/records to keep. Students head pages r. in their notebooks to keep the following or information: = V) 0 T. Keep a record each timeyou or your family are contacted by a party or a candidate, or any othergroup working for a candidate, or any group you suspectmay endorse a candidate > in this election. CC J Contacted by How? (phone, in person- where?) V) 2. If you are working fora party or candidate, keep track of the time you spend and whatyou do. 3. Have any groups you respect takena stand in favor of a candidate? What groups: Would their choice makeyou want to reconsider, if you had already decided to support anothercandidate? Were their statements informdd andreasoned? Did they include the important issues in thecampaign? 4. Have there been polls showingthe voter preferences? Record who conducted the poll, who paidfor it, the date fhe'inform.aifa. wasc011ected, and whatit showed. 5. Radio and TV networksnow project results in an election from questions asked of votersas they leave the polls early in the day. Their predictions start beforenoon. Do you think this influences voterturnout?How? Has this subject been discussed inthe press? 6. Record and keep in your notebookany story that you think might influence a significant numberof voters. Be ready to explain your reasons.

7. Vote in the preliminary strawvote in your class. Do not tell anyone the names of peopleyou voted for. (You may even change your mind before election day!)

r- 4- 4-0 D142IC Workshee_ PROPAGANDA, HALF-TRUTHS, & DISTORTIONS

We all use the techniques of the propagandist for dramatic effect, to persuade our friends and families ("Everybody's doing it!"), to sel; tickets to a benefit ("It's the best show the tom hasever seen!") -- statements that mean well, but may not be wholly or provably true. Most of the time, people know we are exaggerating.

Sometimes statements are deliberately misleading and carefullycon- trived to be misleading or to convince us to do something that may not be wise or that may be contrary to our own best interests. You have noted them at different times. During the nextcouple of weeks, write them down when you hear them. Cut them out of newspapers and magazines (NOT the Library's copies!). See how many different kinds of distortions you can find -- particularly in political campaign statements. You'll need your list to participate in our class disrussion.

1 - Name-calling. Using a label on a person or program to discredit or serve as a put-down. Ethnic slurs may still be heard, though less frerr.:ently than in previous generations. Terms such as "conservaLive," "moderate," and "liberal" are sometimes used as discounts. __. 2 - Glittering generalities. Vague terms that mean little or nothing without further explanation, or that may have many different shades of meaning to many different people. Does everybody understand the same thing when you say "the American way" or "law and cier"? 3 - Testimonials. If your favorite athlete endorses a brand of soda, does that mean it's really better?Or does that mean the bottler pays the athlete to say it because he knows the endorsement will increase sales? Do you prove it?

4 - Scare tactics. Your bad breath, your dandruff, your athleticaroma, static cling, or other horror will interfere withyour success in business or in your social life! Of course, electing the "wrong" candidate will spell disaster for the community, nation, and world. 5 - Sex Appeal & Snob Appeal. Just the opposite of #4. Use their product(s) and members of the opposite sex willrace across open fields to you, give you diamonds, or run fingers dramatically through your hair! The boss will give you a raise! The parking attendant will show you new respect! Do you believe it? 6 - Plain folks. It's the lady nextdoor telling you about the best coffee, a better detergent to sparkle your laundry, man-on-the- street taste tests and the great success story of "up from the log cabin," "we were poor," or "walking 5 miles to school each day." 7 - Symbols. Flags, Uncle Sam, marching bands, and other patriotic trappings are sometimes used to give a mass appeal image toa candidate or product. People in fancy, evening attire may be used to lend a "classy" image to a product,even one not customarily used by people in evening clothes.

8 - Bandwa on. "Everybody is buying X," "...voting for Y," or "..going

to . Don't be left out!"Of course, everybody is not! Crowds of people heading for an apartment building with pushcarts and moving trucks...polls that show candidate Y leading in your district. These are sometimes very effective opinion-molders. Do they work on you? 0 15

217 Propaganda, Half-truths..(cont'd)

9 - Card-stacking. They tell you only one side of thestory, or only part of the statistics. Medications turn out to have dangerous side-effects. Candidates use words carefully to tellyou only what they want you to know-- and perhaps, tell another group something different. Sometimes we guess the other half ofthe story. (Sometimes, if we can prove harmor loss from misleading claims, we can collect in a court of law!) 10 - Guilt by association. Working with, livingnear, attending the same school or church as X does not necessarilymean being involved in the affairs of anotherperson. Putting people in such categories can be a great distortion of their views andactivities. 11 - Logical inconsistencies. The drinking of lemonade is relatedto drowning! Statistics can show that both happenmore often in hot weather, but to hint that leAlonadecauses drownings would be a gross misuse of statistics. Have you heard statements thatsounded so good that you overlooked the factthat they didn't make much sense? Listen carefully to campaignspeeches and advertising claims.

MAKE A LIST...Find yourown collection of propaganda statements, and distortions. half-truths, Briefly tell what is or might bewrong or questionable about each, Then identify who might be influencedby each of your examples.

218 D 16 Worksheet

BANDWAGONS

It is human nature to look for and remember things that prove we are right. We tend to reject information that makes us doubt or proves that we were wrong ina decision or judgment. i

1 Several weeks ago, you looked at the qualifications of the candidates running for office. You made a choice at that time and voted in a preliminary straw ballot. In the heat of the campaign, candidates and parties do and say things that not all of their supportersapprove. Write here some of the things that botheredyou or made you feel less comfortable with your vote. (You should have them listed in your notebook.)

2 - Haveyou found yourself defending this candidate, publicly or silently? Do you agree with the statement at the top of this page?

3 -If you had publicly endorsed this candidate, wouldyour feelings be more intense? More comfortable?More uncomfortable?

4 -If you were to vote for the first time TODAY, wouldyou choose the same candidate? Why?Why not?

5 -Have you discovered any other qualifications, characteristics,or attitudes that you had not listed, that younow feel are important for candidates in general? For this office in particular?

6 -Have any groups you respect taken a stand in favor ofa candidate in this election? Have their positions made you want to reconsider your choice? Do you think their support statements were informed and reasoned? Did their statements address the issues you feelare important in the campaign?

7 - If they supported your choice, how did it make you feel? Which of their reasons do.you consider most important?

8 - Have there been polls showing the voter preferences in this campaign? If you chose the one who is supposed to be winning, how does it make you feel?

9 - If you chose one who is now supposed to be losing, how does it make you feel?

10 - Would you ever be tempted to change your vote to theone who is supposed to be winning? Would it make a difference to you if the poll were conducted or paid for by supporters of the candidate they say is winning? 7 D 2 Bandwagons (cont'd)

11 - Wanting to be a supporter of the winning team is called"bandwagon effect" or "bandwagon syndrome." How is this feeling used by campaigners? (Use some quutes for illustration.)

12 - Broadcasting and TV networks now project winners inan election from interviews with voters as they leave the polls. network predictions start early in the day. Do you think this influences voters later in the day?

13 - Do you think broadcasts of voting resultson the east coast should be allowed before west coast polls close? What difference do you think it makes?

14 - Do you think all polls should open and close at thesame time, regardless of what the clocks say? How would you plan the voting hours to accommodate the 3-hour difference in time between the east and west coasts?

15 - Many other nations vote on Sundays to minimize the problems of voting interference from work schedules, shifts, and commuting. Do you think we should consider it in the.United States? Tell 3 reasons why you think MORE voters would vote...OR...Tell 3 reasons whyyou think it would not make much difference.

16 - Can you think of other ways that registration and voting could be encouraged?

17 - What should you and other voters do ifyou know about the candidates, and you really do not like them or consider them competent for the offices they seek? Discuss the following alternatives and their consequences: a) stay home in protest-- don't vote. (That will teach them!) b) write a complaining letter to the editor of thenewspaper c) write in a candidate on the ballot-- Mickey Mouse, anybody! d) vote for the "lesser of evils" e) vote for the one recommended by groupsyou tend to agree with f) vote for the one the polls say will win g) contact party officials with suggestions for the next nominations h) agree to help a party locate candidates next time-- be active i) agree to run for office next time j) other?

D 18 o MY OPINIONS ON ISSUES I OPINIONS OF THE CANDIDATES ON THESE THINK ARE MOST IMPORTANT SAME ISSUES (Fill them in asyou find them!) IN THIS ELECTION Candidate Candidate Candidate Candidate Issue #1: My opinion: C 0 Issue #2: 0 0 C6-1 rn My opinion: Cr) C 0 0 Issue #3: 0 0 My opinion: o C Issue #4: 0 0 O tl) c My opinion: C O 0 Issue #5: 0 0 My opinion: C 0 PERSONAL TRAITS I THINK 0 0 IMPORTANT IN A CANDIDATE Experience Background Education Personality Other O a C TOTAL 0 6;) n CM C) I) 221 w2 CANDIDATES & ISSUES- Using the Chart on D 19

AFTER LISTING THE ISSUES AND HOW EACH CANDIDATE FEELS ON EACH ISSUE, USE A PENCIL AND FILL IN SOME NUMBERS IN THE LITTLE CIRCLES:

1 - Look seriously at column I. You have 100 points to distribute among the issues and personal traits in the election and evaluationof candidates. You should have in your notebook a chart that identifies skills, experience, and personality traits importantfor each office. Now, decide HOW important eachone is for each office, and assign it a share of the 100 points.

Example A: "These two issues are very importantto me, so I'll assign them 35 points each, with 5 pointsfor these other two issues, and 20 points for personality, becausean impossible beast wouldn't be able to accomplish anything." OR

Example B: "Personality and character (including honesty)have to be worth 50 points, leaving 15 points each for thetwo most important .issues and 20 points for all the othersput together." Write your point values here:

Do they add up to 100 points? USE PENCIL & write them in the appropriate circles. Put zeros in for any issue that getsno points. 2 - Now GRADE the candidateson how closely their opinions on the issues agree with yours. Put zero for not-at-all. Award part of the points for a partial agreement, and all the pointsfor total agreement. Write them in their little circles...again, USE PENCIL.

3 - Now, complete the personal traits evaluationfor the candidates. Grade each on your criteria in column I.

4 - You guessed it! Now add up the points each candidate has earnedfor agreeing with you and pleasingyou with his/her personal traits. Put the total in the sawed-off circle at thebottom of each column. 5 - Do you like the way it came out? If you don't, maybe your column I numbers were not really whatyou want. Fix them, and adjust the points for each candidate. Maybe there are other factorsyou want to include. 6 - Compare your understanding of the issue positionsof different candidates with what other students have recorded. Have you represented their views accurately-- particularly those that disagree with yours, a little or a lot?

THIS IS ONE WAY TO MAKE A VOTING DECISION. Many people blindly follow the advice of others, or vote forone party because they have always voted for that party and they haven't taken the timeto look at the issues. Any evaluation that includes positions on real issues shouldbe an improvement over one that doesn't, becuase your representativewill be representing YOU be introducing and voting on issues. Someone whose opinions agreemore closely with yours on these issues, may be more likely to voteas you would prefer on other issues.

AFTER YOU HAVE ADJUSTED AND COMPLETED THIS CHARTTO YOUR APPROXIMATE SATISFACTION, SHOW IT TO YOURTEACHER AND ASK FOR YOUR BALLOT FOR STRAW VOTE #2.

D 20 Worksheet THE PARTY & THE CAMPAIGN PROCESS

BETWEEN NOW AND ELECTION WEEK, keepyour eyes and ears open and record answers and reactions to the following questions. Be ready for discussion.

1 - Based on what you have heard, who chose the candidates? Do you think they volunteered andthen sought party support? OR Do you think the party hadto convince them to run? Do you think the party helpedprepare them to run for these offices?

2 - How was the campaignmoney raised? By whom? How much?

3 - Who determined the issues andplatforms?

Were the issues all identified early inthe campaign?

Were there some "sleepers"? (issuesthat did not seem important in the beginning, but became importantas the campaign proceeded). Describe them.

Identify the issues that seemed mostimportant to the candidates-

to the press -

to the voters-

Were there issues that concerned thevoters, that candidates did not deal with or answer satisfactorily? Describe.

4 - Did personal problems surfaceduring the campaign?

Were they answered?

Were they important to the qualificationsor the probable job performance of the candidate in the office he sought?

How were they handled by the press?

5 - Does there seem to be a party bias inany newspaper, TV, or radio station in your area?

Did any newspaper or station endorsea candidate?

Did newspapers, radio, and TVseem to be giving equal time or access to the media to all candidates?

D 21 2,c The Party & Campaign Process (cont'd)

6 - How many times were you and your family contacted by the candidates for office?

by their parties?

by mail? by phone? at meetings? at your door? in malls and other public places? Did these contacts make a difference in how you felt about the election? about the candidates? Do you know party workers in your precinct/ward? Name the party chairpersons in your community/city/county.

Were you or your family asked to help in the campaign? Were you asked to contribute money for the campaign? Were you or your family active in the campaign in any way?

7 - Summarize here what you observe to be the role of the party inan election.

8 - Look at the qualifications for office, the responsibilities, and job description materials you wrote some weeks ago in your notebook. Do you think our election process results in voters choosing the best candidate for the job? Explain your answer.

9 - You graduated from high school ten years ago.You are active in your community. You have been asked to run for the office of (fill in the one that interests you most). How would the decision affect your family?

List two reasons why you would/should agree to run?

List two reasons why you would NOT agree to run?

10 - Virginia voters register to vote without listing a party preference. A great many Virginians claim they are "independents," with NO party affiliation. Consider your answer in #7, and list here the points you would include in an opinion paper on "Widespread & Active Party Member- ship - The Key to Effective Democracy." (Would your paper support this statement or oppose it?) Be ready to discuss and defend your opinions.

D 22 225 Worksheet POLL-WATCHER CHECK LIST Polling Place

Your teacher may forward these forms to elections officials, besure that you record your observations accurately.

Visit the polling place twice on Election Day. Record the times of your observations: 1) 2) If conditions were different at different times, besure to label them by number: 1, or 2.

1. Were polling places publicized in advance of election day?

2. Is the polling place easy to find?

3. Is it clearly marked? Can signs be read from a moving car? 4. Is parking adequate? convenient? marked?

5. Are there steps or other impediments to the handicapped voter?

6. If there is more than one entrance, is the barrier-free entrance clearly marked?

7. It is against the law for campaign materials or personnel to be within 40 feet of the entrance to the polling place (usually interpretedto mean the entrance to the building). Is the law being observed? Did you see electioneering within the legal voting area? Did you see anyone influencing voters within the legalvoting area? Did you see unauthorized assistance given toany voter? Describe:

8. Is the list of absentee ballot voters in this precinct posted prominently?

9. Is there adequate elections staff present toprocess the voter identifications with reasonable dispatch? 1) 2) 10. Would you characterize the election officialson duty as: experienced inexperienced courteous discourteous competent incompetent Ot!ilr:(please specify):

11. (Station yourself so you can checka few people -- some stop to talk!) How long did it take for people to vote, from the time they enteredthe building until they left? 1) 2) 12. If there was a delay, was there any explanation? 13. Were all machines in use?

14. Did anyone leave without voting? (Explain)

15. Was anyone's right to vote challenged -by an election officialor other individual? (Explain)

16. Was the privacy of the voter respected? Were all booths curtained? 17. Were nonpartisan sample ballots posted or available? 18. Were instructions posted or available to voters? Model machines? 19. Were instructions posted or available on write-in votes? referenda? 20. Was help available for those who might need it?

D 23 226 Pull-Watching Check List (cont'd)

21. Was the voting booth room large enoughto hold the personnel, machines, and voters without undue confusion?

22. Was the atmosphere business-like? friendly? helpful? 23. Were paper ballots available in theevent of machine breakdown? Was there a sealed ballot box toput them in? 24. According to Virginia Election Law,polling places are to open at 6a.m. and close promptly at 7 P.M., permitting anyone inside the door at 7P.M. to remain and vote. From what you hear and observe, doyou feel that these hours were followed at thispolling place? (If not, describe)

ZP. Note here the time tnattne vote from this precinct was reported by elections officials or the press:

If there was a significant delay,was a reason stated?

26. Are you eligible to vote? If so, did you vote: 27. Was there anything in the experience thatwas confusing?

28. Have you any other observations about theadequacy or inadequacy of this polling place?

024 227 COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA STATE BOARD OF ELECTIONS

NUMBER OF PRECINCTS ANDREGISTERED VOTERS IN VIRGINIA as of January 1, 1986

CONGRESSIONAL DISTRICTS

District Locality Precincts Registered Voters First Accomack 27 Caroline 15,009 7 7,469 Charles City 3 Essex 3,119 3 4,093 Gloucester 7 James City 11,814 6' 12,571 King and Queen 4 King George 3,348 3 4,655 King William 6 Lancaster 4,926 3 5,710 Mathew:, 3 Middlesex 4,627 6 4,679 New Kent 6 Northampton 4,604 9 6,465 Northumberland 8 5,407 Richmond County 6 3,233 Westmoreland 5 6,924 York 11 Hampton 16,719 23' 52,459 Newport News 41' Poquoson 66,275 3 5,026 Williamsburg 1 4,065 TOTAL 191 253,197

Second Norfolk 55' 94,176 Virginia Beach 57' 117,928 TOTAL 112 212,104

Third Chesterfield (part) 39' 76,366 Henrico 57' Richmond City 99,078 73' 108,632 TOTAL 169 284,076

Includes Central Absentee Voter ElectionDistrict precinct.

0 25

101 NINTH STREET OFFICE BUILDING, RICHMOND, VIRGINIA23219-3497 TELEPHONE: 786-6551; OUTSIDE THE RICHMOND AREA, TOLL-FREE 800-552-9745 228 Page 2 of 5

District Locality Precincts Registered Voters

Fourth Amelia 5 4,421 Brunswick 11 7,265 Chesterfield (part) 3* 3,589 Dinwiddie 12 9,605 Greensville 9 5,532 Isle of Wight 13 10,963 Nottoway 7 6,851 Powhatan 6 6,056 Prince George 7 8,573 Southampton 12 10,109 Surry 7 3,763 Sussex 10 5,953 Chesapeake 36* 53,368 Colonial Heights 5 8,742 Emporia 4 2,352 Franklin City 1 3,857 Hopewell 5 9,851 Petersburg 15 18,111 Portsmouth 31 46,714 Suffolk 17 22,294

TOTAL 216 247,969

Fifth Appomattox 10 6,350 Bedford County 25 17,488 Buckingham 9 5,567 Campbell 16 21,070 Carroll 18 11,761 Charlotte 11 5,903 Cumberland 4 4,196 Fluvanna 4 4,256 Franklin County 22 14,349 Halifax 21 13,540 Henry 22 24,622 Lunenburg 6 5,582 Mecklenburg 18 12,489 Nelson 8 5,748 Patrick 14 8,030 Pittsylvania 29 27,603 Prince Edward 9 7,641 Bedford City 2 2,972 Danville 17 20,239 Lynchburg (part) Tops 6,953 Martinsville 7* 8,938 South Boston 2 3,551

TOTAL 281 238,848

Includes Central Absentee Voter Election District precinct. °a Two of Lynchburg's 18 precincts are split by Congressional Districts5 and 6; these two precincts are counted twice in the precinct tabulation - once in each Congressional District. The number of registered voters is accurate within each district.

26 2°c e Page 3 of 5

District Locality Precincts Registered Voters

Sixth Alleghany 9 5,880 Amherst 10 12,172 Augusta 23 21,811 Bath 7 2,728 Botetourt 14 10,830 Highland 10 1,699 Roanoke County 31* 38,400 Rockbridge 14 7,133 Rockingham 24' 20,267 Buena Vista 2 2,782 Clifton Forge 2 2,193 Covington 4 3,793 Harrisonburg 4 8,878 Lexington 2 2,505 Lynchburg (part) 14"/" 23,782 Roanoke City 33' 40,892 Salem 11' 11,063 Staunton 6' 9,247 Waynesboro 4 6,704

TOTAL 224 232,759

Seventh Albemarle 17' 26,006 Clarke 5 4,212 Culpeper 12 9,471 Fauquier 12 16,555 Frederick 12' 13,860 Goochland 7 6,326 Greene 4 3,817 Hanover 20' 26,961 Louisa 13 7,699 Madison 9 4,622 Orange 5 7,862 Page 5 9,001 Prince William (part) 13' 14,462 Rappahannock 6 3,190 Shenandoah 15 13,423 Spotsylvania 14 14,813 Stafford (part) 6 9,847 Warren 11 8,707 Charlottesville 9' 16,833 Fredericksburg 3 7,014 Manassas 5* 7,249 Manassas Park 1 1,831 Winchester 5 8,172

TOTAL 209 241,933

Includes Central Absentee Voter Election District precinct. Two of Lynchburg's 18 precincts are split by Congressional Districts5 and 6; therefore, these precincts are counted twice in the precinct tabulation- once in each Congressional District. The number of registered voters is accurate within eachdistrict.

D 26a 230 Page 4 of 5

District Locality Precincts Re2istered Voters

Eighth Fairfax County (part) 76' 169,846 Prime William (part) 35* 44,903 Stafford (part) 6 8,590 Alexandria 33* 52.416

TOTAL 150 275,755

Ninth Bland 8 3,233 Buchanan 19 16,565 Craig 9 2:,468 Dickenson 13 11,116 Floyd 5 6,133 Giles 11 8,758 Grayson 15 8,252 Lee 19' 13,584 Montgomery 19 23,049 Pulaski 12 15,237 Russell 12 15,974 Scott 16 11,914 Smyth 14 14,840 Tazewell 24' 21,599 Washington 18 21,275 Wise 10' 19,218 Wythe 13 11,726 Bristol 5' 9,015 Galax 4' 2,803 Norton 2 2,119 Radford 3 5.321

TOTAL 251 244,199

Tenth Arlington 40* 84,713 Fairfax County (part) 89* 176,125 Loudoun 30* 30,278 Fairfax City. 7* 11,116 Falls Church 5 5.518

TOTAL 171 307,750

Includes Central Absentee Voter Election District precinct.

0 26b 231 Worksheet CANDIDATE SELECTION IN VIRGINIA

Primaries - Mass Meetings- Conventions

There are about 60,000 people ina House of Delegates district, and about 25,000 of themare registered to vote. 5% to 10% of the registered voters participate in primaries-- about 2,500 in a House of Delegatesdistrict. If there are two candidates and a normal turn-out, itmight require 1,251 votes to win a primary.

af we assume 2.4 votersper household, that's 600 families or less that could control the primary. One good-sized church, business, or elementary school oftenhas more families than that!

PRIMARIES are often decided byone or a few votes. Since registration in Virginia isNOT by party, primaries are essentially open and sometimes are controlled byvoters who generally support the OTHER party. This is called cross-over voting,or raiding. Supporters of Party X will vote in the PartyY primary-- either to support a candidate they prefer to one their own party might offer OR to defeatthe stronger candidate, making their PartyX candidate more likely to win in the general election. Since the turnout is frequently light,an influx from the other party can distort thecandidate selection process. Many districts have discontinued primaries, and this is one of the mainreasons. Another reason is that primariesare expensive for both candidates and parties. Candidates and their campaignmanagers must find money to pay for flyers, letters, potters, ads innewspapers, radio.spots, TV, and sometimes for other campaigncosts such as offices, phone banks, and computer assistance: Parties must pay the costs of usingvoting machines and staffing the polls, and then must paste the party backto- gether after the primaryso its candidate stands a chance in the general election.

PRIMARIES TEST THE CANDIDATES' VOTERAPPEAL. THEY CAN BE VERY DIVISIVE, BUT THEY ARE THE TRADITIONALGRASSROOTS WAY TO SELECT CANDIDATES. MOST STATES REQUIRE PRIMARIES FOR THE SELECTION OF CANDIDATES FORNATIONAL OFFICES AND FOR MAJOR STATE OFFICES.PRIMARIES ARE OPTIONAL IN VIRGINIA. LOCAL PARTY OFFICIALS DECIDE ON THE METHODOF CANDIDATE SELECTION.

MASS MEETINGS & CONVENTIONS are also used to select candidates inmany parts of Virginia. Mass meetings allow citizens tosee and hear the candidates in a party meeting,and to "instruct" local party officials and/or convention delegateson their choices. A mass meeting can be "packed" with supporters ofa particular candidate. The candidates can lobby for the votes of those present. If there is no contest, then there is no need for a convention, and the party's onlyexpenses were renting the hall for the meeting andproviding incidental pencils, paper, coffee, and (usually!) receiptsfor campaign contributions. Conventions are meetings of thelocally-chosen delegates,many of whom arrive "instructed" or "pledged" to a particular candidate. Delegates usually bear most of the cost of a convention, though theirexpenses may be paid by their local party members and organization. The big advantage to both mass meetingsand conventions is that the rivals for D 27

2 v2 Candidate Selection in Virginia (cont'd)

an office can assess their relative strengths among the party's representatives assembled, can face the reality of onlyone winner, and be gracious about it. Losers can agree to support the winner, and help to heal the divisions that might otherwise result invoter confusion or apathy, and defeat for the party's nominee in the general election.

Is the general public, the "grassroots," better served bya primary, which is often just a miniature general election, whichmany claim is more a popularity contest, or "beauty contest"?Or is the "grassroots" better served by mass meetings and conventions, at which thecandidates are selected by involved party members who may be more concerned.with winning the general election?

Would a party worker be likelyto look for different traits ina candidate than a voter would seek? Which ones?

If you were asked to writea paper supporting legislation requiring primaries in state elections, whatreasons (3 or more) would you include? 1- 2- 3-

If you were asked to writea paper opposing mandatory primaries in state elections, what reasons (3or more) would you include? 1- 2- 3-

Do you know any students whoare active in a party? What kinds of things do they do during a campaign?

Special interest groups thatconcern themselves with only one issue give money and organize support for candidates whoagree with them on the one issue. Describe several ways that this isdifferent from the way a party looks at a candidate.

Political action committees (PACs)have become influential in U. S. elections. How does this affect party organizations? candidates? voters? Does it help or hinder our searchfor the most competent and honest office-holders? Or do you think it hasany effect at all?

D 28 233 CAMPAIGN PLANNING SIMULATION

Part 1- Class splits into sub-committees to draw up plans for a House of Delegates election campaign nR for another office (which may require some modifications). Part 2 - Campaign Coordinating Committee, composed of chairpersons of the subcommittees, meets as a panel with the rest of the class looking on, using an analysis form. Teacher introduces "wild cards" as appropriate.

Part 3 - Class discussion of campaign plan, and of the committeeprocess.

FIRST DECISION FOR TEACHER: You may decide to split the class into two sections to plan the campaigns from the points of view of two parties -- having each investigate the particular issues, fund sources, and favorable precincts of.one party. (Ifyou keep the class together to work on candidate X, you might give the party and'candidate names that are appropriate for your schoolor community.)

PREPARATION: Select the committees and chairpersons-- by vote, drawing, or administrative decision. See enclosed agendas for an outline of the work of each. Correct them to fit local circumstances. If you have not been active recently in a campaign, you might want to consult with a local resident who has. Also you might want to warn party officials that your students will be looking for information and cost estimates. - Duplicate both evaluation sheets for each member of the class. 1111 - Duplicate subcommittee agendas for each member of the committee. - Assign and review OR post a summary statement on the boundaries and political makeup of your delegate district. See Section B for raw data, unless your classes developed a Delegate Districtprofile, or see The Almanac of Virginia Politics. What characteristics and interests would you want to ")esure were represented in the members of the committees, or in their deliberations? - Look over the "wild card" suggestions, and come up with some likely ones for your community. Choose some good news and a blowor two. - Announce committee assignments in advance. Let students think about their roles and talk to family and friends about whatvoters want to know and how people become involved ina campaign. - Allow some classtime several days before you plan to start the simulation for committees to meet and assign thephone calls and search for information. Give out subcommittee Evaluation Sheet 1as a guide for expectations.

Part 1 - Subcommittee Meetings. 15 minutes to a whole class period should be allowed. Walk around and steer discussion (when necessary)to realistic plans with questions suchas "How will you get people to do that?" "How much will that cost?" "Do you need a permit for a " (parade/soundtruck/other) "Would thatannoy more people thawit woulW interest?" "Is there an issue you could raiseor a position you could take that would appeal to those people?"Committees should have a secretary or recorder to keep notes on.decisions and assignments.

D 29 Simulation, part 1 (cont'd)

Give out Eviluation Sheet l*as the' subcommitteesgather, and collect completed forms as they complete theirmeetings. If they have done their information gathering, theymay need a full class period to draft their proposals. Chairpersonsshould run these meetings. Part 2 - Campaign Coordinating Committee.Chairpersons of the subcommittees meet as a panel, as the rest of the classwatches and analyzes their effectiveness and their interaction.Use Evaluation Sheet 2, The community would continue to interactwith the campaign committee during a real election,so the rest of the class should be able to pass notes to the panel and aid in its deliberations.

Teacher introduces "wild cards"or problems/opportunities for the panel to deal with in their planning. Here are a few suggestions: - The Governor will come .to town on Oct. 17 to speak foryour candidate. How can you organize it to get themost publicity? money?

- There's a rumor that your candidate, X, has a problem withalcohol. How can you deal with therumor without spreading it?

- You've just discovered that your opponent received $300 froma person indicted last week on drugs or gamblingcharges. How do you deal with this? (Remember: indicted does notmean convicted.)

- A couple of your candidate, X's, neighbors have just starteda group called "Independents for X."How can you encourage them without threatening their choice to beindependent? - A local organization has come out in favor ofyour candidate. How will you treat the endorsement ifit is one you want?What if this support .is a real liability In another'section of town? YOU MIGHT WANT TO WAIT UNTIL THE CAMPAIGNPLANS ARE ALMOST COMPLETE BEFORE YOUINTRODUCE THE FINAL WILDCARD. Part 3 - Class discussion.of the campaign plan and of the committeeprocess. Would this candidate win?What do you thinkare the strong points in the plan?What are the weak points? Can you see problems that might come up during the campaign? Are thereways they could be countered?

Discuss the evaluation forms and thegroup process observed. Can students identify behaviors that makethe group function smoothly? Good candidates and honest electionsare the Efeblood of democracy. Discuss the role of the citizen. What is meant by the statementthat "Democracy is not a spectator'sport"?What is meant by the statement that the "public gets the officialsthey deserve"?

(NOTE: Phone Bank is listed on HeadquartersAgenda AND on Get Out The Vote Agenda. IT IS NOT A MISTAKE. See if the CCC counts iton both budgets! ?)

* There is room to add the student's name at the top of eachevaluation sheet if you think signed evaluation forms would be usedconstructively by your students. You might want to alter thequestions so as not to pinpoint criticism of otherstudents. You might also use a separate self-reporting form for personalizedevaluation that includes onlythe what-I-did and what-I-felt aboutmy own contribution. 030 2''5 One for each student EVALUATION 1 SUBCOMMITTEE ON

What was your assigned research?

Did you complete your task?

What sources did you contact?How useful was each?

1 -

2 - 3 -

Did all the members of your subcommitteecomplete their assigned research?

Did everyone take part in the discussion?

Did your chairperson set a good example (anddid your subcommittee members follow it) by respecting the opinions ofthe members and encouraging participation?

Was there a spirit of cooperation on -the subcommittee?

Did yoti stay on the subject most of the time inyour meetings?

Do you think the plan proposed byyour subcommittee was a good plan?

Did the plan represent the ideas ofmany members of the subcommittee?

How would you rate your subcommittee's efforts?

1 - poor 2 - o.k. 3 - average 4 - good 5 - great

On the same scale, how would you rateyour contribution?

1 - poor 2 - o.k. 3 - average 4 - good 5 - great

What was the most interesting thingyou learned about politics and campaigns?

What was the most interesting thingyou learned about group work?

What was the most interesting thingyou learned about your own participation?

Other comments:

D 31 One for each student EVALUATION 2 CAMPAIGN COORDINATING COMMITTEE

Did your subcommittee chairman presentyour report capably?

Did the CCC really coordinate all the reports intoa workable plan?

Do you think the money would have been raised?

Do you think the volunteers would have been found? Would fitl be one?

Do you think the party would have gotten out the vote?

Would you win?

Did you realize how many things a partymay have to do to win an election? What surprised you most?

Do you think the candidate would have been able to do everythingeverybody wanted him/her to do?

If YOU were the candidate, what things wouldyou have wanted to change about the plan?

Did the CCC members 1-kten to each other?

Did they seem to respect each other's opinions?

Write here or on .the back of this paper at least 2 goodthings that you saw or heard someone say that made the group work together more effectively.

If you were asked to serve on a committee witha planning task like this, would you consider doing it?

Would you ever consider running for office?

Would you consider helping in a political campaign?

What would you be willing, to do?

D 32 One copy for each member SIMULATION HEADQUARTERS & SCHEDULING SUBCOMMITTEE AGENDA

1 - Your mission.is to plan and estimate the'costs of running an office for the campaign. If you can staff it with volunteers, whowill sign them up and be sure they are reminded, prompt,and appreciated? If you have to pay someone to be there, how willyou find the person and what will it cost? How many volunteers will you need? Where? When? Where will Your office be?Why would the location matter? How much would rent cost for 6-8 weeks,or some peribd of your choice?

How much will phone service cost?How many phones will you need for the office? How many phones will you need fora "phone bank," if the Campaign Coordinating Committeeapproves one? How many callers will you need? How much space will it require? where? DRAW UP A PLAN AND A PROBABLE BUDGET TO PRESENT TOTHE CAMPAIGN COORDINATING COMMITTEE. 2 - Your second mission is to schedule the candidateand campaign manager and other speakers to "cover" the district. When can they be available? What will you need to know about the district? Organizations that usually run candidate forums? Clubs that will invite or permit speakers? Neighborhoods that will meet for coffee?How can you gather this data? What system can you set up to coordinate the calendar and besure the candidate isn't scheduled in two places at once? Who will keep the "master schedule"? How will the messages be relayed? 3 - Other?

One copy for each member SIMULATION PUBLIC RELATIONS & MEDIA COMMITTEE

1 - Plan press conferences and news-making events that will give your candidate free press coverage. What is "going on" in the community that would allow the candidate to be seen and heard atno cost? 2 - Plan an advertising campaign that will "cover" the district media. What will be the main thrust, the platform, the sloganor headline that will tie the campaign together?Are there obvious ones? How much do ads cost in the media in your area? Newspapers (call the Display Dept. for rates) Radio (call the major stations) TV (call channels that serve your area) Buses (do they have carcards inside? posters outside? costs?) Billboards (any good locations? how much?) Bumper stickers?Other ideas?

Estimate costs for photographs, flyers,. brochures, palm cards, sample ballots, artwork and printing for posters, etc.

Estimate production costs for radio, TV, . DRAW UP A PLAN AND A PROBABLE BUDGET TO PRESENT TO THE CAMPAIGN COORDINATING COMMITTEE. 3 - Find people who will write and coordinate fund appeals, letters to the editor, flyers, posters. Will they contribute their efforts to the campaign? If you would have to pay them, how much will it cost? Appointa scrapbook chairman and someone to keepa record of free and paid news coverage and publicity. D 33 SIMULATION FINANCE COMMITTEE One copy for each member

Some parts of the state are served by local TV channels,and TV is an important part of any political campaign. TV is very expensive-- both for the purchase of time and for the productionof tapes and If you can evaluate the programs. importance of TV inyour area BEFORE YOU START YOUR FINANCE PLAN, your figures can be more realistic. A big city daily newspaper will also run up bills faster thana small town paper. Assumptions: That your candidate will be opposed bya candidate from another party,or by an independent. That you will usesome TV spots. INFORMATION YOU NEED:

- Talk to officials of one or both parties. How much money is usually raised and spent by winners and lowers inthis district? How is it usually rained? - S.:rvey the community. Are there businesses,products, or professional services whoseowners or managers might offer free or lowcost services that you could use?Sympathetic printers, radio or television announcers or technicians might volunteer services or supplies atreduced rates or free. - The other committees will bring in specific estimates forthe items listed above...your jobis to set up the system to bring in themoney. IF YOU ARE WORKING ON THE PLANS FOR A SPECIFICPARTY OR CANDIDATE IN YOUR AREA, FIND OUT WHAT THE CANDIDATE'SPLATFORM AND ISSUE STATEMENTS INCLUDE. WHO WOULD BE MOST LIKELY POSITIONS? TO SUPPORT THESE WHO WOULD NOT SUPPORTTHIS CANDIDATE? WHO MIGHT HELP, EVEN ARE THERE FRIENDS THOUGH THEY ARE NOTUSUALLY CONTRIBUTORS? WHAT FUND-RAISERS WOULD YOU PLAN? Picnics? Dinners? How much would you expect Other? to clear afterexpenses are paid? Assuming you havea list of previous contributors, out a mailing? would you send How much would itcost? What would you expect raise from a mailing? to Is there PAC money in your area that this candidatemight be eligible to receive? Would support of such a group cost the support ofothers?

WHAT REPORTING MUST YOUDO? TO WHOM? BY WHEN? The campaign treasurer and the candidateare legally responsible for the money, the records, and the reports. Ask someone in a local organization to show party you the regulations and thereport forms. Write a summary statement about thelaw on contributions, and the Campaign Coordinating share it with Committee. Everyone working on the campaign should be familiar withthe regulations to tions. prevent inadvertent viola- Other ideas?

DRAW UP A PLAN AND PROBABLE BUDGET TO PRESENTTO THE CAMPAIGN COORDINATING COMMITTEE. Be sure to includeestimates of your a list of people in the fund-raising expenses and community who mightcontribute materials/services.

D 34 239 One copy for each member SIMULATION GET OUT THE VOTE COMMITTEE

1. Records - Who are the usual supportersthe party can probably count on in this election?How does the party know? Usually, there are master lists, a card file, or (more recently)a computer printout that shows as much information as can be assembled about the way each registered voter is believed to have voted or is likely to vote. This costs money to compile-- computer time, and printouts. But the information is only worth anything if itis kept up to date, and used.

Assume that you have computer records of past preferencesof most of the voters in your district. How will you update it? How will you know whether this particular candidate appeals to thesame people that the last ones did?You'll need door-to-dooror telephone call information, solicited by people known to the voter-- people he/she will talk to. Plan a neighborhood door-to-door campaign ORa phone bank. How many people will you need? How will you organize it?What will they say/ask?

2. Are there groups this particular candidate mightattract who may not be usual supporters of your party's candidates? How will you approach them? Who will approach them? What words will be used?

3. Do you plan a reminder, a call back,or some way to be sure your "favorables" still are favorable and intendto vote. You could also check on whether they need ridesor baby-sitting. Party volunteers often make these callsover the weekend preceding election day. Plan a script that is a friendly reminder. 4. Party organizations that have volunteerson election day check the voting lists against their list of "favorables"and phone those who have not voted by 4 P.M., or some other appointedhour. Can you recruit people to record thenames of those who vote as they are called off by the elections clerk?Can you find people to make the last minute reminder calls?

DRAW UP A PLAN- INCLUDING THE VOLUNTEERS YOU WILL NEED AND A BUDGET - TO PRESENT TO THE CAMPAIGN COORDINATINGCOMMITTEE.

If you are working on the plans fora specific party or candidate in your area, find out what the candidate's platformand issue statements include. Who would be most likely to help the party get out the vote? Are there neighborhoods. you would wantto give special attention? and others you would not give much time?

D 35

240 NOT JUST A GAME, but a compelling learning activity using basic legislative process, real issues, economics and politics in Virginia...it's a

MODEL .GENERAL ASSEMBLY

TEACHER SETS IT IN MOTION, 3-4 WEEKS BEFORE THE KICKOFF ! - Checks resources, decides on time allotted and sets dates - Identifies and discusses Virginia issues and news for weeks (months) in advance - Gives out assignments, information, and deadlines - Checks frequently to be sure assignments are receiving attention

STUDENTSDO THE WORKENTHUSIASTICALLY I 'Learn about Virginia economic & political realities! 'Learn /use research skills, libraries, local experts, real leg!slators, state information sources! 0Contact of icials with real issues/questions about politics, legislative procedures! 'Learn about coalitions that gain passage of regional concerns! %Learn and use parliamentary procedure!

STUDENTS WORK HARDER...AND LEARN MORE ABOUT THE REAL WORLD ! 4../. AV, owar....

E CITIZEN POWER IN THE LEGISLATURE

Resources Ideas ..;or a Model General Assembly E 3 Plan & Suggested Timetable E 4- 6 Simplified Chart: How A Bill Becomes A Law E 7 Selecting Dirr for Student Assignments (map) E 8 Assignment Sheet - ALL Students 9 Sample Letter to A%signed Legislator E 10 Bill Patron's Instructions E 11 Speaker/Pro tem & Chairperson's Instructions E 12 Instructions for a Well-Organized Clerk E 13 - 14 Pzrliamentary Procedure- A Few Basics E 15 - 16 General Assembly Issues- 1984 E 17 Visiting the General Assembly E 18 Attitudes & Test Questions E 19 - 20 Virginia House of Delegates, The New Legislator" E 21 - 26 Summary of Revenue & Expenditures for 1982-84 (Pie Charts) E 27- 32 University of Virginia News Letters: The 1982 -83 General Assembly- Robert J. Austin Virginia State & Local Government Finances in the Eighties - John L. Knapp E1

241. RESOURCES & IDEAS FOR A MODEL GENERALASSEMBLY IN YOUR CLASSROOM

1 - You'll need student textbooks or supplementaryresources that describe the structure and process of the VirginiaGeneral Assembly. See the Bibliography in Section A of this notebook.

- Will your students have access to copies of the VirginiaConstitution? - Is there an up-dated Code of Virginia in your community libraryfor student reference?

- Have you a current copy of The Almanac of Virginia Politicsto use in your classroom during the model general assembly?This book not only summarizes the economic and political makeup of eachdelegate' district and senatorial' district, but reportson the elections and voting records of each legislator. This information makes the model generalassembly more realistic. If you.do not have an Almanac, call 703573-8716 or send $9.95 plus tax and 55t handlingto 2310 Barbour Road, Falls Church, VA 22043. Up-dates are also available after eachstate election. 2 - Early in the school year, ask your school librarian to helpyou assemble vertical files on the issuesyou expect to be important in the elections and legislature. More than 700 lobbyistsare registered for each assembly session and most of them will sent informationon their positions. Ask your legislator for a list and send a form letteror card for materials on the issues you have chosen. These items might be marked to indicate their probable bias, or opposing views andlobbies might be listed on the file folder for cross-reference.

3 - Make a transparency of the simplifiedchart on "Hcw a Bill Becomes a Law" or ask an artistically-inclined student to calarge iton a poster and explain it to the class. 4 - Locate a local expert on parliamentary procedure and arrange to havea demonstration of its use in your classes. Check with your FFA advisor, English Department, other teachers, localservice clubs, League of Women Voters, former local officialsor legislators, students who have attended the YMCA Model General Assembly, andyour school administrators to find the right person to lead the demonstration. Duplicate the 2-page summary in this section of the notebook,or make your own student handout. 5 - Include in your uniton Congress, the definitions of a legislator's roles as trustee, delegate, partisan, or politico. These concepts will help your students understand the pressures of legislativedecisions in this model. 6 - Contact the Instructional Media & TechnologyDevelopment & Dissemination Service, Virgil.:a Department of Education,for an excellent 30-minute videotape showing the facilities and services ofVirginia. Title: "Get Involved in Government, II: State Government." Virginia government services come alive, and the tape is new! (More coming!) 7 - Start a bulletin board of state issues, usingmaterials from many sources that show differences of opinion. Students will enter the spirit of the model general assembly withmore enthusiasm if they already have opinions on some of the issues. You can spot potential bill sponsors in the class. 8 - Watch for the appointment of General Assemblycommittees and chairpersons. From what students learn about the committee membersand leaders, and about their home districts, can the fate of certainbills be predicted? 9 - Would a local grocer donate Vir "inia applesto the teams or classes which predict most accurately the win.ars in theelections throughout the state or the fates of a list of controversial bills? (Keep theprize a mystery!) E3 242 PLAN & SUGGESTED TIMETABLE FOR A MODEL GENERALASSEMBLY A super learning activityand a great change of pace!

As early as possible inthe school year

- begin including Virginia news in classdiscussions, - assign a notebook page/section to issuesin Virginia, - assign a notebook page for names and titles,a Who's Who in Virginia, - check with other government teachers to see if you need tocoordinate plans, mail requests for information, questions toyour legislators, and class visits byofficials.

AT LEAST 3 WEEKS BEFOREYOUR MODEL G.A.

Read through this Section E. If you like to use attitudetests, before and after, see E 19. To tie in with Chapter 2of the textbook, "By the Good People of Virqinia.."Our Commonwealth's Government, issues, and use broad-category identify 8- 10 budget charts (E 29-34). To tie in with Chapter 5 on Virginia Finances,you may want to ask your legislators more detailed information for or contact Legislative Services. The complete budget document is almost400 pages long. Make decisions (below) and give out assignments atleast 3 weeks beforeyou plan to begin your Model G.A. Students can send off for the class is completing information while another unit, or othersections of this notebook. DECISION 1 - Eaeh.classshould agree on a list ofgovernmental issues,as a starting place fug the bills fdr th6 Model G.A. See the list (E 17) and the News Letter on the 1982-83 GeneralAssembly. You may spot the patr:ns for the bills and lobbyistsfor one view or another in the..eearly discussions. Give out BILL PATRON SHEETs to these students,so that they can do their research and writeup a simple "bill." DECISION 2- WHICH HOUSE(S) WILL YOU USE FOR YOUR MODEL? If your class is large, has several leaders, and you haveanother classroom or meeting space available near-by, yru might split and represent both the class houses--it would berealistically confusing! Most classes ofaverage ability will be able and you might pair to handle one house, classes to gain therealism of passing other's bills. each DECISION 3 - EACH STUDENT IS ASSIGNED A DISTRICT to represent. See Economic Regions Map in Section B of this notebook, Districtmaps in the front pocket, or choose districts from each of the majorareas of the state sectioned ors the map on E 8. Include both urban and rural representatives. Post a list for each class. Spread out the assigned districts ,in your classes or withother teachers to avoid pestering individual legislators repeatedly. DECISION 4 - WHICH STUDENTS WILL DO DOUBLE-DUTY AS SPEAKER OR PROTEM, CLERK OR LOBBYISTS? The Speaker (or pro tem) shouldbe a NATURAL LEADER who "crawsor should learn parliamentary procedure. Choose an ORGANIZED student tobe clerk, to keep track of the bills and maintain a calendaron newsprint in the room so everyone can see it Duplicate and give out instruction sheets to each appointee.

TWO DAYS AFTER YOU GIVE OUT ASSIGNMENTSHEETS, START ASKING FOR REPORT #1 (E 9)

243 Plan and SuggestedTimetable (cont'd)

ABOUT 2 WEEKS BEFOREYOUR MODEL G.A. - POST A CALENDAR SHOWING DATES OFYOUR OPENING SESSION OF FIRST COMMITTEE AND DATES MEETINGS. Consider asking your delegate or . senator to play the role of governor and givethe opening address, identifying budget and legislative priorities. If the G.A. is in session while you are doing your model,you or an informed student might give a summary of the Governor's "State ofthe Commonwealth" address. - POST THE STANDING COMMITTEE ASSIGNMENT LIST. Assign ever;' student to at least one of the 4-5 committees you create. They'll all meet at once, leading tovery realistic conflicts for and bill patrons. legislator/lobbyists Create committees thatwould consider. the issues/ bills selected by each class. (See lists and ideas inthis section and the News Letteron the 1982-83 General Assembly.) - POST THE GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION CHART in the front pocket of this notebook, AND A POSTER (madeby a student?) ON "HOW A LAW IN VIRGINIA." A BILL BECOMES - Duplicate Parliamentary Procedure sheets (E 15-16) and suchother information as you think necessary from "The New Legislator" (E21 -26) for your Speaker/Protem, and committee chairmen. - Ask about letters from legislators, and lobbyists. Collect Report #2.

ABOUT 1 WEEK BEFORE YOURMODEL G.A. - Duplicate Parliamentary Proceduresheets for all students, briefly and choose explain a couple of school or communityissues for a demonstration of the techniques of managing a group. Who will be your guest expert torun the demonstration? - Check with students assigned to be clerks. Have patrons submitted bills on the previously-chosen issues? Are there additional bills of the students' own choosing to be discussed? (If not, do you want to suggest a few?) - Have you a "governor" for opening day? - Make copies or a transparency on "How a Bill Becomesa Law." There are charts in the Chamberof Commerce books; Your Virginia State League of Women Voters, Government, and a simplifiedversion in this section. Go over it with your students. Even if you taught it earlier in thecourse, it will have new meaning this model activity. in the context of

MANAGING THE MODEL GENERALASSEMBLY Opening Day- Speaker declares the session duces the "governor." officially open andintro- After the "State ofthe Commonwealth" the houserecesses. address, COMMITTEES MEET ANDSCHEDULE HEARINGS ON THEY ARE TO CONSIDER. Times and places of public THE BILLS .posed in'the.claisbom hearings should be to alerl:Iqbbyists..*patrons. Second Day- First readings (bill numbers and titles) in generalsession. followed by committeemeetings.

5 Plan & Suggested Timetable (cont'd)

Third Day - First readings ofnew bills. Second readings and discussion or debate of bills that had first readingthe day before. (Instructions on Speaker Sheet.) Committee meetings. ANNOUNCE CUT-OFF: NO MORE BILLS AFTER 4th DAY, or other dayof your choosing. Fourth Day - Last day for Clerk to iceive new bills. Proceed as on third day. Clerk will probably need help fromteacher to keep bills straight and duplicate or post correctedwording of bills for floor discussion. (This pattern should be allowed to continue only so longas the discussion is producing information about students' personal viewson issues OR the views of the legislatoror district represented by the students. BEFORE ALL BILLS HAVE BEEN BROUGHT OUT OF rOMMITTEE,announce the date of the end of thelegislative session. There is never enough time, anthe model session should end ina crush to be realistic.) Note: If you are running a 2-house modelG.A., ' 'ills passed by one are then sent to the other for thesame process ommittee to eirst, second, third readings. A committee of conference, composedof members of both houses, reconciles differences between bills not passedin identical form in the two houses. The conference report then must bepassed by a majority of each house.

CONCLUSION:Teacher (or your guest governor)announces which bills 011 be "signed into law" and which vetoed. Give reasons (i.e., cost, difficulty of fair enforcement, ambiguity or duplication, conflict with other laws or levels of authority,or other impairment.) Have an over-ride session, if time and energy permit.

DE-BRIEFING: Some questions and discussion ideasare listed on E 18. Re- view for test on process,, issues,officials, citizen input at various stages, vocabulary, subjective attitudes.Other ideas on E 19-20.

The procedures listed here do not includeall the fine points. If you and your classes'want to be more realistic, askyour legislator for a current copy of The Manual of the Senate and House ofDelegates, attend sessions and hearings, and see if you can encourage clubs and organizations inyour school to use correct parliamentary procedure in their meetings,so students will use it easily.

In any event, invite your legislatorsto speak to government classes BEFORE each session about the legislation they expect to hear, and again AFTERthe session to discuss what actually happenedand why. If you can videotape such interviews and show the tape to students before the legislatorcomes to visit the class, student questionsand discussion might be sharpened.

If you use state and local government issues throughout theyear in current events discussions, this Model General Assembly can becomea high point of student involvement in the course. No national textbook chapterson state government can provide the insightson politics and build participation in the class and in the world outside of school as easily and withsuch enthusiasm as the study of current local problems that affectteacher and student pocketbooks and the petty details of our daily experience...air,water, traffic, trash, crime, negligence, health care, drugs, regulation,persona' freedoms, community services,budgets and taxes E6 2 \L MM./4T WV SCIWI CoES ri

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32 ts DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA

I-- 33-52 SEE INSERT A

VIRGINIA MARYLAND HOUSE OF DELEGATESDISTRICTS 23 AS ESTABLISHED 1982 74 17 4..71 16

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TO SELECT DIST1ICTS FORSTUDENT ASSIGNMENT:

1 - VERY IMPORTANT Find out how many classes inyour school will be doing a Model General Assembly. In order not to bother thesame legislators over and over, it is important that the teachersget together and coordinate assignments. If more than 100 studentsare involved, let the students who are assigned the same district gettogether and write one letter and one list of bills forthe legislator's reaction.

2 - Divide the 100 districts by the number of studentsparticipating, less one for each House Clerk. (The clerk's job will becomplicated enough without adding districtrepresentation to it.) Example: If only one class inyour school is doing the Model General Assembly, and that class has 25 students, assigneach student a district from each group of four districts. Choose one district from #1 - 4, one district from #5- 8, one from #9 - 12, etc.

3 - Look over the choices to be sure you havean appropriate mix of urban and rural districtsrepresented in each class.

E8 247 ASSIGNMENT SHEET ALL STUDENTS 'Dfstrict # , House Senate 3 THINGS TO DO IMMEDIATELY: Deadline: 1111 1. Look up your assigned district in the Almanacof Virginia Politics or other sources. Find out about the population: What kind of people are there?Are their numbers growing? How fast? Why? What are the important industries and products?Describe the geography. Are there distinctive features that would influence the politics? How has this area voted in the past? Find the name and address of the person who represents this district in the houseyour class is portraying.

2 - Write to the current legislator in."yourdistrict." Use the sample wording, or rewrite it to suit yourself andrequest the same information. ENCLOSE a copy of the LIST OF BILLS/ISSUESyour clays is studying AND a STAMPED, SELF-ADDRESSED ENVELOPE for his/her reply. Make carbons or copies of letter and list.

3. REPORT # 1. Hand in a copy of the letter you sent clearly.markedwith the date you mailed it...ANDa chart showing the class issuesibins.and your guesses on how the legislator will.respond.to eachone.use columns for "little interest," "might co-sponsor," "probableyes vote." Can you . tell from the information you found inyour research (#1 above) how this legislator might vote on these bills?Can you identify any bills that might be of little interest to this part of thestate, which the legislator might use in a trade for votes ona bill that would be important to this area?

4. In addition to the bills/issues identifiedon the class list, are there other concerns you have that you think the General Assembly shouldaddress? If you think "there ought to be a law about. . ." and you think others might agree, ask for the Bill Patron's Instruction Sheetand make one up!

5. REPORT #2. DUE 2 DAYS AFTER YOU HEAR FROM "YOUR"LEGISLATOR. Hand in what you receive AND a chart showingyour analysis of the responses to specific issues. (Your chart might be anotherpage taped to the bill list you sent for comment.) It should show your prediction of the response, your personal feelings about the bill and howyou will probably vote in our Model General Assembly. If your lawmaker wrote out an analysis or attached conditions to his/hervote, be sure you analyze them so you can drawa conclusion from the information. Look up the definitions of DELEGATE, TRUSTEE, PARTISAN, and POLITICOin your text. From what you have learned about this district, ifyou were representing it in the General Assembly, which of thesefour legislative styles woillo.yOu be mciiiiikelyTOuse most of the time. Be ready to discuss this question and describe yclurreasoning. It miuld be wise to keep a copy of this informationfor your own use while your teacher is lookingover the material. 6. Keep up your collection of clippings and otherinformation on the issues your class is discussing. (Sign up if you want to do an explanatory poster showing one "side" of a controversy,or showing both pros and cons. 7. R6fiew how a bill becomesa law in Virginia. Summarize it in your notebook so you will be ready to understand and participate in theprocess. THIS WILL BE ON THE UNIT TEST...AND ON QUIZZES, STARTING ALMOSTIMMEDIATELY! 8. Go over the Parliamentary Proceduresummary sheet. Learn how to make a simple motion, amend a motion, and vote.Where is parliamentary procedure used?Why? Why should you know it. THIS WILL BE ON THE TEST! E9

248 SAMPLE LETTER TO LEGISLATOR

. . Note: Envelope address is same as inside address. If the legislature is in session when you write, sendyour letter to the Richmond office; otherwise, send it to the legislator's home districtoffice. TitleJor address: The Honorable. Franklin Surry Madison Salutation for a delegate: Dear (Mr., Mrs. or hiss) Madison, Salutation for a senator: Dear Senator Madison,

(Date) The Honorable (Address)

Dear

Our government class is studying the General Assembly,and I have been selected to "represent"your th District in a model session. I read the description of the th District in The Almanac of Virginia Politics. Is there additional informationyou think I should know to have a better picture of your views and your constituency?

Our cZass'will be debating and votingon several bills during our model session and we would Zike to beas realistic as possible. I hope you can take a couple of minutes to note brieflyyour reactions to these biZZ titles or to note factors that would be important in determiningyour vote. The list and a si-cmped, self-addressed envelopeare enclosed. If you expect to introduce or cozpatron biZZs in thenext session, or if you think we have missedan important issue, it would be very helpful if you would include a title or a sentence or two ofsummary. I will share your responses with others atmy school, so your mailbox will not be filled with duplicate requestsfrom High. Thank you very much, (signed)

("lour name and address) Encl: 2 List Return envelope

BILL LIST FOR LEGISLATOR'S REACTIONS:

BILL TITLE/SUMMARY My District's Factors that would probable reaction determine my vote

(List titles decided by (Leave blank for legislator your class.) to fill in.)

(You might write a THANK YOU in the corner.) REMINDER: DO NOT FORGET TO ENCLOSE THE RETURNENVELOPE 41

E 10 249 BILL PATRON INSTRUCTIONS

SO...you have a bill to propose?something you think should be done in Virginia? Good! That's what starts the process. Here's how to proceed:

1 - Look again at the steps in "How a Bill Becomes a Law."

2 - Write up the main idea of the bill inone statement that begins "A bill to..." amend existing law, legalize, prohibit, limit, extend, change, restore, fund, or other action...onsome specific item, class of items, activity, law, or other. Next add the source of any funds needed, the penalty for violation, the department or agency responsible for enforcement,or other information necessary for the idea to be implewented. If funds are required, try to approximate the cost per year.

3 - Find other legislators to co-patron the bill. The more co-patrons you have, the more votes you know.the bill will have and themore advocates it will have when it is discussed. Do your co-patrons have suggestions for changes in your idea?

4 - Research your bill. The Division of Legislative Services does a thorough job of research on each bill it prepares for the General Assembly,but there are resources in your community YOUcan use to check out some legal points in your bill. Look at the Virginia Constitution for powers and possible prohibitions. Find a copy of the Code of Virginia in your library or ask a lawyer to show you how to check the legality ofyour proposal. Is there already such a law? Would the funding, the penalties, or other details violate the Code? * 5 - Write or type your bill in proper form (see below). Give two copies to the student serving as Clerk, who passes one on to the assigned committee.

6 - Help your bill pass the committee. Line up favorable votes. Find a lobbyist and an "interested citizen" or two to testify before thecommittee. Enlist for these.roles anyistudents who show concern, and whoare not members of the committee considering it.

7 - Schedule a caucus of legislators who favor the billto plan strategy. If the bill is not of vital interest to certain areas of the state, maybeyou can swap votes on a.project of theirs for support for your bill. Plan what each speaker will say at the committee hearing.

8 - Plan speakers for the bill on the floor of the house, ifthe committee reports it out favorably. What amendments might you accept to bargain for more votes. All patrons should speak in favor of their bills.

IF YOUR MODEL GENERAL ASSEMBLY HAS TWO HOUSES, YOU WILL NEED TO BESURE THAT THE BILL IS LOBBIED TN THE OTHER HOUSE. You might want to find a legislator in the other house to sponsor an identical bill and guideit through with co-patrons and lobbying.

* 1 HOUSE BILL # 2 Offered: (fill in date) 3 Patron: (fill in name) 4 Referred to the Committee on (fill in name of committee) 5 Be it enacted by the General Assembly of Virginia: 6 that 7 Ell 250 SPEAKER/PRO TEM & CHAIRPERSONS INSTRUCTIONS

You have a great opportunity to learn, review,and help teach a technique that will be necessary to the success of the Model General Assembly inyour class in a couple of weeks, a technique that could be VERY USEFUL toyou in the future. People who use parliamentary procedurewith skiZZ and good humor are sought after for positionsof leadership in groups of aZZ kinds. Check off each step as you completeit.

1 - Recruit a stand-in for your role. Work together. 2 - Read the 2-pagesummary of Parliamentary Procedure. 3 - Read the 6-page material, "TheNew Legislator" (E 21-26) 4 - Re-read the 2-pagesummary of Parliamentary Procedure. 5 - Look for a film or other A-Vmaterials in your library, English Department, or in your community. Your FFA advisor or student government coordinator may have materialsor know where to.find them. 6 - Attend a meeting, ifyou can learn of one in your community where parliamentary procedure will be used. Write a brief evaluation of the skill of the chairperson and thegroup, based on your study. 7 - Meet with others who will beconducting meetings and discuss what happens to motions, amendments to motions,votes, special motions and questions. How will you begin a session, and how willyou end it? 8 - Talk to a local expert to helprun a demonstration for your chairpersons group or for your class. Plan some discussion questions and situations for the demonstration. Practice how you would_handie them.

9 - Plan additional helps foryour classmates before and during the Model G.A. so they will understandproper ways to accomplish group action. 10 - Practice to yourself and withyour stand-in, until you are sure you can lead the group with skill and good humor.

Plan how you will manage the sessionsand the calendar. York with the clerk ofyour house or the recorder of your committee each day to list bills on the calendar that will be debatA or voted. What bills are ready for action? What bills are reported out of committeeand should be on the house calendar? Use a timer - Limit sessions to allow time each day for committeesto work. - Limit speeches. (2 minutes for patron, 1 minute for others?)

- Limit the number of speakers. Suggest that proponentscaucus to plan strategy and manage time.

THERE IS NEVER ENOUGH TIME FOR LEGISLATORSTO STUDY AND DEBATE EVERY POINT. KEEP THE CLASS MOVING FAST TO BEREALISTIC!

Committee Chairpersons: Appoint a recorder immediately. Select someone you can count on to keep the committee's paperworkstraightened out, to schedule hearings and discussionson each bill, to be sure the approved wording of each bill is passed alongto the clerk of the house, puton the calendar, and considered by thewhole group. It is your job to besure that each bill assigned toyour committee is acted upon: reported out (approved as presented or amended), referred.to anothercommittee, passed by/ignored (or killed) deliberately. Plan your strategies with committeemembers. E 12

251. INSTRUCTIONS FOR A WELLORGANIZEDCLERK (and notes for recorders.*)

The clerk in this Model General Assemblyis similar to a real one, and VERY IMPORTANT to the success of the activity.

The clerk receives two copies of eachbill, prepared in proper form, from bill patrons, and assigns them numbers (H.B.1, 2, 3, for House billsor S.B. 1. 2. 3. for Senate bills.)

The clerk, in consultation with the speakeror pro tem, refers the bills to standing committees for consideration. (Three or four committees should suffice, with theirnames and missions adapted to the chosen issues.) The clerk receives two copies of committee-approvedbills from the chairperson or recorder of the committee, as soonas they are approved. - The clerk plans (with the speake.r or pro tem) and posts the calendar for each day's session, differentiating HOUSE BILLS ON THEIR THIRD READING HOUSE BILLS ON THEIR SECOND READING (The Senate calendar HOUSE BILLS ON THEIR FIRST READING would have opposite SENATE BILLS ON FIRST READING & REFERRED TOCOMMITTEE designations.) HOUSE BILLS REFERRED TO THE SENATE

The clerk keeps track of the decisions madeon the floor of the house. - The clerk should recruit assistan'...s (committee recorders) when needed.

THE CLERK IS THE HUB OF ALL THE PAPERWORKTHAT MAKES THE MODEL FUNCTION. BE SURE YOU KEEP A COPY OF ALL IMPORTANTPAPERS THAT PASS THROUGH YOUR HANDS. USE TWO FOLDERS:

#1 - BILLS FILED. One copy of each billsubmitted by a patron, marked with the bill number and the committeegiven the other copy. #2 - BILLS RETURNED FROM COMMITTEE.One copy of the official committee- approved wording of each bill returnedfor floor consideration. (The second copy goes to thespeaker or pro tem.) Note amendments AND check off readings: 1st 2nd 3rd_ KEEP THE FOLDERS IN A SAFE PLACE INTHE CLASSROOM. DON'T RISK LOSING THEM!

Notes for recorders: The recorder chosen by each committeechairperson is the source of information vital to the job of the clerk. Keep careful note of corrections and double-check the copies of the billsyou pass on for action on the floor. OFFER TO HELP THE CLERK BYPREPARING THE CALENDAR ENTRIES FOR BILLS FROM YOURCOMMITTEE. HELP ANY OTHER WAY YOU CAN. Before you start your assignments as clerk; read and understand Howa Bill Becomes a Law in Virginia. Read the materials on The NewLegislator. Equip yourself with the file folders labeled as above,a stack of large 24" to 30" squares of newsprint,a selection of marking pens or bold crayons, tacks or tape appropriate and permitted for use on the wallsor other surface of your classroom. Ask your delegate or senator fora copy of an official calendar to help you replicate the form. It should be neat; it must be legible. See iaeas on how to do it.on the next page.

E 13

2.1.,;2. THE CALENDAR IS A KEY-- AND THE CLERK IS THE KEEPER OF THE CALENDAR Calendar booklets are distributed each daythe Virginia General Assembly is in session. Since you do not have a print shopin your classroom (and unlimited paper supplies) the followingalternative is suggested to keep your student legislators informed of theprogress of each bill. The same technique can post the wording of the billbeing debated or voted where '11 participants cansee it.

1 - You need an area 24" to 30" wide and at least 4' tall-- a wall that you can tape onto, or pin or thumb tack. A tall bulletin board is ideal. If several classes will be doing ModelG.A.s in the same room, identify an area for each oruse a separate backing sheet for each class that can be prepared and readyto hang at the start of the period.

If your classroom has hookson sliders over the blackboard, you can stiffen the long side of a piece ofposterboard by folding itover a yardstiCk or dowel and sealing the reinforcementwith masking tape, then suspend it from the hooks withstring loops. If your classroom has a tack strip, makethe calendar heading on posterboard and pin it with longer-than-averagetacks. Tape on newsprint panels as needed.

If your classroom has walls thatcan take tacks or masking tape, you need only identify sections for eachclass. If you can neither tape nor tack, consideran easel and lots of paper. As a last resort, mark off part ofthe blackboard for the calendar and tape newsprint to it, but reservea part of the board for the clerk's use during debate to keep wordings and amendmentsstraight. 2 - Prepare the calendar. Locate a real one to see the'ro'er format Make a heading on posterboard HOUSE OF DELEGATES Calendar

Newsprint strips for datelin- (date) Make category strips on poste HOUSE BILLS - 3rd READING or hea,fy paper. Re-use them. HOUSE BILLS- 2nd READING Committee recorders can mak H.B. 3. A bill to amend newsprint strips with the the Code of Virginia.. bill's correct wording.

3 - When legislators discuss bills,they have a printed copy of the latest wording in front of them. Accomplish this with markers anda big piece of newsprint, several big piecesof newsprint. Write the bill's wording in large lettersso it can be seen all over the room.Tape the newsprint pieces to the board. As amendments are proposed, write them on the adjoining section of board, usingthe line numbers on the bill to key in amendments. When amendments are approved, patch the newsprint to show the changes. Type a copy of the bill as passed. 4 - If the bill is passed, the clerk sends itto the other house, if you are using a two-house model. If not, the bill is signed by the speaker or pro tem and delivered.to the "governor" or teacher for signingor veto.

E 14

0rr") (LI PARLIAMENTARY PROCEDURE A FEW BASICS FROM ROBERT'S RULES OF ORDER

-- To expedite majority decisions, while protecting each group member's rights -- To assure freedom of speech and allow full debate before decision

Anyone who works with groups and meetings or wants to understand theprocesses of legislative bodies should learn the proper use of parliamentary procedure. Virginia legislators follow the rules in The Manual of the Senate and House of Delegates, based on Robert's Rules of Order and Jefferson's Manual of Parliamentary Practice.

# # # # # Some definitions and a sequence of action on a MAIN MOTION:

1. Chair - the presiding officer.All speakers must first be "recognized." '( "The chair recognizes the Delegate from Hampton_ ") 2. "I move..." to propose any action by the body (group). Only one main motion may be on the floor" or "before the body" at a time.

3. "I second them;iiam," The seconder believes the matter should be discussed, but is not committed to vote for or against. I no member seconds, the

subject is dropped (no discussion, no vote) . Chair proceeds with the agenda. -A poorly worded motion may lead to multiple amendments and confusion of the group and the procedure. A good chair will work before the meeting to be sure that motions are clearly worded. This saves time and patience. 4. Discussion/Debate. A seconded motion should be restated by the chair at the opening of debate. A proponent (someone. who favors the motion) should speak first. Next, the chair asks if there are any members who wish a point clarified or additional information, Then, anyone who wishes is free to speak, though the chair may wish to alternate between those in favor and those opposed. No person should speak a second time until all who wish have spoken once.

5. "I:move the.preaZY (or Pending) question," This cuts off discussion and calls for a vote. It must seconded, and (since it limits freedom of expression) approved by 2/3 vote. If approved, the vote on the motion follows immediately. 6. The chair restates the motion (or asks the secretary to), and then asks "Those in favor, signify by saying aye "...then "Those opposed, nay."The chair rules on the majority and announces "Themotion has carried." or "...failed."

7. AMENDMENTS. Controversial or spontaneous motions (and sometimes those carefully planned) often require some alteration in order to satisfy the majority. Amend- ments may add something to the original motion, take something out of it, or substitute something entirely different. This is where confusion may occur. AMENDMENTS ARE SUBSIDIARY MOTIONS and each must be seconded to be considered by the group...then it MUST BE APPROVED OR REJECTED BEFORE THE GROUP CAN CONSIDER ANY OTHER AMENDMENT OR VOTE ON THE MAIN MOTION. (Amendments themselves may be amended. An amendment-to-the-amendment must be voted on before the amendment itself can be brought to vote. The chair might keep a diagram of the motions and ask the parliamentarian, secretary, or clerk to he p keep motions in order.)

OTHER MOTIONS USEFUL FOR THE CONDUCT OF A MEETING (in order of precedence): Privileged motions - have precedence over ALL others. 1. "I move to adjourn."- to end the meeting with no provision to reconvene. This motion requires a second, cannot be amended or debated, and requires a majority vote to pass. 2. "I move to recess until..." - a temporary halt, meeting to resume at the stated time, exactly where it left off, This motion requires a second, can be amended but not debated, and requires a majority vote to pass. E 15 217 3. "Point of personal privilege"- to request the extension of a courtesy to a member. Can interrupt speaker. Chair rules on the request, which may be to allow a member to introduce special visitors inthe gallery -- particularly during the period designatedas "the morning hour." "Point of privilege" to requesta courtesy associated with the topic under discussion. Can interrupt speaker. Must be acted upon by themem- ber at whom it is directed. ("Will the delegate yield to questions?")

Subsidiary Motions- precedence over all others, except the 3 immediately above. 4. "Move to postpone temporarily"a motion under consideration until a stated time. Requires a second, and majority vote. Cannotbe debated or amended.

5. "Move the previous question"- stop discussion, vote immediately. Re- quires a second, and approval of 2/3. Cannot be debated or amended. 6. Motion to limit or extend debate. Requires a second, and 2/3 approval. May be amended in limited ways (i.e., tochange time). Cannot be debated. 7. Move postpone or refer to commitae- either essentially kills the motion, unless a specific plan for reconsiderationis included. Requires second, and majority vote topass. May be amended and debated.

Main Motions- see procedure on reverse.

Specific Main Ktions- to rescind a previous decision, to reconsider or resume consideration of a previous motion. Must be seconded. Require majority vote. Incidental Motions- all must be decided immediately since they concern the conduct of the meeting:.

- "appeal the chair's decision - to challenge decisionson rules, votes, procedures. A tie vote or majority is required tooverturn the chair's decision. A member may interrupt any speaker withthis appeal. It requires a second, is debatable, but NOTamendable.

- A member who made a motion may "Withdraw the motion" withno second or vote.

- "Point of order" - A member may interrupt any speaker when somethingcon- trary to accepted procedure seems to be takingplace. It requires a second, cannot be amended or debated, or voted. Chair or parliamentarian responds. - "Parliamentary -;Aquiry" - A member may interrupt any speaker witha parliamentary question. No second or vote. Chair or parliamentarianresponds. - "I move to suspend the rules" to permit an actior not usually allowed. Must be seconded, cannot be debatedor amended. Requires 2/3 approval.

The chair directs traffic to keep thegroup functioning on course. When discussion becomes repetitive: ''The chair will entertaina motion to call the question." If the group is divided or unable toagree: "The chair will entertain a motion to refer the matter to committee"- perhaps setting a time for the report or naming the committee. The chair sees to it that the body understands thequestion under discussion at all times, and states it clearlyimmediately before any vote. The chair should "entertaina motion to recess until 2 P.M." or "..for 30 minutes" when the members need a break or whena caucus (meeting) might help members break a deadlock. When the agenda is completed, the chairmay "entertain a motion to adjourn." A member responds "So moved," another membersays "Second the motion." The chair calls for the vote and ruleson the majority.

Members "lose the floor" if they don't remain standing,or if they violate parliamentary procedure. If they "yield the floor to.." another member, itis assumed that they may resume when the othermember is finished. E 16 255 1987 GENERAL ASSEMBLY ISSUES

StOy Commissions Between sessions, commissionsof legislatorsan other appointees determine the basic direction and content ofthe bills that will be proposed in the nextsession. Citizens who hope to influence often can be much more effective legislation during this formative period. Teachers and students looking for information BEFORE the General Assemblydebates begin can contact members of the study committees and commissions forinformation and reports on bills they plan to follow. Ask your Delegate or Senator for information, or contact LegislativeServices, General Assembly Building, 910 Capitol Street, Richmond, VA 23219.

Here is a partial list of the studiescurrently underway in prepartion for the 1987 General Assembly:

-Savings and loan and interest ratelaws -Water suppply and wastewater treatmentfacilities -Model Joint Custody Act -Teenage pregnancies -Screening of adults working withchildren -Tourism and economic development - Conflict of interest laws - Virginia High School League -Acid rain -No pass/no play - transportation in the twenty-first century -Alzheimer's Disease -Tidal shoreline erosion policy -Purchase of foreign coal - Taxation of public service corporations - Proposed federal income tax changes - Charitable contributions -Toxic Substances Information Act -G-oup Insurance for the unemployed -Good Samaritan exemptions -Governor's Commission on the Efficiencyof State Government

OTHER PERENNIAL & UNRESOLVEDISSUES -- & A FEW NEW ONES

- Equal Rights Amendment - Privileges & ElectionsCommittee - Repeal of sales tax on food and nonprescription drugs - Committee on Finance - Changes in drinking age - Additions to the 1983legislation? - Bottle Bill - Conservationists want deposits, bottling companies don't - Tobacco tax - our rate is second lowest in the nation - Sales tax - Should it be broadened to cover services? - Committee on Finance - Increased medical and social service costs- decreased federal funds - Gasoline tax receipts down - smaller cars. Taxon %, not per gallon? - Twin-trailers - safety problems and highway wear-and-tear, federal dollars - Budget - Raise taxes or cut programs to fundnew/more services? DECISIONS! - A bond issue for capital needs toease operating budget pressures

EACH CLASS SHOULD CHOOSE AT LEAST8 - 10 ISSUES AND SELECT 3- 4 PATRONS TO LEAD THE RESEARCH AND DEBATEON EACH. See the Bill Patron Instructions.

E 17

2F, VISITING THE GENERALASSEMBLY

Our Virginia State Capitol isan important part of Virginia and United States history. It is well worth a tour, andguides are available in the Rotunda. When the General Assembly is insession, the building is full of people, and since'the halls and stairs arenarrow, it is very hard to keep a group together. The House and Senate galleriesoften cannot accommodate all who would liketo watch the sessions,so visitors may be allowed only a short time in the gallery,though there is usually plenty of seating in nearbyrooms equipped with TV.

Virginia State Capitol Some schools have excused absence First(Ground) Floor procedures that would permita few students to visit the General Assembly on their own, and share a report with nlenwr'imr IC NUM MO 011104 the class on their return. Anyone WAIT planning to visit should check witha legislator's office to choosea day whet, interesting committee hearings and floor debate are ,cheduled. Tuesdays, Wednesdays, and Thursdays ..-.-- usually offer good choices. Parking may be difficult. Go early and plan to pay $3 or $4 fora spot in a parking garage, then walk to the Capitol and General Assembly Building.

General Assembly Building First Floor AS Second Floor .... r1L , :" /0;10.4 tr C 0 0 i I ":---...- 0000 vtat r.- CO .CU,[°Were . Gal ; ,---74-7*-7: .. 1:3:-- XPelt c .Z.,: 11-1U71 i f. :L___.1 .,..trii..--,-L--::Pane ,...... :.,c,...... cs tat. '10,11 * ., r cl court* 1,--,r ....- ,.. ,,,, y: 7...... ; ._ ___,-t owool , 12 :N I le .... :a ...... , C 0 C CI SAW * .."OrT.IS,

,. I t 1 I";' ,...... , "Wilr sE, rimac : ) ill ...=-..--e.:-W....13. OmMl ; ; IKON MN' : 111-0 L..="" -t The General Assembly Building isacross the street from the Capitol,on the northwest corner of thesquare. It has . additional meeting roomson the first floor, and offices of all legislators 4.11PCJ*InitaWir....-7mai on the floors above. The directory on the wall near the elevators will The second floor mezzanine houses theoffices of the help you find any member's office. There are speakers of theSenate and House as wellas the visitors' also conference rooms galleries. The Governors office is locatedon the third on the upper floors. floor.

E 18 257 QUESTIONS FOR ATTITUDE SURVEYS AND UNIT TESTS

Try a form such as the following before and after studying politics and elections. It will make interesting discussion, and might show a change of attitude in the class as a whole, and reveala few students who are ready to accept the challenge of participation. Reading about politics and elections is unlikely to make much difference. Getting actively involved, contacting live officials and researchingand discussing current issues CAN make a big difference! Try it! Remember that attitude surveys are always anonymous and handed, in separately from other papers. Check which of the following you would be willing to do: Register to vote. Vote. Join the local political (Democratic or Republicanor ?) organization. Sign a petition endorsing a candidate for cffice. Sign a petition for certain legislation. Write letters to your legislator expressingyour views on certain bills. Hand out campaign literature for a party/candidate, door-to-door/mall. Work regularly at campaign headquarters beforean election. Propose legislation and organize support for it. Attend public hearings on proposed legislation: local, state. Speak for or against legislation at a hearing: local, state. Be a candidate for office, soon, __perhaps in the future. Be a campaign manager, or other key party official. Work for a party or candidate.

IDEAS FOR TEST QUESTIONS BASED ON THE MODEL GENERAL ASSEMBLY 1 - Make a list of the bills we debated inour model G.A., then add three columns and fill in "My constituents' feelings," "My preference,"and "How I Voted." Analyze your vote. Were you acting as a trustee, delegate, partisan, or politico? Is it likely that you would be reelected? If you think it would be close, how would you explainyour record to the voters? 2 - (Questions about parliamentary procedure) 3 - (Questions about General Assembly customs and procedure)

4 - (Questions about how a bill becomes a law- arrange the steps in order?) 5 - Describe the legislators and the political action committeesand other lobbyists on two or more sides of one of the ' is we debated. (Or specify a different bill in each class.)

6 - Describe the role of the legislator and what difference it wouldmake in his work and his votes if he had little/some/much contact and direction from his constituents.

7 - Vocabulary - words from the legislative process and words fromthe issues. 8 - Describe the role of the speaker/pro tem,a committee chairman, the clerk or recorder.

9 - If you were running for the General Assembly, what would beyour platform? 10 - If you were redesigning the legislative process, what changes wouldyou recommend? Explain your reasons.

11 - (Questions about lobbyists- over 700 were registered for the 1983 session. Some provide valuable information:most make campaign contributions.)

E 19 25 E; A model General Assembly is a learning experience with many facets. It is useful to call student attention to the deliberate inclusion ofthese cognitive, affective, and skills components. This form will giveyou useful feedback.*

Reminder: Attitude surveys are always ir submitted anonymously, without Au T identification, and handed in separately. eg Cr) Co7 0 00. 0 -- CS

Classroom atmosphere provideda chance tp express ideas, attitudes, and feelings withoutfear of peer ridicule.

Classroom atmosphere provideda chance to express ideas, attitudes, and feelings withoutfear of teacher ridicule.

Model exercise provided thedevelopment of greater communication with other students (exchangeof ideas, insights).

Model exercise provided thedevelopment of greatercommun- ication with my teacher (exchangeof ideas, insights).

As the model progressed, Ibecame aware or moreaware of my academic strengths and ways to improvethem.

As the model progressed, Ibecame aware or moreaware of my academic weaknesses and ways tocorrect them.

Through discussion of issues andprocedures, I developed insight into different viewpointsand thought patterns.

Had to develop greaterresourcefulness in researching data.

H-d to develop new skills ofdebate and persuasion.

'Received enough attention andsuggestions from teacher to ;:omplete each step successfully.

Received enough cooperation fromother students to complete each step successfully.

Felt that my contributionas an individual was valuable and sought-after.

Feel that the information gainedabout Virginia politics and issues will havea carry-over after graduation.

Feel that the insights gained . about human nature and behavior may have acarry-over into other areas of my life.

Please comment below and on the back of this paper.Your reactions to the good aspects of this activity and to things that needimprovement will be a great help in plar'ling futuresessions of the model assembly.

* Developtd by Pat Be14, Waynesb,To High School E 20 25 EXCERPTS FROM "THE NEW LEGISLATOR"

(Notes and quotes from officialinstructions, House of Delegates 1984)

This publication is given tonew members of the House of Delegates, prior to each session. It contains valuable informationabout the conduct of business in the House. Senate business is conducted inalmost the same way.

The new legislator must learnhis/her job: the formalities of the legislative process, .all the finepoints of how a billvecomes a law, the different kinds of committees and bills, and parliamentaryprocedure. The freshman legislator is expectedto do hWher homework, to learn how committees work and to be reasonablyquiet until familiar with procedures and customs. Ii order to be relied upon and trusted, a legislator mustnever make commitments or promisesthat he/she does not expect to keep. Legislators are expected to be politeand courteous, particularly in debate.

STANDING COMMITTEES OF THE HOUSEOF DELEGATES

Privileges and Elections Conservation & Natural Resources Courts of Justice Agriculture Education Labor General Laws Claims Roads & Internal Navigation Chesapeake & Its Tributaries Finance Mining & Mineral Resources Appropriations Militia & Police Counties, Cities & Towns Rules CorporatiOns, Insurance & Banking Nominatio,ns ConfirmatiJns Health, Welfare & Institutions

STANDING COMMITTEES OF THE SENATE

Agriculture, Conservation & NaturalResources Commerce & Labor Local Government Courts of Justice Privileges & Elections Education & Health Rehabilitation & Social Services Finance Transportation General Laws Rules

The Standing Committee membersare appointed by the Speaker in the House of Delegates, with some consideration to the background and vocation ofthe members as well as their requests. The Speaker also attempts to attaina fairly balanced representation of the ten Congressional Districtson the committees. Standing committees use the Rulesof the House in conducting their business. Committ4es may decide to (1) holda bill for further study and action at a later date; (2) report the bil with or without amendmentto the House for debate, or recommend that it be referred to anothercommittee; (3) report to the floor a committee amendment in the nature ofa substitute for the bill, or (4) pass it by indefinitely and thus killthe bill.

E 21

261) THE HOUSE CHAMBER: DECORUM, CUSTOM, AND PROCEDURE Observan of the floor rules and procedures is essential to the character of the Virginia House of Delegates. The Rules. which are adopted when the House is organized every two years. are designed toinsure the orderly and efficientflow of business. Any discussion of decorum and procedure, then, must iegin with the Rules of the House. The Rules are found in the Manua) of the House of Delegates, as well as in a separate publication. The Rules, along with Jefferson's Manual of Parliamentary Practice, should be read with care.

What follows Is a summary of important points concerning the orderly conduct of thedaily sessions of the House. Only experience will put the new member completely atease with the conduct of business, but the following points should be of some initial help. Order t Business The morning hour is defined as that period between the time when the Speaker convenes the session and the time that the Calendar is called. This is the normal period to address mattersof "personal privilege."After the morning hour, the House shallproceed toconsider bills and resolutions in the order set forth in the printed Calendar. After the Calendar Is read and debateon all bills is concluded, a member may rise and re -pest the Speaker to "return b the morninghour." If this is granted he may then present those matters to the House. Addressing the House

When a member rises to speak he shall, standing in his place, respectfully address,"Mr. Speaker"; he shall confine himself strictly to the question before the House and,whea he has finished, he shall sit down. He may seek permission to use the center aisle; however, this isdone only for important purposes. A point of personal privilege refers tosome compelling personal matter of interest to the member. If this occurs the member should rise at an opportune momentand the Speaker will state, "For what purpose does the gentleman (or gentlewoman) from...... rise?"The member would then reply, "Mr. Speaker, to a point of personal privilege," and then he would proceed to state his case.

When the House is in session a member should never, even- in the heat of debate,address another member directly by his proper name. He should always ask the Speaker'spermission to address another member and then while speaking shouldreferto anothe7 member as "the gentleman (or gentlewoman) from ..

When two or more members rise at the same time, the Speaker shallname the person to speak, but in all caves the member who shall first rise and address the Chair shallspeak first. Also no member may speak more than once on any question until all others who want to speakhave aone so. He may not speak more than twice without the consent of a majority of the members present. A member is allowed to speak on a bill while itis on its second reading. During this time a member may debate or ask. questions. In questioning a member, permission to doso must be granted by the Speaker. For example: A member is speaking ona bill. The member who wishes to ask a question may stand and interrupt the member who is speaking by saying. "Mr. Speaker.will the gentleman (or gentlewoman) from..... --. yield for a question?" The Speaker puts this question to the speaking member by saying. "Will the gentleman (or gentlewoman) from yield for a question from the gentleman (or gentlewoman) from ?" The speaking member may reply, "I will yield for a question." If he does not wish to yield for a question hemay reply, "I decline to yield." If he so desires he may explain his reasons for not yielding. The Speakerwill then say, "The gentleman (or gentIlwoman) declines to yield." If a member does propounda question, he must remain standing while his question is being answered. When the inquiring membertakes his seat, the Speaker will assume the question has been answered and will proceed with thebusiness of the House.

In some cases the patron of a bill would not want to speak to, nor have thevote taken on, his bill after its second or third reading. In this case. when the bill is reachedon the Calendar. the E 22 Reprint from "The New Legislator" (cont'd) patron would immediately stand and say. "Mr. Speaker, Imove the bill be passed by ror the day" or "Mr. Speaker. I move the bill be passed by temporarily." In this case, the bill is placedat the end of the Calendar. In rare instances the motion could be put toa vote. Under House Rule 63, such a motion takes precedence over all other motions except fora motion to adjourn. Thus, a motion to pass by could technically call for an immediate vote. A vote is seldomtaken, however. and the Speaker will simply note the request of the patron andpass the bill by. Pending a debate any member may move for the "previous question"or the "pending question," provided that no. other motion or remark is made. The pending questionshall be put in this form: "Mr. Speaker, I move the pending question,"or "I move the previous question." (See House Rules 65 and 66.)

A point of order may be used to challengeany point of procedure and isecided by the Speaker without debate, subject to an appeal to the House.

House Rule 53 provides that: "The Speaker shallpreserve order and decorum: may speak to points of order in preference to other members, risingfrom his seat for that purpose, and shall decide questions of order without debate. subject toan appeal to the House." If the decision relates to a question of decorum or propriety of conduct, it shalt not bedebatable; ifitrelates to the priority of business or the relevancy or applicability ofpropositions, the appeal may be debated, but no member shall speak on it more than once, except by leave of the House. Chamber Etiquette

House Rule 83 states that only members of the General Assembly.former members, members of the Congress of the United States, state officers, judges,officers and certain employees of the General Assembly. and such other persons as the Speakermay designate, shall be permitted on the floor of the House during the session thereat; provided thatthe privileges granted hereunder shall not be exercised by any person having business for compensationbefore the House or any committee thereof. The officers of this body shall enforce this ruleunder the direction of the Speaker.

Under § 2.1.358 of the Code of Virginia any member hasthe right to iniroduce, debate and vote on legislation with which he is particularly familiar because of his employment,background and occupation unless a member shall determine inhis own discretionthat such actioninvolves self-interest or a conflict of interest.

The Hall of the House may be used for no otherpurpose than the sessions of the House and for meetings of the committees and members of the legislatureon public affairs, except by vote of the House.

House Rule 60 provides that: "No member shall, while the Houseis sitting, interrupt or hinder its business by standing up, leaving his place, moving about theHall, engaging in conversation, expressing approval or disapproval of any of the proceedings,cr .by any other conduct tending to disorder and confusion." This rule is not rigidly enforced by the Speaker,though it should be taken into consideration. Informal Rules

As to any formal organization. the General Assembly doesnot depend upon its formal rules alone to guide tts procedure. Informal rules are often justas important, if not more so. than formal rules. Surely the two most important informal rules deal with matters of integrityand matters of courtesy.

Once a member of the Assembly has made a commitment to anothermember, honor requires that he keep that commitment. Under unusual circumstances,a member may feel he must change his original commitment. When such is the case, the membermust first discuss the situation with the member to whom he made the commitment. If a member has pledgeda patron support of his bill and then fills to vote for the bill without Crst speaking withthe patron, the integrity of the member's word has been severely damaged. e E23 2 P P,. grpe Because a member must maintain his integrity, heshould be careful in agreeing to endorse (sign as a co-patron) a bill presented to himby its patron. If the member generally favors but feels it needs a few changes or refinements, he the bill should ask that the changes be made beforehe signs the bill, rather than in committee,on the floor, or in the Senate. Inmatters of courtesy one rulecan guide a member's conduct. When a memberis contemplating an action which will affect othermembers of the sembly, he should inform whomever his action will affect before he acts. Such a consideration is of particular importance ifa member intends to take an action which willin any way affect a bill introduced member. by another If a member wishes to amend another member's bill. he should make every effortto present his amendments In committee. If he does notbecome aware of the bill until it reachis should speak with the bill's patron concerning the floor, he his proposed floor amendment. Thepatron can then respond to the member privately, as wellas formulate rebuttal arguments for delivery Such a course may appear tactically unwise on the floor. to the prospective amender, but heshould remember that the same courtesy will be extendedto him when another member wishes bills. to amend one of his

Guiding a Bill Through the House

The member wishing to introduce a bill or resolution must present to the Clerkof the House one "original" and two copies of the bill as drafted bythe Division of Legislative Services. The member may present the copies ofhis bill to the Clerk at his desk in the daily sessions of the House, the Chamber during or he may "prefile" the bill. Bills may beprefiled with the Clerk's office no earlier than sixty days before thesixty-day session begins, 02 bills six months prior to the thirty-day session. may be prefiled up to Patrons should secure the signaturesof all the desired co-patrons before they prefile their bills. Billsmay be prefiled by mail; certified is preferable. or registered mail

Bills calling for a charter change must be submitted on or before the first day ofthe session. A member is well advised to tile all hisbills as early as possible,so that they will receive early committee and House consideration. The logjamof bills to be conslierednear the erd of the session can easily prevent a committee from givinga bill thefull attentionit prefiling, if possibleserves the interests of deserves. Early filing both the patron of the bill and ofthe House as a whole. After the bill is introduced, it is orderedprinted and referred to the appropriate noted in the section on committees. committee. As the committee clerk will notify thepatron of the date on which the committee will consider the bill. If thecommittee reports the bill to the House, the Clerk for its first reading. itis given to

On the first reading the bill numberand title are printed on the Calendar Clerk. or are read by the

The second reading of the billoccurs the next day and is the time at which his bill to the membership of the House the patron explt ns as a whole. The bill is subject to debate andamendment on its second reading. First, the Clerk callsthe bill by number and reads the title. "speaks to the bill," explaining its intent Then the patron to the membership. At the beginningof his remarks to the House the member should state, "Mr.Speaker. I wish to present the following. explained his bill (nnd any nnIendment " After he has toit,if there is one), he customarilyfinishes with the words, "I hope it will be the pleasure ofthe House to advance the bill to its noted in the section on decorum, third reading." As once the member has spoken to the bill,he may not speak again, except in answer to a direct question, untilall other members have had bill. a chance to speak on the

If a bill passes its second readingitis engrossed. If amendments reprinted incorporating the changes. are adopted, thebillis The next day itis placed on the Caiendar for itsthird and final reading. At this point the Housedetermines whether the bill will Senate for its consideration. Normally pass and be sent to the on the third reading. after the Clerkreads the title,the E 24 263 Reprint from "The New Legislator" (cont'd)

Speaker says. "Shall the bill pass?" A recorded vote is then taken and the bill is either passedor defeated.

Note, however. that even after approval on the second or third reading, amendments to the bill may be made. A bill can be spoken to on the third reading but not amended, so the procedure used to accomplish such amendment is rather complicated.

For example, the member who wants to amend the bill after it has passed its second reading must first be recognized by the Speaker. He would then move to "reconsider the vote by which the bill was engrossed and return it to its second reading for purposes of amendment." This motioncan only be made by one who was on the prevailing side of the vote on the bill at its previous reading.

A motion to reconsider is not in order If the action of the House has been communicated to the Senate. If it has not been communicated, the motion to reconsider must be made withintwo days after the bill's final reading and passage; If the motion to reconsider is approved,then othi.: motions are in order.

Although a member cannot argue for or against a bill on its third readingwithout making a "motion to reconsider." he may "speak to the bill." The difference between debateand "snonking" is subtle.

Specifically, on the third 'reading. the member may "speak" for or against,but he cannot yield for argument to another member during us statement. This technique issometimes used by one who endorsed a bill as It was originally Introduced but disagrees with it inamended form. At this time he may put "on record" his reasons for not supporting the billon third reading.

When a bill is passed on the third reading. itis sent to the Senate either by the Clerk ina communication or by a member in person. The Clerk or member Informsthe Senate that the bill has passed the House and that the House requests the concurrence of the Senate,

The bill is referred to a Senate committee. and the patron will have the opportunityto speak to his bill before that committee. Since a House patron cannot explain his billon the floor of the Senate. It is therefore the responsibility of the Delegate to make certain thata Senator is prepared to do so. ,

If a bill originating in the House is sent to the Senate and then returnedto the House with a Senate amendment thatis unacceptable to thebill'schief patron and the House as a whole, proceedings can begin which may result in the appointment of a Committeeof Conference to resolve the differences, in an effort to produce a measure acceptable to both houses.

Points to Remember About Floor Debate and Voting in the House of Delegates

The section on decorum. custom. and procedure discussed the mettExl by .whicha bill's patron may request that his bill be passed by temporarily or for the day. Sucha request may also be made by the patron during the debate on his bill if it appears that it is neededto eliminate another member's difficulty or if an amendment is necessitated by questions raisedon the floor.

If an unrecorded division on any question is desired. a request to theSpeaker for a "division" may be made. A vote is then taken by a show of hands. A member may requesta recorded division by addressing the Speaker and requesting a vote of "ayes and nays."The Speaker will then request a vote of those who wish "ayes and nays." In order to call for such a recorded divisionthere must be twenty percent of those members present supporting such procedure.The call for the "ayes and nays" must be timely.

If a member is in his seat but fails to vote, this factmay be called to the attention of the Speaker by another member and he will be record °d as voting "no."

* E 25

2 '0 4* .. THE LEGISLATIVE DAY There is no "typical legislative day" which could accurately describe theactivities of all, or even most, legislators during the span of a GeneralAssembly session. The member's daily varies according to the time required for schedule formal sessions and his individualcommittee assignments. One of the member's committeesmay meet two mornings a week; another afternoons a week. Some committees meet may meet two less often than others. In any event.committee meetings are scheduled around the House sessions,so that no committees meet during the unusual circumstances. The member with sessions, except in a morning committee meeting may wishto stop by his office to check his mail, or hemay sir, ply wait until the House office work. recesses in the afternoon to do his Aside from House and committee sessions, the member may also havesubcommittee meetings. Subcommittees usually consist of aboutthree members who. at therequest of the committee cnairman, study several bills and report tothe full committee. Suhcommittees place convenient to the members. meet at a time and Answering mail, conferring with colleagues, consulting Legislative Services,studying pending legislation. and meeting constituentsand lobbyists are a few of the activities "free" time. The member also receives that fill a member's invitations to various social eventsand presentations, which provide even more variety to the Igislativeday.

House sessions grow longer as committeesreport a greater number of bills. Inthe last few days the House is often in session for the entireday and well into the night. Annual ,Report ofthe Comptroller to the Governor ofVirginia for the Fiscal Year EndedJune 30, 1985

The Commonwealth ofVirginia remains in the forefront ofstates that are bringing their financial Fig. 1 General Fund BalanceCash Ba.i reporting into full compliance with Highlighting the Undesignated generally accepted accountingprinciples. Maintaininga progressive Fund Balance position in the financial reportingarea is consistent with our objective (Dollars in Millions/ of providing the users of our financial statements, includingthose in 343.9 the investment community,with a complete disclosure of ID:r"16.1lulcc financial 30C position. It is also consistent with Urriatinist.J our objective of improving the abil- bauAce ity of the State's seniormanagement to evaluate the financial condition of the Commonwealth. 213.2 2080 Management's Responsibilities This icport has been prepared by the Department ofAccount-, whose management is responsiblefor the integrity and objectivity the financial of statements and other information presentedherein. The combined financial 101.9 statements are considered bymanagement to present fairly the Commonwealth's financialposition, results of operations, and changes in fund balances. We believe the data presentedis accurate in all material respects and thatall disclosuresnecessary to enable the reader to obtain t 41. a thorough understanding of the Com- irkS6C1:? monwealth's financial activities 0 r -.% , have been included. FY 1983FY 1982 FY 1981 In part, the basis for theseconclusions relates to the internal controls our assessment of operating within the Commonwealth.The estab- Fig. 2 Analysis of General lishment of such internalcontrols requires estimates and Fund Budget from management judgments so that, in attaining reasonableassurance as to the /Whys in Millions/ adequacy of such controls, the cost of controls should not exceed the 1V4.1 benefits obtained. I believe LM... Commonwealth's internal accounting )1 controls adequately safeguard &ginning Fund &Incr its assets and provide reasonableassur- Opaating ance as to the proper recording of financial S 430 S 43f transactions. The Auditor Outl.iy of Public Accounts' opinion letter, covering his examinationof the Rupptoptintiuiu ti6 s Commonwealth's financial Tau! statements for the year ended June 30, W a 99 a S 1:2 i Estinutal enuo 1085, is included herein. 7,911.0 .1.7939 4,116 Othcr fuunung Suutto 9u 9 ofi '

General Fund ConditionBudgetary Tuu1 eo.ubble Rah 6,IU2.7 .1 962 4 4.2;3 2 Basis Apptuptution.,12) The General Fund is (7.$49.91 0,73151 141'm an important point of focus in determining CipitllOuthy 113061 Oh ih the overall financial conditionof the Commonwealth. Ending Fun411;31.uxu Virginia uses S 2.0 S 172.9 S 2 the cash basis of accountingfor budgetarypurposes. Under this basis, revenues and expenditures arc recorded Nl APPioPnzions coull Onznallr of1116:13114 crprininuic) at the time cash is actually uanslas received or disbursed in to the &Oa F.Alocanun FunJ. accordance with the provisions ofthe Appro- priations Act. This basis of Fig.3Analysis of Budget accounting is widely accepted forbudgetary vs. Actual purposes and has been used in Virginiafor many years. My General Fund Activity cludes statements and schedules report in- (Dollars in Millions) that present the financialactivity of 1.122_ the General Fund of the Alma 1.1a....r Commonwealth on a cash basis. Fund Balance, July I. 1964 S 4.3U Figure ! illustrates the fund S 208 0 S 1610 balances of the General Fundat the Rcvcaucs, ABCP1011t6, end of each fiscalyear since June 30, 1981, and highlights anJApptuflutions At the undesig- Ttanzfrb nated portion. The undesignatedportion denotes the surplus that 3,796 0 3,840 3 44 5 isted at the end of each fiscal ex- Appropoutun6 Mt year. Ailnatmcnt 86 7 166 7: Figure 2 illustrates the GeneralFund activity as planned by Expaldttutes and (Nut the uses General Assembly and 1.3 609 6113.704 61 as recorded in Chapter 619, Acts ofAssembly. 105 0 The budgeted Net Oka on Fund Balance 73I amounts for capital outlay include $56.8 I33 9 62 6 million in reap- Fund propriations from prior Balza,foe 30, 1985S116I S 343.9 years, plus $194 million in additionalcapital S 227

E 28 267 Annual ,Report ofthe Comptroller to the Governor ofVirginia for the Fiscal Year EndedJune 30, 1985

E 28 267 e Annual Report ofthe Comptroller to the tiovernor of Virginia forthe Fiscal Year EndedJune 30, 1985

Fig. 4 Summary of Accrued outlays authorized by Chapter 619. The development and apprmai lit Receivables and Payables- General Fund the biennial budget is, in essence, the beginning of the tin.tnei.iltrans (Dollars in Millions) action process. After approval of the budget by the legislature. hudeet Receivables and Accrued Revenues: ary control is maintained by a formal appropriation and allotment Transfer of 4th Quarter ABC Profits system. The budgeted amounts reflected in the accompanying titan,.:.:: to General Fund S 8.0 statements represent summaries of departmental or agency hudeets !% Accounts Receivable 4.3 "program." Taxes Receivable INet) 8.5 Sales Taxes 123.8 Figure 3 illustrates the Governor's actions to stay within the Withheld Taxes Receivable 103.0 limits of appropriations nwde by the General Assembly. The anal%si, Total Receivables 247.6 of budget versus actual performance is derived from thestatement in Payables and Accrued Liabilities: this report entitled, "Combined Statement of Revenues. Expenditures Refunds Payable on Withheld and Changes in Fund Balances-Budget And Actual-Budgetary B.IS(% IncomeTaxes 33.5 Accounts Payable 61.2 General and Special Revenue Funds." As Figure 3 indicates, the Sales Tax Due to Localities 69.3 Commonwealth received $44.5 million more in revenues. ABC profits ABC Profits Due to Localities 3.9 and Appropriations Act transfers than planned. The increasedrevenues Other Payments Due to Localities .9 and reduced expenditures, together with a realization ofan additional Total Payables 168.8 $165.0 million in balances carried over from the year ending lune 3t) Receivables and Accrued Revenues 1984, resulted in $227.8 million more than planned being addedto the Over Payables and Accrued Liabilities S 78.8 fund balance of the General Fund. General Fund Condition-Accrual Basis Although the Commonwealth budgets and manages its financial affairs on the accepted cash basis of accounting, the na:ion's financial community has encouraged states to also include, in their annualre- ports, financial statements that are prepared on the accrual basistat accounting. This basis more adequately serves their analytical and other needs. As a result of these reporting needs, efforts have hewn underway since 1981 to conform Virginia's financial accountingprac tices to the requirements of generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP). As noted earlier, this progression toward conformance with GAAP has resnited in the inclusion in this year's report of the Higher Education Fund in accordance with the National Association of Col lege and University Business Officers' Co Hems and Univcrmtv 81:,,,,,.,,

Fig. 5 Schedule of General Fund Revenue-Budgetary Basis For theYears Ended lune 30, 1985, and1984 Moans in Millions)'''

Actual Budget Primcction

% FY 1985 ''.. FY1//1 . Amu' Eminut. S FY 1985 Over "'FY lYs6 Oui Alrb.1. Orer (ilodtr) (Lindell Itcrour fy i:: FY 1985 FY 1984 FY 1984 FY 1985 Ite4rei Esurtuto Attut Individual Income Taxes S1,948 S1,771 10.0 S1,951 (.21 S 2,182 12.0 Sales and Use Taxes 931 835 11.5 929 .2 99.3 6.7 Corporate Income Taxes 288 243 18.5 270 6.7 278 (3.5) Public Service Corporations 138 122 13.1 129 7.0 142 2.9 Premiums of Insurance Companies 309 97 12.4 107 1.9 110 .9 Other Taxes 204 206 (1.0) 195 4.6 200 12.01 Other Revenues 173 124 39.5 164 5.5 15 SI Total Revenue S3,791 S 3,398 11.6 S 3.745 1.2 s 4(1)6R6 3 7.3 III kevenues exclude transfers. III FY 1986 revenue estimates are from the 1985 Appropnations Act. Estimatesare subject to revision by the Administration, approval of the General Assembly. withthe E 29 6 8 5

Annual Report of the Comptroller to the Governor of Virginia for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1985

Administration (19821; and the American Institute of CertifiedPublic Fig. 6Revenue Dollar Accountants' Audits of Colleges and Universities (1975).In addition, General Fund-Fiscal Year 1985 we have implemented a new lease accountingsystem, in accordance (Budgetary Buis)" with SFAS Number 13, that has capturedS18 million in assets that the Clown= bionicTa. INteitmla.mod liertisSO2 ImutsricConte Commonwealth is currently leasing. With the addition CronPtcmwmsTs, S of S1,C46 mil- NbfetScryuce lion in fixed assets to this year's balance sheet,significant strides have Corewanufts Tat S 04 Pm Other fumawo also been made in reporting the full value ofthe Commonwealth's Tuts SOS Fetsrna.., fixed assets. ineEscheau As required under the accrual basis of accounting, these ". Dint: S financial , statements reflect certain receivables and accruedrevenues, amounting to S247.6 million, and certain accounts payable and accrued liabilities, amounting to 5168.8 million. Receivables and accruedrevenues exceeded accounts payable and accrued liabilities by (,4 ,;:f S78.8 million at '41! 47{e.' year-end. These items, whichare illustrated in Figure4,are trans- Saltoand 7, ::;V: actions associated with the year erling June 30, 1985;however, the Utz to 5.2SN... cash will not be received nor disbursed until fiscalyear 1986. ! Analysis of Revenues and Expenditures IndiodualIncomeTait General Fund revenue (excluding ABC and AppropriationsAct Transfers) (Fig. 5) for the year ended June30, 1985, was 53.8 billion, or rrly. n '.: 11.6% greater than the preceding Individual Income Tax S 51 S 5: year. The primary sources of this in- Sales and Usc Tax .25 crease were a 5177 million increase in Individual IncomeTaxes and a Corporation Incumc Tax .08 C- 596 million increase in Sales and Use Taxes. Revenuefor the current Public Service Corporations Tax .04 01 year was 1.2% over the projected amount. As Figure 5 indicates, Insurance Companies Gross an- Premiums Tax .03 .0; ticipated General i:und revenues for the comingfiscal year are expected Other Taxes .O5 0 to be approximately S4.1 billion, or 7.3% over fiscal year1985. Interest. Dividends, and Rents n2 0: General Fund expenditures (Fig. 8) for the Fines, Forfeitures, Court Fees, current year were S3.1 Penalties, and Escheats .01 0! billion, or 11.7% peat4r than the precedingyear. The primary areas Other 01 01 which comprise this increase were a $181 million increase in Educa- Total S 1.00s 1 0c.? tion and a 560 million increase in Individual andFamily Services "'Revenues exclude transfers. expenditures. For informational purposes. Figures 6 and9 present the composition of the revenue dollar tor the General Fund Fig.7Expenditure Dollar and for all ac- General Fund-Fiscal Year 1985 tivities of the government, respectively. Ina similar manner, Figures 7 (Budgetary Basis( and 10 present the composition of the expenditure 11.1lIVICS dollar for the Gen- JAJ EI,InUfnit eral Fund and for all activities of thegovernment, respectively. These Cencts1CcwerninentS 07 Dc1.111p/MntS presentations are intended to provide information regardingthe sources .. and uses of dollars received. Airmemnummt e..1,011.r. ea Nuke 1.17 ; '6 .., .\\ Debt Administration ..:;:...vx - !'' .. 'et:/;- iit kr. %.: \ Virginia has traditionally received excellent bondratings from both ...':,:...?;ri..::..4.; ., Moody's Investors Service and Standard & Poor'sCorporation, reflect- 71.;;,...N...4....wri-:. vr4 ..-,:',,r,:it,-,V.,:,..1.4 ing our long-standing record of sound fiscalmanagement, our diver- :v. !, 1 sified economic base, and low-debt ratios. The Commonwealth funds 1,..:71. :...;,.,:141;.,',.':;.1:--1,:;,/....,z 7 substantial amounts of capital outlay expendituresfrom current reve- ii!.....:,14' 0...... , j.**,.s: .sr.... . -... ; ".;.....:: nues of the General Fund and from non-general fundsources each fis- 1. .. 1 "..' LisitsliOri \ II. cal year and, accordingly, limits its issuance ofbonded debt.Atotal of fralmdustsnd %cr.? FamilyServxtsS.24 S326.7 million in bonds backed by the full faith andcredit of the (r le.' Commonwealth were outstanding at June 30, 1985. Of that amount, Education 5 48 S 5241.2 million were being serviced fromrevenue-producing capital Individual and Family Services .23 24 Administration of Justice 1 7 l b General Government .07 Resources and economic Development .04 04 Total 1.00 S! (81 E 30 1.=1.1.M 6

Annual Report of the C wtroller to the Governor of Virginia for the Fiscal Year Ended June 30,1985

Fig. 8 General Fund Expenditures Fig. 10 Expenditure Dollar By Function (Budgetary Buisl All Funds-Fiscal Year 1985 (Dollars in Millions! (Budgetary Basis) % bast If 1115 OIS rrios4 Lateepoos 1.03 saw Rennuces General Cameral Covcrosnon S.04 and Laiownic Developmeat S 03 Government $ 223 S 203 99 7.3 Mastarasuos of foinsee 507 Education 1,452 1,271 14.2 47.6 Ttsoslottnima 113 Transportation 8 7 14.3 -3 Capital Resources and Pnnects 1.02 Economic Development 110 97 13.4 3.6 Individual and Family Services 718 658 9.1 23.5 Administration of Justice 534 489 9.2 17.5 Enterprises 5 6116.7) Total Expenditures$3.050 $2,731 11.7 100.0 Education 1.35

Ist:sodusal sod Fundy Sown 5.20 FT IOU mom Education S.35 S.34 Individual and Family Services .29 Transportation .3013 Administration of Justice .07 .07 Entaprises .06 .07 Fig. 9 Revenue Dollar General Government .0.: .03 Capital Projects .02 .03 All Funds-Fiscal Year 1985 Resources and Economic IBudget.ty Basisr" Development .03 .03 Rights sod Neilson S 04 Uoceneloolo Total CoesposuouIks Tax S.DS S 1.00 S 1.00 Common* Income Tax S 04 sem= se= Mom Yeluele Was Puldte Sam* sod LW Tax 5.02 r-Coperaneas Tax $02 projects, primarily auxiliary enterprises of colleges anduniversities, Sole. of Noon lotorose. Conks& sod Coosoodloes $03 and Roos 02 and toll highways. Debt servicepayments and principal repayments on Moose Fuels Tax LOS Lrersact the balance of $85.5 million will be funded Commons Cross from General Fund taxrev- Instatuttoaa/ PTaxnonnuns Revenue S.12416k $01 enues. Principal and interest payments on this portion of theCorn monwealth's bonded debt were less than 0.5% of totalGeneral Fund Otia S 0? expenditures in fiscal year 1985. During fiscal year 1985, the Commonwealth issued$24.7 million in general obligation bonds, all of which financedrevenueproducing projects operated by institutions of higher education.These bonds were Sales and Use Tax S.12 rated "triple A" by both major rating agencies.In fiscal year 1986, the Commonwealth expects to issue approximately$100 million in long. Istdresval term general obligation bonds, which will also beself-supporting. federal lemon III boom Tea 125 MOB maw Federal Revenues S.18 S.19 Individual Incorr t Tax .25 .25 Sales and Use Tax .12 .12 Institutional Revenue .12 .12 Motor Fuels Tax .04 .05 Sales of Property and Commodities .03 .03 Corporation Income Tax .04 .03 Rights and ?flvileges .04 .04 Unemployment Compensetton Tax .04 .04 Public Service Coryorations Tax .02 .02 Interest, Dividends, and Rents .02 .61 Insurance Co. Gross Premiums Tax .01 .01 Motor Vehicle Saks and Use Tax .02 .02 Other .07 .07 Total S 1.00 S 1.00

"'Revenues include ABC Profit transfers, Appropri- E 31 ations Act transfers, and certain other transfers. 270 Annual Report of theComptroller to the Governor of Virginia forthe Fiscal Year Ended June 30, 1985

Investments The Commonwealth pools its surplus cash intoa general account from which it makes investments ina variety of instruments. The average daily invested balance for the year ended June 30, 1985, amounted to 5821.5 million. This balance was investedas follows: 14.3% in Repurchase Agreements, 37.7% in U. S. Government and Agency Securities, 45.3% in Money Market Securities, and 2.7% in Time Deposits. Maturities for these investments ranged fromone day to five years. For fiscal year 1984.1985, the average yieldon invest ments was 10.4 %, as compared to a yield of 10% during fiscal year 1983-1984. Total interest received from available balanceswas S81.3 million. This represented an increase of S28.8 million from thepre- vious year. Public Benefit Corporations Certain outside organizations have been determinedo ',e part of the Commonwealth's financial reporting entity andare included as Public Benefit Corporations. Public Benefit Corporatiorsare public corporations empowered by the Code of Virginiato provide certain services to the citizens of the Commonwealth, but whichare not agencies of the Commonwealth. While these organizationsare not State agencies, generally accepted accounting principles require that they bein- cluded as part of the Commonwealth's financial reporting entity. The basis for such inclusion princi:;:lly relatesto the power of the Gov- ernor to appoint a majority of the Board Members involved, who, in turn, formulate policy. An additional basis relates to requirements that organizations submit reports to the Governor.

This comprehensive annual financial report reflectsmy commitment to you, to the citizens of the Commonwealth, and to the financial community to maintain our financialstatements in conformance with the highest standards of financial accountability.

Respectfully submitted,

Edward J. Mazur Comptroller of the Commonwealth of Virginia

2"1,1.

E 32 Financial Conditionof the commonwealth

For the state to be in good financial ment and Training, and Rehabilita- the ending of the nationalrecession condition, its financial affairsmust tive Services. be managed prudently. To do this, in November, 1982, is nowgrowing The outlook for Virginia largely government policy makers must During the Decade of the 19805: plan for the future. They depends on the same things that must iden there was high inflation anda major cloud the national outlook-the large tify the state's most importantneeds, recession during the early 1980s, but federal deficit, unfavorable balance decide what services can be paid for, better conditions by mid-decade; the and find the best ways to of payments and the possibility of pay for ser- motor fuels tax, alcoholic beverage renewed inflation. vices. Virginia is in an enviable posi- tax and automobile license tax were tion compared to most states in ch. raised; taxes were taken off business As a broad and continuing policy. nation and seems poised to retain its licenses, fuels for home heating, and the General Assembly has marked off favorable record liquor by the drink; an oil franchise certain types of revenue for special tax was put on the wholesale price purposes. Other types of revenue of gasoline; federal funding began support the rest of state programs. for low income energy assistance; For example, the motor fuels taxas and federal funding dropped for used only for highway purposes. many programs begun in earlier Revenues which are set aide for Government revenues grew fastover years. such special purposes are called the last 25 years. Staterevenues from nongeneral funds. Revenues which all sources grew unusually fast dur- As evidenced from these actions, lit- can be used for anything are called ing the 1960s, almost tripling therate tle has been done to increase general funds. of the 1950s. The samewas true for general fund revenues. On the other the 1970s-again the growthrate was hand, many things have causednon The things state government does three times that of the 1960s. There general fund revenues to fall during are paid for by money which comes are many reasons for this growth. the past 15 years. from many different sources. The fol- Some of the most importantare lowing chart shows themoney the given below. State government's financial health is state will have to spend in the closely tied to the condition of the upcoming biennium for six catego- economy. The Virginia economy During the late 1960s: theeconomy des of revenue. These numbersare was steady and suffered only two moves with the national economy. given as both dollars and minor recessions; the general sales Virginia's economy, respondingto percentages. tax was enacted and later raised; the way revenues were collected was changed so that money came in fas- Figure A8 ter; Congress passed Elementary and Revenues from All Sources,1986-88 Secondary Education Act which brought a lot of money into the state; automobile license fees were Percent increased; and a new tax of Percent on state Total motor vehicle sales and use was SMiltions GF NGF enacted Taxes 55.8 10,345.0 85.6 14.4 Grants & Donations During the decade of the 1970s: the 19.4 3,598.3 0 100.0 economy grew rapidly in the first Institutional Revenue 12.0 2.222.3 .3 99.7 half of the decade and inflationwas Rights & Privileges high during the rest of the decade; 3.7 683.6 4.6 95.4 Property & Commodities the tax rates rose on alcoholic bever- 2.7 498.7 .4 99.6 ages, corporate income tax, individ- Other Revenues 4.3 792.4 48.0 62.0 ual income tax, and motor fuelstax; Balances & Transfers changes were made so that thestate 2.1 397.3 67.8 32.2 individual income tax laws followed TOTAL federal income tax laws, the with- 100.0 18,537.7 51.0 49.0 holding tax was collected faster, and tzx tables for unemployment compensation were changed; and federal funding began for four newpro- grams-General Revenue Sharing, 'Title VC, Comprehensive Employ-

27E232a The Executive Budget1986--1988 The general fund revenues mainly Figure A9 General & Nongeneral Funds come from five taxes: individual income tax. corporate incone tax. gross premium taxes (on insurance). General suotIons public service corporation taxes, and 13 Nongeneral the general sales and use tax. These 20 five taxes make up 912 percent of the general fund revenues of $18.537.7 51.0% $9.192.0 million. For the 1986.88 15 816.479.6 49 4% biennium, general fund revenues are projected to grow by 16.1 percent over the current biennium. Addi 10 decal general fund resources of $269.7 million will also be available from a projected balance at June 30, 1986 and transfers from other accounts:

The nongeneral fund revenues 1284-86 1986-88 mainly come from two sources: grants and donations, and tuition and hospital (institutional) revenues. These two sources make up 65.0 Figure A10 Operating & Capital Expense:. by Source of Funds percent of the nongeneral fund revenues 0(18,948.4 million. The 1986-88 nongeneral 6Ind revenues Capital Outlay are forecast to gic7.6 parent over sBillions the current biennium. Additional Operating 18 nongeneral fund resources of $127.6 million will also be available from projected balances at June 30, 1986. 10 For the 1986biennium, the total money on hand willbe$18,537.7 2 Al. 7 1.-r -. -: million. The adjacent chart shows how much general and nongeneral sulttions funds there are for the current and 500 51% next biennium.

0 12:111=215M-- 572%6% 74% 36% 1966.68 1976-88 1984-86 Expenditures Nota: Pin:ants:les ant N.:moaners' Funds

Over the past twenty years, the Asa result of these and other things. number of agencies in state govern amount government has spent has the amount state government spends ment. The new agencies resulted grown at all levels in Virginia (state. increased by 13 times since the mid. from a number of things. Federal local. federal). Most of this growth is 1960s. During this period, operating programs required that a single state due to: government taking on certain expenses grew steadily while capital agency be responsible, for the pro. services and funding responsibilities: expenses have gone up one bien gram (law enforcement. drug abuse. the idea of what government should nium and down the next. Along with volunteerism. aging). Some colleges do changing-generally, moving this growth, the makeup of revenues and universities were separated from towards government doing more; also changed. The general fund paid other agencies to stand alone ( Rad, the growth of the number of people for 42 percent of the expenses in ford, Christopher Newportl. Certain needing government services, such 1966.68 and paid for slightly less programs in public safety and human as school age. college age, and insti than onehalf of the total expend'. resources (social services. maw tutional populations; what the fed tures in both 1976.78 and 1984836. dons) were important enough to he eral government pays for and The chart above shows these run by separate agencies. requires of state and local govern. changes. It also shows operating and meets has changed; the state now capital expenses, by source of hinds. The prosperity of recent decades and paying more for some local govern. ideas encouraging governmental ment programs; and the economy involvement sharpened the growth thanging with recessions and Along with the increases in expendi in the size and complexity of inflation. tures was the doubling of the government. By the beginning of the

The Executive Budget 1986--1988 EZab 2'73 1980s, questions were being asked expenses through bene; manage. condition of the Commonwealth.. about the suitability and degree of menu, more efficient service delivery, Virginia uses the cash basis of government involvement in the lives cutting back on unneeded or out of its citizens. Along with this public accounting for its budget. Under this. moded activities and other cost cut revenues and expenditures are concern, state government had less Ling techniques. recorded at the tin, money from the federal government. cash actually comes in or goes out. This basis of new federal programs to take on, The second part of this strategy accounting is widely accepted for and a slowed rate of growth in state directs the increase in revenues that budgeting, and Virginia has used it revenues. These things, plus record result from economic growth toward for many. years unemployment. closing businesses the highest priorities of the Cover. and inflation. called for a sweeping nor and General Assembly. In this look at state government. manner, the essential needs of the The amount of money in the general state are addressed without the need fund at the end of each fiscal year The state faced decisions on how to for a general tar. 'Ficrease. since June 30, 1982. is shown below. continue doing what mustbedone. It shows money unspent at the end how to stop doing unnecessaryser of the fiscal year. The shaded poruor. vices. and how to take on new and is the actual surplus available for different services. To give a frame. Financial appropriation. work for these decisions, four guid mg princip'es were developed in Statement Another method available to 1982. government to finance expenses is Each year, the State Comptroller to issue a bond. A bond is a way of First: Hold down the size and corn reports on the money borrowed, the paying for a construction project plexiry of state government. Do this assets. the money i:eld in reserve, over a long period of time. Govern by identifying and supporting those the money not spent, and themoney ments and businesses which want it, services which are essential and owed by the state. This report is issue bonds are rated by Wall Street serve the crucial needs of the citi calledthe Report of the Comptroller companies. This rating is based on zens. In addition, study all services of Commonwealth of Virginia. It the ability of the borrower torepay which are less essential or merely shows that Virginia has good fiscal the money. desirable. practices and has made improve. ments since last year. There are sew Virginia has always gotten high bond Second: Find and put in place effi eral reasons for this. First, the value ratings from the two most respected cient and fair ways to make services of what the state owns (assets)rose raters, Moody's Investors Service and selfsuprxming or to make services sharply in three groups: Property, Standard 8c Poor's Corporation. This less dependent upon general fund Plant and Equipment, and Invest. shows that the state has a long money, wherever possible. ments. Secondly, the value of what record of sound fiscalmanagement. the state owes (liabilities) a varied economy and low debt. The Third: Limit the growth in expendi rose moderately, and this was offset bya Commonwealth pays for most of its tures by making sure that resources rise in short.term assets. =pital projects from current are used more productively and money from the general fund and from efficiently. The general fund is the main thing nongeneral fund sources each fiscal which affects the overall financial year. As a result, it does not issue Fourth: Simplify and reduce thecost of governmental administrativepro. cusses and regulations. Figure All General Fund Balances These principles have producedand are continuing to produce results. Regulations have been reduced. State Reserved or Designated agencies have been abolished and SMiUions Undesignated merged. Changes have been made in 400 who is responsible forgovernment. operated services. Fewer employees do mot work State resources have 300 heat directed to the most important programs. 200 208.0 213.2 A twopan strategy of the 1984.86 alamemirallow budget is being continued in the 19888 recommended budget.The 100 ' 101.9 first pan calls on agenciesto absorb increased costs foe supplies.mate 81.2 47.1 dais. and other "nonpersonal 0 I:: '1 ces" by reducing their operating 1985 1984 1983 1982

the Executive Budget 1986--1988 E 32c 2 many bonds. A total of $326.7 million in bonds. backed by the full more of the costs of educatior. in the faith and credit of the Common- Intergovernmental future. wealth. were outstanding as ofJune Finances Human Services -Federal funds for 30. 1985 Of thA: amount. $241.2 mil- human services programs have been lion was being repayed from reduced in two areas. First.a money-making capital projects. Much of what Virginia's state and number of grant programs were put These are mainly enterprises at col- local governments do dependson into block grants and their funding leges and universities and toll high- the federal government. The federal reduced by 25 percent. Second. ways. Debt service (iraciest) and government affects the state through efforts :o reduce Medicaidcosts have principal (money borrowed) pay- its requirements and the funds it resulted in fewer matching fecie.a; ments on the trance of $85.5 mil- gives to meet those requirerryints. In funds for the program. Thestate will lion will be pid for with general addition, federal policies affect the probably pay a greater share for fund tax money. Principal and inter- health of the state's economy. The human services programs in the est payments on this part of the health of the national economy future. Commonwealth's bonded debt were influences how much it will cost less than 0.5 percent of total general' Physical Facilities-The federal state and local governments to bor- fund expenditures in fiscal year government has reduced its funding 1985. This is a.low percentage com- row money, hire people and buy for new wastewater treatment facili- pared to other states. supplies. It also affects how many ties, and the future of federal high- Virginians will need social services way and transit funding is uncertain. During fiscal year 1985, the Com- because they annot find jobs. The state will probably have to playa monwealth issued $24.7 million in greater role in building and main- bonds. All of these bonds went for Likewise, the state plays a large role taining these facilities during the rest enterprise projects run by colleges in the operations of local govern- of the century. and universities. These bonds all got ments. Local governments must work the highest rating possible ("triple in the legal, service and financial set- A") by both major national ruin', ting created by the state. State man- Tax Conformity -ln 1972, Virginia's agencies. In fiscal year 1986, the dates, financial assistance and limits income tax was changed to conform Cor. nonwealth expects to issue placed on local taxing authority all to the federal income tax structure. approximately $100 million in long- affect local financial conditions and As a result, any changes in federal tax term bonds. These will also be for local ability to provide services. laws affect Virginia's revenue collet: projects which will make the troney dons. Frequent changes in federal Two major things will dominate fed. to pay back the amount borrowed. tax policy have created a much more eral fiscal policy and state-federal- unsettled situation than was seen The Commonwealth pools its local government relations for yt-:s when the state adopted partialon- unspent money into a general to come. These are efforts to control formance. If a major federal tax account from which it makes the federal deficit and changing reform occurs. Virginia's taxrate and investments in a variety of securities. ideas about what level of govern- brack 3 structure may need to he The average daily amount invested ment should deliver services. This changed to make sure the state has for the year ended June: 30, 1985, cei,rld bring many changes to was $821.5 million. This money was stc.e adequate tax revenues to insure and local governments through the ser invested as follows: 14.3 percent in vices are provided to citizens. rest of the century. Important issues Repurchase Agreements; 37.7 per- include the following. cent in U. S. Government and Agency Local Fiscal Stress-Localgovern- Securities; 45.3 percent in Money ments must raise money. set priori. Market Securities; and 2.7 percent in Federal Fund Reduction-A change already can be seen in the level of ties and spend funds in meeting the Time Deposits. Maturities for these needs of local citizens. Many local investments ranged from one day to federal funding for state programs. In 1980, federal funds were 25 percent governments have become finan five years. For fiscal year 1984.85, the daily mapped. This is due average amount made on invest- of the state's revenues. By 1990, they to national morn Inic conditions, falling ments was 10.4 percent. This is bet- may be only 18 percent. This means federal aid to localities, ter than the yield of 10 percent dur- the state must either reduce services state and ing fiscal year 1983-1984. Total or replace federal funds with other federal mandates. and highertax- interest made on this money was monies. Examples of areas where payer resistance to local taxes and $81.3 million. This was $28.8 million federal funds have been altered fees. Lxalities have acted bysetting more than the previous year. include: new taxes, higher taxes and spending controls; delaying capital im. Edurvion-Federal aid to education provements; and reducing employ- in.ginia has remained relatively ees. State government will be called stable since 1980. However, state upon to give localities more money, expenditures necessary for quality especially for education, which education have increased a great makes up for more than two-thirds deal. The state can expect to ray of state aid to localities.

E 32d The Executive Budget 1986-1988 275 Infrastructure Financing-Funding Virginia state government has the for physic) facilities is critical highest rating possible in the because the state's highways. rail- national bond market. Virginia also roads. airports. water and wastewater has good tax rates, ranking 41st in systems. and port facilities are crucial the nation as a percent of personal to the economy. Virginia has one of income. These things put Virginia in the largest state highway systems in a good financial position. By contin- the country. The state serves as a uing Virginia's prudent fiscal man- crossroads for major northsouth and agement, the state will remain fman- eastwest rail systems. Virginia needs daily healthy. It should be able to $18 billion for new and recon continue placing a reasonable tax structed highways. bndges and tran- burden on its citizens and financing sit facilities. In add;tion. new water its infrastructure needs. and wastewater treatment plants will require $2 billion above the costs of repairing existing systems. Virginia cannot pay for public facilities solely out of current revenues. Some money must be borrowed. However, the federal government continually borrows money to finance its deficit. This causes more competition among borrowers and will probably keep the cost of borrowing high. In addition:there are now proposals to end or limit the federal income tax deduction on government bonds. These things may make it hard for the state to raise money by selling bonds. (It may be J particular concern in the areas of health care, education, housing, and industrial development.)

The executive Budget1986 -1988 Budget for the Commonwealth ../.*, The 1986-88 budget differs in many buying, repoiring, or improving areas when compare v to the current government facilities. biennium. There are changes to ser- Overall Budget For the upcoming biennium, the vices offered, service providers and The state government budget is state proposes to spend $18.4 billion. recipients of services. The following divided into two kinds of expenses: pages highlight these changes. Irifor- This :mount represents a $1.4 billion operating and capital. The operating or 9 percent increase over the cur mation is provided on the overall expenses include expenses to main- budget, 512i0 services. state employ. rent biennium. The operating ex tain the day-to-day activities of state penses may be divided into three ment, state aid, as well as debt and government. The capital expenses capital expenses. broad caegoties of expenses:state are one-time crls associated with services, state aid, and debt payments. State service costs consist of personal services (salaries, benefits) Figure A26 and nonpersonal services (supplies. Overall 1986-88 Budget materials, contracts, equipment). For J the 1986-88 biennium, $10.7 billion is recommended. The state provides direct cash payments to cities, counties, towns, individuals, and other public and private agencies. Such state aid accounts for $7.2 billion of the 1986.88 budget. Slate &mikes State Aid tt0.740.7 Debt payments for interest and prin- $7,217.4 cipal for the payment of loans and bonds issued by the state is recommended at $171 million for the 1986 88 biennium. Thus, the operating expense budget is recommended at capital Projects) Debt Psyments $18.1 billion. $304.9 $170.6 lne capital budget, which includes In Millions expenses associated with acquisition. construction, repair, and Improve- ment of state facilities. is recom- mer,ded at $304.9 million. The adjacent chart reflects the proposed ex- Figure A27 State Government Services, 1984-86& 1986-86 penses for 1986-88.

State Services Service Ares 19844, 1986-88 Difference The rgrsonai and nonpersonal Education 5,761.4 8,686.5 925.1 expenses, as wen! as state aid pay- ECOMITOC DIVMOVIIINIt ments, when combined provide a Resource Management 510.9 535.4 25.5 broiled may cf services to the citizens Law Enforcement, Courts A of the Claimonwealth. All of the corrections 1,168.2 1,318.3 152.1 activities of state government can be Human Services 4,834.8 5,152.6 317.8 divided into eight areas of service. In 1966-88, these areas will include Transports:Ion 2,464.2 2,530.4 66.2 emphasis on new activities in prior- General Government 910.7 909.7 -1.0 Icy areas as well as additional ft:rid- Enterprises 1,054.8 994.8 -60.0 ing of certain existing programs. A comparison of adjustedappropria TOTAL 16,703.0 18,128.7 1,425.7 tions for 1984.86 with 1986-88 recommendations is shown for each of these areas in the rdjacent chart.

E 32f The Executive Budget1986-1988

2"f Education Indigent Health Care-Tne state's two Wasteu ater Treatment Facilities- Those activities intended to assist teaching hospitals. the Medical Col. Statewide. over 5:: oillionil. individuals in developing knowl- lege of Virginia and the University of needed to meet the neecs wa-t edge. skills and cultural awareness Virginia Hospitals. are the main pro water treatment facilities oerween are recommended at $6.7 billion in viders of health care to the state's 1985 and the year 2000. A r.urr.oer )f 1986.88. Some major highlights of poor people. An additional $42.3 funding options are now beim! the education recommendations Le million is recommended to increase sidered in the state ano federal gra- given below. the amount of general fund support einmem. To prepare for the state 5 for indigent cue and medical educa share of these needs. the Governor :5 don costs at these two hospitals to recommending that $10 million per Standards of Quality-The 1986.88 100 percent of the costs by the end year be set aside in a revolving !oar. budget recommends full funding of of fiscal year 1988. For the first time. fund to help localities finance these the states share of the cost of meet these amounts are based on a uni- facilities. The state contributionwill ing the standards of quality (SOQ) in form costing methodology, deve be matched with between 138 to $'1 public elementary and secondary loped by the Auditor of Public Ac million in federal funds. schools. This comes to an additional counts, a-.d on uniform eligibility $545.4 million above the current criteria. biennium for Direct Aid to Public Coal Mine Safery -An additional Si Education in support of the stand- million is recommended to continue ards of quality. The recommended Economic Development and expand the Governor's Mine amount allows local governments to : ad Resource Management Safety Program for the reduction of increase the average classroom 1 hose activities intended to develop injuries and fatalities in Virginia's teacher salary in Virginia to a level the economic base, preserve natural underground mines. equivalent to the projected national resource; and protect the consumer median salary. Full funding of the are recommended at $536 million in state's share of SOQ and raising 1986.28. Some major highlights of teachers' salaries to the national Law Enforcement, Courts the economic development and median have been major objectives and Cotrectiocs resource management recommend. shared by the Governor and General Those activities related to civil and tions are given below. Assembly for the past two criminal justice. includrrig crime bienniums. prevention, arrests. trials. and pun- Industrial and Tourist Promotion- ishment are recommended at $1.3 Two new initiatives, tourism research billion in 1986438. Some major high. Higher Education- Recommenda- and meetings and conventions ad. lights of the law enforcement. courts tions for higher education include vertising, will be supported within and corrections recommendations funds to pay for first year faculty are given below. present levels of 5u/ding. The overall salary increases ranging from 8 to 13 advertising budget is recommended percent. If this increase is also ap- for an increase of approximately 10 State Police-The Department if State proved for the second year, Virginia's percent per year ($900.000) to keep faculty salary average will be the Police is funded at $4. million for pace with inflation in the advertising an additional 75 pailtitrs. This will highest in our geographic region. industry. The budget also recommends $5.1 carry out recommendations of the million for staffing shifts among the 1984 Mission and Staffing Study, and institutions as a result of dropping add positions for urban interstate enrollments in some institutions and Industrial Training-This is the or 'y patrol as recommended in a 198i ongoing incentive offered by the rising enrollments in others. This consultant report on the Subject. state to persuade new businesses to action is designed to improve the Also, $1.5 million has been reconi locate in Virginia. The demand for quality of undergraduate education, mended to begin automating the these services is expected to rise fingerprint files maintained by the to enhance faculty excellence, and to and an additional 20 percent per measure student academic achieve- State Police. year, for a total of $4.6 million, is ment. To address instructional equip. recommended. ment deficiencies and obsolescence. local twentle Fat:dims-The budget $102.8 million is recommended. recommends an additional $3 3 mil Included is :18.8 million to be used Chesapeake Bay Cleanup-This pro lion for a cost of living adjustment with bond procceds to address gram. first funded in the present for employees of local juvenilecur equipment needs. Finally, the biennium, continues to be of critical sectional facilities. and full funding budget recommends a 9 percrnt importance to the state. The budge. of several related programs increase in the support given to var. recommends a total of $20.5 million ious student aid programs in public in expenditures for the biennium, an Mental Health Serrrees far Mutates- institutions of higher education. increase of $3.3 million over 1984-86. The budget provides an additional

E 32g The Executive Budget 1986 -1988

2fr'1 C. $3.6 million to begin planning and Family Violence-Family violence ies of bonds issued by the PortAu. construction of a mental health harms the community as well as the thonn,.. An additional 16.5 millionis treatment facility for mentally ill individuals within the family. This is ir.mates. recommended for construction of a problem which has only recently cranes and the acquisition of addi Oercrowdzng of Local fads-The received much attention. The budge( tional paved acreage. budget recommends an additional includes $1.6 million from the Public Transit The budget recom- $.i.9 million to continue the Gover- general fund to continue the funding mends an additional $3.2 nor's initiative for taking 500 addi- approved by '''. 1985 General million for payments to public transit operators tional inmates from overcrowded Assembly to end state programs local jails and placing them in the responding to family violence. state prison syst:m. Some $3 million General Governn.znt i Local Social Service Department :ncleded for salaries of sheriffs' Those activities which support the positions to staff five new local jail Administrative Casts-Local welfare! social service programs are now general operations of state. regional facilities opening during thenext being funded through a mix of fed- and local levels of government in- biennium. Finally. $6.8 million is eral, state and local money. The cluding legislative affairs and execs: recommended for expenses asso- budget bill requires a study of case- tive manageriient -.re recommended ciated with state prisoners in local at 8910 million Li 1986-88. jails. load standards to identify suitable staffing levels for local social service Augusta Correctional Center-The agencies. These standards would Tax Compliance-An estimated $-iG budget provides an additional titer. be used to calculate the ami.,:Jm million in additional state revenue $10389 million for full rending of of federal, state and local support. and $6.8 million in socal revenues the Augusta Correctional Center. The The budget also funds the state's will be collected due to expanded 1986.88 biennium is the first full share of a 6 percent salary increase tax compliance actions. Some 87 full biennium that this facility will be for employees of local social service time auditors, resident audit person. open. agencies. nel and compliance positionsto work throughout the country arerec- Loa/ Services for Indigents-An addi- Medicaid-The bidget recommends ommended at a cost of $6.5 million. donut $3.3 million is included to an additional $7.1 million from the provide a 15 percent increase in revs general fund to pay for the removal Asbestos Run:awl-The budget paid to lawyers for representing roc of the Medicaid 21clay paymentcap mends $1.2 million to perform indigent clients in criminal cases. a for hospitalized children. It alsopro- =dated statewide asbestossurvey vides $1.8 million in additional funds %he survey will be done in phases Hu. as Services so that the Medicaid audit backlog over the next several yews. can be eliminate Those activities which support the econort:7. social and physical well Health Care Cast Contamment -To Infant Deaths Virginia continues being of individuals and familiesare to continue the preadmission review have a relatively high number of in- recommended at $5.2 billion in of non-emergency stays, Cants who die in their fin: year of concurrent 19864;8. Some major highlights of review of inpatient hospital stays, life. Approximately $9 million in a the human services recommenda- new pilot comprehensive h..-alth risk money is recommended to fund lions are given below. reduction program, and to evaluate programs dealing with infant mortal- results the budget includes a ream ity. This includes 8500.000 for new Community Mental Health Services- mendation of $2.2 million. There continues to be a large.unmet projects to prevent infant deaths.. need for community mental health Rozenue Rclerre-The budget services. particularly for former Transportatic it patients of mental hospitals. The includes 1 percent of the firm year's general fund revenues. or $44.- mil budget recommends 1165.5 million Those activities related to the lion, in . revenue reserve. This for Community Services B.:zds, movement of people, goods and Ner which oversee local mental health vices are recommended at $2.5 hilt reserve will provide for unforeseen changes that may occur as services. This amount includes a 6 lion in 1986.88. Some highlightso a result of congremional actions at the federal percent salary increase for em- the transpor.ation rex:mint:rid:Mons ployees of Community Services are given below. level dealing with deficit reduction, or eccmomic changes. Boards. as well as an additional 65 Port Competition-Major improve. employees at these Boards to actas ments were undertaken at Hampton Enterprises case managers for former mental Roads in 1985 so that the state could hospital patients who are returning 'r hose activities which operatea keep its competitive position with commixiity sales or production to their comti".unities. It also funds other East Coast ports. The budget undertaking or provide services fora the state's share of five community recommends an additional $9.3 mil- group homes in southwest Virginia. charge are recommended at $995 lion for debt service on the 1985set million in 1986.88.

E 32h The ExecutiveBudget 1986-1988 279 The redistnbuuon of money over the Figure A28 Rankings Among Programs, 1986-88Comparedto 193042 last four yeas has greatly changed the ranking among program areas 11114-1111 1940-82 For example. elementary and secon- Rang % of Funds Rant of Funds dary education, higher education. Elementary & Secondary Education 1 22.0 3 17 i corrections, and economic develop. Welfare & Social Services 2 18.1 19 9 ment have moved up in the rankings Higher Education 3 15.1 4 14 Highway Itainteruince & Cont. 4 and percent of funds. These redistri 13.6 2 17.3 Health Services 5 9.8 5 9.0 butions are shown in the adjacent Enterprise Operations 6 6.2 6 5.3 chart Corrections 7 3.7 8 3.2 General Senna' 8 2.9 7 3.9 Law Enforcement 9 2.2 10 .F The 1986-88 total recommended Courts 1 Legal Sonic's 10 1.3 12 I 0 11 operating budget is $18.1 billion. Of Natural Resources 1.5 11 '..5. this, $9.2 billion will corn .: from the Employes ConUfbutlene & Benefits 12 .8 9 2.7 EC0110711{C Development 13 .8 14 .5 general fund and $8.9 billion will Consumer Protection 14 .7 13 .6 come from nongeneral funds. The Museums & Libraries 15 A 16 3 Airports than in the center compares the Facilities 16 .2 17 .3 Legislative Serribes 17 .2 19 .2 1984.86 legislative appropriations Personnel, Racal & Planning 18 .2 15 .5 Port FacillUes with the 198688 biennium mom flatting Safety 19 .2 18 3 Preventive Health 20 mendations by major groupings of .1 20 .2 agencies.

Figure A29 Comparison of Operating BIdgets, 1984-86 & 1986.88 State Employment . - .-

Over the past twenty years, govern. Legislative Ospirbasni ment employment at all levels in Judicial Department Virginia (state,10C21,and federal) has expanded. Most cf this growth has Executive Offices been a result of increased state and Administration local services in health, corrections, Commerce & Resources V .4-rti: tr.e2a.4i; transportation, recreation and hous- Education ing, and increased regulation of the sZ: .141, environment. Finance Human Resources During the 1980s, the Governors and Central Assembly wanted to slow Trans. & Public Safety the growth in state government independent Agencies employment. They set up employ. ment controls which quickly leveled 8000 off employment during the 1980.82 biennium. Infanuary 1982, Governor Note: DM not inciude Central Items 1934 -86 198,5-88 above 84-86 Robb froze hiring. This gave hire, time to study the best way to reduce state sr:Nen-nem employment, and Figure A30 to hold the employment level equal State Government Employment Levels,1982-86 to or below the January 1982 level - through 1985 despite subs2ntial in creases required in numerous agen. Thousands des. In effect, rnanagx.ment controls, 95 such as executive agri:ements and ...... Authorized Employment budgeting procedures, caused agen- 90 cies to operate below their authc...... rized employment levels as shown .89 on the adjacent chart.

While both the authorized and actual 80 Actual Employment employment have dropped since 1982, the number of new services and facilities rose. Additional gaff in FY 1982 FY 1984 FY 1985 FY 1986

E 32. the Executive Budget 1986-1988 280 such areas as institutions of higher ductiva has grown and personnel Aid to Localities education and corrections were resources have been redistributed Duringthe past twenty years. most accommodated within existing lev- among agencies. This has permined major new programs and significant els. Along with these changes were the following inclusions for state increases to existing programs have proposals to increase the compensa- employees in the 19P-6-88 budget. been for state aid benefiting 10C2:; lion package for state employees so ties. For example. during the 1960s. that the state would remain reasona- a4.56% salary increase for classi. special purpose transfers to planning bly competitive with private sector fled employees.effective July 1, districts and Chapter 10 Boards were employers. The employee average 1986; begun; during the IrOs. state and salary during the period from 1982 salary increases oft' to 13% for federal transfer programs for me d: to 1985 rose from 515.495 o $18,138. college teaching at, 1 research raid, health service ate.15, drug abuse. In addition to salary increases, the employees; Title XX, supplemental securiry following changes were also made to come, meals on wheels. aging. and performance increases valued at crime prevention were begun. and the e,aployee compensation pack 4.57% of annual pay for eligible age: the state took on employees during the 1980s. aid to locai Lcnsti employees, equivalent to 1.92% of tutional officers, electoral board!.. contributions to the Virginia Sup- payroll; and plemental Retirement System and police departments. and schosi Group Life Insurance; renegotiated a 9.7% increase in costs for BCJBS boards was greatly increased. Today health care insurance and gave and HMO insurance premiums direct aid is provided to cities. coun, employees options of joining other being borne by the state. ties and towns for: Blue dross/Blue Shield or riealth Salaries and expenses of local she. Maintenance Organization plans: riffs, treasurer; revenue commis. began an employee suggestion pro- done% bealtb, and registrars gram. which pays employees in time State Aid offices; off or dollars for 4,..st saving ideas: and developed a "pay for perfor- All appropriations benefit the resi- Special purpose transfers for plan. mance" plan for state employees. dents of the Commonwealth, either ning district.; Cbapter 10 boards. bealtb service caws, welfare The 1986.88 budget proposes a net directly or indirectly. The enent of board; education, police depart. decrease of 18 positions when com expenditures made locally, for local benefit originating from state gov- merits, transportation, and water paring the second years of the cur- treatment; and rr:r. and next biennia. Even with this ernment is significant. Direct ash reduction, increases have been2C payments from the state to cities, General purpose revenue sharing comma:Wed in corrections, state counties, towns, individuals, and such as sales tax and ABC prof its. police, mental health, legal services. nonstate entities constitute 39.2 per- and regulation of cotporations as cent of the 1986-88 budget. Such shown in the chart below. paymentsareproposed to increase The 1986.88 budget continues em- by over one billion dollars in the phasis on direct sr::..e aid to localities The chart reveals that employee pro- forthcoming biennium. and includes $5.8 billion. This constitutes a $901 million increase over Figure A31Position Levels for State Government, 1984-86 &1986-88 the current biennium. This does not include numerous state programs which are traditionally considered FY 84-86 FY 86-88 Variance local, such as health clinics. traffic Legislative 517 517 0 safety, highway construction and Judicial 1,781 1,789 8 maintenance. as well as courts. Executive Office 363 367 4 Aid to Individuals Administrative 1,529 1,544 15 In addition to aid to cities, counties Commerce L Resources 4,148 4,128 -20 and towns, the stare provides ray Educatirm 39.465 39,428 -37 means to individuals. Fur example. Finance 1,172 1,183 11 payments artt. .le for: Human Resources 17,224 17,248 24 Income supplements for food, shel. Transportation & Public Safety 24,858 24,817 -41 ter, health care, and clothing; Independent Agencies 626 t.45 19 Unemployed individuals, claims TOTAL 91,682 91,666 -18 and settlements; and Mete: Transppnation and Public 5/flirty positions reflect propot 0: .mendmentsto Chapter 619. 1415 acts of Assembiy Student loan; grunts and fellowships.

E 32j The Executive Budget 1986-1988 The 1%6.88 biennium includes $1.2 associations. historical societies, and billion for payments to individuals. local agencies. The number and This amount increases such aid by kinds of nonstate agencies getting Debt and Capital r1 million above the current funds vary widely from one bien Expenses biennium. nium to the next, as do the mounts Aid to Noastate Entities of money. The 1986.88 budget in cludes $207 million for payments to The appropnation arprPrnts and the By statute and tradition, some enti- nonstate enta:s. ways of paying for capit...! protects ties which are not a part of state have changed continually over the government receive state money The chart below shows the monies past twenty years. in the mid.1960c each biennium. These are intrrstate allocated for state aid in the current for every nongeneral fund doll-:. organizations, national and regional and the next biennia. there were 10 general fund dollars By the mid.1970s, this ratio had changed so that 56 percent of the Figure AS capital budget came from nonce:: State Aid current & Next Biennium eral funds. By 1982.84. the general fund made up 6'4 percent of thecaps tai budget. During this period. the capital budge: never exceeded 6 Payment In Millions 1984-86 1986-88 Variance percent. More often than not. me capital budget was less than 2 per. cent of the appropriations. Aid to Localities $4,922.2 $5,822.9 $ 900.7 During this period. the state bought. Aid to individuals $1,116.7 $1,187.6 $ 70.9 repaired or improved many facilities. Perialimlly, bonds were used to Aid to Nonstate Entices S 155.9 $ 206.9 $ 51.0 supplement other monies to finance TOTAL $8,194.8 $7,217.4 $1,022.6 capital projects. The 1986.88 budget Inclucas Local Auxiliary Eaton:0,1W includes $171 million to repay 'prin cipal and interest on such bonds.

The 1986.88 capital budget recom mends $304.9 million for additional capital projects in higher education, mental health and mental retarda don, corrections, and resource man. agent= agencies.

E 32k The Executive BudgetI986--1988

2 fsi Vol 60, No. 1 This News Letter was reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University of Virginia. NEWS LETTER Unit,.;), of Virginia Institute of Government Septem 1983

THE 1982-83 VIRGINIA GENERAL ASSEMBLY by Rob.'rt J. Austin

The author is a research associate in the Division of the 1982 special election resulted in twenty- suppositionthattheRepublican party Legislative Services. General Assembly of Virginia. This article continues a News Letter custom of devoting an one new members. While these turnover would benefit from a single-member elec- issue in every odd-numbered year to the highlights of the rates individually are consistent with those toral system in Virginia, almost all of the preceding two-year cycle of the General Assembly. usually product' by Virginia's legislative Republican gain occurred in 1981, after elections, the combined 1981-82 member- seats had been shifted from traditionally The Virginia General Assembly's regular ship change was significantly higher than Democratic central cities and rural South- schedule was disrupted somewhat in 1982-83 that of past bienniums. Thirty-eight House side to suburban areas as a result of the 1980 by the difficulties that the House of Dele- members who served ;n 1983 had been newly census. Republicans captured eight addi- gates experienced in completing its redis- elected since the end of the 1981 session, tional seats in the 1981 election, five of them tricting after the 1980 census) House mem- although a few had served at some time in new "open" suburban seats; in contrast, a bers were required by federal court order to during the 1980s. (Six freshmen in the 1982 net gain of only one Republican delegate run for one-year terms in both 1981 and session were defeated in the 1982 special resulted from the single-member election of 1982. The 1981 election was permitted to go election.)House committeesalsowere 1982. forward under a "traditional" House plan affected, as thirteen of the twenty House Redistrictings did not immediately affect using multi-member districts, to avoid divid- committees, including most major ones, had the number of back members of the House, ing political subdivisions, but the 1982 elec- new chairmen by 1983; four have seen a which remained at four. Eleven women are tion was held under a new plan with all different chairman in each of the last three now members of the House, as compared single-member districts. years. with eight in :981 and nine in 1982. Membership in the House thus changed in The Republican party gained nine House The only leadership change occurring in each of the last two veers, with concomitant seats over the last two years, to reach a high the last two years was the selection of Vin- changes in committee membership and chair- water mark of thirty-four members in 1983. cent Callahan of Fairfax County as House men v.,;ti year. Further, because of the spe- Sixty-five delegates were Democrats, and minority leader. He replaced Jerry Geisler of cial ;louse election in 1982, the Assembly one member again was elected as an inde- Carroll, who lost his bid for re-election in was unable to carry over bills from the 1982 pendent. Interestingly, despite the frequent 1981. to the 1983 session. As a result, the 1982 and 1983 sessions stand as more discrete epi- sodes than usual, although many of the same issues were before each session,

MEMBERSHIP TURNOVER The Institute of Government is pleased to amour " the following new publication: House of Delegates. Twenty-three new House members were elected in 1981, and VIRGINIA VOTES 1979-1982 By Larry Sabato This velu -, the fourth in a continuing series, provides an analysis of major Virginia 'See Joho G. Schunemen and John G. Selph. The 198111982 Reapportionment of the Virginia House of Delegates." Untvermy elections during these years.Aset of appendix tables includes official election results, by of Vtrgenta News Letter. Vol. 59. No. 10 (June 1983). individual city and county, for five of these elections, as well as two special electionson constitutional referendums. Copies of Virginia Votes 1979-1982 are available for S7.50 eech from the Institute of Government, 207 Minor Hall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22903. (phone: NOTE: The author wishes to acknowledge the assts. 804/924-0943). Plew.e make checks payable to the University of Virginia. ranee of his colleagues at the Division of Legislative Services. who made suggestions about legislative actions to be included in this ankle and reviewed parts of the manuscript. 233 2

Senate. Three special elections for Senate and vocational education, and a remedial in nongeneral fund appropriations, mainly seats in the last two years led to a shift in the aid program was instituted. The Assemly set based on revenue from the higher federal Senate Democrat-Republican distribution and funded its share of the educational gasoline tax, to be used for highway con- from 31-9 to 32-8. Democratic Delegate Standards of Quality (SOQ) amounts at struction. In addition, six new capital outlay Robert Scott of Newport News captured the SI,320 per pupil for 1982-83 and SI,467 for projects were added. Senate seat previously held by Republican 1983-84, compared to S1,185 for 1981-82. Senator Herbert Bateman, who resigned his The 1982-84 budget also contains new lan- The restorations to the general fund seat upon Ids election to the U.S. House of guage that "each locality shall endeavor to included almost S22 million for basic educa- Representatives. Scott also became the sec- increase classroom teacher salaries by 10 tion aid. This enabled the Assembly to put ond black member of the Senate. Delegate percent each year of the biennium." the SOQ amount for 1983-84 at SI,464 per Evelyn Hai ley's election to a Norfolk Senate The human resources area was particu- pupil, or only S3 less than the original target. seat likewise brought the number of women larly hard hit by escalating program costs The Assembly also restored about one-fifth in the Senate to two. and cuts in federal aid, since it absorbed of the governor's proposed 1983" cut of 6 about 75 percent of the federal reductions. percent in higher education, including all 'ME BUDGET AND TAXES The crisis was particularly acute in Medicaid money for student financial aid. The last budget-making cycle was notable funding, where cuts of SI22.6 million in pro- Elsewhere, the General Assembly not only because of the legislature's search for reve- grams initially were projected as necessary concurredwiththegovernor'srecom- nue to ameliorate a rather gloomy prospect to meet available revenue sources. The mended increases to promote tourism and for the 1982-84 biennium, caused by reduc- Assembly restored $10.1 million of the gover- industrial development, but also added additions in federal aid, sluggish tax revenue nor's proposed cut, mainly to continue hospi- tional funds of its own to these areas. While growth, and the fallout from changes in fed- tal services for children. It also set out fairly other tnajor functional areas were subject to eral tax law. The governor's fiscal advisors detailed directions to the governor and the the general reduction, certain key areas were and budget experts expected revenue growth State Board of Health for measures that exempted. These included, for example, to be little above the 10 percent level. Recent would contain costs without totally demol- prison security, direct patient services in past budgets, by comparison, had gown by ishing any program. Other additional appro- local health departments, and community about one-fourth each biennium. Overall, priations for maternal and child health, mental health retardation boards. over 98 percent of the 1982-84 budget was family planning, and crippledchildren projected to go to meet present service brought the total amount the Assembly The General Assembly also formulated a requirements, leaving little room to expand added to the human resources area to 522.5 plan to increase state employee compensa- existing programs or create new ones. million. tion by providing S30 million to pick up the 5 The 1982 General Assembly was able to As might be expected, the 1982 Assembly percent employee share of retirement contri- add almost a half billion dollars to the made adjustments in the budgets of numer- butions as of October I,1983. The tax budget without ar increase in inoividual ous other programs that cannot be detailed advantages of this approach to increasing income or sales taxes. The general fund was here. Of importance to all state employees compensation will result in a 6 to 8 percent increased by 5161 million. This was ac-. was provision for a salary increase of 4 increase in take-home pay. complished by a delay in rollbacks and percent. The net resiat of the 1982 and 1983 budget deductions for certain scheduled public ser- The 1983 General Assembly confronted.a efforts was a 1982-84 biennial budget total- vice corporation and corporate income continuing lag in economic recover/ that left ing S13.36 billion, an iret.:ase of 13.3 percent taxes; an ABC tax increase from 15 to 20 the Commonwealth with a projected general over the 1980-82 budget's total of $11.96 percent; other :nereases in miscellaneous fund deficit of 5305 million, which was billion. The actions in 1983 left the generai taxes and fees; fund transfers; and revised reduced to a net of 5263 million by a surplus fund at 56.49 billion, an increase of 14.3 estimates. The nongeneral fund also was from the 1980-82 biennium. Governor Robb percent over 1980-82. The nongeneral fund's increased, by S329 million. Most of that used his executive authority to begin meet- total is 57.07 billion, and thus it remains money, for transportation, was provided by ing tcrisis before the 1983 session, order- slightly larger than the general fund. But its a new 3 percent excise tax on petroleum ing 5 percent cuts in most state agency 12.4 percent growth marked the first time in revenue to be paid by oil companies, in- budgets and programs for 1982-83 and freez- recent bienniums that it grew at a slower rate creases in motor vehicle registration fees, ing capital outlay programs. He made sev- than the general fund. and measures to generate increased federal eral other recommendatons to the 1983 highway funds. General Assembly to eliminate the projected A final note of significance on the budget Transportation needs were a priority in deficit, including salary freezes and a 6 process is that the Senate Finance Commit- the General Assembly's funding efforts. In percent reduction in agency budgets for 1983- tee for the first time in 1983 introduced its addition to increases for the various classes 84, reductions of 522.7 million in basic own budget bill. In the past the Senate has of road systems, extra funds were r )vided school aid to localities, transfers of S53 waited for the House to complete action on to the interstate system and for the paving of million from the State Literary Fund for the appropriations bills. rural roads. Significantly, almost S39 mil- teacherretirement,andvt riousother As noted, a number of tax changes were lion in additional funds were appropriated transfers and cuts. The governs also pro- made to raise revenues. The Assembly, how- for mass transit. The largest share of thenew posed p-ogram additions of S30 million. ever, decided not to alter either the basic money went to Northern Virginia's Metro The General Assembly generally endorsed individual income tax or the sales tax, even system, to provide a "stable and reliable" the governor's approach, but it added 555.9 though several bills to do so were offered funding source as required by federal law; million to his proposed general fundappro- either in the name of tax "equity" or as however, each metropolitan area of the state priations through a combination of revenue revenue measures. The latter included pro- also gained some mass transit aid. estimate adjustments, additions of surplus posals to increase the sales tax, to alter the A second major priority was elementary funds, accelerated collection of taxes from income tax brackets, or to increase the and secondary education. An additional S63 those who pay income taxes on an estimated maximum bracket to as much as 9 p':rcent. million over the governor's budget was ap- basis, and transfers from nongeneral funds. Bills introduced as equity matters included propriated for basic school aid and special The Assembly also added almost S78 million those to index either the income tax brackets 2 4 ,r the standard deduction and personal report to the 1984 session on ways to The other major change in the act is that xemption amounts, in order to control for improve the efficiency of the process. This candidates must continue to file annual post- the effect of inflation-driven tax "increases" will be the first such official evaluation since election reports as long as contributions are or to repeal sales taxes on food. Some bills the mid-1970s. being received or funds remain unexpended, had combined purposes, such as increasing A major accomplishment in 1983 was the and they must file a report showing the final the sales tax while also exempting food from rewriting of the Comprehensive Conflict of disposition of all funds. The law previously the tax. Interests Act. The Assembly has rejected required just or.:: post-election report, with Two budget-related amendments to the past efforts to make extensive revisions, but additional reports necessary only if outstand- state constitution passed for the first session it has modified the act from time to time. In ing obligations remained thereafter. The in 1983 and, if approved by the new Assem- 1982, for example, the Assembly required its practical effect of the change is to disclose members to disclose the names of state bly in1984, will go tothe votersin the uses to which campaign surpluses and November of that year. One is a "balanced agencies before which they or their close post-election contributions are put. budget" amendment that would write into financial associates represented a client and the constitution what has long been a Vir- added a requirement that legislators must ginia custom; namely, that the governor report honoraria of over 5200 received for The Assembly considered an extensive list shall ensure that no expenses be incurred activities related to their official capacity. of changes in voter registration laws but The basic thrust of the new 1983 act was to that exceed anticipated revenues. The other found merit only in some moderate adjust- improve the clarity of the rules rather than proposed amendment wouldlimitthe ments to the present system, which for the growth of appropriations from total state drastically to change the system (although most part goes back to reforms adopted in tax revenues to the estimated rate of growth changes, of course, were made). A note- the early 1970s. A proposed constitutional of the state economy. it revenues exceed the worthy addition is the act's creation of amendment that woold have opened the way amounts necessary to meet the prescribed separate House and Senate ethics advisory to ',ger registration by mail died in commit- appropriation limit, the surplus could be panels to investigate and make fa:: finding tee both years. The 1982 session did allow used in later bienniums for debt reduction, reports on alleged violations of the act personswithdisabilitiesorlong-term tax refunds, or appropriations. pertaining to members of the appropriate illnesses to be registered in their own hones, house. (The 1982 Senate had authorized a as well as allowing voters to request absentee Senate panel under its own rules.) ballots by mail for business or vacation The panels are advisory only and do not absences. THEGOVERNMENTAL PROCESS have enforcement power. Improving legislative management and A major structural innovation will result from the decision of the 1983 session to The 1982 Assembly also approved a bill ontrol presently appears to be the General allowing the use of "volunteer" assistant Assembly's foremost concern for its own create a nine-member intermediate court of appeals, to become effective January registrars, who serve without pay. But in branch of government. One issue is the sheer I, 1985. Virginia thus will join a majority of 1983, bills that in effect would have required volume of legislation that must be consid- states who have an intermediate tier of automatic approval by the registrar of eredparticularly for the odd-year session, "volunteer" rcgistration activity were unsuc- which has never concluded within the pre- appeals of courts. The 1982-83 sessions otherwise were comparatively quiet in the cessful, and the Assembly clarified the regis- scribed thirty-day period. By setting dead- trar's ultimate authority by requiring that lines for bill introduction and no doubt by area of the governmental process. A few changes were mhde in executive branch such assistants be trained and supervised by some self-restraint, the General Assembly in the general registrar. To make it easier for the last few years has reduced the volume of organization, including the creation of a State Ci nmisi.on on Indians in 1983. The those seeking to register, the 1983 Assembly legislation in even-year sessions from a high did require that the registrar's telephone of 1,833 bills (excluding resolutions) in 1976 1982 session did not react favorably to a proposal to eliminate the cabinet secretary number be listed separately in telephone to the 1,411 bills introduced in 1982. A sim- directories and that all registration sites be ilar decline in odd-year volume, however, system, but incoming novernor Robb did reduce the size of the secretarial staff. clearly marked. w.eversed in 1983. The 1,234 bills intro- duLed was second only to the high of 1,295 in 1977. If the Assembly had been able to carry In other registration legislation, the 1983 over bills from 1982 to 1983, the total PARTIES AND ELECTIONS session agreed that a registrar should be volume of legislation before the 1983 session allowed to go into an adjacent locality to probablywouldhaveapproachedor Campaign finance and voter registration conduct joint registration with the registrcr exceeded that of 1982. The General Assem- were two main areas in the electoral process of that locality. The Assembly was unwill- bly in 1982 passed for the second time a that received recent legislative attention. A ing, however, to allow a registrar to accept a proposed constitutional amendment that major change was made in 1983 to expand registration application from someone liv- would halm allowed the legislature, by resolu- campaign finance reporting requirements ing outside of his or her jurisdiction, for tion, to set limits on the subject matter of under the Fair Elections Practices Act. transfer to the appropriate locality's regis- bills that could be introduced at the odd- Under the 1983 law, any election year contri- trar. The Assembly in 1982 approved for the year session. The voters rejected that amend- bution will trigger reporting requirements second time, and the voters subsequently ment in November 1982, however, by a and, if contributions or expenditures are approved in November, a constitutional margin of almost two to one. made in a year before the election year, a amendment deleting the requirement that a Other legislative management concerns report must be filed by January IS of the person applying to register give marital nclude the proliferation of subcommittees next calendar year. The previous law simply status and occupation, but requiring that an and the access of members and citizens to had required a candidate to file a finance applicant give any prior legal name (as a information about the flurry of legislative report thirty days before a primary or means of better verifying voter rolls). A activity. A significant step was taken in 1983 general election or, as a result of 1982 proposal to amend the constitution to per- when a joint subcommittee on legislative General Assembly action, eight days before mit government employees to serve as assist- management was created and directed to a nominating convention or mass meeting. ant registrars was not successful. 2u 4

Several proposals for change in the opera- recommend or the court may award a tions of the office of voter registrar failed years were those proposing that any lo, to greater or lesser area for immunity thana clear committee in 1983. These included bills be allowed to impose a transient occt. county has requested, thus parallelingannex- that would have required the registrar's (room) tax; that any county be allowedto ation provisions. The annexation issueprom- office to be open at least five days a week in impose a meals tax (a couple were given ises to be before future sessions of the specific authority) or a cigarette tax; and any locality in which less than 80 percent of General Assembly; a joint subcommittee the voting age population is registered; that that any locality be able to levy a local sales was created in 1983 to study and evaluate the tax of 2 percent. would have required extra night and Satur- annexation laws. The Industrial Development and Revenue day hours in t'ae last month before the close Another joint study subcommittee that of the registration books; and that would Bond Act was rewritten in 1983, primarily to had been considering whether local landuse have reduced the registration cut-off date make the purposes for which indurlri41 control powers' needed to be strengthened revenue bonds may be issued conform with from thirty to twenty days before the reported to the 1983 session. Its report stated election. new federal provisions. Significantly, local that recent court decisions were consistent governing bodies rather than industrial Two wennial proposals, one to permit with the rules of interpretation givi, a party desii;nations on ballots and the other development authorities now will have the presumption of validity to local zm.ing power and duty to give final approval to to permit voluntary registration by party actions. The subcommittee recommended preference, again failed in committee. A these revenue bond projects. The Urban only modest language changes to emphasize Enterprise Act also was enacted in 1982. modest boost to parties was provided bya that all purposes of zoning relevantto the That act provides tax credits both to busi- 1982 decision that taxpayers may designate particular case should be considered in drawup to S2 of their income tax to a party's nesses investing in impoverished areas and ing and applying zoning ordinances; the to certain poor individuals employed by central committee. (Public financing ofstate- General Assembly concurred with those such businesses. wide elections was introduced butwas unsuc- recommendations. cessful) The 1982 session also approved a Committees in each session defeated bills bill overruling any local city charter provi- that would have allowed localities sions and guaranteeing city council and to require developers to pay a pro rata share of road mayoral candidates the right to be nomi- PUBLIC POLICY construction cost occasioned by subdivision nated by a party, but the act was repealed in development, just as they now Crime, corrections, and judicial 1983. Also of note is a 1982 act requiring pay certain proce- other costs such as sewers. Similarly dure traditiona. y generate a large amount independents and primary candidates for unsuccessful in both sessions was cf legislative activity, and 1982-83 statewide office to demonstrate it minimal a pr al that was no would have extended local zonit exception. Actions of the Assembly included amount of statewide support. Such candi- ....thority to state agencies, with provisions for increased penalties for the use of a lima dates now must obtain at least 200 petition an appeal reaching to the governor, who then connection with various felony offen signatures from each congressional district, could grant partial or total exemption. ban on the use of teflon-coated buttes in addition to meeting the overall require- (passed in 1983 after being killed in 1982); ment of having petitions signed by one-half An area that drew a fair share of attention a of 1 percent of the registered voters. was the conversion of rental residential ban on the advertisement and sale ofso- property to condominiums. A 1982 bill, called "look-alike" drugs ;1982); anda ban presented as a way to relieve pressureon on advertising or selling drug paraphernalia. owners to convert and providing that rental Under a 1982 act, those convicteda third LOCAL GOVERNMENT property should be assessed at rental value time for murder, robbery, or rape willnot be Municipal-county relationships continue ratherthanconversionpotential,was eligible for parole. A 1983 bill was passed to be a major local government issue. The passed. Efforts to write that provision into allowing the disclosure of thecontents of 1983 session, expanding upon 1982 legisla- the constitution failed, however,as did a wire-taps and derivative evidence that relate to a felony offense. tion, gave a broad grant ofpower to locali- proposed amendment with a somewhat dif- ties :or the voluntary settlement of issues ferent approachnamely, creating "multi- Various proposals to change sentencing procedures were involving annexation, immunity, and transi- family rental (-welling" as a special landuse unsuccessful; these includedbills that would have allowed tion. An agreement now may includea wide category. A 1%2 law did provide that locali- judges rather than juries to set sentences in variety of provisions for revenue andeco- ties cannot block condominiums by refusing nomic growth sharing, joint exercise of to grant a variance, exception, 4a use permit non-capital criminal cases or that would have bifurcated trials so that juries could be powers,service-relatedprovisions,and if the applicant can show that the nonconfor- waiver of specific annexationor immunity mity will not be adversely affected by the given more pre-sentencing information. The 1983 session did give first approval rights. A related bill allows twoor more conversion. The Assembly also took stepsto to a localities voluntarily to change theircom- ensure that more information will be pro- proposed constitutional amendment that mon boundaries under much the same condi- vided to residents of proposed condomin- will allow the Commonwealth to appeal tions. The 1983 Assembly also provided that ium conversion property, and it permitted certain preliminary or prejeopardy rulings in w`ten a cuunty consolidates with all its some relocation expenses. criminal cases. In 1982 the corrections laws towns, it may create special service tax The basic structure and powers of local underwent a generalrevision,which increased districts in the newly created shiresor government largely remained unchanged in the powers of the Board of Corrections. boroughs, thus enabling the county tomeet 1982-83, and a proposed study of Virginia's differential service demands. use of Dillon's Rule was rejected. Elected Several changes in civil and domestic law On the other hand, the General Assembly school boards, either as an option for all were favorable to the interests of women. refused to change the basic annexation localities or only for certain Northern Vir- Laws enacted in 1982 allow a courttog- 1 divorce award based on an equitabk procedure, with several bills to require either ginia jursidictions, once again failedto mus- an advisory or a binding referendum prior to ter sufficient support. sion of marital property; to provide foran equitable division of joint bank accounts in annexation never reaching the floor. The The General Assembly was reluctantto Assembly did agree in 1983 that either the divorce; and to provide that the surviving extend any new taxing powers to localities. spouse rather than the decedant's children Commission on Local Governmentmay Among the bills .defeated in oneor both will come first in inheriting property if the 0r) A: 06 5

deceased died without a will and there are no uniform rate-setting ,rocedures for place- SUBJECT INDEX, VOLUME 59 Iviving children of a previous marriage. ment facilities for children; and create an .e waiting period for a "no-fault" divorce interagency fund for placement of handi- CRtMINAL JuaTICE, COURTS, AND LAW was reduced from one year to six months if capped children by social services or correc- ENFW CEMENT there are no minor children and if a separa- tions agencies. The Virginia Assembl; on 7"Role of tion agreement is in effect. The natural resources area produced sev- Adult Corrections within the Virginia Crimi- Perhaps no issue received more coverage eral highly debated issues. Uranium explora- nal Justice System (no named author). Vol. in 1983 than that of the appropriate legal tion and mining was one, as the 1982 session &inking age. A bill finally was adopted that adopted provisions for licensing and regula- 59, no. 12 (August 19R3). raised the minimum age for on-premises tion of such activity but placed a morato- consumption of beer ands main other bever- rium on issuing licenses until 1983. The 1983 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT ages from eighteen to nineteen, thus making session extendedthatmoratorium and The Enterprise Zone Concept and Virginia's it the same as the off-premises age. (The orderea study of the costs and benefits of Urban Enterprise Zone Act, John C. Brown. House originally had insisted on an age of mining and milling specific sites in Pittsyi- Vol. 59, no. 7 (March 1983). twenty-one for allalcoholic beverages.) van:a County. A similar approach was taken Revocation of driver's licenses will be man- on the issue of hazardous waste disposal. ELECTIONSVOTINGBEHAVIOR dated for violators, and an alcoholic safety The 1982 Assembly by resolution placed a The 1982 Election for U.S. Senator in Vir- training program is required for those under moratorium on both the issuance of permits ginia, Larry Sabato. Vol. 59, no. 5 (January the age of nineteen who apply for a driver's for private off-site facilities and on the use of license. The 1982 session also increased the eminent domain by the state to acquire such 1983). penalties for drunk driving and mandated sites until the Solid Waste Commission minimumjailsentencesfor repeated studies the siting issue. The Voting rughts Act Amendments of offenses. In a somewhat related area, the Another proposal generating attention 1982, TimothyG. O'Rourke. Vol. 59, no. 6 1982 session provided for annual rather than vas a coal slurry pipeline bill, whirl would (February 1983). semiannual automobile inspections, while hew allowed public service companies to simultaneously making some of the stan- use eminent domain to construct the pipe- ENVIRONMENTLAND USE dards stricter; it also generally required the vne. The Assembly's response was to allo- Hazardous Waste Management in Virginia, use of automobile restraint devices for chil- cate 5200,000 toa study of the issue for 1984. dren under the age of four. Other actions included extension of the Richard C. Collins and Elizabeth B. Waters. In education, the Standards of Quality Wetlands Act to include non-vegetated coas- Vol. 59, no. 4 (December 1982). again were revised in 1982. A related pro- tal areas, regulation of small-size stripmin- Isal that attracted attention but ultimately ing operations, and revision of the oil and The Rur..I Renaissance and the Manage- Jed was one to base promotion in grades 7 gas statutes to encourage maximum recov- ment of Virginia's Lands, Sandra S. Batie. through 17 Irictly on achievement. Another ery of these resources. The "bottle bill"failed Vol. 59, no. 2 (October 1982). controversial action was the Assembly's vote both in 1982 and 1983. That bill, aimed at to require a two-year probationary period cleaning up roadside litter, would have FINANCETAXATION for new teachers, a bill that the governor required refundable containers for beer and State and Local GoPernment Finances in the vetoed. Among themore emotionally soft drinks. Eighties, John L. Knapp. Vol. 59, no. 3 charged issues was the right of parents to Among the Assembly's miscellaneous (Noverri,er 1982). teach their children at home. No action was actions, the 18 percent limit on credit cards taken to change the law, but the issue will be was removed; a new public procurement law studied further during 1983. Also of note in was adopted; and twin trailers and longer HUMAN SERVICES higher education was the creation in 1983 of and wider trucks will be permitted on inter- Human Services in a Time of Diminished two new financial aI programs, one a merit- state and certain other highways. Rejected Resources, Joseph L. Fisher. Vol. 59, no, 9 based scholarship I, ogram and one a state both years was a "comparative fault" bill, (May 1983). supported work-study program. Controver- which would have allowed a person with sial but unsuccessful were bills that would some contributory negligence still to collect STATE GOVERNMENT have denied entrance to higher education damages in a personal injury suit. Also New Rules for Public Procurement in the institutions to those students who have rejected was a proposal to make Martin failed to register for the draft and that would Commonwealth, Clay L. Wirt and Paui N. Luther King's birthday, January 15, a state Proto. Vol. 59, no. 8 (April 1983). have disallowed income tax deductions for holiday, contributions to schools with racially discriminatory policies. Legislative Branch In human services, the Assembly agreed CONCLUSION The 1981/1982 Reapportionment of the to allow Medicaid funding for abortions Selecting the items to incluen, in any Virginia House of Delegates, John G. whererape,incest,or certaintyof a summary of the actions of the Virginia Schuitemfin and John G. Selph. Vol. 59, no. deformed fetus was involved, ..ut it rejected General Assembly is a difficult task. Every 10 (June 1983). general funding for abortion. Passage of the action of Lite Assembly has its own consti- Natural Death Act of 1983 marked the tuency, and thus every item considered has TRANSPORTATION culmination of a long effort to pass such a same significance. In addition, those items TheMetrorail System: Its Impact on Vir- law. It will allow terminally ill adults, or that seem most ne, ;worthy and receive the ginia,Jeremy F. Plant. Vol. 59, no. I (Sep- lain other individuals designated to make most press attention during the session ulti- tember 1982). ; decision for them, to order that their mately may have less impact than other bills lives not be prolonged by artificial means. that the legislature passes with relatively Other laws that were adopted make it easier little controversy. This News Letter has WOMEN'S ISSUES 0for foster parents to adopt a child for whom sought to identify the major themes that Family Composition in Virginia: Femak- they are caring; require local welfare boards emerged during the 1982-83 sessions, and to Headed Families, 1970-1980,JuliaH. to provide protective and other in-home note hose actions that are of the most Martin and Donna J. Tolson. Vol. 59, no. I I services to Aged or infirmed persons; set gene interest. (July 1983). 287 6

THE 350TH ANNIVERSARY OF JAMES CITY COUNTY

In 1984 James City County will celebrate its 350th anniversary as one of the eight original counties in the United States. James City was founded in 1634, along with Accawmack, Charles City, Charles River, Elizabeth City, Henrico, Warrosquyoake, and Warwick River. During the county's anniversary year its local citizenry and citizens from across the state will engage in a discussion of the past, present, and future of those early counties, focusing particularly on James City. The Virginia Foundation for the Humanities and Public Policy is sponsoring nine community forums that will emphasize different aspects of the county's past and their relationship to the present. This grant from the Virginia Foundation will give county citizens, as well as all state residents, the opportunity to examine Virginia's proud past. The forums Will begin in April 1984 and continue through Augur. :984. The areas to be discussed are history, religion, archeology, ethnic heritage, environmental studies, and the future. Some of tne scholars who have agreed to prepare papers and participate in the forum are Noel Hume, chief archeologist for Colonial Williamsburg; William Kelso, resident archeologist for the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation; Parke Rouse, Jr., historian; David Holmes, professor of religion, College of William and Mary; and John Hutchison, Department of Urban and Environmental Planning, University of Virginia. Mc scholarly papers will be published at the end of 1984. James City Co,:nty also is planning other events to celebrate its anniversary. Some of the items planned are cultural events, essay contests, oral history reports, and a big birthday party. A broadly representative Citizen's Advisory Committee will begin formulating other ideas in addition to planning these events. James City County is proud of the part it played in the beginning of local governments in the United States. By focusing on its heritage, local citizens can better understand the role local government has played in the development of the county.

Editor's note:Since 1987 will mark the 200th anniversary of the United States Constitution, the News Letter is carrying regularly in this space announcements of upcoming activities and publications on constitutional themes of interest to Virginians. Funding for this service has been provided in part by a grant from the Virginia Foundation for the Humanities and Public Policy. For further information on the 200th ann:versar of the U.S. Constitution in Virginia, contact Timothy G. O'Rourke at the Institute of Government, 207 Minor Hall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22903 or A. E Dick Howard at the Office of the Governor, Richmond 23219.

Persons or institutions may be placed on the mailing list to receive copies of the News Letter by sending a written request to News Letter,207 Minor Hag University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22003. The complete mailing address should be printed or typed, and the Zip Code should be included.

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

NEWS LETTER

(ISSN 0042-0271r-: Executive Editor / James A: (MIN Managing Editor/ SarsdriCA.Viiiiie"?. Published monthly by the lastinut otrotivick: mem, University olVirgiaikPorlonernife;.VitniaWA: ;1122903. The *vs *ad opiaioss eaposseedtraeissireil these of the authors. and are let104109111111MMOdarq mum* the effsial positioamuashigu.ii the tlaiveriry. 2 P8 Entered is seeoeddiriamttarlirtwayX.PWOQ the post caw at Chsrloetervalle..Vnginikeektilial act of most 24,1912 01983 by The Reetorand Visitocidthittaitimite of Virginia., . Printed by the thrive:shy Priatlag OdiceiV,14 , . : This News Letter was reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University of Virginia.

University of Virginia Institute of Government NOVEMBER 1982

VIRGINIA STATE AND LOCALGOVERNMENT FINANCES IN THE EIGHTIES By John L. Knapp

Mr. Knapp is research director of the Economic growth of tax receipts decreases and voters Studies Center at the Tay loe Murphy Institute. Darden Fifth, the Federal Economic Recovery Graduate School of Business Administration. University exhibit a heightened reluctance to approve Tax Act of 1981 (ERTA) has caused red uced of Virginia. higher taxes. The current recession has been revenues in those states like Virginia that particularly hard on governmental finances closely tie the state individual income tax. because it has included a rapid fall in the The 1980s represent a challenging pe.iod corporate income tax, and estate tax to inflation rate. Lower inflation, paradoxical- federal tax bases. Even though the General for Virginia's state and local governments. ly, is a problem for governments since it may During the previous two decades state and Assembly enacted legislation in 1982 to result in less tax revenue than anticipated. counteract the federal tax act's effect in local government was a "growth ind ust ry" as This occurs because most tax bases are its emptoyment rose by 5.6 percent annually, Virginia, the Virginia Department of Taxa- denominated in current dollars. which grow tion estimates that the revenue shortfall in a faster rate than for any other major sector at a slower rate when the inflation rate except services.' Federal aid mushroomed. the state as a result of ERTA will be 570.6 declines. Moreover, certain revenue sources million in the 1982-84 biennium. The federal and many new programs were undertaken. that benefit from high inflationsuch as the Currently, however, Virginia, along with tax increase enacted in 1982, the Tax Equity stateindividual incometax,whichis and Fiscal Responsibility Act. will restore other states, faces a "fiscal crunch." Thi3 characterized by a "bracket creep" that News Letter reviews the causes of this only a small portion of the previous cut. pushes taxpayers into higher brackets even Sixth, in recent years there has been a problem. discusses factors that will affect when their real incomes have not grown Virginia's future financial condition, e' alu- growing public awareness that the nation's produce lower revenues when the inflation infrastructure is in a condition of decay. ates the major revenue options likely to be rate falls. considered by state and local governments, Infrastructure is a term used to describe Third, federal aid to state and local public capital structures, such as buildings, and reviews some ways to increase produc- governments has been reduced significantly, tivity. roads, bridges, and sewer systems. Faced by a fact that will be discussed more fully in the tightbudgets. governments often have THE FISCAL CRUNCH next section. adjusted those budgets by reducing capital Fourth.stateandlocal government outlays, which typically have been the target Six principal factors account for the fiscal borrowing has become more difficult. High for budget paring since they lack the strong crunch that the sta tes and localities currently interest rates have increased the cost of political constituencies that argue against face. First, during the 1970s a reaction to the borrowing. In addition, the near bankruptcy cuts in current outlays. Capital spending also expansion of government occurred in many of New York City, changes in federal tax has been discouraged by high interest rates, states. California's voters passed Proposi- law, and a large expansion in municipal reduced federal funding, and, in the case of tion 13, and many states followed suit with bond offerings to cover home mortgages and highways, slow growth of tax revenue. While taxation or expenditure restrictions. Al- commercial developments have diminished the full dimensions of the plight of state and though Virginia has yet to adopt such the relative advantage, and therefore the local governments inVirginia are not restrictions;thefactthatthe General attractiveness, of tax-free state and local known, conditions do appear to be better Assembly has considered them reflects a government bonds. than in those states with large, old industrial stringent attitude toward government expansion. In 1987 Virginia and the nation will m: '' the 200th anniversary of the UnitedStates Second, the national and state economies Constitution, which was drafted at the Philadelphia Convention in 1787.Because of the have been weakened by two recessions; the substantial contribution of Virginia to the writing and subsequent developmentof the first occurred in1980, while the second Constitution, the commemoration holds special significance for citizens ofthe started in 1981 and is still in progress. When Commonwealth. the economy isweak, state andlocal Over the next several yearsduring the decade of the Constitutionthecommemora- governments soon feel the effects as the tion of the constitutional founding will provide occasion fora variety of programs to iDenstd from data supplied by the Virginia Department of promote a wider understanding of the history and prin,iples of American democracy. In Labor and Industry. order to facilitate the exchange of information about upcoming activitiesrelated to the constitutional commemoration. the Institute. beginning with the January1983 News Authors note: Unless otherwise noted. the statistics in Letter, will issue a monthly supplement that will list Constitution-relatedprojects and this News Letter are from various publications of the U.S. publications of interest to Virginians. Bureau of the Census. including Governmental Finances If you have information to be included in this supplement.or questions about the 200th (selected editions): Current Population Rsports. Series anniversary of the Constitution, please contact Timothy O'Rourke MS. No. 796 (March 1979). using the series11 B at the Institute of projection: and State Government Finances In 1980. Government (804/924-3396).

235 areas. Nevertheless.aggregatedata on more pragmatic level, aid is reduced because was 42 percent; by 1990. its share is forecast Virginia state and local government capital the Reagan Administration has assigned to be only 37 percent. Reflecting those outlays show that they have been falling as a higher priorities to defense andto transfer changes. the State Department of Education percentage of direct general expenditures. In programs such as Social Security. The forecasts that public school enrollment will 1970-71. capital ottlays accounted for 23.0 proposed cuts are quite largethecurrent decline every school year until 1989-90. 1 percent of total outlays: by 1975-76 their budget forecasts not only that federalgrants- addition,theState Council of High share had fallen to 19.3 percent. and in 1980- in-aid will decline in dollar 81 it was down to 15.4 percent. amount, but also Education foresees only modest increases in that state and local government aidas a enrollment at four-year institutions of higher In general, state and local governments percentage of domestic outlays will drop education and community colleges. have responded to the current fiscal crunch from 19.5 percent in 1980-81 toan estimated Reductions in school enrollment by cutting back on services, emphasizing an.: a 14.8 percent in 1984-85.2 slow growth in college enrollmentmay methodstoincreaseproductivity, and As part of his "New Federalism" President remove some of the fiscal pressure on state searching for new sources of revenue. Reagan proposed in his 1982 State-of-the- and local governments. since education is Union address that the federalgovernment their most costly single function, absorbing FUTURE FINANCIAL. CONDITIONS take over full funding of the healthprogram thirty-nine cents out of every dollar of their for the poor (Medicaid) in exchange fora direct general expenditures. Asone observer In order to determine what state takeover of food stamps and Aid to has noted, "The demographics are working revenue Families with Dependent Children (AFDC). against the federal budget, yetare working changes are likely in Virginia, it isnecessary to consider the impact of federal aid. In addition, the president has called for for the states in their principal expenditure giving the states control of forty federal areaeducation."' Whether or not the lower demographic changes. and the economyon grant programs over a ten-year period,to be enrollments actually will bring abouta the Commonwealth's future financial situa- paid for by a federal trust fund. Under tion. this reduction in outlays, however, dependsupon proposal. the trust fund would be phasedout how governments manage their resources. A Federal Aid. The Reagan Administration. by 1991. and the states then would Become under its version of "New Federalism." has reluctance to close school facilities and to lay responsible for the financing of thepro- off staff will result in higher costsper pupil made significant reductions in federal aidto grams. These proposals have made little and nullify much of the saving from lower state and local governments. To understand political headway becausen.any states have enrollment. the impact of these budget cuts,a review of concluded they would be net losers. How- the development of the federal grant-in-aid The Economy. In large part, the future system is helpful. ever, the Congress eventually could pass financial strength of Virginia's state and some type of program that would impose local governments will dependon the Beginning with President Johnson's Great additional burdens on the states. In view of strength of the state's economy. The 1980s Society programs in the mid- 1960s. a large these developments, it is not surprising that have not begun auspiciously and, given the increase occurred in both the number and most observers of state and local govern- current recession, optimism is now a scarce dollar amount of federal grant programs. As ment finances agree with the statement that commodity. Nevertheless, if a slow-paced the size and complexity of federal aid "... at the very least, the future of federal expansion occurs fairly soon, if federal programs grew. there were calls for simplifi- support for state and local services looks deficits are brought under control, and if cation. President Nixon inaugurated a "New bleak."3 monetary policy does not become inflatior f=ederalism" that favored block grants and Mitigating this somber outlook is evi- ary,thentheprospects for long-ten. instituted general revenue sharing. State and dence that Virginia does not receivea net economic growth are fairly good. According local governments received moremoney benefit from federal aid. According tooneseries with fewer strings. to of regionalprojections, estimates by the Tax Foundation (published however, the Virginia economy, Meanwhile, federal aid programs as mea- con- in the 1-lay 1982 issue-of its MonthlyTax sured by constant dollar personal income, tinued to proliferate, and many of them were Features), Virginia was one oftwenty-two. will grow at a slower average annualrate (4.0 criticized for ineffectiveness and waste. By states that in 1980-81 paid more in federal percent) from 1978 to 1990 than it did from 1977-78 federal aid accounted for 23cents taxes to fund federal grantsfin-aid than it 1969 to 1978 (4.6 percent).5 Based out of every dollar received by Virginia's on this received under such programs. Virginia fragmentary evidence, it appears prudentto state and local governments. versus 16 cents residents paid $2.1 billion in federaltaxes for assumethatVirginia'sstateand local in 1962-63. At the state level, much of the grants. while their state and local govern- governments will be operating in a favor- federal aid was for education and welfare; ments received $1,9 billion in aid. Thus, for able, but not buoyant, economic the states also were beneficiaries of general environ- every 51.00 received, Virginia paid $1.13. ment.If additional revenueisdesired revenue sharing. A significant portion of the Assuming that the aid that has beencut because of reductions in federal aid federal funds received by the states or for repres- would have been financed with highertaxes other reasons, that revenue probably willnot ented "pass-through aid"funds that ulti- (rather than with cuts in other federal be forthcoming merely because of economic mately were distributed in the form of state programs), then each S1.00 of additional growth. Therefore, new taxesor higher tax aid to local governments. Localgovern- federal aid for Virginia would have required rates may have to be considered. ments also received .largeinjections of S1.13 more in taxes from Virginia. This federal aid directly. such as dollars for analysis, while somewhat theoretical and community developmentand sewerage based on crude data, does underlinethe fact MAJOR REVENUE OPTIONS systems, anti-recession aid, and general that federal aid must be financed; therefore, revenue sharing. . when aid is reduced, the financing burden In its last years the Carter Administration also is reduced. . Before examining possible revenueop- slowed the growth of grants by reducing Demographic Changes. Although Virgin- tions, a brief discussion of Virginia'scurrent those connected with anti-recession policy ia's overali population growth in the 1980s is tax burden is desirable. and by exercising overall budget restraint. forecastto be close to the15 percent Tax Burden. When Virginia's tax effi,.t is As a consequence, by 1980-81 the federal aid experienced in the 1970s, the age composi- measured by the most common standards of receivedbyVirginia'sstate andlocal tion is expected to change dramatically. measurementtaxes per capita and taxes governments had dropped slightly. to 22 A relatively small number of births in per $1,000 of personal incomethe results cents out of each dollar. recent years, combined with expected low show that the state has a relatively lowtax Now the Reagan Administration has fertility in the future, will causea drop in the burden. In 1980-81, per capita state and loc eliminated general revenue sharing forthe share of population represented by taxes were $946, a figure that was 88 percen. statesand persons reducedfundingfor many under twenty-five. In 1980 that group's share of the national average. Measured in relation programs. The Reagan plan seeks to give topersonal income, taxesinVirginia states and local governments more control ;U.S. Office of Management and Budget,Federal Aid to Stair and Loral Governments. Special Anahsu H. The Budget of the 'Donald Harder. 'Balancing the Federal Budget: The Inter. over a reduced amount of total aid. On United States Government. 1983 a (Washington. D.C..U.S. governmental Casualty and Opponunity." in Walzerand ancoine. Government Printing Office. 1982). p. 17. philosophical level. aid is reduced because of cis-Financing State old Loral Governments.p, 218. Norman Walter and David L chicoinc. eds a preference for leaving taxing and spending . FinancingSum WS. Department of Commerce. Bureauof and Loral Governments in the 1980s Economic Analysis. decisions to lower levels of government. Ona (Cambridge, Mass.. IPSO OBER BEA Regional Projeenons,VolI (Wash.ngton. D C.. Oelgeschlager. Gunn & Ham. Publishers. Inc.. 1981), p. say. U.S. Government Printing Office, 1981). p. 144. 2 D 0 amounted to S100 per 51.000 of income. or the base to include selected services such as charges will receive increased emphasis :ri 88 percent of the U.S. average. auto repair and haircutsan action that the 1980s. not only because of their revenu Some fiscal analysts criticize the preceding would increase revenue by about 10 percent. potential, but also because charges tend to measures of burden because they do not The present exclusion of selected services reduce demand. djust for interstate variation in tax bases seems illogical. For instance, a person who MajorLocalGovernmentRevenge ad the ability to shift taxes to nonresidents has his car repaired wants it to run properly, Options. The real property tax will contatue through so-called "tax exporting." In re- and the nontaxed labor services contribute to be the major source of revenu :for sponse to these criticisms the Advisory to that goal just as do any taxed parts that Virginia's local governments in the 080s. Commission on Intergovernmental Rela- are installed. Consequently, the entire bill, However, its share is likely to fall as otht-r tions has developed a tax effort index. Tax rather than just a portion, should be subject taxes and user charges grow faster. effort is defined as the ratio of tax collections toth2sales tax. The state's recent adoption Growth in property tax revenue is likely to to tax capacity. Tax capacity is derived by of t 3 percent wholesale sales tax on motor be sluggish for several reasons First of all, multiplying the relevant tax base by the fuel and an increase in license and registra- the residential speculative boom appears to national average ratethe "representative" tion fees on autos and trucks probably be over. In addition, farm real estate values, rate. Virginia's state and local tax effort precludes a major tax increase in motor under pressure due to weak agricultural index in 1980 was 88 percent of the national vehicle taxes, at least for a few years. markets, are unlikely to match their recent average, the same result as provided by the Changes in the corporate income tax often increases. From 1970 to 1981, the average traditional measures of burden.6 The Com- are considered in conjunction withthe value per acre of Virginia's farm land and monwealth'staxeffort was below the individual income tax, and a major increase buildings rose every year, and the average national average mainly because of Virgin- in the state's individual income tax probably annual growth rate was 12.8 percent. In ia's relatively low property and consumption would createpressuretoincreasethe 1982, in contrast, the price dropped 3.7 taxes. Among adjoining states, Maryland, corporate tax. However, the analogy be- percent.'° These changes affecting residen- with a tax effort at109 percent of the tween corporate incomes and individual tial and farm values will slow the growth in national average, exceeded Virginia's effort incomes is a forced one since the size of a assessed values and may require explicit tax by a large margin; North Carolina, at 97 corporation'sincomedisclosesnothing increases to achieve desired revenue gains. percent, was also higher. The tax effort by about the income of its individual stock- This would be in sharp contrast to the 1970s, Kentucky was similar to that of Virginia, holders, many of whom may have only when effective tax rates declined. (In 1971 while the effort indexes for Tennessee and moderate incomes. Furthermore, taxation the average city-county tax rate per SIO0 of West Virginia were lower. of corporate income, to the extent that those true value was S1.06; by 1980, it was only taxes are borne by the owners, constitutes S0.8 I.)" MajorStateGovernmentRevenue double taxation of individual :ncome. The existence of use-value taxation, an Options. The Commonwealth's most likely On a more pragmatic level (he Common- option that has been adopted by the majority source of additional tax revenue is the wealth must be careful to keep its t.1,: burden of counties and some cities, also may slow individual income tax. That tax now raises competitive with those nearby states with the growth of property tax revenue. Use- over $1.2 billion per year and is the state's which it vies for industrial deve.;:iment. value taxation shifts tax burdens to the most important single tax. The simplest way Although studies of thosefactorsthat owners of noneligible property. Since many o increaseits yield would be either a influence industrial location generally ex- taxpayers are not eligible for the tax relief percentage surtax on top of present tax clude taxes as a major factor, nevertheless that this option provides, the existence of liability or the creation of new, higher rate taxes are hie:1y visible and oftenare use-value taxation may serve as a damper on brackets in place of the current maximum considered to be a barometer of community voters' acceptance of general tax increases. rate of 5.75 percent on taxable income over attitt:des toward business. One recent study Finally, sluggish demand for utility services $12,000. Neither approach, however, would indicates that Virginia's state and local tax may slow the growth of the public service correct some fundamental problems that bill for a hypothetical corporationis 3 corporation property tax base. have developed because inflation has dis- pitrcent lower than the combined average for Local revenue from the personal property torted the tax brackets, exemptions, and the states in Virginia's competitive region tax also is unlikely to grow rapidly. A major maximum standard deduction since they (which includes, in addition to Virginia, component of this tax base is motor vehicles. were last changed ten years ago. Georgia, Kentucky, Maryland, North Carol- Because of high purchase prices and fuel A preferredapproach would beto ina, South Carolina, and Tennessee).8 If costs, consumers are electing to keep cars restructure the tax at the same time that any Virginia raised its corporate rate from 6 longer and to buy fewer, less elaborate changes were made to increase the revenues percent to 7 percent, this advantage would be vehiclestrends that have restrained the produced. The aim of any restructu4ag converted to a handicap.Furthermore, growth of the personal property tax base. should be to remove persons with poverty Virginia then would have a higher corporate The local option sales tax of 1 percent incomes from the tax base and to immunize tax rate than all of the other states in the already has been adopted by all cities and the income tax from the distorting effects of region except Maryland? countils; and withoutstatelegislation, inflation. Moreover, if a progressive income Another significant source of revenue for localities cannot increase their revenue from tax is retained, consideration should be thestate governmentisuser charges that source. The General Assembly could given to making the brackets more consis- mainly from college tuition and fees and empower the localities to raise the local tax tent with the current distribution of income. hospital charges. During the 1980s, major another percentage pointa stepthat As tax brackets are now structured, the increases will occur in tuition; in the 1982-84 effectively would preclude a higher state average taxpayer is subject to the highest biennium, state four-year institutions and sales tax. If the state sales tax were expanded rate on part of his taxable income.] community colleges are being required to to include selected services, as previously Another possible source of revenue is the increase tuitions so that they will cover a mentioned, local governments also would sales tax. The current rate for the state larger proportion of current educational benefit because their 1 percent local option portion of the sales tax is 3 percent. If that costs. Such actions may be precursors of tax would apply to a broader base. How rate were increased by one percentage point, more increases. A,though other types of user much each locality might gain would depend the yield would increase by roughly one- charges pale in comparison to earnings from upon the relative importance of repairs and third. Virginia's combined state-local rate colleges and hospitals, they are large in other selected services in the locality. then would become 5 percent, a rate equal to absolute amount. For example, in 1980-81 Consumerutilitytaxes could be an ar less than that in the District of Columbia state highway tollfacilitiesraised $29.8 important source of additional local revenue and in all adjoining states except North million and stateparks collectedS1.9 if the General Assembly rescindedthe Carolina. An alternative would be to expand million. It is quite likely that all types of user

Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations. Tax Capacity of the Filta States Supplement: 1980 Estimates (June 'Peggy M. ware. -Taxes on Manufacturers: Virginia and 19821. D. 19. Competit: e States" (thesis submitted to the American Economic "U S. Department of Agriculture. Economic Research Service. 'Baud on unpublished data from the Virginia Depanment of Development Council. 1981). p. 19 term Real Estate Market Developments. CD87 (July 1982), p. 14 'taxation for tax year 1980. the most recent year for which data are 'VirginiaDivision of Ind 1 Development. "How the "Virginia Department of Taxation, Vugtma Astettmenr1Salet available. Virginia Economy Compares" (September 1981), p. 30. Ratio Study (1971 and 1980 editions). 291 12 current fixed dollar limits on the amount of in 1979-80.0 As federal aid is phasedout and strong, though not spectacular, real growth tax per month. Permission to tax at a lower local go-ernments face stringent budgets, rate. but without a maximum tax, would later in the eighties. Also, because ofchanges the proportion of costs covered by fares will in the age structure of the population, aliott this revenue to grow at the same pace have to increase. there as utility receipts. will be fewer students to educate. Although many of the federal aid A major new source of revenue would bea RAISING PRODUCTIVITY cuts u local "piggy -hack" individual income tax. In not be replaced entirely by state and local Maryland. where such a tax has been State and, local governments, like the government spending, there will bepressure for at least partial assumption. By employed, the local tax is a percentage of the private sector, are being forced to emphasize national taxpayer's state income tax. The tax is increases in productivity as oneway to standards, the tax effort in Virginiais not counter the effects of the current recession. collected by the state department of taxation high; therefore, if the electorate iswilling, Gains in productivity come from and is returned to the resident county of each a myriad of selected tax increases would be possible.Any taxpayer. A piggy-back income tax in small decisions and policies and therefore proposed tax increases should be carefully annot be capsuled into one program. Virginia would represent a major change in considered, however, in orderto avoid destroying state-local finance since the income Nevertheless, six approaches arerecom- Virginia'scurrentfavorable tax mended: (I) increase employee motivation; competitive position in regard traditionally has been reserved for state to business use. (2) redesign or modify operational taxes. In 1982-83 Fairfax County anticipates procedures; (3) restructure The most likely additional revenues of some $110,000 from Pac-Man organizational sources of and other video games located in arrangements; (4) develop new or adapt revenue at the state level are the individual some of its existing technology; (5) upgrade general income tax and the sales tax. At the public facilities.1: This illustrates the diver- local management skills; and (6) improve mea- level, real property taxes could be increased, sity of sources that constitute local serviceor user charges. In 1980-81 Virginia's local surement of services,'' To bring about such or the localities could obtain statutory changes, everyone involved in the political authority to impose either a higher sales governments earned a total of 5447 million tax processvoters, elected officials, adminis- or a piggy-back income tax. Both state and from these service charges; the most important sources of this revenue include public trators, and public employeeswill have to local levels of government will makegreater exhibit flexibility in adapting to works, education, public transportation, new proce- use of service charges. Equity is unlikelyto dures. be a central concern of tax policy. hospitals. and parks and recreation. In the When finances are tight, equity considerations 1980s local governments are likely to make SUMMARY generally take a back seat. Nevertheless, heavier use of service charges, in terms of if Virginia state and local governments the individual income tax is increased,it also both higher charges for services now being are will be possible simultaneously priced and new charges forsome services involved in a fiscal crunch that is likelyto to make it that no.' are provided free. Publicly owned continue for many years as federal aid is more equitable through such measuresas indexing and the adjustment of exemptions, bus systems. for example, will be forcedto reduced and voters resist tax increases. On use the fare box for a larger proportion of the bright side, a good possibility exists that deductions, and rate brackets to conform with the present-day distribution of income. their operating expenses. In the 1970s, the the national and state economies will show State and local government is ratio of revenue to cost for bus systems in no longer - "growth industry." Governmental financi Virginia dropped sharply; the median ratio 11Vaginia Department of Transportation and Highways. conditions in the eighties will require that fell from 80 percent in 1973-74 to 41 percent 1/1exonsa Srormtle Tretalil Sraruecal Dare (Apnl 1977). p. 'Land the. Public Tramporrotion r Yergmin (Novembee 1981). p. 21. Commonwealth and its localitiesuse their "This list was taken from an undated recent publication by the resources carefully and place a renewed U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, titled 'Wall Sure: Julanal. Sept. 16. 1982. emphasis on increasing productivity,to gain "Productivity Improvement and State and Local Government." the maximum benefits from thoseresources. Errata: The September 1982 News Letter incorrectly indicated (page 1) that during the 1983 fiscal year the Commonwealthwould contribute genera! revenue funds to Metro for operatingcosts. In fact, state funds can be used by Metro only for capital acquisition and administrative costs (not operating costs); all funds provided by theCommonwealth are deposited in a separate trust fund, from which appropriations have been made to Metro over the last decade. Also is the same issue, the periodical cited in footnote 2 should hat4been correctly titled Northern Virginia Heritage. TheEditors

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

NEWS LETTER

(ISSN 0042-0271) Editor / James A. (Dolph) Norton Assistant Editor / Sandra H. Wiley Published monthly by the Institute of Govern- ment, University of Virginia. Charlottesville, Virgir 9 r! 9 is 22903. The views and opinion. expressed herein are 4, those of the authors, and are not to be interprets! as representing the official position of the Institute or the University. Entered as eecond-class matter January 2,1923, at the post office at Charlottesville, Virginia, under the act of August 24, 1912. 1982 by The Rector and Visitors of de b.iiversity of Virginia. Printed by the University Printing Office. AXES BUY GOODS AND SE-RVICES

. F VIRGINIA STATE & LOCAL TAXES

USING SECTION F - Plans & Ideas, Additional Resources F 3- 6 TAXES ARE POLITICS - Student Worksheets What Services Should Government Provide? E 7 - 10 Thresholds of Government Action- Advanced Student Activity F 11 (University of Virginia Institute of GovernmentNews Letter: Human Services in a Time of Diminished Resources) Teacher Resources: Virginia's Future Population F 13 Student Worksheet - Population Change & Virginia's Future F 15 - 16 Charts on Population Projections (for transparenciei) F 17 - 22 Teacher Resources: Female-Headed Families F 23 - 28 Student Worksheet - Female-Headed Families F 29 (UVA News Letter: Family Composition in Virginia) Loopholes, Deductions, Who Pays How Much? F 31 - 34 VIRGINIA TAXES - Information & Student Worksheets Virginia Taxes - 1984 list F 35 - 36 Tax Legislation - 1970 - 1983- Worksheet and List F 37 - 38 Virginia's Fiscal Crunch of the 1980s F 39 - 40 What Do You Think About Virginia's Tobacco Tax? F 41 - 42 EVALUATING TAXES AND PROPOSED CHANGES Criteria to Evaluate Taxes & Chart to fill in F 43 - 44 Virginia Income Tax & Proposed Changes F 45 - 48 (UVA News Letter: Reform of the Virginia Income Tax) Virginia Sales Tax & Proposed Changes F 49 - 50 (UVA News Letter: The Virginia Retail Sales Tax) Tax/Expenditure Limitations: Useful in Virginia? F 51 - 54 Charts: Virginia Revenues & Appropriations, 1970- 1982 F 55 - 56 LOCAL TAXES IN VIRGINIA - Charts F 57 - 62 VOCABULARY F 63 - 64 CHARTS: How does Virginia compare with other states? F 65 - 67

29S USING SECTION F PLANS&IDEAS

Note: The News Letter included inSection E: "Virginia State & Local Finances in the Eighties,"is particularly useful as background for thissection as well. It is the source for "The Revenue Crunch of the1980s,"

Teachers may make their greatest contributions to responsiblecitizenship attitudes for their students through creative and dispassionatemanagement of the study of taxes. Emotional responses areeasy to generate around Federal Income Tax time (April 15th), but the real trick is touse that emotional energy for a rational look at the wholesubject of taxes.

High taxes are a favorite topic of conversation, and talkabout services that "they" (the government) ought to provide is almostas common. One of the great challenges of the governmentcourse is to put these glib generalizations together in costbenefit and/or causeandeffect relationships. Local government, the state, and the nationcannot provide services without paying for them -- and the paying must come from taxes on wealth, incoweor consumption, now or (by borrowing)in the future.

Economists and politicians disagreeon the interpretation of economic data. Newspapers and magazines print chartsand information, sometimes limited or assembled to support their ideological bias. A resourceful teacher will be on the lookout for opposing data to demonstrate thatcrediblelooking statistics can be generated to prove almost any idea. (In 1984, IRS data on incomes and taxes was being usedto prove that the ReaganKempRothLaffer "supply side" economic policy had been correct, and toprove that it had been incorrect. The numbers can be explained different ways, and lead todifferent conclusions.) Many, perhaps most, studentscan learn valuable questioning skills by comparing what politiciansdo with the numbers.

Most "Why don't they...." ideas result in political or budgetproblems. The classic example of opening the gym for extra hours eachevening might cost taxpayers for supervision (the insurance company may require thatan employee be in charge, not a volunteer), extra insurance, maintenance, andjanitorial service, lights, heat during cold months, and perhaps policeprotection for those around the building after dark. Of course, the neighborsmay also organize against the traffic and noise. Significant elements of realitycan be introduced into most discussions by including community values(i.e., healthful recreation for young people), political support andopposition, and financial cost data.

National, state, and local governmentsare covered by the Freedom of Information Act which requires them to provide detailed budgetsand program descriptions that would help questioning students learn more about theitems that interest them. Encourage their research, andbroaden their awareness to the politics of decisionmaking. Assign students to investigateboth the "pro" and "con" positions. Find local mentors suchas service groups, legislators, interested parents,or other citizens, who will help students word the questions and direct them to officials who could respond.(Some school divisions may require clearance by the principal beforeoutside assistance is invited. Check before you proceed.) Y F 3 294 Since about 20% of our citizens work for government (local,state, or national) in the services that are paid for from taxes, therealso may be some career choices that come to light in the course of the study.

These materials on taxes may be used separately or together loin conjunction with the textbook, "By the Good People of Virginia.." by Cline and Fleming o as part of a unit on economics relating specific Virginia state and local materials to the national economy as a cornerstone for units on state and local government in current events study of budgets and services o as changes are discussed in Virginia's income tax and sales tax,or 40 in conjunction with many items in Section B. What parts of Virginia would be affected by which taxes? loin conjunction with Section D and E. Which campaigns, which legislators, and which bills would be of interestor be opposed by which parts of the state? Also, some segments are selfcontained and could be handy for 1to 3day fillins.

Also included in this resource unit is comparative informationon taxes in other states, since any significant differences betweenour taxes and our neighbors' will have an impact on the state's business, and sincethis information is needed to answer citizen questions about howwe rank.

Section F includes worksheets designed to stimulate student research, thought, and class discussion. Worksheets should be given out a week, or most ofa week, in advance and input from parents, friends, and acquaintancesshould be encouraged. Grade on the quality, complexity and discrimination of concepts, and range of ideas on the worksheet or contributed to classdiscussion. If you think your students need some ideas for starters, discuss the questions briefly before you give out the sheets. (Encourage careful listening:)

The theme, "Taxes are Politics," emphasizes that taxes andtax rates only make sense in the context of their political constituencies. Worksheet F 7-10, "What Services Should Government Provide?" amplifies thequestions from Citizen Power (C 7). (:f your students have kept those papers, theycan be used as starters.) Remember the videotape "Get Involved in State Government," available through the Department of Education, that shows Virginiagovernment services (See A 17 for details) -- it will be very useful to remind students of the variety of services provided by the state. The next set of blanks calls for decisions on which level of government should provide each service. Encourage students to define a logic of local, state,or national funding, rather than merely restating the current level. Use questions that point out the arbitrary nature of political boundary lines or their irrelevanceto the service or problem (i.e., water quality and pollutionare better tackled by river basins or regions). Note: This is a general tax worksheet-- include national, state, and ocal taxes and services.Most of a class period should be reserved for the discussion, and students might keep the list handy for additions as the course progresses.Advanced classes or students who are particularly astute may enjoy the exercise on the followingpage, Establishing the Threshold of Government Action on these same issues

F 4 Population Change and Virginia's Future. Since populations age and change

their demands on government, .,.. -vices and budgets will need to be adjustedin the coming decades. Four full-size pyramid charts are included-- to make transparencies. Teachers will find the charts simpler toexplain if they keep reasonably close to the descriptionson the worksheets OR rewrite them to suit their own choice of words. Emphasize that the charts are basedon percentages of the total population in each census. The growth of over a halfa million people in each decade might not be obviousand might lead students to think that certain age groups are actually shrinkingin number in a given decade. Use these charts to develop student discussionand speculations Eltout changes (mainly growth) in services and budgets. These projections are an extension into the future for the population studyin Sections B & D of this notebook. They also might be useful in the discussionof special interest groups and legislation in Section E.

The case study materials on "Family Compositionin Virginia: Female-Headed Families, 1970-B0." will lenda new dimension to class discussion. Use the student worksheet, along with transparencies ofthe maps, particularly ifyour area is one that is experiencing a high rate of increasein female-headed families, if the problem is in thenews, or if you think your students should be acquainted with the facts of budgetarylife in other areas. You might also use the News Letter for a student report, or share additionalinformation some other way with the class. More ideas: see the yellow teacher ideaspage.

"DEDUCTIONS? LOOPHOLES? WHO PAYS HOW MUCH?" injects public policyinto tax questions by asking what activitiesor values should be encouraged or subsidized by deductions? No extra preparation should benecessary for most students and classes. The following page contains OMB dataon federal tax subsidies, but since Virginia formsuse the federal "Taxable Income" figure, most of the tax benefits apply to the Virginiasystem as well.

The material on "Changes Proposed in Virginia'sIncome Tax" includes dataon some of the "flat tax" proposals suggested which eliminatedeductions and loop-holes. If there is interest in the "flat tax"issue in your community, you might want to invite an advocate to discuss the ideain your classes.

The page, "Virginia's Fiscal Crunch of the1GB0s," includes data and discussion questions from the News Letter byJohn Knapp, "Virginia State & Local Government Finances in the 1980s." This News Letter is in section E.

"Criteria to Evaluate Taxes" includesa chart for students to fill in. Discuss the types of taxes and tax impactssummarized on the front of the sheet. Some classes may be economically sophisticatedenough to tackle this chart without clas discussion-- most may require a preparatory discussion to sort out the vocabulary and concepts. These are standard terms available in other texts and materials. Also see Vocabulary, F 63-64.

Make extra copies of the charts and suggestthat students help each other to read the figures correctly. If there are parts of this material thatare not clear to you, ask for he'p from local tax officials-- before the activity is assigned. You might find officials willing to visitthe class and answer questions. Many of them enjoy describing the materials theyproduce and work with in their jobs. This would be particularly useful afterstudents have done some work on taxes, so the questionscan be more specific.

F 5 206 Additional Materials and Resources

Virginia is part of a consortium using materials prepared forthe Joint Council for Economic Education, and you should have in your schoolan orange paperback titled Analyzing Tax Policy: A Resource Guide. The 1979 edition hasmany materials you will find useful. Some are focused on California'sProposition 13, and would be most helpful if a tax/expenditure limit should beunder consideration again in Virginia.

Several University of Virginia News Letters are included in thissection for teacher background or for student class reports. Additional copies ofany News Letters may be ordered from: Teacher Resources (804-924-0942) Institute of Government Minor Hall University of Virginia Charlottesville, VA 22903

Other Virginia tax informationsources: Virginia Department of Taxation, P.O. Box 6-L, Richmond, VA23282 Annual Report of the DepartmentLegislative Digest Local Tax Rates (annual) .Taxable Sales in Virginia Countiesand Cities based on Retail Sales Tax Revenues (quarterly a.d anually) Virginia Tax Facts (annual) Virginia Real Estate Assessment/SalesRatio Study (annual)

The Department of Education has videotapes and a fine Teacher Guideon twelve 15-minute personal economics programs entitled "Give & Take," producedby the Agency for Instructional Television, for use in grades 8, 9, and 10. Send a blank tape and $2 to the InstructionalMedia & Technology Development & Dissemination Service-- but check your own school division A-V library first. Many school systems have theseprograms in their files. They may have been used in other classes that havean economics component.

The Joint Council on Economic Educationand the Agency for Instructional Television also produced six 15-minutevideoprograms on "The Economics of Taxation," which are available from the Department of Education,Instructional Media & Technology Development & Dissemination Service. Send $2 and your videotape.

If you have not used the InternalRevenue Service materials on the Federal Income Tax, you should at leastsee hat you are missing. Call the Richmond office (804-424-1040) and orderfree tax workbooks for each student, a teacher guide, enlarged demonstration forms,and information about films. TAXES ARE POLITICS What services should government provide? 1110 These are thought questions. Use the space after each paragraph for other views, examples, questions, or answers to add to class discussion.

People who do not go to school pay school taxes, and people who do not drive pay highway taxes. We all pay these general taxes and we all benefit, because they suppport the framework of our society and our economy, the decisions and actions that make the community work for all of us:

. Food considered safe to eat is available in local stores.

. People have the opportunity to be literate and informed.

. Streets are lighted, and trash is collected in urban areas.

. Police, sheriffs, and fire departments are on duty 24 hours a day.

. Our natural resources, agriculture, water, and parklands are protected.

. Our borders are defended.

. Our rights are guaranteed.

. The lessfortunate among us are helped to have the essentials of life.

Taxsupported services assure us the kind of community, state, and nation we want for ourselves and for coming generations. We help decide -- if we exercise our rights to vote, to organize, and to speak out on public issues.

WITH TAXES, WE BUY GOODS AND SERVICES In some nations of the world, citizens pay more than 50% of their income in taxes, and receive free medical and dental care, housing, utilities, transportation, and other services. What would these services be worth to the average family? Find out about the taxes and services in Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Switzerland, England, France, West Germany, Israel, or another nation of your choice and be ready to share the information with the class.

Taxes have risen in the past two decades, not only because of inflation, but because we expect government to do more -- providing, supporting, investigating, and regulating. Here ara some examples of problems complicated by technology, social change, by population growth and concentration. Can you add to the list? Do these problems call for individual or government action?

0.0hildren who are abused, neglected, or not educated to be responsible citizens, result in loss of life, property, and sometimes years of care in public institutions and prisons. Why is this problem so much in the news today? Should government have any responsibility for helping?

()The lack of affordable daycare centers has kept many oneparent families on welfare, and the 'number of oneparent families grew more than 40% in most parts of Virginia from 1970 to 1980. Who are the losers What costs of divorce and desertion have been passed on to taxpayers? What is the role of government in dealing with families in trouble?

()Defective and unsafe products, polluting industries, and substance abusers may be threatening our lives, health and future generations. Hcw can we protect ourselves?What is the role of government?

*The cost of medical care has skyrocketed and many people (particularly the elderly and the disabled) cannot pay the bills or the insurance What can an individual do? What is the role of government?

F 7

2 r4r I ,r WHAT DO YOU THINK? Who should pay for constructing, providing,or regulating the following? Tell who or which levelof government should pay for the services listedin the first column: U = user of service, L = local, S = state, andN = national government. If the costs should he shared between levelsor between government and usersor other categories, tell the each. If you favor cutting percentages you favor for the service, who would lose? Be ready to discuss the politics of supportand opposition for these add to the list services, and any othersyou

Service Who Should Pay What Percentage? If Cut. Who Loses?

Roads - construction Traffic Control Police Fire Protection Emergency Services Schools Community Colleges Universities Support prices for Agriculture Safe workplaces for Miners;Minors,others Hospitals Health Care for the Indigent Food & Drug Regulation and Inspection Psychiatric Care for the Indigent Prisons & Ja:ls

Legal Defense forthe Indigent Social Security and Other Retirement Affordable Day Care Safety of Planes, Trains, Cars, Buses Military Defense of Our Nation Military Ai Other Na Non-miliu, Other Nat

F 8 What Do You Think (cont'd) Who Should Pay What Percentage? If Cut. Who Loses? Answer Citizen Questions/Requests Provide Information on Government Publish Consumer Information $ for Food and Care of Needy'Children Planning for Future Land-Use/Buildings Air Pollution Control Water Pollution Control Safe Dumps Control/Disposal of Toxic Wastes Collect Taxes, Care of Public Funds Administer Public Funds/Programs Safe, Clean Housing for the Poor

People differ on where to draw the line betweennecessary and defensible services of government, andthose they consider not of the government's business." cost effective, or "none Some writers have statedthat the government should provide the essentialservices that people themselves. are not able to provide for Write a statement thatsummarizes your views essential services that on the categories of government should provide fromgeneral tax Add a description and examples revenue. of services you thinkshould be shared (and with whom), and a statementon the things you think people themselves. should do for

a-% Virginia has a long tradition of economical and honest government.While people may not agree with some decisions made through theyears, there are few cases of blatant waste, graft, or maladministration in our history. Many of our sisterstates are not so fortunate. In Virginia, if we tighten budgets, or if we do not expand them to meet inflation or changing populations, it will usually mean some cuts in services. What state or local services do you think might be cut?Are there any you would like to find out more about?

Look at the Virginia State Government Organization Chart. Choose two departments or agencies that interest you or that you know nothing about. Look them up. Write here a brief description of what they do, how theyare financed, and who benefits from their services. If you were a member of a budget review or appropriations committee, what questions wouldyou ask?

F 10 THRESHOLDS OF GOVERNMENT ACTION

A FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITY PARTICULARLY USEFUL FOR ADVANCED CLASSESOR STUDENTS CONSIDERED DISCERNING ENOUGH TO MAKE THE DISTINCTIONS. IF THE PRECEDING ACTIVITY GENERATED DISCUSSION, THIS WILL INTRODUCE EVEN MOREUSEFUL CONCEPTS.

Teacher reads this definition: "A threshold is the level or point above which action will take place, and below which action will NOT take place." "We are now going to try to determine what the threshold of.acton should be for the various activities of government. What should it take to get government involved in a problem? at which level -- local, state, or national?" - - Should government be PROACTIVE ?Should it anticipate and.plan, and be ready with programs?Who establishes the priorities?What is the citizen's role? How are the limits se:. on government involvement in citizens' lives? Should broad-based taxes pay the bills for the planners and regulators? "Go back to your lists of government activities and mark with a big(P) the things that each level should anticipate and be ready to deal with."

- - Should government be REACTIVE ? Should government address specific problems only in response to public pressure? How much outcry should it take? By whom? Would the absence of a government policy/programon a subject make the response more likely to favor the position that gathers the biggest crowd ? controls the greatest number of votes? or the solution that costs the least? Are there matters on which TIMEmay bea crucial factor and delay for government studies and decision could be catastrophic? (toxic spills?) OR is delay useful, p"oviding a'cooling-off period, preventing over-reaction? "Go back to your lists of government activities and markwith a big g) the things that each level should address only inresponse to public pressure."

Should government be INACTIVE or passive?Should government adhere to the belief that little or no government is the best government?Are there minimum standards that people have a right to expect? Are there products and services necessary for that minimum standard that people can not (orcan no longer, provide for themselves?Has our society any obligation to protect the health, safety, and rights of children? the aged? the sick? the incompetent? How little can government be?Who will make.the decitions? At what level? "Go back to your lists of government activities. What did you cross off? What did you decide that government should NOT do?Is there a minimum standard of any kind that you would want to guarantee for peoplewho cannot take care of themselves?Write a list of the minimum standards and add it to the notebook pages in #6 above,

Now add to the minimum lists the problems government should be readyto react to (7 - b, above), and the problems government should anticipate and plan in a proactive way (7- a, above) keeping local, state, and national separate.

EACH STUDENT SHOULD HAVEAN ESSAY .OUTLINE THAT DESCRIBES HIS/HER ATTITUDES TOWARD GOVERNMENT SERVICES AND REGULATION. THIS EXERCISE FORMS THE BACKGROUND FOR DISCUSSION OF BUDGETS AT THE LOCAL, STATE, AND NATIONAL LEVELS. The comprehensiveness of each student's statements will be a direct reflectionof the diversity of services discussed in class. If streetlights werenever mentioned at all, they might not appear on any student's list.

F 302 IllTEACHER RESOURCES ON POPULATION CHANGE & VIRGINIA'S FUTURE

ABOUT PYRAMID CHARTS... The following pages contain data in a form not previously shown in this notebook. Pyramid charts are graphic ways to show several different kinds

of related information. They would be use, 1 to students and useful in the course, (i.e., recording voting or straw ballot information). After students are comfortable with the following exercise, consider asking them to make pyramid charts of their own research data.

Example: Graphing the number of students who have after-school jobs of at least 8 hours a week. Obviously, the data would have to be broken down by age or grade, and sex. The job-holders could be shown in actual numbers or in percentages of the total class, by job classification.

UNEMPLOYED Joh-holders Job-holders UNEMPLOYED MALE FEMALE

The pyramid charts on the following pages project the population data from Section B into the future, and they also might be used with information in that section, in the consideration of voting population in Section 0, or the General Assembly concerns of Section E.

The questions on the back of the student worksheet test their understanding of the graphs, as well as their understanding of Virginia population change. Some of the answer: can be guessed, but the discussion could include the following information: 1 - This statement is false, because these charts contain only one real number each: the total population, printed at the right of each. The other representations are all percentages. There is no data that tells us the population at the beginning of the year, therefore we cannot tell how much it grew, nor can we tell how much of the growth might have been due to birthrate. Consequently, there is no way that the chart can show in-migration in a given year. 2 - Women outlive men, so the upper age groups on each pyramid show a higher percentage of women than men in both white and nonwhite groups. Some other age groups also appear to show an imbalance. 3 - Virginia has large military establishments in an arc from the D. C. suburbs to the Norfolk-Virginia Beach area. Young soldiers and sailors include more men than women. In addition, college students in Virginia have traditionally been more male than female. In recent years, the armed forces and many colleges have become coeducational, and racially integrated. This difference is decreasing. 4 - Families are smaller. Costs of raising children have risen dramatically, and birth control options have given families a choice.

F 13 303 Worksheet POPULATION CHANGE & VIRGINIA'S FUTURE PYRAMID CHARTS CAN SHOW MANY DIFFERENT KINDS OF DATA AT THE SAME TIME. Read the title first: "Percent of Virginia Population by Age, Race & Sex," for 1970, 1980, and predictiols for 1990 and 2000. Data is shown on both sides of a center column, allowing much more information than on a single bar chart. Your eye can compare data for age groups, race, and sex. (The numbers across the boti:om are percents of population. Data on the left side of the chart is for males, and data on the right is for females. The darker portion of each age bar shows the percent nonwhite, which includes oriental, American Indian, and Latin American as well as black people.)The total population, at the right of ea chart, increases more than a half million each decade, because there are more births than deaths, and more people move into Virginia than move out. Follow one group of people through the graphs: the 10-14 year old males and females in 1970, become the bulge of 20-24 year olds in 1980, 30-34 year olds (with an accompanying bulge of 0 - 9 year olds) in 1990, and 40-44 year olds in 2000.

PERCENT OF PERCENT OF ti AGC VIRGINIA PORT-ATM VIRGINIA POPU.ATICTI BY AGE. RACE. g SEX BY AGE. PACE, 8 SEX 1590

Total Population 4.651.40

Total Population 6.055,400

St 4% 4Z 51 52 4% 32 3Z 42 5: TEYALE MALE FE=E WHITE RommilE WHITE WHITE Mou.milC NONwiltE Zitit

PERCENT OF c AGA PERCENT OF SS VIRGINIA POKLATICH C044 a0.14 VIRGINIA PcPuLATIat BY Pa,RACE. g SEX BY AGE. RACE. g SEX 1980 2X0

Total Population 5.346.818

Total Population 6.651.700

5t 4% 42 5t 52 42 32 3Z 42 St MALE WALE MALE FEMALE

WHIR NONrwilE NOWNIIE Mort WHITE HCNHHIIE /10444ITE WHITE

F 15 304 Population Change and Virginia's Future (cont'd)

1 Describe why the following statement is TRUE, or FALSE: From the pyramid charts, you can tell exactly how many people moved into Virginia during1980.

2 The pyramid charts show several years when there may bemore women than men in certain age groups in Virginia. Write some examples here:

3 - Why do you think 20-24 year old males are a largegroup on each pyramid?

4 - The postwar "boom" babies (born 1950 65) are now of child-bearing age. Why do the charts show only a slight increase in the 0- 10 year-old groups?

The pyramid charts show percents of total population in eachage group. Since the actual Virginia population increases more thana half million people in each decade, ALMOST ALL THE AGE CATEGORIES INCREASE IN ACTUAL NUMBERS. Example: 3.8% of the 1970 population (4,651,448)= 176,755 people. 3.5% of the 1980 population (5,346,818)= 187,138 people.

When there is an increase in the percentage of the population,as well as an increase in the total population, the new actual number will be considerably higher. It could k described as a bigger piece ofa bigger pie.

Look again at the charts. Are there any Virginia government programs that you think will NOT be serving increased numbers of peoe in the coming years?Are there any that you would think will NOT require additional funds?

What has been the population growth pattern in this area of the state?

Name some of the programs in this community that are designed and managed for people of different ages? sexes? or racial background:?

- --schools: number, location, types of programs, - --public health: particular needs of children, women, elderly, - --recreation:

Can you think of social, medical, or other events/phenomena that might upset the population predictions for the year 2000?

F 16 305 AGE PERCENT OF 85 80-84 VIRGINIA POPULATION 'F 75-79 BY AGE, RACE, &SEX 70-74

65-69 1970 60-64 "AA 55-59 50-54 . _ w 45-49 \/P%!<\ Total Population 40-44 00", 35-39 vt#W, 4,651,448

30-34 25-29

20-24

15-19 VW/%4W: 10-14 WVAVY 5-9

0-4

5% 4% 3% 2% 1% 0 0 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%

MALE FEMALE

WHITE NONWHITE NONWHITE WHITE

or PERCENT OF AGE 85 VIRGINIA POPULATION 80-84

BY AGE, RACE, & SEX 75-79

70-74

1980 65-69 60-64

55-59 50-54 Total Population 45-49

. 5,346,818 40-44 v\/v/.0 35-39 vek" " 30-34 25-29 VAWAX 20-24 15-19 ANd 10-14 5-9 \AAA 0-4 -/aAAka.

57. 4% 3% 2% 1% 0 0 1% 2% 37. 4% 5%

MALE FEMALE

WHITE NONWHITE NONWHITE WHITE PERCENT OF AGE 85 VIRGINIA POPULATION 80-84

BY AGE, RACE, & SEX 75-79 1990 70-74 65-69 60-64

55-59

50 -54

45-49

40-44 35-39

30-34

25-29

20-24

15-19 Total Population ..4t0A/ 10-14 5-9 6,095,400 0-4 57. 4% 3% 2% 1% 0 0 4% 5%

MALE FEMALE

WHITE NONWHITE NONWHITE WHITE

308 AGE PERCENT OF 85 /5P 80-84 VIRGINIA POPULATION /5-79 BY AGE, RACE, &SEX V\ 70-74 65-69

2000 60 -64

55-59 50-54 45-49 /\/k//\\/\VN- 7 40-44 35-39 NAA00:* 30-34 25-29 \W' 20-24 /VV/k Total Population 15 -19 ANNA 6,651,700 10 -14

5 -9 /6/.\././ 0-4 "Aaa' 5% 47. 37. 2% 1% 0 0 1% 2% 3% 4% 5%

MALE FEMALE

WHITE NONWHITE NONWHITE WHITE

30 Virginia Population Projections

Stable 2.0 Crime Prone In 0411lions PROJECTEDI Population 11111101111111111981111 Age Group 1.5

1.0 .

CrowPronePopulation

0.5

1900 1970 CSO 1990

Declines in 600 College Age PROJECTED Population and Ng &Ng..-.sees, Stabilization in In Thousands College 400 4 Enrollment College AgePopulation

200 illusseasesessN

College En:of/mein 0

1990 1970 1910 1990 aammom,7..

F 21 (I Li iv Virginia Population Projections

Decline in Youth Population and Increases in Elderly Population

Declines in 2.0 School Age PROJECTED Population and In Winona 1.5 Public School School AgoPoutatori Attendance allelliaseiliii

1.0 III I II frosz Pubic SchOoi Attendance

0.5

1 1960 1970 1910 1190

F 22

o 1 .- 04 i TEACHER RESOURCES ON FEMALE- HEADED FAMILIES

This section includes

- - a News Letter that is important for teacher information. It might also be used for a student assignment. (Order additional copies from the Institute of Government.) student worksheet composed of 16 questions that invite guessing and would make good family discussion. - - 2 maps from the News Letter, suitable for duplication, and full-page copies of the maps, suitable for transparencies.

This data leads very naturally to value-laden discussion. Allow enough time for students to deal with the information.Some, perhaps many, of your students may be walking case histories, or theymay be contemplating activity or commitments that will add to the statistics of future years. If you have guidance counselors or social workers in (or available to)your school who might sieze the opportunity to discuss tha data, and particularly theplight of the young, divorced, deserted, or unmarried mother, invite them in. It is too good an opportunity to miss. (The counselor might end the class by naming another time and place to continue the discussion.)

BUT THE POINT OF THE ACTIVITY AND THE REASON FOR INCLUDING IT IN THE GOVERNMENT COURSE IS TO STIMULATE STUDENT CONSIDERATION OF THEKINDS OF SERVICES THAT GOVERNMENT OFFERS-- AT ALL LEVELS -- TO HELP STUDENTS UNDERSTAND THE POLITICAL REALITIES OF THE BUDGET AND TAXES.

If there is a chance that your students are too affluent to relateto the problems of the poor, a social service or welfare worker might contributeor bring some case histories to challenge theirconcern. Students might also be motivated to volunteer some time and attention to social service organizations to gain a better understanding of the people needs thatgovernment addresses, and the realities of which services might be handled by the privatesector.

SHOULD FEMALE-HEADED FAMILIES BE LEFT TO WORK OUT THEIR PROBLEMSFOR THEMSELVES? OR ARE THERE OTHER NON-GOVERNMENT ANSWERS? OR IS THERE A ROLE THAT GOVERNMENT SHOULD PLAY?AT WHICH LEVEL? HOW SHOULD IT BE MANAGED? HOW SHOULD IT BE FINANCED?

Additional Social Studies research: What is the family responsibility law in other nations? Who takes care of deserted families and children?Our society gives tax deductions for children in the family. Some governments of the world have limited families by increasing taxes and decreasingbenefits (health care, schooling) for more than 2 children.A student might report on the social planning of another nation, and offeran opinion on whether this kind of control would be politically possible inour society.

Another topic worthy of consideration:The increased numbers of working women in our society has brought about a sharp change in volunteeractivities in our communities. PTAs, Scouts, fund drives, and chu-ch work formerly found family members with time and energy to plan and carry ouactivities that were important to schools and to young people. Many areas are struggling without such volunteer support today. Has the'change affected this community?

F 23 0 9 ANSWERS & TEACHING IDEAS ON FEMALE-HEADED FAMILIES

BEFORE YOU BEGIN TO DISCUSS THE FOLLOWING ANSWERS TO THE QUESTIONSON F 29. Make transparencies of the maps on F 27- 28 omake a classroom set for students to look at, particularly in connection with question #3.

1 - 15% - For every 100 married couple families in Virginia in 1970, there were 115 in 1980.

2 - 51% - For every 100 female-headed families in 1970,there were 151 in 1980. 3 - 80% or more- The greatest increases were in 6 of the 9 major metropolitan areas and their suburbs. Pick them out on the map: Northern Virginia, Charlottesville, Roanoke, Richmond, Petersburg-Colonial Heights-Hopewell, Norfolk-Portsmouth-Virginia Beach. 4 - 116% - For every 100 female-headed familir3 in FairfaxCounty in 1970, 'here were 216 in 1980. 5 - TRUE - An increasing number of them awardedno alimony. 6 - TRUE - An increa: ng number of the fatherspay NO child support. This is a major cause of the poverty of female-headed families. 7 - TRUE - A high percentage were teenagers withno job skills, incomplete education and no support from the father of the child. (Discussion here might focus on whether the mother--often living with her mother and othersis ready to offer the child adult emotional support. How adult should you be to be a capable parent?)

8 - 43% of Virginia families fit the definition (57% do not), andmore wives work - outside the home because two salaries are needed to support the family. (Discussion here might include mention of PTA, Scouts, anda wide assort- ment of volunteer activities that helped schools, andyoung people, that are in decline because of the decrease in time for volunteering. Also discuss LATCHKEY CHILDREN. Are after-school programs provided in your area 9 - TRUE - Widowed women are likely to be older and faceage discrimination in employment, though they may need jobs to support themselves. Divorced women are every age and circumstance. Half of all American women who in 1979 lived alone or were the heads of families,lived in rental, housing, in contrast to a fourth of all families. High prices and high interest rates keep female-headed households, with their lower incomes, atan even greater disadvantage in the housing market.They are most likely to live in crowded situations, and are least likely to be able to take advantage of the financial benefits of home ownership. 10 - TRUE - Almost two-thirds (61.3%) of white female-headed families lived in rural of suburban counties. More than two-thirds (68.0%) of black female-headed families lived in cities.Almost a third of all black families in Virginia were headed by a woman with no snouse present in the household. 11 - 59d - Women traditionally have been employed in jobs considered tusually by men) to be "women's work" (teachers, nurses, store/officeclerks, house workere) Since women were not expected to support families, the pay for these jobs was always lower, even though many of the women were supporting families. Though many women have had job responsibility equal to a man's, few of them were ever given pay equal to a man's. Court cases demanding "equal pay for equal work" may change the statistic over time, but 59t is still true today as the women's wage, for every $1.00 earned by men.

F 25 0 r} t..) 2 12 - TRUE - Poor nutrition and health care (before andafter birth) is known to stunt physical growth, contribute to retardation,learning and behavic problems, which cost heartbreak and stateexpense over the years. 13 - TRUE - For many, the only hope of breakingthe poverty cycle was the day care center, subsidized to provide sliding scale chargesbased on income. Funds were cut for many centers, and mothersare back on welfare. 14 - TRUE - The Census Bureau says that of all motherswho are owed child support, 28% receive nothing, and half receive less than the court stipulated. 14% of the population at -large.large is below the poverty line; but 35%of single mothers caring for children are below the povertyline! 15 - ALL THOSE PROGRAMS HAVE BEEN CUT. Women's rights groups point out that the cuts were made by legislators whoare mostly men and relatively wealthy. Legal assistance that had helped thepoor fight the cuts also...was axed. 16 - FALSE- Divorce and desertion usually leave the vpmen with the children to raise. Men remarry more often and more quickly thanwomen do, and some men never do help support their children. In addition, women live longer than men. Most Virginia and U. S. women will spend significant parts of their lives alone or in female-headed households. Analarming percentage of them will not have the financialresources or the job skills to break out of a poverty cycle.

YOUNG WOMEN NEED AS MUCH EDUCATION AND JOB SKILL TRAINING ASPOSSIBLE BEFORE THEY START HAVING CHILDREN.

CLASS ACTIVITY IDEAS - How would you make the point immediately above,and make it convincingly, 410 to a teenage daughter? Try a role play: ask students to:role play a head -of ..household mother trying to tell a determined young. lady that she should finish her education before she and her boyfriendstart a family.

- Ask for a team of volunteers to visitthe local Social Services or 'Welfare Department for information on local caseloadstatistics, including data such , as costs for housing, food, medical and other bills in thisarea. - Invite your local Welfareor Social Services Director or a caseworker to visit your classes. You will have an interesting day, and tEe visitor will also learn about the school, teachers, andstudents. Discuss in advance how the visitor can tie in with yourcourse plan, and what information would be most important for your students in theirown life decisions. CONCLUDING DISCUSSION- Give students a few minutes to write notes on the following questions, then share theiranswers: - Which of these problems should people solve for themselves? What help is available for them in the community? - If you think local, state, or national government should help, describe the programs you would favor, and how they would be fundedand managed.

After each program is described,students might role play legislators, in support or opposition to the recommendation.

Issue a final challenge to students to keeptheir eyes and ears open for these issues in the news. If they develop good proposalsor strong feelings about funding or cuttingprograms, urge them to write to legislators, or bring in a legislator to the class to discussthe political realities of the proposal. COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

PERCENT CHANGE IN FAMILIES HEADED BY WOMEN, 1970 - 1980 DISTRICT or COLUMPIA 16:: 8-INCREASE OF8wOR FtRE

TENNESSEE NORTH CAROLINA

0 V.1.114 3 COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA

le.... PERCENT OF ALL FAMES HEADED BY WOMEN, 1980 71 131 oR Kim ... .,fr-../...... --..--7..../ ., ,,,,.., , , 1 D'ArlTLfr LESS TIM131 ,..,...... %

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NORTH CAROLINA

I 0 .1) - 4y i/ FEMALEHEADED FAMILIES:CHANGING NEEDS FOR SERVICES?

It is common knowledge that there are more and more single andsingle-again women who are heads of families inour nation. Some are professionally equipped a good living. to earn Some are independently wealthy,with inherited money or divorce settlements. An increasing number are in serious financial difficulty. What effect does this have on the numbers ofwomen and children living in poverty in Virginia?

The following statements allconcern Virginia and most are taken from the census data of 1970 and 1980. Circle what you think is the bestor most likely choice to complete each statement, or T for True, F forfalse.

1 - The number of married couple familiesgrew (5%, 15%, 25%) in the decade. 2 - The number of female-headed familiesgrew (20%, 34%, 51%).

3 - 24 counties and cities led in thegrowth of female-headed families, withan increase of (61%, 75%, 80% or more) 4 - Fairfax County populationgrew 31%, with family units increased 40%, and female- headed families increased (64%, 92%, 116%),

5 - The divorce rate increased from 23to 39 for every 100 marriages, (T- F)

6 - 14,000 of the 23,600 divorces in 1980involved minor children. (T F)

7 - In 1980, 19% of all live birthswere to unmarried women. (T F) 8 - In 1980, (43%, 53%, 63%) of allVirginia families fit most people's image of a "family": husband, wife, andone or more children living as a unit. 9 - A divorced or widowed woman who headsa family frequently must support more than half the former familyon less than half the former income, (T- F) 10 - Most white female-headed householdslive'in counties, and most black female- headed households live in cities. (T- F) 11 - For each $1.00 earned bymen, women of comparable education and experience earn about (59t, 69t, 79t).

12 - Nutrition and healthcare during pregnancy and childhood affect the mental and physical health, and futuresuccess of the child. (T F) 13 - Many women are on welfare becausethey cannot afford to pay child care to attend job training programs, and theycannot earn enough on unskilled jobs to pay child care and support the family. (T- F)

14 - Female householders (withor without families, minority or not) are the fastest- growing group of destitute (very poor) peoplein Virginia and the nation (T- F) 15 - Funding cuts have resulted in femalehouseholders being dropped from aid in (job training, child care, foodstamps, nutrition and health) programs. 16 - Bumper sticker: "Cure poverty- Get a Job" Advice to young girls: "Catch a man to support you- live happily ever after." Both of these are as.true todayas in Grandma's day. (T - F)

On the back of this paper, identifythe problems mentioned above thatyou think people should solve for themselves. If you think local, state, or national government should help, briefly describe theprograms you would favor and the level of government most appropriatefor the funding and management. Be ready to discuss your ideas in class.

F 29 worksheet 110 DEDUCTIONS? LOOPHOLES? WHO PAYS HOW MUCH?

Local, state, and national legislators elected by the people decide who pays how much. Legislators' votes are based on a complex pattern ofpressures -- some very practical and directly related to their desire to be reelected. Others are rooted in their personal economic and political viewson such matters as abilitytopay, independent responsibility for one'sown life and problems, a moral concern for fellow human beings. Democrats, Republicans, and independents have railed against government budgets and taxes, butwhen they are in positions to cut budgets and taxes, they have rarely been ableto do it as drastically as their campaign rhetoric would suggest. Several writers have pointed out that American voters like to elect people whosay they'll "get government off our backs," and cut taxes, but what they actually mean is "Cut my taxes and cut other people's services" or "Cut out those loopholes that other people use in the tax laws, but don't touchmy deductions." The constituencies for each benefit, subsidy, and service make sure their views are known at decision time.

Many economists have stated that tax policy should encourage, give preference to, or subsidize activities that promote community and economic goals. What deductions do you think should be allowed on federal, state, and local taxes?

List activity that tax Why?, Who benefits from policy should encourage this deduction?

1 Home ownership stabilize communities payers of interest on mortgages 2. Competent child care raise living standards young families for working parents to benefit children

EVERY LOOPHOLE, EVERY DEDUCTION RAISES TAXES FOR ALL WHO CANNOT CLAIM THAT SUBSIDY. You know about deductions for contributions to charities, interest on loans, business lunches and other entertaining.Write here any you can recall that you think should not be allowed and be ready to discussyour reasons.

Why do you think these deductions are allowed now?

Several proposals for changes in state and national income taxes favor eliminating all deductions and taxing everyone thesame percentage of income. What kinds of arguments might be made for such a plan?

Should a basic minimum income be exempt from taxation? If you think so, how much should it be? Why?

F 31 LOOPHOLES WILL COST THE U.S. GOVERNMENT $353 BILLION IN 1985 WHAT WILL THEY COST VIRGINIA GOVERNMENT? WHAT WILL THEY COST YOU?

Ask almost any citizen on the street "Who recei "es the most in financial benefits from the federal government?" and the answer will usually be "poor people," or "people who do not work." But deductions and loopholes allowed some taxpayers are also benefits (they increase the taxes for everyone else) and they total much more money -- an estimated $353 BILLION in 1985alone.

Taxes may increase or decrease, but once a subsidy is written intothe law, lobby pressure tends to keep it there. (Two examples--#1: Housing subsidies help poor people pay rent,but an even greater amount of money each year ($25 BILLION in 1985) is deductedas a mortgage interest subsidy from the taxable income ofmore affluent people. President Reagan's mention of a possible reexamination ofthe mortgage interest subsidy sent shockwaves through the nation's realestate and building organizations. He was quick to withdraw the suggestion. Ex. #2: Congress passed a law that tax should be withheld (not increased, lust collected sooner) from dividend payments. Banks all over the nation mailed out protest cards in statements to their depositors that caused a deluge in Washington, and the plan to collect the tax through withholdingwas rescinded.)

All taxpayers receive some of these benefits in deductions fromtheir taxable income. Many of the deductions have wide public support-- others have influential lobbies.

Government revenue losses through these loopholes were estimated by the Office or Management and Budget, Joint Committee on Taxation. They are printed below. (You will also find them in a feature story on theeconomy in U. S. News & World Report, March 12, 1984.)

TAX BENEFITS TO INDIVIDUALS - $226.9 BILLION INCLUDING

Personal deductions and credits ESTIMATED TAX LOSS Mortgage interest, owner-occupied homes $25,130 million State, local income, sales, personal property taxes 21.634 million Charitable contributions 13,485 million Interest on consumer credit 10,845 million Property tax, owner-occupied homes 9,640 million Deduction for 2-earner married couples 6,635 million Medical expenses 3,410 million Exemptions for people age 65 and over 2,675 million Child/dependent care credits 1,905 million Parent exemption for students over age 19 1,020 million Residential energy credits 775 million Welfare benefits 510 million Casualty losses 415 million Political contributions 295 million Earned-income credit 285 million Tax credit for the elderly 210 million

Income that would not be taxed ESTIMATED TAX LOSS Company contributions to pension funds, plus earnings of plan investments 56,340 million Company-paid medical/life insurance, other nonwage benefits 22,740 million Social Security benefits 17,845 million Retirement contributions - IRAs, Keogh Plans 11,370 million Interest on life insurance savings 5,180 million Veterans' benefits 2,310 million Workers' Compensation benefits 2,215 million Military benefits, allowances 2,155 million Deferral of capital gains on home sales 1,800 million Unemployment insurance benefits 1,800 million Income earned abroad by U. S. citizens 1,405 Capital gains on home sales by those 55 or older 805 million Meals and lodging furnished workers by employers 795 million Exclusion of interest on U. S. savings bonds 771 million Railroad Retirement System benefits 450 million

F 33 321 LOOPHOLES, (CONT'D)

TO INVESTORS. BUSINESS OWNERS,FARMERS - $37.5 BILLION INCLUDING FST1mATED TAX LOSS Special treatment on longterm capital gains $16.040 million Interest exemption on state, local bonds, debt_ 5,435 million No tax on capital gainsat death 4,355 million Investment tax credit 3,605 million Accelerated depreciation deduction 2,520 million Deduction for energy exploration/development 1,135 million Net interest income exclusion of 15% 920 million Excess energy depletion allowance 820 million Accelerated depreciation for rentalhousing 720 million Deduction far some capital outlays in farming 575 million Capital gains treatment for farming investments 510 million Dividend exclusion 460 million Tax-deferred reinvestment of utility dividends 450 million TO CORPORATIONS - $86.4 BILLION INCLUDING ESTLMATED TAX LOSS Investment tax credit 26,845million Accelerated depreciation deduction 24,034million Interest exemption on state, local bonds, debt 14,125 Reduced rate on first $100,000 million corporate income 5,905million Special treatment of capital gains Sales of leases 2,640million 2,340 Tax credit for employee stock-ownership million plans 1,875million Special treatment for corporations in world trade 1,620million Research, development deductions andcredits 1,365 Deduction for charitable contributions million 1,180 Credits for firms doing business million in U.S. possessions 1,135million Deduction for energy development costs 1,110million Excess bad debt reserves of financial institutions 810 Targeted jobs credit million 650million Excess energy depletion allowance 620million Credits for energy conservation, new technology 195million

ONE THOUSAND MILLION= ONE BILLION

TAX LOSSES FROM THESE SUBSIDIES

1974 $ 82 billion 1979 149.8 billion 1984 (estimated) 320.5 billion 1985 (estimated) 353.0 billion

Virginia's individual andbusiness income taxes are basedon the federal form calculation of "taxable income," therefore, the loopholeson the list above are also cutting Virginia tax revenues-- except on those items that specific Virginia legislation added back to the Virginia tax base. See the list on F 38. The corporate and individual incometax raises of 1972 and 1982 were "add-backs" of amounts allowed as deductionson federal taxes, but not allowed on the Virginiacalculations.

Everyone who cannot claim these subsidies must pay more taxes to makeup for the amounts not paid bypersons and businesses that claim the subsidy.

A real "flat tax" would remove all these subsidies. Do you think Congress ever will approve a "flat tax"?

F 34 4 .

VIRGINIA STATE & LOCAL TAXES 1984

(Source: Virginia Department of Taxation)

STATE GENERAL FUND TAXES Income Taxes: Corporation Income Tax 6% of taxable income Fiduciary Income Tax taxed as other income, 2% 5.75% Individual Income Tax Individuals with taxable income over $3000 from Virginia sources may be taxed 2% .5.75%.

Inheritance Taxes and Charges for Recording Legal Papers: Estate Tax tax on transfer of property at death Probate Tax tax on the probate and administration of wills Recordation Tax on deeds, mortgages, leases and contracts Writ Tax $3 to $25 on different types of law suits and writs

Sales & Use Taxes: Aircraft Sales & Use 2% on aircraft for nonscheduled use Motor Vehicle Fuel Sales Tax 2% on dealer sales each month and on consumer gasoline taxes Retail Sales Tax 3% state, plus 1% local paid by buyers, and sent monthly by sellers 2% returned for local schools Use Tax 4% of value of property sold, stored, or used in Virginia by outofstate dealers Vending Machine Sales Tax 4% state, plus 1% local paid monthly by dealers who operate machines in Virginia Watercraft Sales & Use 2% on sale or registration of title

Miscellaneous Taxes: Bank Franchise Tax $1 per $100 of taxable value @ year Corn Tax lme per bushel $ used to promote corn products Egg Promotion Tax 5e per standard case of 30 dozen Forest Products Tax rates vary, $ used for conservation Intangible Personal Property fax 30e per $100 value of stock, bonds, notes, money, account-. receivable collected locally Litter Tax $10 from each manufacturer, wholesaler, distributor or retailer of food, drink, tobacco, newspapers or magazines, auto parts, nondrug sundries, or trash containers Malt Beverage Tax excise tax on all beer, rate based on size of bottle, can, or barrel Peanut Excise Tax processor pays 10e per 100 pounds (7/1/84) Slaughter Hog & Feeder Pig Excise Tax me per hog, 5e per feeder pig (under 140 lbs) $ used for hog education/research Soft Drink Excise Tax Wholesalers or distributors taxed on annual gross receipts Soybean Tax le per bushel to to enhance production/marketing Tobacco Products Tax 2 1/2 e per pack, 25e per carton state tax. City and town charters may allow additional amount

STATE SPECIAL FUND TAXES State Corporation Commission taxes and fees on public service corporations (telephone, telegraph, water, heat, light and power companies) 1-4% of gross receipts. Also collect charter fees, insurance premium tax, railroad rolling stock tax, motor vehicle carriers, and Virginia Pilots Association

F 35 00 r) 0 4.t) State - Special Fund Taxes (cont'd) Alcoholic Beverage Commission taxes wine (40eper liter plus 4% of purchase price if sold to consumer) and alcoholicbeverages (20% on other beverages sold in the ABC stores) Beverages sold to be served as mixed drinksare taxed an extra 50e malt beverages per quart. Beer and are taxed at $7.95 per barrel. 22% of the funds collected are returned to the communities bypopulation. Motor Fuel & SpecialFuels Tax (vie per gallon) is collectedon motor fuels sold, delivered,or used in Virginia EXCEPT agricultural equipment, government, emergency vehicles, and busand transit vehicles. Aviation fuels is taxed at 4e for the first100,000 gallons, then 1/4eper gallon. Also an oil company tax, and the motor vehicles franchise sales and use tax paidon the gross sales price of allmotor vehicles (2%, 3% mobile homes. on rental cars and Collected by Divisionof Motor Vehicles. LOCAL TAXES Real Property Tax - Rate set by city, town and/orcounty. value should be 100% of Assessed "fair market value"(what a buyer would pay a willing seller forthe property). Personal Property Tax - Items taxed include motorvehicles, boats, business property.aircraft,, machinery and tools, farm animalsand household goods and personaleffects. There is great latitudein how a locality taxesclasses of items, but of items uniformly. it must tax each class Merchants' Capital Tax - tax on inventory, excess ofaccounts receivable over accountspayable, and on rental Collectable in cities, automobiles. towns, or countiesthat do not have business license tax. a Counties may collectthis on the merchants of a town within theirborders. Business, Profession and Occupational LicenseTax (BPOL) May bea "gross receipts tax"or a flat fee, or both. businesses with Greatest impact on a high inventory turnover(grocery stores) businesses do not Town pay a county BPOL, if theyhave a town BPOL. Several specific exemptions have been approvedthat cover branch offices, contractors, media, manufacturing,agricultural management, and natural resources. Rates and fees are limited. Severance Tax - Tax on coal and gases. May be levied on property owner or on gross receipts from sale of coalor gas. Consumer Utility Tax - Local-option sales taxon water, gas, phone or electricity. Collected as part ofconsumer's bill. tax, not deductible from Special federal income tax. Counties may not collect in towns thatprovide certain services. Probate & Recordation Taxes- Same as state, butamount limited to 1/3 the state tax. Towns may not collect. Taxes Authorized by Charter or Special Act, and notprohibited by any other law. Examples: Transient Occupancy Tax,Admissions Tax, Cigarette Tax: most cities -(no rate limit),Arlington & Fairfax counties (with restrictions), Restaurant meals tax. SHARED TAXES STATE & LOCAL: General Sales Tax- 1/3 of net from state's 3% (based on schoolage population). Additional 1% local optionalso collected by state andreturned to community. Motor Vehicle tag fee. Bank franchise tax. Local ABC license and mixedbeverage tax. Virginia Transportation Northern District Sales Taxon gasoline (to fund Metro).

F36 3 111, TAX LEGISLATION, 1970-1983 (Source: Senate Finance Committee Staff)

Contrary to popular belief, ONCE A TAX IS PASSED,IT DOES NO1 ALWAYS GO ON FOREVER -- TAXES ARE ALSO CUT! Since 1970, Virginia General Fundtaxes on individuals have been CUT more than they havebeen increased. Look at changes affecting the income tax: In 1971, Vi.ginia's tax forms were simplifiedso taxpayers could use the Adjusted Gross Income figure from theirFederal tax forms. However, the AGI was based on calculations thatincluded more deductions than Virginia's law. Income taxes and Virginiarevenues were cut. In 1972, a new bracket was added andrevenues increased, to restore less than half of the revenues lost in 1971. In 1973, taxes were decreased for taxpayersover 65. In 1977, taxes were decreased when childcaredeductions were restored for working parents. In 1978, taxes were decreased, when the lowest-incometaxpayers were dropped. Those earning less than $3000no longer file returns. In 1982, Federal taxes were cut. Again, the lowered AGI reduced Virginia taxes and revenues. The Tax Recovery Act added back abouta fifth of the Individual Income Tax loss. In 1983, legislation resulted inan earlier collection of estimated taxes. There was no increase in rate: it justbrought in the money sooner.

From the information on the charton the next page, fill in the amounts of the change in the General Fund in the 1982-84 bienniumresulting from each of these General Assembly actions affectingthe Individual Income Tax in Virginia:

1971 Amount Increased: Amount Decreased:

1972 Amount Increased: Amount Decreased:

1973 Amount Increased: Amount Decreased:

1977 Amount Increased: Amount Decreased:

1978 Amount Increased: Amount Decreased:

1982 Amount Increased: Amount Decreased:

1983 Amount Increased: Amount Decreased:

Totals:

Subtract Total Increase

Net Decrease

If those tax-decreasing actions hadnot been taken, the 1982-84 Individual Income Tax bills of Virginia residents wouldhave been that much higher, with increased burden for very low income people,the elderly, and working parents. When taxes go down, taxpayers cheer and legislatorsare reelected: But taxes may need to be raised nearer national averages topay for essential services and meet the expectations Virginians have fortheir government.

0 0r F 37 t.) ,.j VIRGINIA TAX LEGISLATION

S.S 1 ZR4 S2FIERaL..Fule

The following chart shows bills passed by the General Assembly thatincreased or deck ased the money that would havecome into the state of Virginia General Fund during the 1982-84 biennium. The revenue cuts made since1970, that were not made up by increases in other taxes, are partly responsiblefor the fiscal crunch of the 1980s. Increases that bring Virginia stateand local taxes up to national averages may have to be enacted by legislators duringthis decade. Year Measure Enacted MILLIONS Increases (Decreases) 1970 Raised Gallon Tax on Wines 4.0 Raised Tax on Alcoholic Beverages 23.6 1971 Conformity of Corporation Income Tax to Federal Laws. (70.0) Conformity of Individual Income Tax to Federal Laws (285.0) Abolish Capitation, "poll," Tax (6.2) 1972 Income Tax on Savings Institutions 4.5 Corporate Income Tax Rate Raised 62.3 Individual Income Tax Rate Raised 128.7 1973 Raised Exemption for Taxpayersover 65 1974 (16.0) Doubled Corporation Franchise andCharter Fees 7.4 Uniform Retirement Benefits 1975 No Major Changes (5.5) 1976 Raised State Tax on AlcoholicBeverages 5.9 Made DISC Dividends Taxable, 13.9 Excise Tax on Beer-- To take effect in 1978 Equalized Public Service Franchise Tax (162.3) 1977 Raised Local Share of Bank Stock'Tax (5.0) Restored Income Tax Deductionfor childcare 1978 (18.5) Retain Beer Tax Rates Imposed in1976 18.3 No Income Tax Return If Income is below $3000 (2.5) Abolish Inheritance and Gift Tax (31.4) 1979 No Major Changes 1980 Exempted Home Heating Fuels from Sales Tax (27.5) Alternate Sales Tax on Vending Machines (3.5? 1981 Repealed Tax on Liquor for Resaleby the Drink 1982 Conformity of Individual IncomeTax to Federal Laws 081.2) Individual Income Tax Add-Back- Tax Recovery Act 35.0 Conformity of Corporate Income Tax to Federal Laws (75.6) Corporate Income Tax Add-Back - Tax Recovery Act 75.6 Public Service Corporations 34.0 Business License Tax and CapitalTax (15.2) . Increased State Tax on AlcoholicBeverage 23.5 1983 Accelerated Collections (notan increase) 16.4

Net Revenue Impact, 1970- 1982 (13 years) $(216.3) Net Revenue Impact, 1973- 1982 (10 years) $(73.1) Since "who pays how much?" is a political decision, whatgroups of citizens do you think supported and opposed eachof these measures?

*Source: Senate Finance Committee Staff

F 38 `3r,o VIRGINIA'S FISCAL CRUNCH OF THE 1980s Worksheet

All over the nation, in 1980 and again in1981-83, recessions lowered individual income, as well as sales and businessreceipts. All kinds of people and business suffered, and since theirincome was down, they paid lower taxes to local, state, and national governmenz. There also was less "bracket-creep," which happens when inflationand cost-of-living increases put employees into the aext tax bracket, meaningthat they pay a higher percentage on their earnings.

This period also saw "tax revolts," primarily againstrapidly increasing property taxes on inflated real estate prices. In California (Proposition 13), and Massachusetts (Proposition 2 1/2),local T"roperty taxes were limited or rolled back. These revolts were characterizedas voters striking back against a generalized feeling thatgovernment had gotten too big and too expensive. Congressional, state, and local electionswere affected by the campaigns, and office-holders were likelyto be turned-out by the voters if they increased a tax rate, or, insome places, if they did not cut taxes. Cuts in local services (including schools, police,and fire protection) were necessary after state and local reserves were usedup. The popularity of these proposals has been modified by the realitythat, beyond a certain point, cuts in taxes mean cuts in services.

What actually happened in Virginia?

1 - Sales rax receipts dropped due to unemployment, less overtime,and consumer reluctance to spend.

2 - Income tax revenues dropped due tounemployment and less "bracket creep."

3 - Gas tax receipts were down. The Mideast oil crisis doubled the per-gallon price and smaller and more efficientcars became popular. The state received less money, since the tax was basedon the number of gallons sold, not on the dollars spent. Less money was available to repair the roads andbridges -- and heavier, more gas-efficient truckswere tearing them up faster.

4 - Federal Aid to states for manyprograms was decreased. Virginia was one of 22 states that paid more than it receivedin grants in aid. While the amount Virginians paid in federal taxeswas reduced during this period, the aid was also cut. Those who were employed, earnedmore and paid less. Those who needed the benefits, received less.

5 - State and local borrowing becamemore difficult and much more expensive, since interest rates were high AND variousnew ways were introduced for investors to shelter their income. 8efore this, municipal bonds had been choice investments, since purchasers didnot have to pay taxes on the interest they earned. Tax-deferred annuities, IRAs, and other shelters cut into the municipal bond market, and forcedinterest rates higher.

6 - The Federal Economic Recovery TaxAct 1981 (ERTA) cut federal taxes and -also cut state taxes that were calculatedon the federal tax base. Figures on Virginia tax forms are basedon the Adjusted Gross Income number from the federal tax form, and that numberwas reduced by federal legislation. The 1982 revisions in the Virginia tax law addedback part of the loss, but

F 39 Virginia's Fiscal Crunch (cont'd) Virginia tax receipts for the 1982-84 biennium aloneare estimated to be lower by $70.6 million than they would have been before ERTA. Taxpayers were happy, but government services had to be cut.

7 - Construction and maintenance expenditures for roads, buildings,bridges. sewers and other facilities were eliminated from the budget. When finances are tight, these items (that often do not have lobbies)are cut. Facilities that should have been built for areas of rapid populationgrowth were put off.

1970-71 Virginia capital outlays were 23.0% of total state budget 1980-81 Virginia capital outlays were 15.4% of total state budget

The drop in investment is not because the expendituresare not needed. Delay of repair and maintenance also is becomingvery costly for the state and local governments. A 1983 survey revealed that 4,000 of Virginia's 12,000 bridges were "deficient" -- some date from the 1800s. Officials estimate that it will cost $500 million to repair or replace theones on the priority list, and all are decaying faster than the work can be done.

If you were a member of the Virginia General Assembly,would you vote to increase the $100 million budgeted for threeyears of bridge repairs and replacement?

Would you and your constituents feel differently ifa defective bridge in your district had given way and caused the deaths ofa carful of people?

How much would you be willing to pay tocross a bridge? twice a month? twice a week? twice a day or more?

Should the cost of bridges and highways be paid bythe people who use them? regardless of ability to pay?Or is that a part of "civilization" that should be paid from general taxes?

How much would you pay for a day at the beach? Should beaches and other recreation areas be publicly or privately operated? Are they resources that should be available to all the public? What services would you expect to have available for your use? Who should pay for the facilities and maintenance?

Do you know of an area project that the General Assemblyhas not yet funded?

Would user fees be a part of the financing?

You are running for election to the House of Delegates thisyear. You have been asked your opinions on state services andtaxes. 1)Outline the major points you would include. 2)List some issues you probably would want to duck.

F 40

0 0 r, WHAT DO YOU THINK ABOUT VIRGINIA'S TOBACCO TAX? Worksheet

Only North Carolina has a lower tobacco tax than Virginia-- all other states are higher. People in the tobacco growing and processing business say thata higher tax in Virginia would encourage smokers to buy their cigarettes elsewhere -- North Carolina, for example. They fear that any increase in taxes may result in decreased sales over-all. They also see that reduction or removal of the federal subsidy programs will throw tens of thousands of people who now grow and process tobacco out of work, worsening the economic troubles in Southside Virginia and and other tobacco areas.

People who do not smoke and who wish to discourage smoking, think that the tax should be raised higher and all government subsidy programs eliminated. They say that American taxpayers should not be supporting an industry that produces items identified by government and independent testingprograms as a major source of the health problems that cost our nation and our economy billions more in lost workdays and health care payments.

Virginia has taxed tobacco for many years. If the tax is raised, the state will be more dependent on the revenue generated by the tax. If the tobacco industry is hindered, the state will receive less revenue from the tax.

The demand for tobacco is relatively inelastic: sales do not vary widely with economic conditions. Regardless of taxes, inflation, or recession, smokers smoke until they cannot plunk dcAn the coins to pay for the next pack.

Most tobacco companies have diversified (broadened their product lines to include non-tobacco items), but the farmers and workers in the processing plants are still dependent on tobacco.

Hundreds of articles have been written about this controversy. (Locate them by using the Readers' Guide :n your library.) Find one that supports your point of view, and write here some quotes and notes to share with the class, particularly on dollar and human costs (unemployment, as well as health).

If you were a Virginia legislator, how would you vote on tobacco taxes?

If you were in Congress, how would you vote on the subsidy programs?

Think of a longterm solution to this problem. Be as creative and as specific as you can. Take into account the fact that foreign-grown tobacco is now cutting into the whole tobacco market.

F30 CIGARETTE TAX STATISTICS

The following chart shows the tax collectedon each pick of twenty cigarettes in the 50 states and the District of Columbia,as of July 1984.

State Rate State Rate State Rate Alabama 16e Kentucky 30 North Dakota 18e Alaska se Louisiana 11e Ohio 14f Arizona 15e Maine 2O Oklahoma 18f Arkansas 210 Maryland 13e Oregon 19e California loe Massachusetts 26e Pennsylvania 18e Colorado 15e Michigan 21e Rhode Island 230 Connecticut 26f Minnesota 18e South Carolina 7e Delaware 14e Mississippi 11e South Dakota 15e District of Columbia 13e Missouri 13e Tennessee 13e Florida 21f Mcntana 16e Texas 18.5e Georgia 12e Nebraska 18e Utah 12f Hawaii 40% of cost Nevada 15e Vermont 17e Idaho 9.1e New Hampshire 17e Virginia 2.5f Illinois lry New Jersey 25e Washington 23e Indiana 10.5e New Mexico 12e West Virginia 17f Iowa 18f New York 21e Wisconsin 25f Kansas 16e North Carolina 2e Wyoming se

F 42 CRITERIA TO EVALUATE TAXES Worksheet

Here are 8 questions to ask in evaluating taxes:

1 What is taxed? Income - earnings This is not always a good measure of ability to pay. Give an example of a person who makes above average salary, who would have trouble paying above average taxes: Give an example of a person who makes less than average salary, but who could pay average taxes:

Consumption what you buy, what you use. This is not always a good measure of ability to pay. Describe a person who would have to spend (and pay sales tax on) most of what he/she earned: Describe a person who would not have to spend (and pay sales tax on) most of what he/she earned:

Assets - real property (land and buildings), tangible property (car, furniture, stereo), and intangible property (money, stocks, bonds) Describe a person who might have assets of some sort, but not have cash to pay taxes on their value: Describe a person who might not have any assets, but who should be asked to pay taxes:

2 - How is it taxed? Proportional Tax - a percent of the value, regardless of amount. -A flat rate tax is proportional. Can you name another? Progressive Tax - as the amount grows, so does the percentage of the tax (i.e., low-income people pay 2%, middle-income people pay 5%, and high income people pay 10%). Progressive taxes are based on ability to pay, though very high income people often use deductions and "shelters" to pay less. Progressive taxes are considered by some people to justify progressive benefits (i.e., middle income people deduct more mortgage interest payments, and make more use of public college opportunities). Regressive Tax - a tax that ends up taxing more heavily the lower income people. A sales tax on food is a regressive tax, because low income people spend a greater percentage of their income on food and other essentials that are taxed. Regressive taxes are considered by some people to offset benefit programs for low-income people. Regressive taxes also worsen the problems of low-income people.

3 - How politically acceptable is it? Social Security was not controversial until the rates went high enough to make some people pay more for their FICA tax than their income tax. Property tax is a local tax, usually paid in lump sums, once or twice a year, and it tends to be less politically acceptable than a tax that is withheld, or one that is paid in small increments (i.e., a sales tax). Local governments must depend on the less-popular property tax. State and federal income taxes are Wkithheld to ease the pain and speed the collection.

4 - Is the tax equitable? Is it designed so it can be administered fairly? Can it be enforced? Are people in comparable situations taxed comparable amounts?

F 43 Or): 0 0 1 Criteria to Evaluate Taxes (cont'd) 5 - Is the tax neutral (not interfering with the economy)? Is it consistent with the goals of society? Confiscatory taxes, so high they force the sale of an asset to pay the taxes on it, would interfere with the economy. A tax on alcoholic beverages and cigarettes would be accepted, while a tax on medicine would not. Deducting contributions to charitable organizations woulc be acceptable.

6 - Does the tax produce adequate revenue to keep government functioning? User taxes provide money for services when the services are requested, but they may not maintain the staff to answer the need. A tax that produces little or less revenue in hard times, when government expenses such as unemployment benefits increase, would have to be balanced with others less elastic.

7 - Can the tax by administered efficiently and economically? Taxes that require multiple offices, forms, and inspectors may consume the revenue they produce, and be a great nuisance to the taxpayers.

8 - Does the tax fit into a reasonable pattern With other taxes? Multiple taxes on one asset or population group would not be'equitable. or politically wise. A variety of taxes and taxpayers is needed to produce revenue for government services in varied economic conditions.

TAXES SHOULD PRODUCE THE REVENUE NECESSARY TO PAY THE COSTS OF GOVERNMENT IN GOOD TIMES AND BAD, & DO IT IN A WAY THAT FURTHERS THE GOALS OF SOCIETY.

Federal State TAX TAX Liquor; obacco SECURITY' WHAT IS TAXED? Income? Consumption? Assets? HOW IS IT TAXED Proportional? Progressive? Regressive? HOW POLITICALLY ACCEPTABLE ? IS THE TAX EQUITABLE? IS IT NEUTRAL OR CONSISTENT WITH SOCIETY GOALS? DOES IT PRODUCE ADEQUATE INCOME ...OR FIT IN WITH OTHER TAXES? CAN IT BE ADMINISTERED EFFICIENTLY?

F 44

002 Information VIRGINIA'S INCOME TAX & PROPOSED CHANGES A Assignment

Virginia has had an income tax since 1843, though it was neither a major source of revenue, nor effectively administered until Governor Harry F. Byrd created the Department of Taxation, with a fulltime Tax Commissioner, in 1926. In 1948, Governor Tuck increased rates on the 3 original brackets. In 1962, withholding was begun. In 1972 a 4th bracket was added, the top one which taxes all income over $12,000 at 5.75%. Since 1972, there has been no change in brackets or rates, though bills to adjust rates and brackets are presented in almost every session of the General Assembly. Population growth, inflation, and "bracket creep" have increased revenues and made it possible to put off decisions on revising the income tax structure

Given a chance, almost any person will complain about taxes, but...how do Virginia's state and local taxes actually compare with other states? Virginia ranks 39th out of 50 states in total state and local taxes paid per $1,000 of personal income. Only 11 states in the nation have lower tax rates The total that Virginians pay at these two levels is below the national average. In fact, when various statistical measures are applied to Virginia's total state and local taxes, Virginia is considered to be paying only 90% of our tax capacity in state and local levies. Tax capacity is a measure of the value of assets and ability to pay.

What percentage of Virginia's tax money is collected in the income tax? 51.7% of Virginia revenues were raised by the individual income tax -- on a scale that dates back to 1926, with one additional bracket added in 1972. Exemptions and standard deductions have not been altered since that date, in spite of many changes in the economy, the federal tax regulations, and Virginians' ability to pay.

Is Virginia's income tax fair? What is fair? It all depends on the definition. Political forces decide that a certain amount of money must be raised to support programs of the government, and a considerable share of the total will be raised through income taxes. Individual income taxes in the United States and most other nations are considered equitable (fair) if the tax burden is distributed in accoance with ability to pay: those with greater ability are taxed more than those with less ability, and those with equal ability to pay are taxed equally.

Are changes needed in the Virginia Income Tax? The federal income tax formula was changed to lower or eliminate taxes for the poor and near-poor, and to collect more of the revenue from higher-income people, but Virginia's exemptions and standard deductions have not been altered to recognize that inflation has long-since caught up with the old tax scale. People living in poverty are now paying the percentage of their income that had originally been designated for the more affluent. (In earlier decades, an income of $7,000 may have justified a tax bracket near the top, but many people feel that a family of 4 earning $7,000 today (below the "poverty-level", and exempt from federal taxes), should not be paying Virginia taxes at all. The General Assembly has not dealt with the realignment of rates, or the raising of other taxes to make up for what would be lost if the rates were made more equitable. A higher percentage of Virginia income tax money comes from low and moderate income people than is the case in other states. Those who defend the current system against change say that low

F 45

1-) (...) Virginia's Income Tax & Proposed Changes(cont'd)

Legislation has been introduced in theGeneral Assembly to add brackets, switch to a flat rate with various modifications, or index the structureto offset the effects of inflation andbracket-creep. These proposals and more will be repeated in coming sessions. Which ones would be most equitable?

ASSIGNMENT: Look over the proposalson the following page and decide which you would vote for, or what you would support ifyou were a Delegate or Senator in the Virginia General Assembly.

TABLE 2. INCREASE OR DECREASE IN TAX LIABILITYBETWEEN EACH OPTION AND EXISTING SYSTEM, BY CLASSES OF ADSCSTED CROSS INCOME

Option Option Option AG1Class Option Option Joannou 1 2 3 4 5 Proposal Overall 0.37% 0.52% 0.14%, 0.14% 0.56% 1.60% 50-59.999 4.79 -7.60 -0.62 -29.52 -40.10 -16.03 S10.000-51099 8.07 -4.93 9.13 -9.56 -1.93 6.50 515,000-519.999 3.75 -6,32 6.04 -5.39 -1.16 3.33 520.000-524,999 0.57 -5.63 2.35 -4.08 0.72 1.59 525.000-529.999 2.15 -3.51 2.63 -1.70 2.76 3.05 530,000-534.999 0.67 -1.78 1.18 0.01 3.61 2.44 S35.000. 539.999 -0.50 -0.68 0.18 1.78 4.21 1.91 540,000-544.999 -0.72 2.29 -1.19 3.20 4.63 2.65 S45,000-549,99? -1.38 3.64 -2.61 3.67 4.22 2.81 550.000-559.999 -2.75 4.73 -3.60 5.68 4.46 1.54 560,000-569,999 -1.92 8.29 -4.71 7.00 4.32 2.93 570.000-579.999 -3.44 8.41 -5.48 8.55 4.35 1.70 580.000-5119,999 -2.21 12.44 4.49 9.77 4.37 590.000-599.999 .7.96 3.49 8.76 -7.99 10.71 4.04 5100.000 and over .7.01 -1.91 13.78 .9.36 13.87 3.93 -0.39 SOURCE: Virginia Department of Tamition. Rocarelt Di% ision. 1981 Virginia Individual Income TaxComputer Simulation Model.

ALTERNATIVE TAXOPTIONS

The proposed tax options listed in TableI bracket (2.6 percent). The bracketsare set to are described below. As under the existing approximate the quartile distribution of system, all taxes are non-negative; that is, if taxable income, using the quartile distribu- a credit exceeds tax liability, the taxpayer is tion of AGI by return. The rates increase by not entitled to the difference. the same absolute increment (1 percentage Option 1. OptionIis a flat rate tax point). applied over an exempted amount withno Oplion3. This option has a flat rate but,in standard, itemized, or child care deductions. contrast to option I, allows deductions. The rate is 4.4 percent, and the option allows Because the tax base is reduced by deduc- aro exemption of $3,200 per taxpayer and tions, the rate (5.1 percent)needs to be spous. and 51,500 per dependent. higher than in option I to raise thesame Option 2. Option 2 is similar to option I amount of revenue. Provisions for low- except for the use of graduated rates. Again, income relief are divided between thestand- there are no deductions. Credits replace ard deduction and the personaland depend- exemptions to equalize tax relief. Thetax- ent exemptions. The standard deductionis payer and spouse credit is set at $83-calcu- based on the level of federalZBAs. The per lated as $3,200 times the rate of the lowest person exemption equals 51,500.

F 47 035 Virginia's Income Tax & Proposed Changes(cont'd)

ASSIGNMENT: Look over the proposalson the following page and decide which you would vote for, or what you would support ifyou were a Delegate or Senator in the Virginia General Assembly.

TABLE 2. INCREASE OR DECREASE IN TAX LIABILITYBETWEEN EACH OPTION AND EXISTING SYSTEM, BY CLASSES OF ADSCSTED CROSS INCOME

ALTERNATIVE TAXOPTIONS

F 47 035 Option 4. This option is similar to option provided through increased standard deduc- 3 except that it has graduated rates. Also, the tions and credits. The standard deductions per person exemption is replaced by a credit are equal to federal ZIIA amounts. Credits of 556. calculated as Sl.500 times the rate of are used instead of exemptions to equallie the lowest bracket (3.7 percent). The stand- tax sasings. The per person credit is S33. ard deductions arc the same as in option 3. computed as 51.500 times the rate of the The brackets are based on an approximation lowest bracket (2.2 percent). of thequartiledistributionof taxable Joannou Proposal. This proposalwas income. Thcy use the quartile distribution of sponsored by Delegate Johnny S. Joannou AG1 by return minus 52.000, which is an in 1981 Virginia House Bill No. 1638. It approximation of the minimum deduction starts with the existing definition of AGI and rounded to the nearest thousand. The rates applies a flat rate of 4.75 percent. The increase by the same absolute increment (I taxpayer and spouse arc each allowed a percentage point). S4,500 exemption (or deduction, asitis Option S. This option is a modification of called in the bill). There are no exemptions the current Virginia income tax. The exist- for dependents, age, or blindness. There also ing brackets are used, but the existing rates are no standard, itemized, or child care are increased by 0.2 percentage points. deductions. The proposalissimilarto Standard, itemized, and child care deduc- option I except for the exemptions. tions are allowed. Poverty-level tax relief is

TABLE I.EXISTING TAX AND ALTERNATIVE TAX STRUCTURES

Adjusted Deductions Brackets and Rates Tax Gross Item- Child Age Structure Exemption /credit Income Standard Deduction ized Care Credit Taxable Income Rate Existing $600 personal. Includes 15% of federal AGI or Yes Yes Yes SO to 52,999 2% tax dependent. age. and 5400 age 51.300 but no more than 53.000 to 54,999 3% blindness exemption. deduction 52,000 for single tax- 55.000 to 11.999 5% payers and married filing 512.000 and over 5.75% jointly or combined: 15% of federal AGI or 5650 but no more than $1,000 for married filing separately. Option $3.2Q0 taxpayer and No 5400 None No No Yes spouse exemption All taxable 4.4% extra age income and 51,500 dependent deduction exemption. No age or blindness exemption. Option S83 credit per tax- No $400 None No No Yes SO to 56.999 2.6% 2 payer and spouse extra age 57.000 to 513.999 3.6% teredit=S3.200 times deduction rate of lowest 514.000 to :25,999 4.6% 526.000 and over bracket): S39 credit 5.6% per dependent (credit: 51.500 times rate of lowest bracket). No age or blindness credit. Option 51.500 personal and No 5400 52.300 for single taxpayers: Yes Yes Yes All taxable 5.1% 3 dependent exemption. extra age SI.700 for married filing income No age or blindness deduction separately; and $3,400 (or exemption. married joinsr combined. Option S56 credit per person No 5400 52.300 for single: 51.700 Yes Yes Yes SO to 54.999 3.7% 4 (credit=S1.500 times extra age for married separate; 55.003 to S11.999 4.7% rate of lowest bracket). deduction 53.400 for married joint No age or blindness 512.000 to 523.999 5.7% or combined. 524.000 and over credit. 6.7% Option 333 credit per person No 5400 52.300 for single; $1,700 Yes Yes Yes SO to 52,999 2.2% 5 (credit=51.500 times extraage for married separate: $3,000 to 54,999 rate of lowest bracket). 3.2% deduction 53.400 for married joint 55.000 to $11,999 No age or blindness 5.2% or combined. 512.000 and over credit. 5.95% Joannou 54.500 exemption per Includes None No No No All taxable proposal taxpayer and spouse. 4.75% 5400 age income No dependent exemption.deductions No age or blindness exemption. a The Joannou proposal calls(or eliminating this deduction, but the provision was not removed during computer simulation ofthe proposal. F 48 THE GENERAL SALES TAX How Does Virginia's Sales Tax Compare?

There is great varietyamong the states on what is taxed commercial process. at which stage in the All but five states havean identified general sales tax. All have special excise taxes,such as on tobacco, alcoholic amusements, public utilities, beverages, fuels, insurance, or such activitiesas parimutuel betting. Some have occupation taxesor gross receipts taxes that produce sales though the amounts revenue based on are not collected fromcnnsumers as "sales tax." The following chart shows the percentages collectedas general sales tax for state government purposes.

GENERAL SALES TAX

= Additional tax allowed forlocal government -F = Food purchases exempt fromtax -P = Prescription drug purchases exemptfrom tax

NO "SALES TAX" 4% STATE SALES TAX 5% STATE SALES TAX 6% STATE SALES TAX Alaska Alabrma + -p Arizona Delaware + -F -P District of Arkansas + -P Florida +-F -P Montana Hawaii Columbia -F -P New Hampshire Illinois + -F -P Minnesota + -F -P Idaho -P Oregon Indiana -F -P New Jersey -F -P Iowa -F -P Kentucky + -F -P Pennsylvania +-F -P Louisiana +-F -P Main* 3% STATE SALES TAX -F -P Rhode Island -F -P Michigan -F -P Mariland -F -P Colorado + -F -P New York + -F -P Massachusetts -F -P 6 1/2% STATE SALES TAX Georgia North Dakota -F -P Ohio + -F -P Nshington (except Kansas + -P South Carolina -P West Virginia -F -P 4 counties) +-F -P North Carolina + -P South Dakota +-F -P Wisconsin + -F -P Oklahoma + -P Texas + -F -P 7 1/2% STATE SALES TAX Virginia + .p Vermont -F -P 5 1/2% STATE SALES TAX Wyoming + .? Tennessee -p Connecticut -F -P 4 1/81 STATE SALES TAX Mississippi -P 3 1/2% STATE fAx Missouri 0, -P 5 3/4% STATE. SALES TAX Nebraska . +-F -P 4 344% STATE SALES TAX Nevada +-F -P 3 3/4% STATE SALES TAX California + -F -P New Mexico + 4 5/8% STATE SALES TAX

Ztah + -P

Across the nation, the salestax is the most important source of i:ate government revenue. It -,rovides about halfthe tax revenue, with the rest coming from a variety oftaxes, licenses, and fees. During the depression days of the 1930s, many states institutedthe sales tax as a way to fund vital programs. Virginia did not begin to use this source of revenue until 1966,by which time 41 other states had a sales tax, including all of Virginia'sneighbors, and a dozen Virginia localities had enacteda local sales tax, with General Assembly approval. The local sales taxes were such good revenue raisers, thatthe state realized it would have to start collecting thistax for state purposes, or it would be difficultever to do it. At the time the state adopted the sales tax, several legislatorsassumed that a way would be found to reduce the burden on thepoor, the elderly, and large families. No such legislation has beenpassed, though several F 49 00.0 measures have been proposed-in past sessions to eliminate the tax on food. The exemptions that have passed-- more than 50 of them -- have been minor exemptions. Recent efforts to offset an exemption for food by addinga tax on services have not received sufficiently ent;pusiastic support, thus far. :.1by not tax services? When you have a car or an appliance repaired, you bay a tax on the parts, but not on the labor. It would be an easy source of state income to add the tax on both sections of the bill. Some services that do not have taxable materials involved would have to setup a system to collect the tax. Additional material will be available on this question each year during the General Assembly sessions-- look for it. The following chart shows the distribution (1980- a typical year) of items contributing to the sales tax receipts in Virginia. It should be remembered that the categories are not easily identified underour current collection method -- a major supermarket chain reports allsales as Food, though its stores sell great quantities of non-edible merchandise, and departmentstore sales are recorded as General Merchandise, though many sell food,automotive, and furniture items. COMPOSITION OFVIRGINIA SALES TAX BASE,1980

Food Consumed All Other At Home 30.5% 26.5% c.,

Food Consumed Away From Home Automotive 9.7% 5.7% Lumber, Building General Materials, Merchandise andSupply 17.7% 9.7%

Source: Virginia Dopartment of Taxation. Taxable Sales In Virginia's Countiesand Cities Based on Retail Sales TaxRevenues. Annual Roport,1980. (Richmond: Vkginla Department ofTaxation.1981), pp. 2-4.

Chart: Tayloe Murphy, VirginiaIssues: The Retail Sales Tax, by John L. Knapp and Bruce K. Johnson

1/ "Food consumed at home"was derived from Department of Taxation statistics BY adding taxable sales of bakery products,candy and confections; dairy products; purchases fromfruit stands; vegetable stands,roadside markets, rolling markets; and sales of groceries, meats,and seafood in chain and non-chain establishments; and whatthe Departm it calls "other food." Food consumed away from home is comprised of sales at private membershipclubs, restaurants, cafe- terias, delicatessans, grills, cafes, snack bars, drive-ins,catering, taverns, beer parInrs, dance halls,etc.

0f)p 50t)F..)...) TAX OR EXPENDITURE LIMITATIONS WOULD THEY BE USEFUL INVIRGINIA?

Between 1978 and 1981 there was a widespread feeling in the UnitedStates that government -- all government-- was growing too big, too fast, and too expensive. "Taxpayer revolts" organized inareas where speculation had ballooned real estate values, multiplyingproperty taxes and angering property owners and tenants. After California's Proposition13 imposed a limit on the property tax, groups began to organize in other partsof the country to put such provisions on their ballots. The limitations proposed (some were approved) set a percentage of the wealth, income,or product of the state or locality, beyond which taxes or expenditures could not beincreased without a 2/3 vote of the legislature, approval of thevoters, or some other mechanism.

A constitutional amendment has been proposed in each of thelast several sessions of 1.he Virginia General Assembly to limit state taxesto a fixed percentage of the state's economy. What are the facts?What happened in California after Proposition 13? What questions should be askedand answered about the effects of such limits, and about Virginia's particularsituation? Proposition 13 The following page contains a summary of the background and provisionsof Proposition 13 in California, reprinted from the Joint Councilon Economic Education, Analyzing Tax Policy:A Resource Guide, pp 16-7. See also Forbes Magazine, February 27, 1984, and other articles listed in. theReader's Guide for the aftereffects of Proposition 13. Research opportunity: What were the longterm effects of Proposition2 1/2 in Massachusetts?

The JCEE Guide points out that the California citizenswere upset because they were being taxed heavily at the local level, while the state amasseda $7 billion surplus. Proposition 13 cut localrevenues and forced the state to share its surplus with thecommunities. The decreased local business and property taxes vide real estate speculationeven more attractive, and prices advanced again. (Most landlords did notpass on their tax savings to tenants until they were forced to doso by rent freezes and legislative mandates.) Communities cut services -- schools, parks, trash collections, libraryhours, and other activities-- and instituted new taxes, extra charges and fees. user The state surplus "bailed themout," until the $7 billionwas exhausted. Subsequent data shows that state andlocal financial relationships were altered by Proposition 13-- the state funds had brought an increase of state control over local government. In 1984, proposals were being to permit local piggyback sales discussed taxes, modifications of Proposition13 allowing tax increases on business property, and othermoves to make local government more selfsufficient, and less dependent on state revenuesharing. Aside from some temporary distootion caused by CETA federal grants, thegrowth of local government was only slightly slowed. The interrelationship between levels of government had passedalong the effect of the tax limitation, shifting more power to the state;.

TAXES ARE POLITICS. The perceptitns of the people,the voters, are oftenmore of a determinant than bushels of statistics and reasoned arguments, andvoters influence the words and actions of elected representatives. It is likely that Proposition 13 will be quoted again in the Virginia General Assembly. Watch for further information, proposals,and opinions.

F 51 0,.00r)c; What are the facts about VirginiaTaxes? -- Virginia operates on a balanced budget, with no big surplusses, and no big debt. Revenues and expendituresare below national averages.

-- Virginia local and state tax rates togetherrank 39th from the top in the nation -- 11 states collect less per $1,000 of income than Virginia. The Advisory Commission onIntergovernmental Relations rates comparing what each is statelocal taxes by now collecting (tax effort) to what itcould receive (tax capacity) if its tax rates were identical (100%)to other states on 26 commonly used taxes. Virginia's overall rating is89%, suggesting that tax rates could. be raised, given some the state's resources andability to pay. -- Through most of the 1970s, state and local governments grew with increased programs and employees, many of whichwere mandated (but only partly by the federal government. funded) Virginia governments providedMore services, and for a booming population. Areas of the state where farmers trash now became communities had recycled their that had to collect garbage,manage landfills, and provide myriad urban services. In spite of the changesrequired by the population growth, Virginia's budget growth did not exceednational averages. Figured in constant dollars, without inflation, the budgetgrowth tapered off in the 1970s, and has almostlevelled since 1980. of tax/expenditure Tax politics and the threat limitations is credited bymany with slowing the growth. -- Most Virginia leaders favor more adequate funding for education. Mary legislators and taxpayers also say that fiscal conservatism requiresproper maintenance of state facilities (our infrastructure), andthat taxes should be raised-closer to national averages to accomplish both of theseaims. -- Opponents of a tax limitation say: 1) There isno need for such a "straitjacket," -- Virginia's heritage of fiscalresponsibility would riot permit runaway growtl-. 2) Such limits might haveprevented the building of the community collegesystem, and..3) Constitutional against unnecessary conservatives argue provisions clutteringup that document.

-- Advocates of the tax limitation say: "Let's continue fair taxesfor Virginians, restore balance between growth of governmentand growth of the private sector, require government to set priorities"for personnel and budget -- Would a state tax limit undercut efforts to locate and fundprograms at the most appropriate levels ofgovernment?Since most programs and funded with a mix of federal, services E7e state, and local money (i.e.,federal grants for highways require matching funds), would Virginia simply loseout? Would a state limit create an unfair burdenon local resources? state services? Could user fees fund What programs/personnel couldbe cut?

--The Tax Limitation Amendmentprovided procedures for by a 2/3 vote of both emergency adjustment, houses of the General Assembly. (Should 14 Senators 34 Delegates be able to block or the will of a majority ofelected representa tives?) It also allowed legitimate new needs by a vote of the people. (Do we elect representatives to makethese complex decisions? Can a sufficient number of voters be informedto choose wisely on tax increases?) What do you think? What additional informationwould you need to forman opinion about thisor any future proposal?

F 52 Tho Origins and Effects of Proposition 13 manyamoral felt thatbecome government too prodigal spending and tho had national in worth when they soil tha house ...This limiteddorsod property Proposition taxes, 13, andIn which Junoweakened 1970lowered tho the abil-and votors of California on- causedhavebudget the affected dolicit repercussions too the largo. vote of Thosethat In Californiaveto factors to make must and willmaymeansvantage. paywipe that will out federal offsetsome taxesofa largethe onseller's partthe profitad-of The higher price the buyer --,-, --, m-41 bly,endorsement.!myity was of now tho against taxes.stato proportyand Several itsProposition localities taxos.factors Boat layto 13's Incroaso behind estato main this thrust,or understanda- thattiongresslonal,taxes 13the a went virtuallyfirst slat resultInto andnationwide effect? would Whatfocal It happenedbeelections hadIssue a drasticbean in of thein feared 1970.cutCalilornia con- In altar Proposi- votorspayers of the of propcistatefuture vtent taxosProposition property to in keep California. receivingtax 11 savings....won't If the bo all gravy to tho alm-- nrt m rt rrg0.,0 $70,000.onefamilymiddledousvalues boom. Naturally,Inof California1977, houses From the this the shothad median gainmiddle undergoneup In from price theof 1975 $43,000 valuoof a oxistingtremen- to of the to its largelimitedmanyfaro.local Cutsservicessurplus. as because anticipated. there from thewore, policestate Thebut began notwotactioneffect as to deepwas d!etribula to partlyor wal- as scalestatetacofromanything ca.. higher government,surplus probably near local is the spent,onlyor theystatecurrent be funds must suppliedtaxes. loyal onsooner Once the ofwith services needed thator tha later big .rt cS- 0 $1,890crapmarkotproperty house vaiuo.an Increasetaxeswas, rose Consoquontly ataveraged byfirst of 5730from 63sight, percent, 2.7 texas ploasing. percent $1,160en the of But currentavr- to local taxesto52.4tion individual 13 billion, were was or estimatedhomeowners.lowered only one-thirdTho theto totalbo most$4Buslnoss $7of tax thebil!lon. reduction total,billion, property About went oreffected by Proposi- Propositionattitudepowerby-producthalo from oftoward incroased 13localitieswould effectively property be tostate some the taxes spreads taxes.stato.) shill expressed of across(ThoAnd political ifpolitical thathe by IncomeroutThothe ability average63 ofpercent tothe pay family'saverage itIn had two IncomeThohomoownornot yoars. risenrise by Inaccordingly.In notho fact,probably means property the tax was large, but combinationthusmonoy,businessnearly provide 60 reduce portentofdo the more with prices, throe? of thelobs the Invest savings: HowtotalIn Californiaor morecut.would Whatpocket heavily corpo- wouldsome theand canoftaxosnation, bo the cut tocountry outmaintain of federalunless localSoma expenditures. anservices equivalent additional In many amount taxes parts on incoma will, In It may take higher fedora! incoma A steepIntotiondid not ofespeciallyolfoct Incroaso homeowners even in thatkoop Inaltar social yoar, up maytaxes. withsocurity whilo well By the have property1978. pacetaxes wursoned. tho ofwent taxes Infla-posi- toTho beheadquartersrations outcome, do linitoly with of assessed.a were course,branch locatedLandlords Inwill Calilornia take in other soma gained statesbut years whose about act? $0.0 billion from likelymentsresultany to oftocase, ofIncroase.manyboth Proposition coma the homeowners statefrom Since 13. Californiaand TomsCalifornia national in California income taxpayers govern-homa- tax aro aspay- a home.beiorofamilycontinued no to todoubtpay rise. the foundConsequently, Ca..lornlasmiling It oven taxes voters hardorthe onavorago also theirthan knew that localities Accordingly,tionmajoritysurethe tax 13o.i reduction,passed,thom of within landlords to reduce atsix and toast monthsapparently thorn rents six wasCaliforniaaccordingly.altar did much Proposi- not proschic'sdo Tho so.. - thornovnerssonalerincome thepersonal are incomedeductions, tax now purposesdeductions payingtaxes the will willlower higher for be. bo Cate propertylo Moir Nat. and lederat Tho ledaral tams. small- per- taxorlyusesurplushad collections.tax thebeenin part accumulatedapproaching forced because Tho votersto resort tha funds Si wantedstale billion heavily to had relieve thefrom builtto stato the local itsup prno- owntos. !ax datorylion.ofrentsInonactod the passthrough And tax soma sometheresavings cam is son to abostowod possibilitytenant;combined of temporary of by 80tn.: withtho percent statowioo proposi- hema man- on 13country!Ionraised was 13 in the caused andthis precursor .. many Theraof to atteh.pts think is thatst' to Proposition reduce the - s, vger question.Actlons than1. any Theelsewhere passagoyet in of the Proposh likely,mightsitionburdens. notwas 13have a Had becamemore passed. the or Anstato anless important Issue, donenationwide sothe backgroundboioro proposition fooling Propo- factor, it seems positionownerspassedrent control byof to propertytha receive or California tomtit have capitalBy rights legislature.also the gain beenpa:,.sago bills "windfalls." put may into of bo Proposition a 13, present tatesituationstheWillperhapsslzo values thatof "big actuallythe and govommant" beginnirp extraordinary the prova unusually toof in boa the taxpayer'stheboom largoUnited case? in statoreal States.Specialrevolt. es- tomanagementalsowerethat state the havegetting capitals twin had much burdens wasa to sense city toorampantom halls.heavy.of thargovernment Inflation And ArmAcans Washington undoubtedly and taxes maymis- long-termthasailorsThoprices tax reduction tocut, "capitalize" Jyvalue that about in is, propertyof they theas most much taxmay taxes reductionof raise as!ha tends they benefitsreal to will thinkestate allow be of !ha widelylong-term.loamInsurplus Calilornia. whetherprc,phesized, nationwide, It will tha take impact andsome major,will time actually asbeiore was bewe so provide I groat impetus to the events HOW TO MAKE A PIE CHART OF YOUR LOCAL GOVERNMENT REVENUE SOURCES

1 - Assemble all ingredients. You'll need the numbers for each major source of revenue, and the total. Be stir::: they are accurate...and add up!

2 - For each piece of the pie, you need to know the percentage that source is of the whole. General Property Taxes collected Example: --- divided by - -- = percent of total Total of all local government income

Do the calculations for each major source of income.Do they add up to 100%? If they do, proceed. If they don't, try again or get help.

3 - A circle is 360°. So, the total revenue will equal a whole 360° pie. Each segment of the pie will be the percent of the total that you calculated in #2 above multiplied by 360.

Example: Property tax: .55 x 360° = 198° Therefore, the property tax will be a 198° piece of pie. Do all your pieces of pie add up to 360°? If they do, proceed. If they don't, try again or get help.

4 - Use a protractor and mark off the size of each pie slice on a circle. Make a finished drawing connecting all your marks on the circle. Label each segment with its title and percent. Label the drawing with the name of your government, the year of the data and a heading such as on the pie chart below.

5 - Try another on expenditures, or one on the proposed budget and one on the approved or actual budget. Any way you slice it, it's taxpayer money!

Figure 21-2: LOCAL SOURCES OF REVENUE ALL VIRGINIA CITIES, FISCAL YEARS

Permits,Privilege Fees and Miscellaneous Regulatory Licenses Revenue from Use of Money and Property Service Charges Fines and Forfeitures Other Local Taxes

BPOL Taxes General Property Taxes Utility Consumer Tax

Local Option Sales Tax

SOURCE: Derived from Commonwealth of Virginia, Auditor of Public Accounts, Comparative Report of Local Government: Re- venues and Expenditures, Year Ended June 30,19N. Exhibit B. (Richmond, 1983).

F 54 342 TOTAL REVENUES IN VIRGINIA CURRENT & CONSTANT DOLLARS Millions of Dollars

Current Dollars = Amount Today Constant Dollars = Amount MINUS inflation. On this chart, the inflation rate since 1970 was subtracted, revealing little real growth since 1970.

uURRENT DOLLARS

...... 1970 DOLLARS

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

FISCAL YEAR

F 55 TOTAL OPERATING EXPENSEAPPROPRIATIONS IN VIRGINIA -1970-72 TO 1980-82 Millions of Dollars

NOTE: STATE EXPENDITURES 14,000 ARE APPROVED FOR TWO-YEAR PERIODS. THESE ARE BIENNIUM FIGURES.

12,000 (11,749.3)

CURRENT DOLLARS 10,000

(9,196.9

8,000 (7,357.8

(6,077.4) 6,000 (4,867.3) CONSTANT (1970) DOLLARS (3,729.6) .0" 4,989.6) (5,196.5) 4,000 (4,589.1)(4,815.6 F!.(3,694.5)

2,000

0 .: ea./ ,.. . . 1970-721972-74 1974-761976-781978-801980-82 Biennium

Constant dollars caiculatod using GNP implicitprice deflator for stateand local governments purchases of goodsand services (1970=100)

F 56 .344 RATES OF COUNTY AND DISTRICT LEVIES FOR(Including COUNTY County and District t evieaDISTRICT in incorporated PURPOSES Towns FOR THE TAX YF.AR 19133 AND (District Levies. Where Shown. Are in Addition to the County but Not Including Town Levies for Town Purpose3.) Levy.) Do-1-3177-n (73--1:...< r< CI Zrk ....I10 in(1) COUNTY TAX RATESASSESSED PER $100 VALUE ON: Tangible Mach. OF Mere C,--1EA :-.0CIX, ), 1-r- 1/1 x rtAiCurt .1.J.--1)-110 In =a (0 II co-1D:a -icoD:a ACCOMACK District Levies: County Levy Estate SReal .34 PropertyPersonal $2.25 Toole$6.00and Capitalchants' Try-G0-4O C") rn(--) fD fDX',0 --t)-0) a-J0 Ato =ifr-rn ..1r-rn MetompkinLee.AtlanticIsland .07.09.04.08 .07.09.06 .07.09.06 C;rn, C -I rncm N tz c.....

TAXRATES PER $100OF TAX RATES PER $IM OF ASSESSEDVALUE ON: ASSESSED VALUE ON: COUNTY ---- COUNTY TangibleMach. Mer.- Tangible Mach. Mar: Real Persoaal and chants' Real Personal and chants' Estate Property Tools Capital Estate+PropertyTools Capital

PRINCE WILLIAM County Levy 1 39 .70 ISLE OF WIGHT County Levy $ .51 $4.75 $ .78 400 100 District Levies. .71 4 00 4.00 JAMES CITY County Levy Bucknall Fire Dist. .08 .02 .08 KING GEORGE County Levy 1.05 2.90 2.00 - - Cotes Fire Dist. .071 .071 .071 Dumfries Fire Dist. KING & QUEEN County Levy .08 .88 .88 $ .65 .030 .030 .038 Evergreen Fire Dist .07 .07 .07 .76 4 20 4.20 3.90 KING WILLIAM County Levy Gainesville Fire Dist. 05 .05 05 District Levy in Town of: West Point (West Point) .28 1.20 1.20 1.10 Greater Manassas Fire Dist. S .057 $ .057 5 .057 Lake Jackson Fir o Dist. .07 .07 .07 LANCASTER County Levy .31 3.80 3.80 1.00 Neabsco Fire Dist .04 .04 .04 LEE County Levy .62 .62 .62 .62 Nokesville Fire Dist .05 .05 .05 LOUDOUN County Levy 1.13 4.75" 2.75 - - Occoquan Fire Dist .035 .035 .035 - - Wellington Fire Dist. .09 .aa LOUISA County Levy .35 1.70 1.70 .65 .ca Yorkshire Fire Dist. .07 .07 .07 LUNENBURG County Levy .38 7.00 7.00 1.20 District Levieein Towns of: D um fr ies (Dumfries) MADISON County Levy .50 5 50 5.50 4.30 .038 .038 .038 Haymarket (Gainesville) .05 .05 .05 MATHEWS County Levy .50 3 00 3.00 - - Occoquan(Occoquan) .035 .035 .035 - - MECKLENBUP.G County Levy .50 3.25 3.25 1.45 PULASKI County Levy .54 4.80 4.80 $4.80 -I MIDDLESEX County Levy .39 3.00 3.00 1.25 RAPPAHANNOCK County Levy 42 5.60 560 > -- 03 .67 7.57 MONTGOMERY County Levy 7.57 6.90 RICHMOND County Levy .60 3.50 3.50 3.50 mr NELSON County Levy .55 2.50 1.25 - - ROANOKE County Levy 1.10 3.50 3.00 - - _. NEW KENT County Levy .75 3 00 3.00 - - ROCKBRIDGE County Levy .45 4.50 4.s0 -- NORTHAMPTON County Levy 1.09 8.75 8.75 6.25 ROCKINGHAM County Levy .39 3.50 3.50 1.00 District Levy in Town of: RUSSELL Cape Charles (Capes/10e)- .97 7.85 7.85 5.95 County Levy .65 .65 .65 5.75 NORTHUMBERLAND County Levy .42 3.00 3.00 2.40 SCOTT Countylevy .72 .72 .72 .72 SHENANDOAH NOTTOWAY County Levy .36 4.50 4.50 .55 County Levy .51 1.80' 206 .60 SMYTH ORANGE . County Levy .54 5 50 5.50 .40 County Levy so .60 .60 .60 PAGE County Levy .56 1.50 7 50 2.00 SOUTHAMPTON County Levy .32 4.00 2.40 .50 PATRICK County Levy .55 4.00 4.00 3 50 SPOTSYLVANIA County Levy .65 2 50 2.50 .10 PITTSYLVANIA County Levy 33 4 25 3.00 2.75 STAFFORD County Levy 1.21 5.70 .75 .50 SURRY POWHATAN 'County Levy .60 2.00 2.00 County Lew .39 3.50 3.50 3.35 SUSSEX PRINCE EDWARD County Levy .52 5.20' 5.20 .70 County Levy .46 3.00 3.00 1.00 TAZEWELL PRINCE GEORGE County Levy .66 3.50 1.50 County Levy .60 2.00 2.00 4 30 --.1 WARREN County Levy .60 2.40" 2.00 Indicates assessment at 100% In all counties. - - WASHINGTON County Levy .50 'County levy in the Town of West Point. 1.00 1.00 -- WESTMORELAND *Rate on heavy equipment is $4.00 per $100 and on aircraft is 51.50 per5100. County Levy .68 1.50 1.50 .88 WISE "'County levy in the Town of Cape Charles. County Levy .285 4.60 4.60 2.85 Rate on farm machinery and livestock is 52.60 per $100. WYTHE County Levy .42 .61 .61 .56 YORK County Levy .64 4.70 4.70 - - '1 irk-ales assessment at 100% in all counties. 'Rate on farm related personal property Is $1.30 per $100. -Pate on farm machinery and livestock is $1 30 per $100. ' *RIte on farm machinery and fonts is S.70 per $100,

t,°L:..)... k TABLE 2 RATES OF CITY LEVIES FOR CITY PURPOSES FOR THE TAX YEAR 1983 (Borough Levies. Where Shown, Are in Addition to the City Levy.)

TAX RATES PER $100 OF ASSESSED VALUE ON: CITY Tangible Mach. Met- Real Personal and chants' Estate +Property ToolsCapital

ALEXANDRIA City Levy 51.41 $5.10 $4.50 BEDFORD City Levy .66 1.30 1.30 --* BRISTOL City Levy 1.11 4.00 4.00 --* BUENA VISTA City Levy .91 3.85 3.85 CHARLOTTESVILLE City Levy 1.13 4.39 4.39 -- CHESAPEAKE City Levy 1.02 4.00 3.12 CLIFTON FORGE City Levy 1.15 3.05 2.75 -- COLONIAL HEIGHTS City Levy 1.25 3.50 2.00 --* COVINGTON City Levy .59 4.56 3.93 DANVILLE City Levy .86 3.00 3.00 --* EMPORIA City Levy .68 5.00 5.00 FAIRFAX City Levy 1.25 2.99 2.99 --* FALLS CHURCH City Levy .96 5.50 5.50 FRANKLIN City Levy .79 3.20 2.00 -- FREDERICKSBURG City Levy 1.29 3.40 .50 --* GALAX City Levy .86 7.07 7.07 HAMPTON City Levy 1.26 5.40 5.40 HARRISONBURG City Levy .65 2.65 2.65 --* HOPEWELL City Levy 1.10 4.40 3.40 LEXINGTON City Levy .94 4.80 4.80 --* LYNCHBURG City Levy 1.12 3.00 3.00 MANASSAS City Levy . 1.22 3.05 3.05 -- MANASSAS PARK City Levy .. 1.90 3.50 1.00 MARTINSVILLE City Levy .76 2.25 1.85 - NEWPORT NEWS City Levy 1.20 5.00 2.70 - NORFOLK City Levy 1.30 4.00 1.60 NORTON City Levy . .75 5.50 5.50 PETERSBURG City Levy 1 55 3.10 3.10 POGUOSON City Levy . 785" 4.50 4.50 -- PORTSMOUTH City Levy . 1.35 4.35 1.75 RADFORD City Levy 94 2.80 2.80 -- RICHMOND City Levy $1.533 $3.59 $1.90 -- ROANOKE City Levy 1.35 3.75 3.75 SALEM City Levy 1.25 3.25 3.25 --* SOUTH BOSTON City Levy .90 2.50 2.50 -- STAUNTON City Levy 1,05 4.00 4.00 SUFFOLK City Levy . .96" 4.55 4.55 --* VIRGINIA BEACH City Levy 80 6.00 1.00 -- WAYNESBORO City Levy 1.01 5.00 4.65 -- WILLIAMSBURG City Levy 62 3.50 3.50 WINCHESTER City Levy .95 3.50 1.00 + Indicates assessment at 100% in all cities. indicates that a merchants' ticense tax is imposed "Real estate rate is S 96 tor Nansemond Taxing District and Si 14 for Suffolk Taxing District. t- u0

F 60 RATES OF TOWN LEVIES FOR TOWN PURPOSES FOR THE TAX YEAR 1963 TAX RATES PER S WO OF ASSESSED VALUE ON: (In Adaition to Any County and District Rates Imposed Hy the County TOWN COUNTY Authorities Shown In Tablet.) Tangible Mach. Ater, Real Personal and chants TAXRATES PER $100 OF Estate ProperlyToots Capital ASSESSEDVALUE OM TOWN COUNTY Clifton Fairfax - - Clinchpor I Scott TangibleMach. Nor; S .025 ------C1 ntwonct ...... Dickenson Rest Personal and chants' .61 517.00 S17 00 512.50 Clover Halifax .10 100 -- - EstateProperty ToolsCapital Cocburn - - Wise .164 2 25 2 25 2 25' Colonial Beach Westmoreland Abingdon ...... Washington S .41 S .55 S .55 .65 1.4U 1.40 140' Columbia Fluvanne nzcornac Accornack .10 .10 Cour nand Southampton K0er1.1...... Brunswick .165 1,50 ISO .14 1.00 .ao Craigsvitle Augusta - - Aitavista ...... Campbell .30 1 SO 1.90 ------Crewe Nottoway .18 Amherst Amherst .15 1 00 1.00 5100 1.25 - -- - _ - Cutpcpor Culpeper .20 Appalachia .. , . . Wise .0215 2 50 1.75 1/5 Damascus Washington - - Asoomattox Appomattox 20 .55 t.10 .55 .55 .55 Aintand Daytrn Rockingham - - Hanover .11 .90 .90 .11 - Dendron Surly --- - Bells H.n.en' Accomack and Dillyyn Buckingham Northampton .. .04 .04 .04 .28 .20 - - Drakos Branch Bern/vine Clarke .37 1.00 1.00 Charlotte .13 1.10 1.10 1.10 Draper 61 Stone Gap. Wise - Pulaski not avalabto .40 3 50 350 350' Dublin Pulaski Btack shag Montgomery 20 .24 2.00 2.00 Duffield Scott - - Otackstore Nottoway .14 1 00 not entallate.e 1.00 Dumfries Prince William.... oiexom Accomack ... .12 .15 Bluefield . Tazewell .27 .60 .60 Dungannon Soon Eastwite Bowes Mai Franklin Northampton .08 .50 .50 .50 not available Edinburg Bowing Green Caroline Shenandoah .21 .60 AO* .21 1 20 --- Elkton - - - Rockingham .10 Boyce...... Clarke .07 60 .60 .75 .75 Exmore Northampton - - Boyoton ....Mecklenburg .40 2.25 2.25 .25 .125 1.00 1 00 - - Farmvilte. Boykins Southampton .39 1.25 .50 .65 Prince Edward .22 2.00 2.00 - ...e Fincastle. entetourt Branchwile Southampton .051 .60 60 .60 ------Floyd Floyd Bridgewater Rockingham .13 .13 1.00 1.00 -LOX _ 1.25 - - Fries" Grayson Broa lway Rockingham .12 1.00 .15 1.35 1.00 Front Royal ---- Brodnax...... Brunswick and Warren .25 .60 .60 - - Mecklenburg .20 1.00 too .50 Gate City Scott .15 ------Brookneal . Campbell .28 1.70 1.70 Glade Spring Washington .125 .125 ii-. Glasgow - -- - Ou:hanan Botetourl .10 .50 50 Rockbridge .10 .75 .75 -- Glon Lyn Giles 0,,rkevitie Nottoway .14 1.25 1.25 .11 .85 .85 .15 -- Gordonsville Orange Caoe Charles" ....Northampton .24 6 30 630 .25 200 .50 - - Caoron Southampton .03 1.00 Goshen Rockbrldge Cedar Eva Tazewell .11 .35 Gretna Pdtsylvanie '.15 1 00 1.00 Grottoes Augusta and - - C'tarlotte C H Charlotte .11 I.00 Rockingham Cease City Mecklenburg .34 2.25 225 .093 .75 - - - - Grundy Buchanan - - Chatham ...... Pittsylvania .18 2 80 2 80 .22 . .50 - - -- Itatilax Halite's - - Cnenton . . Northampton 34 2 50 2 50 -- - ironwood** - - Chtro.via . . Smyth .14 .20 .20* Accomack ri707 S .30 S .40 - - Hamilton Loudoun .15 1.10 Chincoteague .... Accomack .11 80 .60 ------Haymarket Prince William .14 Cnrishansburg....Montgomery. 175 2 25 2.25 -- - - Hoysi Dickenson .15 Cltiront , Surry 05 .75 75 ko Herndon Fairfax Clarksville .. Mecklenburg. . .34 .85 .85 .38 250 250 250' Moor° - - Ceve'and . Russet 15 .15 Loudoun ------Hittsvitie Carroll .30 ina.cates mai a merchants' license lax is imposed 1.50 1.50 - - Honaket Russel .00 " (moose. a n additional county and district levy. Hurl Piltsytvanis .15 1.00 --- - Independence Grayson not available 351

11110110NOMMINI_. TAX RATES PER 5100 OF TAX RATES PER $100 OF ASSESSED VALUE ON: ASSESSED VALUE Ott TOWN COUNTY TOWN TangibleMach. Mere TangibleMach. SW: Ras! Personal and chants' Real Personal and chants' EstatePropertyToole Capital EstatePropertyToolsCapital Remington Iron Gate Alleghany 16 1.00 1.00 .._ Fauquier .10 .60 .50 .40 Irvington Lancaster Rich Creak Giles .22 2.50 2.50 - - Richlands - - titer Southampton 06 50 Tamen .12 .25 Ridgeway Jarrett Greensville and Henry .07 .60 .60 Rocky Mount - - Sussex .22 1.00 1.00 Franklin .35 2.50 2.50 - - Jonesvitte Lee Round tint .15 .15 .15 S .15 Loudoun .15 1.00 1.00 1.00 Keller" Accomack .05 .20 .20 Rural Rolf eat Wythe .18 .30 .30 - - Kenbridge Lunenburg .25 3.43 SI. Charles Lee .10 St. Paul ------Keysnite ...... Charlotte .18 1,80 1.80 Wise .18 1.75. 1.75 - - Kilmarnock Lancaster and Sanwa* Smyth and Northumberland.. .11 .40 .40 - -* Washington .125 1.50 .125 -- - La Crosse Mecklenburg .31 1,25 1.25 Saxis Accomack .03 Scoltsburg Halifax -- Lawrenceville Brunswick .30 2 20 2.20 .09 Lebanon Russia .10 .42 - - 300 Scott:vete Albemarle and Leesburg Loudoun .20 1.00 Fluvanna no! available Louisa Louisa .19 1.50 Shenandoah Page .32 .33 3.50 - - Loveitswite Loudoun '12 _ - Smithlield Isle of Wight 15 1 00 15 - - South Hill Luray . Page .25 .40 200 Mecklenburg .30 2.00 2.00 Stanardsville Green* - - I McKenney Dinveddie .07 .50 .50 Stanley ------i Madison Madison .10 .65 .65 .65 Page .10 .12 .12 120 Stephens City Frederick i Marion Smyth .15 .29 .29 .05 .75 .75 .75 Meita ...... Acccmack 02 Stony Creek Sussex .09 50 A 1 15 15 50 - - LI:o c 7 eout o ...... W I I. Loudoun .10 .60 Strasburg Shenandoah 5.23 51.00 $1.33 ....11 Miodletown Frederick .10 1.25 Stuart Patrick - - CO i .25 1.10 1.10 St.10 < Mineral Louisa .20 .80 Surry Surry r.- 1 Monterey Highland .055 1.00 Tangier" ------1.00 1.00 Accomack 1.50 Mcntross Westmoreland Tappahannock ....Essex ...... ots 1 50 1,00 - ---* Mt Crawford Rockingham .05 .50 Tazewell Tazewell .128 .40 .40 - - Mt Jaekson . . . . .S h e n a n d o a h .25 .75 The Plains Fauqvier 04 Narrows Giles .40 3.50 350 Timbervias Rockingham 4:3 .50. .50 Nassawadox...... Northampton Toms Brook Shenandoah .10 - - New Castle Craig 05 .50 .50 50 Troutdals Grayson ...... not available Newkr rket 914111.1.1002t1 $ .20 S .80 51.00 Troutvaue Bole lour I Nrwsoms - - Southampton .104 Urbana Middlesex .23 1.20 Nicketsvil* --- - Stoll .01 Victoria Lunenburg .18 2.50 2.50 Oscoguail Fairfax and Vienna Fairfax .33 - - Prir e William.... 20 .20 $ .20 S .20* Vinton Roanoke .25 .00 Onancock AccoliAck .33 - -- - 2.00 - - Virgilina Halifax .10 1.00 -- .20 Cr iey Accornaek oa .15 Wachapreagu*... Accomack .05 Orange .25 ------Orange .18 200 .20 Wakefield Sussex .055 .38 .36 Pa inter ...... Accomack .25 Warrenton &meteor , - - Paw: .25 .25 .31 2.50 250 - - APponaltox and Warsaw Richmond .12 .50 .50 Prince Edward ... - - .20 1.00 WaShinglon Rappahannock not avdable Par ksley ' Accomack .21 .40 2.00 Waverly Sussex .14 1.75 1,00 Pearisburg Giles .42 3.75 Weber City Scott - - Perrrcke 3.75 .075 Giles 20 2.00 2 00 Wes, Point Xing William .72 3 00 3.00 Fennington Gap ....Lee - - --. 06 .08 .06 .06' Mato Stone Lancaster Priem Charlotte ---- 08 .50 Windsor Isle of Wight - .10 .10 .10 - Pocahontas Tazewell - --* .45 45 .45 .45 Wise Wise .197 Pert Royal Caroline Woodstock Shenandoah .23 Pound .90 1.00 - - Wise .18 2.50 Wytheville Wyths .20 .28 .28 Pulaski ...... Pulaski - - - - ^ 2.75 2.75 Indicates that a merchants' liconse lax Is Imposed. Putcuthate Loudoun 1.05 Ovantico, - - .20' ' ...es en additional county and district levy. Purr,. ol..4 0.5 85 352 VOCABULARY Some words and concepts useful in the discussionand understanding of information on taxes

ability to pay - philosophical position that the costs of government shouldbe apportioned on the basis of abilityto pay, with more paid by those who have more, and less paid by those who have less. assessment - assessed value, an official evaluation of real pr4erty suchas land, buildings, and improvements.

(tax) avoidance- taxpayer planning and manipulating assets to minimize or eliminate the tax payments due. (Notto be confused with tax evasion, the criminal act of deliberately not payingwhat is owed.) business/corporation tax- tax on the income and assets of a business. capital budget - fund for long-term additions or betterment of assets thatmay produce income. Ex: construction of college dorms. confiscatory taxes- taxes so high that they force the owner of the asset to sell the asset to pay the tax.

constant dollars - what the number wouldbe without inflation since the baseline date. cost-benefit - a ratio of cost ofa product or course of action compared to the benefit derived. A tool to analyze value. Ex: A taxmay cost more to collect than it yields in revenue.

current dollars - today's dollars, actual amount includinginflation. disposable income- income remaining after taxes are deducted. ear-marked funds - money set aside for specialuse, not included in general fund. Use usually related to source of funds-- Ex: gas tax money for highways. easement - decreased value for tax purposes because of restrictionson use. Ex: a power line or sewer across the property, or restrictions along a river. elastic demand - demand varies inversely with the price ofan item. High prices decrease saes. Lower prices increase sales-- and tax receipts of taxable item. equity - fairness. tax equity - fairness of particular tax on particular payers, fairness of assessments and enforcement of collection. excise tax - tax on sale of a particular class of items (i.e., tobacco, liquor) fiscal - adjective referring to government taxing and spending (i.e., fiscal year, or fiscal responsibility -- concern of an official about taxing and spending) gamblinp tax - tax on pari-mutuel betting, lottery, or other legalized gambling. general fund - main part of the budget, operating funds, excluding ear-marked and capital budget funds. general obligation bonds - legal pledge to repay borrowed money from general funds. general tax revenue - general sales tax or income ta:t revenue for general fund. (tax) incentives - lower tax rates or deductions to encourage certain activities or investmertiTi.e., charity contributions, municipal bonds, or homr mortgages). (tax) incidence - the person who sends in the money (legal), or the person who actually pays (economics) such as the tenants in a rented building. inelastic demand - does not vary much with price of item. Ex: use of tobacco. Price of cigarettes seems to have little effect on use.

F 63 Vocabulary (cont'd) intangible property - stocks, bonds, and other paper which represents value, as well as assets such as good will for a business, not material or touchable. (tax) neutrality - has little effect cfl the balance of the economy. per capita - per person. total expenditures or tax revenue or other statistic divided by population to make comparisons between states with smaller and larger populations. (See Representative Tax System, below) per $1,000 personal income - total expenditures or tax revenue or other statistic divided by total personal income to compare the ways money is spent in richer or poorer states. personal property tax - tax on assets other than land, buildings, and improvements, May be based on a percentage of value of buildings to approximate value of furnishings, as well as automobiles and other ncn-land assets, progressive tax - the percentage of income paid in taxes increases as the total income increases. Virginia's income tax was originally a progressive tax, but inflation has limited its progressivity, since all taxable income above $12,000 is taxed at the same rate (5.15%), and this $12,000 is very little more than the average annual income in Virginia. Thus, most of the income above average in the state is taxed at this one rate. property tax - tax on land, buildings, and improvements. proportional tax - percent of income, regardless of the amount earned, Ex: a "flat tax" of 5%. It would be felt more keenly by low income persons, but the actual percentage would be the same for all incomes, since loopholes and deductions would not be permitted. public service corporation tax - ta': on utiiities reimslye tax - a higher percentage of income collected from low income persons. Ex: sales tax on food. A family sends a high percentage of a $20,000 income on food. The same sized family earning $100,000 spends more, but not 5 times as much on food. A considerable portion of the wealthier- family's income is likely to be saved/invested, spent pn travel, or spent on services not taxed. Representative Tax System - A new me hod of computing tax capacity of a state. In addition to per capita income, the former measure, factors are now included that show how each state compares to the average of all other states on the 26 taxes collected by most states. Ex: if Virginia imposed all '6 taxes and collected at the average rate, it would have a tax effort of 100% -.teed of the 90% in 1981. This RTS was developed by the Advisory Commission o. .ii..2rgovernmental Relations. revenue - government income road/school allocation formulas- established by law to return state-collected funds to localities - formulas include many factors. sales tax or general sales tax - the 4i on a dollar that Virginias pay on most items:._ tax evasion - deliberately not paying a tax - a crime tax shifting - the payer of the tax charges it to others. Ex: landlord increases the rent, or industry adds taxes into the selling price of products. use tax - in lieu of sales tax. Ex: registration fee on car purchased elsewhere for use in Virginia. user tax/charge/fee - government collects for services used by some of the people. Ex: parking, college tuition, recreation facilities, tolls on roads and bridges.

F 64 354 Table C.State and Local Government

SU" and 10443902.01'4.444 44,14044Mxfot SA *ma sauss/sns-Con.

Efroforys or 10.000 07 so:1140 funoton oupicauon, Peyroa Id Cobb.'3 11.000) (144 OW 1

14eadh and 11010.1., 8.,1498. EO.cabon PuO2o weds,. P0144 and Ice and State no102413 9401491On

Total L ocal schools

1930 1977 1970 1630 1970 1230 1970 1980 1970 1163 1970 1080 1970 1280 1077 1073 1134 1165 1160 1167 1160 1170 1171 1172 1173 1174 1175 1170 1177 ura 1179 Waal &alas 438 4111 419 341.1 4 257.5 4 063.6 3 3502 2932 1150.9 371.9 249 6 817.5 630.514 730 1 II 272 4 5 060 4 11042Xlas1 444 414 424 1 030.1 300.0 6421 778.1 2154 231.1 1152 $4.7 202 1920 3 329 0 2 655 1 1 259 9 Now En21444:1 470 463 311 274 211.6 235 4 178,9 62.6 522 19.3 Wes) 14.5 SS 7 45 6 7621 201,8 334 7 455 447 411 28 9 21.8 233 17.4 3.1 12 06 3.3 25 56' 43 2 22 3 Hex Kunpshke 453 435 361 20 9 13 16.0 16.1 3.1 2.2 3.1 Vsmaxd 1.1 3.3 2.2 46.1 350 16 7 431 432 423 142 100 113 60 1.6 1.2 0.7 0.3 t.3 09 26 1 22 0 120 124abectusatts 503 401 486 122.3 92.3 112 9 62.2 35 1 31.8 95 30 9 25 9 324 8 310 5 161 9 Rhoda tuand . 471 464 379 20.3 17.5 150 13.5 56 1.6 12 43 37 01 9 478 24 9 44S 429 371 70.4 586 57.9 40.6 142 tall 21 3.3 123 10.8 16,2.9 143.3 87.0 SAO% A7aA0c 487 470 434 740.1 697.4 8267 8892 2226 1009 159 743 02 1499 i'62 2 545 9 2053.3 1 235.1 Hex York S39 5761 5 912 345 6 3672 2152 310.0 146 123 63.3 77.4 '36 1 148 5 753 6 sal 4 373 1756 121.7 145 113.1 353 14.4 7.3 382 k7.6 1 33332 402.9 Psnmyteeno 199 7 401 399 351 724.9 200.8 195.7 178,1 38.6 35.2 222 19.2 364 31.6 OS 0 501.2 281.6 460 North Grassi 457 403 1 416.4 1 224.7 1 0812 3502 204 6 244.5 95.1 13.0 199.3 157.6 3 750.0 2 900.3 193 9

East N. Cart3e1 454 444 3113 967.7 1139.3 725.3 651 4 162.5 170.1 118.1 41.0 147.8 117.6 436 2 674.5 2 071.1 1 143.5 Om) 422 366 235 5 205.6 1639 165.3 49.1 37.5 137 120 34.1 27.7 471 5 Inclarui 614.3 255 0 451 4.37 363 131.5 112.0 97.5 853 312 251 6.5 39 17.6 13.3 2950 226.5 125 4 ton= 446 433 396 2512 228 1 111.9 179 0 44 6 44.4 152 12a 53.1 332 745 0 593 9 335 9 Ihorgan 470 467 404 231.1 201 0 172.3 154 6 464 42.9 166 62 332 253 695 0 537.0 221.2 Wooccon 440 432 414 117.0 $43 79.7 67.1 22.1 20.1 9.1 152 13.1 3252 2402 135.4 Wool N. Canfral 504 466 433 448 335 337.9 2226 101.2 783 27.0 19.0 51.5 399 1 0753 129 2 445 4 kinnesV..a 466 487 425 104.3 91.3 1/0.1 728 22.9 17.1 9.3 46 100 Iowa 7.5 291.9 222.3 119 7 506 493 432 060 828 61.1 54 17.6 12.1 52 3.6 72 60 117,6 151 1 Skssoal 465 440 76 0 392 111.9 94.6 902 75.4 332 23.7 6.0 52 IRS 146 260 6 199 8 110 9 fawn Oakots 502 011 450 160 184 126 11,4 25 1.8 1.1 0.7 1.5 1.1 22.8 31 9 16 Sows Coots 500 455 482 14.1 163 16.3 14.7 28 2.1 06 0.6 1 1,3 37.3 29 17.6 endxsska 590 S71 497 45.1 37.9 339 27.1 8,5 7.9 4,4 Karam 32 1.5 35 109.1 61.1 43 2 536 533 470 67 6 57.1 49.0 436 138 11.7 1.5 2.8 60 56 1460 113 6 61.3 Soarai 503 437 410 1 148.3 1 32123 1 438 0 1 0316 505.7 311.3 916 532 2534 1706 4 353.0 32042 1 467.9 S. Man% 515 504 416 921.1 6420 706.7 510.11 260 9 161.4 40 27 6 131.7 032 2 2511.7 1 699 4 779 6 Draws 528 519 472 15.1 145 10 6 103 3.5 21 06 09 1.5 11.4fraecl 33 6 33 0 169 547 517 411 111.4 626 799 64 6 24.9 164 6.7 35 180 14 318.7 243.7 0.31. el Cal. 762 116 6 765 643 137 14.1 10 9 129 6.3 22 39 5.7 62 65.7 756 366 Worm 503 533 396 143 5 100.3 109 1 27.1 17.9 Weil Veva.' 79 2 63 32 18.7 11.5 331,4 243 4 114 9 511 477 412 52 6 335 40.11 30.1 12.0 to 3.4 20 44 32 107.6 61.3 Noon C41,04n1 560 38 432 372 153.7 104.7 121.1 81.1 37.4 It 4 6.4 4.1 '7.9 10,8 3422 250 7 112.2 601/91C4C0111,1 515 407 scoms 398 652 57.1 6 45 9 24 2 24.5 1.7 66 30 172 4 128.9 52.9 563 526 432 139 6 962 II2 I 2 75 4 643 36.9 62 2.7 196 11.6 321.3 22d 3 105 2 Ponca 471 483 434 031 9 141.0 1602 1112 60 5 400 29 54 38.7 21.9 546 6 4212 165.9 East S. Grand 481 460 395 342.7 253.8 25431. 102.2 64.5 20.5 11.0 43.7 Kentucky 152 30.1 7613 551.6 262 3 ' 423 400 356 637 632 62.1 49,8 130 11.3 5.5 2.7 7s4vwsses 90 69 177.4 128 6 65 1 490 483 414 103 4 74.8 61.5 58.5 31.6 23.5 72 33 160 100 247.9 176 0 64 6 Alabama 504 466 514 107 670 64.5 504 33.4 164 46 2.4 130 11.4 214 4 1.44644064 514 155 6 70 1 480 422 114.9 48.2 464 355 202 132 3.0 2.6 4,8 121.7 09 6 422 Wail S. Carrel 426 476 411 623 7 425 5 470 6 1126 146 7 852 333 148 76.1 52.3 1 341.6 953 0 445 3 Manses 46S 434 356 33.7 41.3 292 135 92 2.3 4,5 Loaxans it 1.5 62 104.9 75 0 34 0 137 421 100 8 610 629 64 9 32 0 19.3 46 37 14.1 11 2 :33 171 4 67 6 Ostaroma 524 433 61 7 58.3 4,5 Tens 59 7 16 9 11.3 66 37 102 60 171.3 114 56 0 403 476 4' 5 3795 249 4 292 9 105.9 84.3 45 4 58 456 297 626 0 5420 2652 W*31 491 520 450 1 006.3 7956 723 6 535 6 210 4 147 0 628 S1.9 159 2 110 1 3 293.1 2 510 0 I 223 7 $.4ovnmn 516 536 473 307 4 214 7 217 0 154 5 S2 6 33.1 13 5 63 24 0 Montano 5:6 41.5 770 2 549 7 252 5 551 470 22 4 172 170 12 2 30 26 1.5 09 24 10 536 43 0 20 I ktsho 481 407 454 23 0 16 7 170 122 4.3 3.1 13 06 27 16 Wyronxv2 643 536 40 8 17 5 578 204 1 100 120 .2 3 25 05 06 16 09 40 4 Cot412X) 515 23 0 11 8 483 772 60 7 552 41.4 15 7 9S 3d 26 10 7 62 205 0 153 0 89 3 Men Masco 509 553 436 359 278 27.0 197 6.2 40 19 1,4 46 Poona 2.7 COO 63 2 70 1 506 522 435 73 9 42 0 504 300 10 1 46 2.3 09 10.3 54 198 0 139 6 Utah 463 463 56 449 39 0 29 5 202 21.7 49 32 16 06 44 24 18 4 62 9 29 Nevada 501 519 538 161 109 12.1 90 4.5 3.1 06 0.4 45 27 57.1 40 166 Paoso 431 519 453 6.959 580 8 503 7 434.3 157 9 1089 43 43 6 117 7 os 2 I 055 1 Wastinclon 42$ 501 468 2 504 10172 973 635 602 60.3 16 1 109 55 4.7 126 94 314 2 227 0 120 0 610 433 686 533 505 392 11 6 9 47 1aa 413 22 90 41 160_ 144 3 67 4 487 446 4978 417.5 358 9 314 9 123 6 665 37 4 38 0 603 76 2 603 1 363 7 1 175 3 763 7 694 513 136 70 10.3 8 1 5 06 07 03 17 06 694 47 5 F14.4. 503 510 496 is 21,5 19 2 156 15 42 50 30 0 03 36 28 684 57 S 304 16444d on puma° 04 us) Consul Iss41044 00014163n enumaska.1 a of Aonl ,. for 1360 awl 1670. sod nstrnmed ss of Jury I for 1077

Source: U. S. Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census State & Metropolitan Area Data Book, 1982 ITEMS 1164.1179 Regions, Divisions, and States517

G r,r; 355 Table C.Local Government Finances and State and Local GovernmentEmployment

Gross sod value Stab and local Local government Imances-Con 01 property. 1979 government employment. 184 WM luahm acmvalont 11.0001

Uvoct cermet nponOturoCon. Debt outstandmg Pot capta.19801 (m3 dol 1 Locally PA4 0011 (Doi ) assessod Rogers 0.144. 1980 and Stott. En Direct Police won. gin. and moot oral Debt lee and Prop- out. legh probe!:. ho,n a. arty pond. stand. Per. ways bon mg 1977 1972 1980 1977 1972 taxes Kuno Ing Total2 Real aortal 1980 1977 1970 1147 1146 1149 1150 1151 1152 1153 1154 1155 1156 1157 1156 1159 1160 1161 1162 1163

Unred States 12 650 17 152 25 243170 933106 499213 645169 458120 705 269 984 941 1 678 31 358 5 206 811 046.9 10 568.7 0 528.2 Northeast 2 592 4 474 6 464 47 344 32 320 St 058 49 741 37 536 430 1 162 1 035 336 2 316.1 14 6 2 378.7 2 309 9 2 079 2 New Engtand 588 1 134 1 294 3 822 5 433 0 066 7 317 5 986 454 867 652 121.7 Manus 65 67 108.1 12.9 587.4 566 0 432 8 n 619 354 009 492 263 305 659 541 15 7 Nays Haneshro 56 56 61 13.7 2.0 51.5 49 4 40 9 496 201 396 385 266 441 639 429 10.7 10.; Vi moral 36 17 20 258 166 2 41.4 37.9 26 6 135 151 163 375 625 264 6.2 5 6 SAassachusotts 2E4 661 642 4 821 2 618 0 0 24 6 23.7 16 8 4 452 3 909 3 124 354 993 775 43 9 41.0 22 256.9 Fth,Vo Is3arx1 32 66 117 539 329 S66 456 280 3 227.9 437 406 732 597 5.1 6 4 1 6 446 44.3 Connecticut 131 235 379 2 0119 1 485 1 900 1 924 1 732 360 472 846 613 37.1 30 0 6.5 138.4 132.4 112 6 Moto Atianto 2 004 3 340 5 190 36 522 26 667 42 992 42 424 31 350 412 1 261 1 167 214.4 207.9 New York 1 172 2 015 3 039 24 425 17 742 22 856 1.7 1 791.2 1 742 0 1 816 5 26 394 21 013 500 1 670 1 300 89.7 85 0 945 9 New Jamey 406 666 634 6 431 4 191 6 091 5 365 - 918 5 934 6 4 050 486 1 III 026 97.1 95 3 1.7 369 9 PwwsyNanul 426 659 1 317 7 066 4 e53 14 045 10 645 349 5 267 8 6 480 234 097 1 162 27.6 27.6 - 475 4 474 0 414.1 Ncellt Contra! 4 513 4 287 6 533 43 518 27 610 SO 225 36 170 22 620 321 974 653 400 9 322.1 43.9 2 756.9 2 682.1 2 277.7 East N. Central 2 868 3 313 4 886 31 514 19 649 30 21e 24 891 20 359 326 902 Cleo 564 753 1 130 7 555 725 2822 251 31.2 1 8906 1 0342 1 570.7 4 502 6 4C6 5 779 5 126 268 916 599 69 4 Indena 259 265 301 47 3 4.3 472 0 454 3 369 9 3 20 2 326 3 31, 2 263 1 900 240 762 604 17.0 10 6 lanors 743 1 064 1 520 6 623 5 330 9 003 4 7 247 6 235 9 199.1 7 655 6 025 358 053 750 67.2 55 6 102 509.3 1.40Mgan 707 en 1 268 7 723 4 951 5 202 6 681 494.0 4402 5 264 400 1 131 686 72.5 63,3 9 3 4315. 427.5 Wiconam 595 383 569 4 112 2 536 3 227 2 304 2 044 35$ 339 1 170 662 56 0 48 3 2.5 225 9 22 2 5 1834 West N Cameral 1 645 974 1 667 12 304 7 961 23 007 13 279 9 261 300 955 1 160 118 8 14nresota 474 239 583 3 763 2 490 6 611 97 0 12 6 666 3 827.9 707 0 3 1335 2 993 323 I 199 1 619 15 9 15 4 0 3 lows 359 13C 224 2 154 1 347 1 914 1 386 203.1 194 0 161.7 918 360 1 013 657 50 6 51 0 2.7 147.0 143.7 1.44s01n 257 327 422 2 786 1 971 3 212 2 692 2 393 122 2 NOrth Dakota 68 214 7e5 652 17.3 10 9 4 3 228 7 2132 163 5 29 53 414 230 607 365 126 265 662 928 South Dakota 67 20 50 389 0 5 0 5 2 32 8 31 2 27 8 243 419 140 94 351 731 607 4 4 42 Nebraska 160 83 150 1 163 647 4 405 3 079 - 34 5 33 4 32.1 Kansas 1 495 399 952 2 603 11.8 9 3 1.6 92 6 88 6 234 125 165 1 615 1 025 2 0. 9 1 778 1 102 73 0 357 949 1 199 10 0 4 0 3.6 126 7 123 6 105 8 South 3 123 4 498 6 956 43 721 25 032 69 COI 49 392 32 364 190 798 912 567.1 442.9 105.3 3 793.1 3 500 3 2 577.4 S. Attantrc I 206 2 499 3 510 23 769 13 667 29 810 22 494 14 070 204 645 Delaware 14 32 70 379 803 429.0 321.5 73 8 1 904.3 1 701.0 1 278 8 257 577 413 316 16e 748 968 39 Maryland 231 348 645 3 644 2 297 5: - 31 3 30.9 25 0 3 996 3 295 2 525 268 1 022 946 37.3 30 9 Dot. of CoL 75 226 229 1 494 1 069 2 858 02 2306 216 9 1612 Vrgesa 2 534 620 344 2 980 4 175 131 12 4 0 7 48 6 52.5 46 7 147 308 514 3 119 I 640 3 937 3 478 2 447 231 755 West engine 25 59 734 85 5 72.7 6 6 2.-6 261.8 154.1 106 850 479 1 431 449 312 136 534 North Carol 113 289 525 3 356 734 12.4 5 5 4 9 99 6 909 71.8 1 839 3 151 1 935 1 462 183 735 535 79 0 South Carolina -- 56 123 197 1 204 762 48.9 242 298.1 278 8 169,3 1 411 1 039 767 157 621 451 2.6 1.7 Orscegut 222 298 405 3 068 1 631 4 500 0.4 160 6 1456 102.7 Ronal 3 340 1 912 197 621 878 36.9 24.6 6.7 307.5 333 618 1 157 6 374 3 263 7 647 6 011 273.9 196.3 3 466 212 579 795 135.2 '29.7 25 0 .158 29.7 294 8 Ent S. Cents! 724 699 1 034 7 109 4 070 13 306 9 596 6 495 Kontocky 100 149 113 680 912 73 9 51.9 13 0 705 4 653 8 306 4 253 1 5.54 825 4 367 2 736 1 500 87 601 Tonnassoe 229 261 380 2 423 1 198 47.6 33.9 9.1 154 0 145.9 114 7 1 447 4 634 3 517 2 494 157 731 1 003 I'I Alabama 166 199 295 1 906 1 060 10 5 1.5 224 0 212.5 162 4 Mastseppl 3 049 2 271 1 701 67 672 783 6* 5 0 1 9 1962 207 90 106 1 306 737 1 316 1 072 177.2 134.7 800 139 717 522 4.3 2.1 1.3 129 6 116 0 23 6 West S. Central 1 131 1 300 2 072 12 744 7 296 25 605 17 302 11 729 216 795 1 031 64 2 Arkansas 103 77 1115 944 62 5 17.7 1 183 5 1 065 7 794 2 506 1 654 1 019 056 131 598 Lamas 228 259 362 2 359 1 372 720 4 6 2.5 12 106 3 958 732 4 112 2 658 2 326 11L. 006 974 8 I Okt3h0fIli 188 155 246 1 540 863 1 848 4.5 2.1 223.7 1992 159.7 Toms 1 345 1 137 151 720 606 6 5 4 2 1.3 812 809 1 350 7 901 4 544 15 191 12 080 156 5 140 0 107 5 7 461 275 639 1 270 64 6 51.3 13.1 695 0 630 6 453 0 Nast 2 420 3 595 5 245 36 055 21 537 43 363 32 155 21 105 258 1 123 1 000 354 6 277.4 43 0 2 118 2 2 090 4 1 593 9 Mantas 700 1235 1 068 7 699 3 961 12 539 7 594 4 on 285 968 1 097 452 29 3 Montana 65 42 52 547 291 4 5 569 8 5472 391.9 543 420 174 431 963 669 1.6 Milo 81 ea SS E17 257 0.7 0.5 43.7 422 33.3 Wyornmg 345 252 164 226 719 384 29 22 43 36 51 365 171 0.3 454 43.9 32.4 Colorado 604 406 163 429 1 355 1 694 3 8 0.8 201 220 202 2 234 1 173 3 341 0 4 30 3 23 5 2130 Now minx* 2 151 1 242 327 1 006 1 151 12.5 9.3 59 62 105 724 411 1 164 1.3 140.7 141.7 106 7 Antona 689 295 123 1134 907 5.5 2 8 156 232 342 1 954 954 4 656 0 3 76 6 ea 5 49 4 2 633 1 160 305 1 025 1 706 7.: 4 4 0 6 Utah 70 68 94 763 376 577 137.4 126.7 77 2 Nevada 45 540 375 233 629 596 52 3 5 0.7 67.7 90 107 575 345 614 63 5 47.5 707 430 227 1 156 975 6.6 5.1 06 400 36.5 254 Pacific 1 720 3 057 4 158 26 356 17 556 30 024 24 261 17 177 245 1 179 Wasvington 300 292 457 2 751 965 3094 246 1 36.1 1 528 4 1 549,3 1 202 0 1 734 10 024 6 685 3 719 170 990 dragon 187 217 291 1 9511 2 417 78.7 632 11.9 204 4 168 9 159 7 1 053 2 140 1 432 599 331 1 097 911 64.1 Caslornta 1 150 2 399 3 196 22 705 14 327 51 5 81 135 2 197.5 966 Mika 15 848 14 240 11 8/3 244 1 235 667 132.9 103 6 50 66 98 541 245 2 495 1 375 16 5 1 105 2 1 C87.9 091.7 Hawse 33 03 352 474 2 263 6 195 18 6 9 6 1.4 32.1 15 6 116 401 194 317 326 303 27.6 192 385 327 15.1 15.1 48 5 47.4 38 2 Based On °sweated reeds/It populebon. Aiy 1 1950 InckOes State assessed polar:fly, not shown sepatoty Stale agency. but values are shown hero as 'IoCally aU444504 lotcomparability with other SLIM*. 45 assossnwnt vi Hawse Maryland and Montana Is Perforraid 07

Source: U. S. Department of Commerce Bureau of the Census State & Metropolitan Area Data Book, 1982 516Regions, Divisions, and States ITEMS 1147-1163

F 66 HOW DOES VIRGINIA RANK AMONG THE STATES?

The following rankings were taken from severalsources, though most may be fount, in State Fiscal Indicators, 1982, published by the National Conference of State Legislatures.

In each case, the state ranking #1 spent the most, hadthe most employees, or the largest debt. Ex: Virginia is 40th in state and local government debt. This means that 39 states have more state and local debt per person than Virginia.

40th in state and local government debt per capita 40th in state and local expenditures/$1000 personal income 46th in state and local spending on local schools/$1000 of personal income 40th in state aid to schools/$1000 of personal income 35th in state expenditures/$1000 of personal income 31ttin state and local spending on health & hospitals/$1000 of personal income 41st in state and local spending on welfare/$1000 of personal income 20th in state and local spending for streets and highways/$1000 of personal incoa. 33rd in nation in state expenditures per capita 33rd in nation in state and local expenditures per capita to 44th in state general sales and gross receipts tax revenue/S1000 of pers. income

38th in state tax revenue per $1000 of personal income . 21st in state-local employees per 10,000 population 31st in average monthly earnings of full-time state employees 30th in average monthly earnings of full-time local employees 32nd in state-local noneducation employment/10,000 population 10th in state-local education employment per 10,000 population (incl. colleges) 24th in nation in per capita personal income - Considerably higher than all other southeast states, excluding Florida which is about $100 less 13th in the nation in population 22nd in the nation in urbanization 36th (tied with NJ) in population (aged 5-17) as percent of total population

20th in per capita (average) income in 1982- $11,095. U. S. average; $11,107

F 67 C.

RICH ESTMATE MUNK EST MEN

LoW ESsionne

STAR'r OVER

HEAR FROM THE PUBLIC - ,,;4" ; ''tczcnt.."2.4.V. 7.8::;;',' ---- Rfv -V4-» ,..1 : Wit.qt

G LOCAL GOVERNMENT INVIRGINIA

Plans & Ideas for UsingSection G G 3 7 News Letters- for Teacher Background Virginia Local Government, 1776- 1976 The Study of Small Townsin Virginia Town-County Relations in Virginia Women in Virginia State &Local Government An Update on Local GovernmentConsolidation in VirOnia Ahnexation Resumes in Virginia

Powers & Structures of Local Government in Virginia G 9 14 Local Government Organization & Charts G 15 - 16 Student Worksheet- Fill In Information on "Our Local Government" G 17 - 18 Student Worksheet- Local Meeting Observer's Report G 19 - 20 Ward System or At-Large Representation G21 - 22 Instructions and Worksheet - Studying Local Problems G 23 24 Brief Class Activity Setting Priorities on Local Problems G 25 Class Activity - Our Local Budget, A PoliticalProcess Exercise G 27 36

O ro c.),30 (The cartoon on the front of this page was drawn by DougHarman, City Manager of Alexandria. It is printed with his permissionand the permission of "Virginia Town & City," the official magazine of the VirginiaMunicipal League. The cartoon points to the perpetual budget cycle and theinterplay of administration, elected officials, and politics. Cut taxes! Increase services! Man the barricades! Call the ambulance!

359 410 PLANS & IDEAS FOR USINGSECTION G

SPECIAL REASONS FOR INCLUDING MORELOCAL GOVERNMENT IN YOUR COURSE

Students can be more involved andinterested than in any other unit. The problems are real and near athand, the authoritiesare accessible, and students may even havea personal or family stake in the solution.

Teachers can enjoy the unit, too! Some preliminary work, a writtenunit plan, advanced assignments, andcooperative officialscan provide a productive and challenging segment of the course that doesnot exhaust the teacher. The local government unit isan appropriate culminating experience for the social studiesprogram in the schools, BUT BE SURE TL SAVE ENOUGH TIME TO DO IT RIGHT! Scheduled earlier in theyear, the local unit can stimulate "involvemenL in the community," andenrich current events discussions allyear;

The schools and school administratorscan benefit from increased contact with local government officials. The more seriously officialsregard the schools as a vital link in their community relations, themore helpful they will be in the classroomand in other ways.)

Officials can benefit from the localgovernment unit. They are usually glad to help plan the unit and contribute time andresources for the classroom. Many officials relish the opportunityto visit classes. They recognize the schoolsas a conduit to share knowledge and collect feedback from a considerable segment of the community's families,and an opportunity to make local governmentmore credible and supportable.

THESE MATERIALS MAY SE COMBINED IN MANY DIFFERENT WAYS AND USEDAT DIFFERENT TIMES DEPENDING ON YOUR COURSE PLAN. Inductive plans start with theproblems.

PLAN A ADVANCED ASSIGNMENTS PLUS 15-20OR MORE CLASS PERIODS PLAN B ADVANCED ASSIGNMENTS PLUS 12-18CLASS PERIODS PLAN C ADVANCED ASSIGNMENTS PLUS FEWERTHAN 12 CLASS PERIODS

Plan Component Page Basic Information (Handout or lecture notes) G 9-14 Worksheet Our Local Government (Find theanswers!) G 17-18 Studying Local Problems assign prior to unit G 23-24 Our Local Budget Class activity, using student reports G 27-36 DecisionMaking on New Programs, usingstudent reports G 25 Advance preparation on roles and agendaissues, then observe a board/council meeting G 4, 19 Posthole field trips, guest speakerson a local issue official visits/interviews,or other ideas G 3-8 IF YOU HAVE TAUGHT LOCAL GOVERNMENT FROM A NATIONAL TEXTBOOKIN PREVIOUS YEARS, THIS WILL BE A DELIGHTFULCHANGE. You will not have to keep explaining the differences between the textbook's homogenizedprototype and your own government andissues. All of you will learn from officials, from each other, from parents, and from theprocess itself.

G 3 IF YOU HAVE TAUGHT LOCAL GOVERNMENTFROM AN OUTLINE IN PREVIOUS ADD AN ACTIVITY OR TWO YEARS, TO SPARK STUDENT INTEREST (ANDYOURS)!. outline and data Use your as introduction. Involving students in the well worth a little process is extra preparation. Once you set the unit in motion, it almost runs itself!

IF YOU HAVE USED CLASS ACTIVITIES LIKE THESE, read throughthe section and contact Teacher Resources, Institute of Government,University of Virginia, if can suggest improvements or otherways to involve students in learning the process of government. Share your ideas! AFTER YOU HAVE READ THROUGH THIS SECTION G, CHECK YOURTEXTBOOK. materials cover almost These every concept and vocabulary word inthe local government chapters of nationaltextbooks. Your students will not be anything crucial by focusing missing their study on VIRGINIA localgovernment...IN FACT, THEY'LL GAIN A BETTERUNDERSTANDING AND ENJOY IT MORE!

GETTING STARTED

1 WHATEVER ELSE YOU DO, AT LEAST ONCE EARLY IN THEYEAR, PLAN TO MEET YOUR STUDENTS AT A MEETING OF THE BOARD OF SUPERVISORS ORCITY COUNCIL. During the preceding week, obtaina copy of the agenda and ask questions are not familiar. about items that Discuss the agenda with eachof your classes. student copy a diagram from Let each the board of who sits w;,ere,and be sure they all know where the meeting is held, and where to park andenter the building. the governing body know Let that you are coming-- they will probably recognize the teacher and group and welcome you. Radio reports of meetings not complete, and telecasts are often are usually unbelievably dull-- the camera is usually on the speaker, thoughthe action and interesting elsewhere. responses may be The experience will beparticularly rewarding if mock board/council meeting you have had a with this agendaa day or two before the real meeting.Students can compare their arguments and reactions to thoseof the officials. Sometimes they even come up with valuable suggestions! If tLre is a break, or at theend of the meeting, introduce who have questions. yourself and any students (If you tend to he itchy,take along some unobtrusive work to do on a clipboard-- there are some parts of some meetings that not require your full will attention.) See report sheets adaptedfrom the League of Women Voters and the ideas of Dwight Campbell, JonesvilleHigh School, Lee County. Meetings are even more instructive if students attendtwo in Fequence or watch an idea go through staff work and recommendationsto ordinance. CAN YOU BE PUT ON THE LIST TO RECEIVE THE BOARD /COUNCILAGENDA IN ADVANCE? OFFER EXTRA CREDIT TO STUDENTS WHO FIND PREVIEWINFORMATION IN THE NEWSPAPER, SHARE IT WITH THE CLASS, AND POST IT ON THE BULLETINBOARD.

2 STUUENT MATERIALS ON YOURCOMMUNITY Start at the County OfficeBuilding or City Hall -- the professionalmanager or public information officer. the local Extension Service Check office, service clubs,League of Women Voters, other organizations that or have materials on your countyor city government. Don't reinvent the wheel. Make a classroom collectionof the available charts, flyers, pamphlets,books. If you can, duplicate tasicmaterials for all of your students. At the least, give them the complete the information information necessary to questionnaire (G 17-18). If you are unsure of how to

G 430-1 go about developing or adapting materials for classes inyour community, call or write Teacher Resources, Institute of Government, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA22903 (804-924-3396).

3 - ASSIGN LOCAL PROBLEM STUDIES (see G 23- 24) at least a week in advance of your local government unit. Since there will probably NOTbe enough juicy ones to go around, and since group activity is part of the skillstraining in social studies, let groups work together. Coordinate with other teachers other classes to avoid multiple and requests to officials. If several classes working on local government are units at the same time, theofficials might set up a conference in the office building or in the high school toanswer basic questions and help students locate materials and informationfor their studies. Students should be armed with local government structure chartsand a clear notion of what information theyneed, so they can take full meeting. advantage of the

4 - Help your students take part in local opportunities suchas the police ride-along program. If your local law enforcement officers have sucha program, they will undoubtedly sendan officer to your school with and permission forms. information

5 - Visiting local courts can be a very educational experience-- it also can be very frustrating to plan in advance. The big case that would beso interesting may be settled out oF court or "continued" at thelast minute to another day. If your school will allow excusedabsences for individual students to attend, and if you have support from other teachers,it may work better 4o let students make theirown arrangements and attend in small groups. (Check your school policies, andremind students of the permissions that will be needed from parents, other teachers, andadministrators.) They can share the experience in class, and return with dispatch if triecourt is adjourned. Contact your local chapter of theVirginia Bar Association,or court clerk to see if any local court docket seems firm enoughto allow you to select or suggest a good day for students to seean interesting case.The Young Lawyers group of the BarAssociation has as part of its in schools mission helping -- they might provide a guide for your students,or for your class if you decide on a field trip. Note: Since many teachers andcourse plans treat local courts as part of the unit on Courts and theLaw, there are no materials in this sectionon the law. See "By the Good People of by Cline and Fleming, and Virginia.." Your Virginia State Government,by the League of Women Voters of Virginia forinformation.

6 - GO-SEE TOURS In order to appreciatea local iSSUJ or controversy, it be necessary to actually may see the site. Teenagers spend a lot of time "out riding around." -- Why not suggest that they writeup a guide sheet for a walking tour or see-it-yourself trip. The teacher should check itto be sure that the guide does not recommenda dangerous or illegal (trespassing) route, that the tour.is limited to daylight hours, and that the rightsand privacy of property owners and neighbors are clearly spelled out. If the area is a constructiw sight or one that is patrolled regularly by police,it may be necessary to obtain extra permissions. Students should be helped tobecome informed citizens, but they should be good, citizens and considerateof others. A guide will be necessary for a field trip, particularly ifthe location is a technical or closed facility. Water treatment plants, jails,and offices can be educational places to visit,but many of them areon the regular tours of the elementary and middle schools. Check with your supervisorsbefore you mention it to students-- some of them are so anxious to get out of classes that they will not tell you they have already seen the sludgebeds:

7 Neighborhood associations are active in many localities. They offer another opportunity for studentinformation, input, and involvement. is a planning/zoning If there or other item of particular interest toa section of the community, it can demonstratethe process of local government. must be given? What notices Who will ultimately make the decision?What legal requirements must be satisfied? What other groups havean interest in the decision? Has the issue been dealt with in the press -- in a disinterestedor nonpartisan way? Other special interestgroups may also be sources of information. What viewpoints would be crucialto a balanced presentation?

8 Use the information from studentlocalprob".em studit: ina mock board/council meeting, if you do not have time for the "Our LocalBudget" exercise. Have each class elect a set of officialsto decide on the issue in a meeting patterned after the local governing body's meetings. Students will be likely to attend a real meeting to see how they shouldact. Student officials should justify their votes, and class discussion shouldinclude such questions as the possible political repercussions from spendingor n t spending the money.

9 Plan a schoolwide candidateforum for your local election of this notebook. See Section D

10 Plan a local government or issue forum with officials and studentsas speakers. Videotape it for use in other classes. A local TV or cable studio might help, then show it tothe community.

11 Watch for articles, flyers,groups or presentations in your community that are suspected of being one_ rsided, that might be examples ina discussion of propaganda. Dissecting suchan itemcan be a useful and educational experience, and can cut downon the gullibility of some students who consider anything printed to be true.Great examples of distortions and halftruths litter front porches and public thorofares. If you think there are,or ought to be, two sides to the controversy-- you can maintain proper professional impartiality by comparing their premises and arguments. BE CAREFUL ABOUT GIVING CLASS TIME TO ISSUES THAT ARE NOT WDRTH RESEARCHING, OR TO GROUPSTHAT MIGHT USE YOU TO GAIN A PLATFORM, PRESS FOR EQUAL TIME, OR SUE THE SCHOOLIF THEY THINK YOU SLANDERED THEM. If the materials are distributedpublicly and your students bring them in to class,and if you can keep the discussion analytical and questioning, allowing students to come to theirown conclusions, you should not becriticized. (See propaganda, D 15-16.) 12 Special updated information on annexation and consolidation: Read the April 1984 News Letter: "Annexation Resumes in Virginia."Ask your local officials for specific information on your community. Write Teacher Resources, Institute of Government,University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903.

G 6 3C3 Bibliography and other resources

Each government teacher should havea copy of Thomas R. Morris & Larry Sabato, VirginiaGovernment and Politics, Readings and Comments, Published jointlyby the Virginia Chamber of Commerce and the Institute of Government,University of Virginia. 1984

This is a new edition ofa key resource. It includes Institute of Government News Letters (some also in thisnotebook) and articles from newspapers, magazines, and books, organized andvery readable, in bite-sized chunks. Copies may be obtained from theInstitute of Government, Minor Hall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville,VA 22903, for $12 (plus tax, where applicable). .

Your high school library also should haveone or more copies. If your community library does not containthis book, you might request it foryour students to use as a reference. Others in the community would benefit, too.

Videotape #1 in the "Get Involved inGovernment" series, ("Get Involved in Local Government,") isa 15-minute case study on zoning changes required to permit the construction and operationof a brewery, questions of landuse, and sale of beer on Sunday. It will keynote your students' localgovernment problem studies and trigger discussionsof citizen action in the community. Contact the State Department of Education,Instructional Media & Technology Development & Dissemination Service. Send a videotape and $2 (handling charge) and they will copy it foryou.

See #2 on G 3 for ideas on materials fromyour own local government.

There are many simulations availableon local government -- even some new ones on computer programs. Look them over fo' technique, but consider inserting problems and issues fromyour own community -- or, better yet, let your students select and research thenecessary information on timely local issues.

The office of the Extension Service inyour community may have simulations available andeven help put them on. If your school has a 4-H program, some of your students may already haveused such a simulation-- in which case, they can help you update the problems and adapt it toyour use.

If you intend to 'o an in-depth study(many weeks) of your local government, you might cyder acopy of the Manual for County Officialsor for Municipal Officials. Contact the Institute of Government.

"Social Education," the magazine of the NationalCouncil for Social Studies, had a "Do It Series" inserton Studying Local Government, in the April 1984 issue. See it for other resources and ideas.

G 7

O. 0 ti 0 `,1' TIIE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA VOL. 52, No. 11

This News Letter was reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University of Virginia.

VIRGINIA LOCAL GOVERNMENT, 1776-1976 By WELDON COOPER

The author is Robert Kent Gooch Professor one would certainly have to include (1) layer of government inthatunit,a of Government at the University of Virginia. theemergenceof a systemof practice commonly followed for almost city-countyseparationfoe which the allmunicipalitiesinotherstates. To This is the first in a series of six articles principal characteristics had been firmly compound the confusion, one can still commemoratingtheEficeniennialofthe establishedbytheend ofthefirst findinVirginiaunitsof local American Revolution. centuryafterindependence;(2)the governmentcarrying such titles as Viewed against the backdrop of local dominance of the county in the early CountyofJamesCity,Countyof governmentinVirginiaasitwas in years of independence and well into the Charles City, and Town of Gate City! 1776, one finds in 1976 much that is nineteenth century; (3) the rise of the Chester W. Baininhis "A Body familiar as well as much that is new. As municipalitytoatleast a coequal Incorporate":TheEvolutionof far as thegeneral-pur:yx.units of local position with the county by the end of City-CountySeparation in Virginia government are cocernednamely the thenineteenthcentury; (4) the ( C h a rlottesville: University Press of county, city, and town at least one of appearance of the urban county in the Virginia, 1967) presents an r-othoritative each was already present in the year of secondandthird quartersofthis accountofthe slowbutsteady .ndependence. The county, which first century; and (5) the profound influence emergence after1776 of a system of appeared on the scene in 1634 when of the emergence of metropolitan areas, local government under which cities and eight such units were established by the one result of which was the arrival in counties occupied a coequal status as Assembly, was by far the most visible, 1969 of the newest member of the local "primary political subdivisions" of the covering as it did the inhabited parts of governmentfraternity,theplanning Commonwealth. Bain finds that nowhere the new state. In contrast, only .me city district. in the colonial charters of Williamsburg and four towns wereinexistencein and Norfolk is there ary indication of CITY-COUNTY SEPARATION 1776. Williamsburg, the capital city, was anintentiontoconferon them a formallyconstituted"aCity Perhapsthemostimportant,and position of independence in relation to incorporate" in a charter granted by the certainlythemostintriguing, the counties in which they were located. lieutenant governor of the colony on developmentduringtheyearsunder Moreover,Norfolk (1845 Petersburg July28, 1 7 2 2.Thefirsttown, review was the appearance over time of (1850), and Alexandria and Lynchburg Richmond, had been incorporatedin a statewidesystem ofcity-county (1852) received in their city charters no 1742;itwas toattaincity status in separation.Underthissystem,those specificgrantofindependence. 1782.Theotherthreeincorporated municipalitiesdubbedas citieswere Nevertheless, there were individual acts towns were Dumfries (1749), Smithfield constituted independent units of local which, when viewed collectively, marked (1752),and Leesburg(1758). The government, as separate and apart from the beginning of the Virginia city of remaining municipality was the Borough the adjacent county or counties as one today.In the 1776 Constitutionfor ofNorfolk, which attained corporate countywasfrom another.Barely example, Williamsburg and Norfolk were status in a charter dated September 15, discerniblein1776, this pattern had givenseparaterepresentation inthe 1736. (Norfolk continued as a borough clearlybecome fixedin thelocal House of Delegates, a provision which until 1845, when that title disappeared governmentsystembytheendof was duplicated for some of the newer with the change in name to the City of Reconstruction.Moreover,the cities in succeeding constitutions. Norfolk.)Thus,thefoundations on separationofcity and county, while Asincorporatedtownsbeganto which Virginia local government rest in recognized in the statutes, by the courts, appearintheearly decades ofthe 1976 hadbeenestablishedin and in practice,didnot have nineteenthcentury, Bainfinds many rudimentaryformbythetimeof constitutional sanctionuntil the 1971 examplesof a gradualgrowthof :ndependence. Virginia Constitution defined a city for separation even before the formal title Ifthere were similarities, ar, thefirsttime as "anindependent ofcity was migned by the General the intervening two centuries also have incorporated community." In contrast, Assembly.Developmentsafterthe brought enormous changes. Of the many thosemunicipalities known as towns adoptionofthe 1851 Virginia developments that might be mentioned, remained within the county as a second Constitution speeded this process with

;NST17171., OF GOVERNMENT ; UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA / CHARLOTTESVILLE / JULY 1976 the term of "city" being applied in large of large rivers made possible water-borne seven towns having been incorporated part to those municipalities which had commercefarinland andthus prior to that year. Indeed, it was not botha populationin excess of 5,000 encouraged a wide dispersion instead of until the second half of the nineteenth and a separate court of record. After the a concentrationofpopulation. century thatmunicipal incorporations adoption of the 1870 Constitution, the Complementing this pattern of growth reached flood tide. Even then, there was element of independence became fixed was the early appearance of tobacco as a marked difference between the trends with the provision for separate county the premier "money crop" on which the in city and town incorporations. andcityschooldivisionsinan act plantationsystemwas based. The A summary of those trends tells the establishing asystemoffreepublic growth of self-sufficiency because of the story. The number of Virginia towns in schools. The formalclassificationof ease with which the tobacco trade was the earlier years grew very slowly; only cities and towns in terms of population, conductedmitigatedagainstthe 11 wereincorporatedin thefirst however, did not come until the 1902 development of trade centers, since both seventy-five yearsof independence Constitution, whencitiesandtowns the planters and the English merchants which, when added to the 3 already in weredistinguishedon thebasisof with whom they traded did not need existence before 1776, made a total of populationbut withoutany such centers. The county with its larger 14. By 1875 an additional 21 towns had constitutionalhintof the established geographicareawastherefore much been added. Then came the great period independent position of the city. more suited to the needs of the time oftown growth:inthefiftyyears Perhaps the single most important than was the municipality. between1875 and1925,108 towns contribution flowing from Bain's book is Within each county the center of were incorporated. Since 1925 only 45 hisdispelling ofthe myth thatthe local government power earlyinthe towns have been added to the list, the colonists a broughtwith them colonial period came to be vested in the last 2 being in 1960 and 1966. Not only longstandingpracticeinBritishlocal county court, which exercised all the has town growth reached a zero level; government under which more thickly powers of government at the local level the actualnumber oftowns has settled areas were split off from their without regard to whether those powers declined.Thisdeclineislargely he countiesand designated"county were legislative, executive, or judicial in result of the incorporation of towns as boroughs." As noted above, the two nature. Indeed, the county court was so cities.In the fifty years since1925, incorporationsof Williamsburg and strongly entrenched as an institution of there have been fourteen instances of Norfolk give no hint of independence; local government that it was carried over transitionfrom town tocitystatus. nordidthe cityincorporationof intactinto the new erain 1776 and Also, there have been two occasions in Richmond in the early years after the sanctioned only by implication in the which a total of 3 towns disappeared as R evolution.The weaknessofthe constitutionofthatyear.Efforts to a result of consolidation with a county transfer theory is further indicated by reduce the power of the county court to become a city. The town, then, while the absenceof independence inthe were underte in by reformers in the it cont'nues to be a significant element cities of West Virgin,J, which was a part Constitutional Convention of 1829.30; in the local government picture seems to of Virginiauntil1863, and in other and while these efforts were unavailing, have reached its numerical peak. states who settlers were also British in developments between that convention Since the incorporation of a town origin.Rather, as Bainconcludes, and the one held in 1850.51 began the merely adds asecond layer oflocal city-county separation in Virginia "has ownfall of the county court. The 1851 government to that already existing in evolved largely from usage that has its Constitution reflected such a sentiment the county,theresultingeffectisa roots deep in the colonial period ..." by making the justices of the peace minimum of disruption. The principal (p. 53). elective by popular vote. Important in reason for such an action is tu furnish this lossof THE DOMINANCE OF THE COUNTY statuswastherising some services either not available from influenceofthecircuitjudges who the county or being provided at a lesser While city-county separation was in a began to assume most of the significant levelthanthatdesired bytown period of gestationin the early years judicial duties which the county courts residents. Intheinstanceofcity after1776,theVirginiacounty had exercised inprioryears.The incorporation, just the oppositeis the continued as the dominant unit of local disappearance of the county court from case.Since any portion of Virginia's government. The ten exceptions which county government was completedin territory not in a city is perforce located existeduntilthenineteenthcentury the 1870 Constitution, which provided in a county, the immediate result of city (three small cities and seven even smaller for a s:sparate governingbody the incorporrtion is the division of a county towns)were dwarfed indeed by the county board of supervisorsto assume into two parts where before there had counties, which had grown steadily in the legislative and administrative duties been only one. Thus, the appearance of number fromtheoriginal eight formerly exercised by the county court. a new city, except in the instance of in established 1634. A numbercf city-countyconsolidation, means an THE RISE OF THE MUNICIPALITY reasonshave been advanced for the increaseinthe number ofprimary developmentofthecountyasthe The pattern of county government in politicalsubdivisionsinVirginia.(In dominant unit of local government, with what is now present-day Virginia was otherstatessuchanactwould be themunicipalitiestra'iing :farbehind. firmlymtablishedshortlyafterthe equivalenttothecreation of a new Donald C. Dixon, in his most useful but middle of the nineteenth century, since county.) stillunpublishedstudyentitled the last two counties,Bland and In contrast to the counties, which "ConstitutionalHistoryofVirginia Dickenson, were createdin1861 and have declinedin number since192E LocalGovernment"(Instituteof 1880,respectively.The patternof from 100 to 95, and the towns, which Government,UniversityofVirginia, municipal government, in contrast, was havestabilizedat approximately190, 1973,pp.35.37),hassuggestedthe only beginningtotake shape before the number of cities has almost doubled, overridinginfluence of geography and 1800, with a mere three cities (one of mounting from 22in 1925 to 41in economics. The existence of a number which was then called a borough) and 1976. Moreover, the bulk of the growth ouooer, has occurred in the modern period, with enshrinementinVirginia jurisprudence area of the state, but it is the location about threefifths of the cities coming was being undermined at the very time of most of the population growth that is into existence since 1900. The names of it was being proclaimed. The threat to nowoccurring.Oftheeight only four cities have disappeared from the purity of the city-county distinction metropolitan areas recognized by the the official rosterthree as a result of was the "urban county" which began to U.S. Bureau ofthe Census tyingin city-county consolidation and one by appear in the metropolitan areas of the whole or in part in Virginia, only the virtue of a city-county merger under a state and which did not always follow Roanoke, Lynchburg, and the Virginia different name. The net resultis that the patternof continuous population portionoftheBristol, thenumberof primarypolitical expansion beyond the boundaries of the VirginiaTennessee areas are outside the subdivisions(citiesand counties)has city. Instead,muchofthegrowth Urban Corridor. And just as the classical increased from 122 in 1925 to 136 in occurred unevenly in different parts of theory of city-county separation began 1976. Virginia thus stands alone among the county remote from the city. These to break down in the case of the urban thefifty statesinitspolicyof urban counties, Arlington perhaps being county,scdidthattheory become continuingtopermit the creation of the first example, began by necessity to inapplicable to the metropolitan areas. additional primary political subdivisions. provide services of a local government Annexation was no longer the solution, natureandthustotakeon THE URBAN COUNTY either because one city could not annex characteristics similar to those of a city. another city or because an urban county One clear result of municipal growth, Nolonger,therefore,could more and more could demonstrate to an and especially the increaseinthe overwhelming proof be establishedin annexation court itsability to provide number of cities, was the eclipse of the annexationcasesthatthe city could local government services. county as the dominant unit of local meet the service needs of a county area By the mid60s the problems created government. Once almost the exclusive sought to be annexed in a manner that by these new developments could no scene of local government activity, the the county could not. Notable among longer be ignored. The 1966 General county languished as the cities and the these urbana stiflesthatfollowed Assembly, on the recommendation of larger towns began to assume the newer Arlingtoninappearance were Fairfax Governor Mills E. Godwin, Jr., created andexpandedfunctionsof local and Prince William in Northern Virginia theMetropolitanAreasstudy government, leaving to the county the and Henrico and Chesterfieldinthe Commission(known as theHahn limited number of state functions for Richmond area. Commissionafter itschairman,T. which, in the traditional language, the The growth in the number of local Marshall Hahn, Jr.) with instructions to countyserved as an"administrative governmentservicesprovided by the proposesolutionsfor legislative districtofthestate." Thecity,in. urban counties thus tended to bring into consideration.The reportofthat addition to its expanding role, enjoyed question the long held distinction in law commission(MetropolitanVirginia: A another advantage; namely, e -ystem of between a county and a city. Undertle ProgramforAction (Richmond: annexation, first by the legislature and 1902 Constitution, this distinction as DivisionofStatePlanning and after 1904 by the courts, which assumed maintainedwith separatearticles Community Affairs, 1967)) had as its the city to be a growing entity in both devotedtocountyandmunicipal central recommendation with roprci to area andfunction.Thecounty,in government. Events from the 1940s on, governmental structure the establisrment contrast, was envisioned as a more static however, made it increasingly difficult, in of (1) regional planning districts and (2) unit, to some extent in area and to a practice to distinguish between a city a unifiedmetropolitangovernment muchgreater extentintermsof and a county; anything a city could do called a "servicedistrict."Ineach functions. (The definitive work here is a county could also do provided the instancelocalparticipation was Chester W. Bain, Annexation in Virginia: necessarylegislativeauthorization was voluntary, byactionofthe local The Use of the Judicial Process for obtained.Therefore,forallpractical governing board in the case of planning ReadjustingCity-County Boundaries purposes the 1971 Constitution, which districts and by a popular referendum in (Charlottesville: University Press of dealt with local government in a single eachoftheparticipatinglocal Virginia, 1966).) The classic statement article, made the county the coequal of government- units forthe creation of of the difference between the Virginia the cityinVirginialocal government service districts. In the eight years since cityandcounty is thatofJustice law. the service district was authorized, ro Abraham1). Staplesofthe Virginia serious THE METROPOLITAN AREAS attempt has been madeto Supreme Court inhis opinion in the establish suchaunitin any part of caseof Norfolk CountyAi.City of The emergence of the urban county Virginia. On the other hand, there are Portsmouth, 186Va. 1032(1947), in Virginia was a part of a nationwide presently twenty-two planning districts, where he heldthatunder the movementleadingtourban each with a commission and astaff, constitutionandstatutesof Virginia concentrations that came to be known covering the entire state. there had been established "the policy as areas. metropolitan Themost Whataboutthisnew s _y,the ofplacingurban areaswidercity dramaticexampleofsuch a planning district? While the jury is still governmentandkeepingruralareas metropolitanconcentration in the out and probab.; will remain out for under county governments" Under this UnitedStates,termel byJean sometime,some preliminary doctrine,logicdemandedthatwhen Gottmann the "Megalopolis," is the area observationscanbemade.For one those areas of a county adjacent to a stretching from Boston and southern thing,the planningdistricthas been city became urbanized, they should be New Hampshire throughWashington, made anintegralpart of the review annexed by the city since the city was D.C.andRichmond toitssouthern procedureinthefederalstategrant the one particularly equipped to provide anchor inTidewaterVirginia. The proc ss.Inaddition,the regional the service needs of those areas. portion of this concentration in Virginia, composition of the membership of the Ironically,thisexpressionofthe known as the"UrbanCorridor," planningdistrictcommission (which urbanruraldistinctionand its constitutes only a small part of the total includesofficialsandcitizens of the 36? cities, counties, and larger towns in the more urban areas might takeon Development Act of 1968. That fuI, embracing theareacoveredbythe the characteristicsof an areawide whichisadministered by the newly planning district) has compelled a view government. Despite the general lack of created Departmentof of local government planning and related movementalong theselines, the Intergovernmental Affairs (formerly the problems on a broader basis than the opportunity is now available for twoor DivisionofStatePlanning and interests of a particular local government more local governments in a planning CommunityAffairs),consistsof a alone. As might have been expected, district jointly to request that district to modest amount of money for use in however, the level of performance assume certainoperational activities making grants to localities and private among the districts has been uneven. In without the necessity in each instance of agencies sponsored by them for new and someinstances,itmighthavebeen settingup a special agency.In a innovative approaches to the solution of better for the executive director of the mattering of instances, planning districts urbanills.Heavy emphasis in making districtto have had a background in have assumedcertainsmalloperating awards is placed on approaches that can local government management instead of functions growing out of the desires of be transferred to localities elsewhere in planning. I n other instances, the two or more of the cities, counties, and thestate. The experience underthis impossibility of drawing boundaries in towns c-mposing the district. Whether fundforthe first sevenyears is surh a way as to provide in all cases a that opportunity willbe used to full encouraging. districtwith aclearcommunity of advantageisa question to which the Perhaps of greatest 'mportance for interesthas brought togetherin one answer is not yet clear. the future is the fact that Virginia local group members with the most disparate governmentby and large isin a viewsand In NOGROWTH AND THE FUTURE interests. stillother no-growth phase of its history as far as instances, the difficulties arising from The attempt here to suggest only the acquiring new functions of government the 'act that the planning district is a major changesin Virginialocal areconcerned. A lianasat alocal regional agencylocatedsomewhere government over the bicentennial period government budget quickly reveals that betweenthetraditionallocal has of necessity led to the omission of thelocalities are concernedwith governments and the state has caused a other significant developments. Among providingsuchtraditionalservicesas tug-of-war in which the planning district those that might have been included is public education, police protection, and itselfgetscaught inthe crossfire. the gradual exclusion of the judiciary fire protection. Some of the earlier local Another obstacle has arisen especially in from participation in local legislative and functions,public healthfor example, theless populated and predominantly administrative matters. It was not until have come largely under titate control rural planning districts, where the state the 1971 Constitution, for example, that and guidance. And the newer functions, has hadto providean increasing the circuit judge was excluded for the such as the control of air and water proportion of the costs because of the most part from his former significant pollution, have not even been seriously sheernecessityofprovidingenough rolein county government; and even considered for local administration. This resources to assemble a minimum staff. under that constitution, some vestiges of is not to say that a zero growth policy This has had the effect in some districts that role still remain. A second major intermsof expendituresishere;a of developing a state-oriented staff for developmentofespecialinterestto glanceatanylocalbudget would the simple reason that the state is the Virginians, because of the invention of indicate a trend to the contrary., Yet it chief provider. the city manager plan in Staunton in seems that growth in the functions of The is now planningdistrict 1908,hasbeen thespread of localgovernment is largely ifnot approaching its seventh birthday, and it professionalmanagement, first to the completelyat an end.What this is probably safe to assume that it is here cities and towns, and then in the late development portends at the beginning to stay. The original scheme of things as 1960s and early 70s to the counties. A of the third century of independence envisioned by the Hahn Commission was third event of potential significance was will increasingly be an important part of for the planning district over time to the establishment of the Virginia Urban any consideration of the future role of assume operating responsibilities which Assistance Incentive Fund by the Area local government in Virginia.

THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

Entered as second -class matter Charlottesville. Virginia

P4.A In4 6.6112r4"Illif S 2 T E R

Editor / Clifton McCloskey. Assistant Editor Sandra Wilkinson Published each month from September through August by the frtstituteof Govern- ment, University of Virginia, chariottesvnia Virginia 22903. The views and opinions ex. Pressed herein are those Of the authosr and are not to be Interpreted as representing the official position of the InstItute.or the Uni- versity. Entered as second- class metter:lantrary2, 1925, at the post office at Charlottesville Virginia, under the act of August 24, 1912: 1976 by The Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginia. Printed by the University l'rint(ng Office. THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGII" VOL. 56. NO.3

This.News Letter was reproduced with peRiiiErifrom theInstitute of Government, University ofVirginia.

THE STUDY OF SMALL TOWNSIN VIRGINIA By Byron Farwell

Mr. FarweR is the mayor o/ Hillsboro, Virginia. This would like here to suggest that there is nrrkle is based on a brger study cf small towns in Professf:r Luloff, together with "key infor Virginia that the author Ladertook as the recipient of the occasionally madness in method; that the mants and others," drew up a list of "thirty. Watlerstein Fellowship, administered by the Virginia use of elaborate and sophisticated research six focal problems and issues" that, by Munkipd League and the Institute of Government. tools does not automatically produce the telephone, respondents were asked to rank best of all possible answers to important in importance. The small towns of Virginia are examples questions; that the method is not, after all, The Virginia Agriculture Department of representative democracy at its purest the message; and that the process is notor believed its survey had discovered all the and best. They are municipalities whose rich ought not to bethe principal product of major rural problems; Professor Luloff and and poor, cultured and analphabets, black scholarly research. his key informants assumed that they and white, young and old live in close In February 1978, 1 anent.,a two.day already knew them. Itis probably a safe proximity; people know each other. Such conference in Fredericksburg organized guess that the "key informants" were either towns are a rich and vibrant part of our and directed by the Virginia Department of other academics or I ureaucrats, for the list culture, a colorful warp in the politicalsocial Agriculture and Consumer Services. That of problems, ranging from "Need for Long fabric of American life. It seems a shame department had made a study of rural Range Planning" to "Lack of Community deliberately to kill them, yet they have problems, and the purpose of the confer. Spirit" and "Race Relations," were problems already been condemned to death. This has ence was to help elected rural officials cope and issues in which many academics and been done, I suspect, because so few know with them, or, in the words of the conference bureaucratsare keenly interestedbut anything about them. director, "to find workable ways to strength. small town folk much less Scholars and bureaucrats have paid en the resource management and policy. Surveys have their place. They are easy to insufficient attention to small towns. They making capabilities of rural government." use; they are fun; and they can be useful. have not even agreed on a definition. As a Unfortunately, not one of the problems But, asarecent report by the U.S. result, misconceptions flourish, the worth discovered by the Agriculture Department Department of Housing and Urban Devel. and importance of small towns has not been were problems faced by my town. opment (HUD) said, "Statistics based on appreciated,andtheirproblems have I have now happily forgotten the details of surveys of very small groups (in this case, remained not only unsolved but also often that study, but it was, of course, based upon very small cities) are unreliable:? This unperceived. This situation ought to be a survey. Perhaps the method used was particular report, a lengthy one based corrected by detailed studies, but the need similar to that of Professor A. E. Luloff, who almost entirely on a survey, demonstrated for them has not been manifest and conducted a survey of the residents of small this statement's validity. It also illustrated consequently a methodology has not been communities in western Pennsylvania to how a good tool can be misused. developed. The most widely used research determine how seriousthey perce? ad tool to date has been the survey, but it has certain local problems to be.I For his survey, proved inadequate and the results obtained areoften misleading. This news letter lt.) 5. Dep.,,,ment 01 Houung and Urban Devtkvewni. 'A E. Lulo11. nrisnrdyns the LOCUS for Actborr. What Loeb! discusses the uses and the users of surveys; Developmental Nrocis of &nod Cd(Wastungton.D C .1929).0 it suggests a new approach to the study of Retelents Have 10 Sty; 9 Smal Touet 11.14 (December 1978). 120 rural life; and it includes a plea for scholars and responsibleofficialsinthe higher reaches of our great bureaucracies to find The Institute of Govemment and the Tayloe Murphy Instituteare pleased to announce new and better ways to study the attitudes, the following joint publication: values, way of life, and problems of small VIRGINIA ISSUES: STATE AID TO LOCAL GOVERNMENTS towns. by John L. Knapp and Philip J. Grossman This study examines the rationale for state aid, describes Virginia's USES AND USERS OF SURVEYS current programs (including those passed by the 1979 General Assembly),and recommends changes. Single There is a belief, prevalent among many copies are available free to individuals upon written requestto the Institute of Government, academics and bureaucrats, that the more 207 Minor Hall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville 22903. Additionalcopies are priced at sophisticated the scholarly techniques used, 54.00 each. the more accurate will be the conclusions. I

/N., ort. i i''I rm i FRAME:0 IFLIZSITY OF VIRGINIA ClIARLOTTSVILLE NOVEMBER 1979 36S , 10

The HUD report identified 10,713 t ural I simply asked one and all: "Whatare your In 1975 .1 nationwide study conducted by towns (called "nonmetropolitan small cit- problems?" The full and frank answers I the National League of Citie- discovered ies"3) with populations of less than 2,500 received bore almost no relation to those that 60.7 percent of the mayors and 44.3 people and 140 towns with more than 25,000 problems defined by Professor Luloff, those percent of the councilmembers named but fewer than 50,000 people. For under- discovered by the Agriculture Department, "dogs and other pet control problems" as standable reasons, the survey question- or those uncovered by the bureaucrats at the area in which they received the most naires on which the report vies based were HUD. citizen complaints. As a source of citizen sent to only 446, or a mere 4 percent, of the Financial difficulties, for example,were concern, it ranked ahead of taxes, traffic, smaller towns, but to all of the larger ones. high on the list of rural problems in both of sewers, crime, housing, and health care. While sampling such a large universe isan the first two studies.. Yet only one elected Although unnoticed bythepreviously acceptable practice, it does introducea official in one Virginia small town identified certain amount of a mentioned surveys, dogs are obviously a error. Much more shortage of municipal funds as one of his major concern in many municipalitiesand troublesome is the fact that only 43 percent town's serious problems. Financial difficul- it is not a small problem, nor one that will of the sample of small towns bother ed to ties are usually confined to the ill-managed soon go away. Dog control programs cost respond, compared to 68 percent of the cities.(Hillsboro, Virginia, for example, nearly half a billion dollars annually. Of all larger towns. It is a well-known fact that levies no taxes but has in its treasury enough reported injuries and diseases, dog bites are considerable error is often introduced into money to give $150 to every man, woman. second only to gonorrhea. Perhaps the survey results due to importao differences and child in town.) On Professor Luloffs list, problem deserves fewer snickers and more in the willingness of people to complete and such problems as lack of public transporta- study. return mail questionnaires. Apparently no tion, use of illegal drugs, water and air Surveys often go awry not only because one considered or took into account the fact pollution, inadequate housing, and the need they fa) ask the right questions and often that a relationship might exist between the for long-range planning also ranked high. No ask t:. size of the town and the likelihood of ong ones but also because, all too one, neither elected official nor concerned often, even when they address themselves obtaining a response. Nevertheless, this citizen, ever mentioned a single one cf these to the right issues, false assumptions are flawed survey was assumed to be meaning- to rie. When I specifically inquired about made and wrongly worded questions are ful, and HUD is at this moment using the them (after all, could scholars and experts asked. It is not surprising that less than half statistics itprovided in its Small Cities be wrong?) there were shrugged shoulders. Program planning. of the towns under 2,500 bothered to Some allowed that a few of these issueswere respond to HUD's questionnaire. To the it is perhaps only fair to a id that HUD also sometimes problems, but none regarded small town official, most of the questions consulted a number of interest groups any of them serious. (though none with Virginia's interest at were irrelevant, superficial, or wire, as Bureaucratic interference and red tape lawyers say, leading. For example, included heart) and come consultants (none from were frequently mentioned as major head- was a series of questions regarding the Virginia), made case studies of forty-eight aches by small town elected officials; coping "adequacy of facilities," in which small town cities and towns (none in Virginia), and held with growth was also frequently mentioned; mayors were asked to assess the availability seventeen "group meetings" (none with yet questions about such problems rarely in their municipalities of "business and Virginians). However, the I-fr ;D study did appear on surveys. Neither do questions industrial sites suitable for development," of include the M. ginia towns of Branchville and concerning the problem of dogs. Dendron, two of the fifty-six incorporated "resources to attract economic develop- When I asked Alfred Tirelis, vice-mayor of ment," and of "assistance to help secure and towns in the state with fewer than 500 Alberta, about problems in his town, he inhabitants. (It is towns of this size that manage federal programs." Implicit in this are leaned over the counter of the post office, series of questions was the notion that new here called small towns.) For the past year I where he is postmaster, and toldme: "Dogs businesses and industries were both desired have been wandering around Virginia are our main problem." Mayor Carroll talking with elected officials and other and desirable, and that towns want, or ought Marshall of Saxis said much the same thing: to want, federal funds. Such is certainly not citizens in all of these small towns; therefore, "Dogs! That's our number one problem, and the ca.,e in all small towns. Some struggle to HUD's choice of Branchville and Dendron it's impossible to solve." Catherine Bright,a stay small. was especially interesting to me. Both are councilmember of Tom's Brook, exclaimed: HUD's questions also clearly implied located in the southeastern part of the state, "Dogs are one of our biggest problems! recognition of the fact that federal programs and they are among the poorest in the Really." Commonwealth; neither could be consid- are so complex that experts are needed not The main problem Alberta, Saxis, and only to manage them, but even to apply for ered typical of anything other thanpoor Tom's Brook is also the principal problem of small towns in southeastern Virginia. As far them, as is indeed the case. It is imlied, too, many, perhaps most, towns. Dogs overturn that those who accept federal funds must as can be determined from the report, no garbage cans, jump on pedestrians, wander one from HUD actually visited any town in also accept bureaucratic control. Many carelessly about the streets, urinateon Virginia. Yet such aspect of HUD's Small citizens of small towns in Virginia retain the flower beds, defecate on lawns, bark in the attitudes of those who in 1776 feareda Cities Program as pertain to Virginia will be middle of the night, kill sheep, bite children, based upon this report. strong central government; these citizens and frighten salesmen and postmen. They stillbelieve in liberty, and they distrust also give joy and comfort and tail-wagging PROBLEMS OF SMALLTOWNS federal bureaucrats who would take it from love to their owners, making two sidesto them. They arethereforeafraid(with My own system for studying small towns any discussion about what should be done reason, it seems) to take the federal dollar. was different from eat of the Virginia about them. Professor Luloff in his survey also asked Agriculture Department, Professor Luloff, Neither President Carter nor the Con- whether people felt that law enforcement or the people at HUD. I used neither surveys gress of the United States is concerned with was adequate in their communities end how nor computer, and Idid not formulate the conflicts between pets and peopleor important this issue was to them. However, hypotheses. Instead, tape recorder in hand, between.people because of pets. Governors he made no attempt to relate law enforce- and state legislatt'rs also keep aloof from ment to the pr-valence of crime, to the such concerns. Scholars ignore them. 'Con. of course. are never referred toss nonnaallarge loans. density of the population and its social However, even though some people feel that composition, to the type of law enforcement Language reflects attitte*, and the usage a the federal small communities are particularlyconve- available in an area, to the types of crimes bureaucracies reflects their strong urban onentaton. In this nien: places to. dump unwanted cats and historically committed in the communities, particular stud,, even the ',West towns are card cities. as dogs, pet problems are not confined to small to existing law enforcement practices, to the though to cal them towns would be to denigrate them. towns. financial resources available, or most impor- 370 11

tant of all, to the attitudes of smalltowners part of a federal maximum security prison, ones is not new in this country. In 1929 the toward crime, criminals, and law enforce- but it is seldom used. Although on July 1, author Sinclair Lewis spoke of this -nent. Little information is available about 1979, the state released 399 prisoners on American mania ... which considers a .:rime in rural settings, and at the federal parolenot because they were deserving, town of 4,000 twice as good as a town of level there appears to be no recognition that but simply "to ease overcrowding"4the 2,000.... Following thatreasoning, the urban approach to crime is not always facilities at Haysi remained empty. (Admit- one would get to the charming paradox the best for peace officers in small communi tedly, placing state prisoners in small town that Chicago would be ten times better ties. A look at crime in Virginia's small towns jails might pose troublesome problems of than the entire state of Vermont. But I and the way it is handled is illuminating. finance, security, and so on.) have been in Chicago and have not While itis never a good idea to leave found it so. houses and cars Inlocked, many small SMALL TOWNS AND THE Unlikecities,smalltownshave no towners do. A fisherman in Saxis told me BUREAUCRACIES protectors and little political influence. In about his town: "You can leave your keys in Neither the U.S. Bureau of the Census Virginia, the State Corporation Commis- your car; you can leave your door open; and (perhaps the world's largest user of surveys) sion, designed to protect consumers from you don't have to worry about somebody nor any other agency of the federal govern- the rapacity of public utilities, will ns, lift a knocking your head in." ment analyzes data on small towns. The finger tohelp a small totu:,fightthe Most town charters give municipalities Census Bureau collects valuable informa unreasonable demands of a giant utility, for the right to appoint a constablea town tion on them but, in a sense, tosses it away the relationship between a town and a public sergeant,as heis generally calledin by refusing to use it. All information on utility is unregulated, and the actions of, say, Virginiabut few small towns have or need towns of less than 2,500 inhabitants is the Virginia Electric and Power Company full-time policemen. Some have appointed heaped together and isconsidered as (Vepco) in its dealings with a municipality part-time sergeants. Most rely for protection though towns of 125 people are the same as, are completely uncontrolled by the state. As upon the county sheriff and the state police. and have the same values and problems as, most public utilities are monopolies in the In Virginia, as elsewhere, there is a strong towns twenty times larger. Also, the Census areas in which they operate, the companies' correlation between density of population Bureau is not skilled at guessing what is directors are free to provide or to withhold and crime. The eleven most populous happening to small towns. Its latest estima- services as it suits them, and to charge political jurisdictions in the state contain 42 tions of the populations of the fifty-six small municipalities whatever rates please them. percent of the population but accoutfor 60 towns in Virginia are surely incorrect, State and federal governments both seem percent of all crime. Fairfax County, with probably by as much as 10 percent in most to have a strong desire either to ignore 1,315 nople per square mile, has a crime cases. Consequently, there is a dearth of completely the existence of small towns or, n..e (G.:arises known to police) of 46 per basic information on towns with fewer than when they are noticed, to regard them as a 1,000; adjoining Loudoun County, with on4 5& people, in spite of the fact that the dread blight. In Virginia the distaste for small 101 people per square mile, has a crime rate problems of these towns are significantly towns is such that the state's latest (1971) ,f only 20 per 1,0r)0; and in ilighland different from those of towns with more than constitution actually forbids their incorpora county, where people are scarcer than deer 500 inhabitants. The 500 figure is, in fact, a tion (Article VII, Section 1). To become an and there are but 6 people per square mile, watershed number, for itis when towns incorporated town today, a community the crime rate is a mere 7 per 1,000. grow to this size that they first encounter must have "within defined boundaries a Togetherness is dangerous. urbantype problems with which they are ill- population of 1,000 or more." The General Most of the difficulties in attempting to equipped to cope, and it is then that they Assembly may increase this population obtain ac.:.urate and meaningful information frequently experience serious crises. Yet minimum, but no provisionexistsfor about crime (or other phenomena) in small not a single agency of the federal or state decreasing it. Thus, as existing incorporated towns and rural areas seems to lie in the -r.)vemment concerns itself wit:i the special small towns grow largerand small ignorance of the questioners. It is too often problems of small towns. towns have grown larger than 500 since the forgotten that a considerable amount of As perhaps few city-dwellers realize, .cost new constitution became effectivethe knowledge is usually required in order to ask of the 80 million people who live in rural number of small towns decreases; and it is intelligent questions. This is particularly true America are not farmers. Thus, the. U.S. probable, almost inevitable, that allthe of surveys, where there can be no instant Department of Agriculture is preoccupied incorporated small towns of Virginia will give-and-take of question and response, and with the business of farming, an industry, disappear. additional questions cannot be formulated and is not concerned with the problems of Yet small towns ought not to ba allowed to on the basis of at.swers. molt rural people. The Department of sink without a trace. It is apralling that those The ease with whii.a a scholar with a Housing and Urban Development is, almost who ought to be experts have failed to survey might go wrong can be illustrated by by definition, a force working againspmall develop a methodology for describing and imagining a study of the overcrowded towns, for development is what man small explaining what is taking place in rural conditions in Virginia's prisons in which the towns are fighting against. It is not develop- America, and itis frightening that those capacity of all town and county jails as well is ment, but preservation, that most small responsible for formulating policies affecting to be considered. One might imagine that towns desire. rural communities possess so little under- the simple question "Do you have a jail in The belief in growth, the conviction that standing of their problems, values, and way your town (county)?" would elicit meaning- bigger is better, is so ingrained in most of life. The federal bureaucracies may have ful information. But the answer to that bureaucrats that often they cannot even failed to develop methods for studying small question might be yes or no, and either imagine a small town economy that is based towns because they have not the slightest could be right or wrong. A respondent to the simply maintaining a steady flow of survey question might answer " "es" be- business. Walter Heller, former chairman of cause ajailphysically exists, or "no" the President's Council of Economic Advi because in s^me small towns and counties sors, once made this clear when he said: "I 'The Vogima Municipal League negotiates electric power rates 'he jail in fact, unused. Either answer would cannot conceive of a successful economy thatit recommends to its members. and these are always oe correct, and neither would be helpful. without growth." The curious belief that accepted. The power companies s &Island that all ran Both Surry and Branchville have jails that bigger communities are better than smaller member municipalities Past the same ratr.. The small towns that are no longer in use. The only small town in are not League mothers are not directly represented in the Virginia with a municipal jail in working Leagues negotiations with the power companies but are forced to order is Haysi. It boasts an impressive eight- INC With the outcome um:: the utilities refuse to negotiate different jail establishment that looks as ifit were 'One of 'he released pnsoners was re arrested the same day. rates with non member municipalities.

377 12

intention of ever doing so. In early De- placed numerous restrictions on what unfamiliarity,both among private and cember of last year, President Carter stated inhabitants of their new unincorporated federal rural experts, concerning the new his determination to see that t'ose in the tow', can and cannot do. At last report, only rural growth trend and the extent of the federal government "make sure that there is ten of the sixty.eight relocated families from problems involved." Considenng the lack of a full partnt rship between Washington and ravaged Clinchport had chosen to live in the interest on the part of the federal bureaucra- the rest of the country in meeting the needs government village, and this included a cies and their failure to develop a methodol- of smalltowns and :lira] America." Deter- widow who bought the government's proto- ogy for studying rural areas, the ignorance of mined he may have been, but the bureaucra- type house for $35,000 and one man who the putative rural experts is hardly sutpris- cies have made no visible movement in that rejected the government's recommended ing. direction. houses and built his own. When President Carter wanted to learn Responding to a report critical of HUD's The federal bureaucracies' lack of con- about small town problems, he discovered efforts to help small rural communities, cern for the people who live in small towns is that his federal departments knew little Patricia Harris, then secretary of HUD, said: almost total. When I attempted to discuss about rural America and did not know how "HUD's history of help to these needy small town problems with HUD, then- to learn more. He therefore bypassed his areas ... is not one we can be proud ot. I secretary Patricia Harris could not be bureaucracies and in 1978 initiated a series want to assure all Amedcans living in these bothered. Donna Shalala, HUD's assistant of rural development studies that included small communities that my administration secretaryforpolicydevelopment and tali, with a few mayors and a few visits by has already undertaken programs to give research, informed me quite bluntly that White House staff members to some small them the 1,elp they need." Let us hope that HUD has no policies for small towns and towns. Complete results have not yet been no Virginian was assured by her statement undertakes no studies of them because "the published, but Inoications are that the study for, except for Duffield and Clinchport, no value systems in communities of 500 people will not make the necessary distinctions that small town is even aware of the existence of or less are too narrow for our particular would enable scholars, planners, politicians, her programs. needs." Interestingly, a report recently and bureaucrats to discover ,and help the When, in 1977, wind and water destroyed published by Ms. Shalala's office giving the under5(Y). townsevenifthey should most of the homes in Clinchport (1970 pop. results of a HUDsponsored conference on suddenly feel the desire to do so. 286), HUD and the Appalachian Regional "FinancialManagertentNeeds of Local Commission decided to help the storm- Government" stated that the participants struck, homeless people there by building a thought "the federal government has a bias CONCLUSION new townthey callit"a planned unit againstsmallcommunities,supposedly Admittedly, it is neither easy nor inexpen- development"a few miles from Duffield because of a (perceived) lack r' expertise in sive to reach these widely dispersed small (the smallest incorporated town in Virginia) these jurisdictions." Indeed, among the town citizens and to discuss their needs. It is on Route 421. It is called Thomas Village. federal programs being reduced or eliminat- Thefederal clear, however, that surveys alone will not governmentpaidstricken ed in the 1980 budget ere rural community do. They are blunt instruments for dissect- homeowners an average of $13,000 for their programs, rural development planning, rural ing such complex and diverse subjects as lost possessions plus $15,000 :-tr relocation community fireprotection, and several small American towns. Perhaps personal expenses. The anticipation was that the Farmers Home Administration programs. interviews with smalltowners are not the homeless families would resettle in Thomas The Christian Science Monitor recently only way small towns are to be understood Village. Homes there cost as much as (June 11-1L, 1979) ran a series of articleson and their problems defined, but it would not $65,000, however, and few can afford them. the problems of rural growth, and its be out of place to suggest that, as a rule of In addition, people from Clinchport who do reporters were shocked by the ignorance of thumb, the smaller the subject groups of a move there will no longer be able to govern the bureaucrats. Many of the experts in study and the more widely dispersed they themselves through an elected mayor and Washington to whom the reporters spoke are, the more intimate must be the research council (a matter of no concern whatever to were not even aware that rural grovah is a methods. In any case, a touch of humanity is the bureaucrats), and the government has problem: "The Monitor found widespread not inconsistent with sound research. Errata: In the September1979r, sue of the .)s letter, the figures for the 1978.80 budget (p.1, co1.2) should be $9.35 billion (not million) forthe biennum, $1.86 billion (not million) above the adjusted 197' 3 figure.

THE UNIVERSITY OF VIROINIA

Entered as second-class matter NEWS Charlottesville, Virginia LETT E

(ISSN 0042.0271) Editor/Clifton McCleskey Assistant Ecrttor/Sandra Wilkinson Pubfished eactf month from September through August by the Institute of Government, University of Vninta. Charlottesville, Virginia 22903. The views and opinion expressed herein sethose of the author, and are not to be interpreted as the official position of the katitute or thge==. Entered as ncond-ciaes matter.hnuary2, 1925, at the post office at Charlottesville, Virgna, wader the act of Aug* 24,1912. 1979 by The Rector and Visitors of the University Virgink. Printed by the University Printilig Office. TIIE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA VOL. 56, NO. 10 .1-1-1C,../V4,4-4*VtfC,:!Mnosetycw__, ,":44A4-111-101";rI4iY-V%iiSF-,;,-..:t : *

This News Letter was reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University of Virginie.

TOWN-COUNTY RELATIONS IN VIRGINIA By Mary Jo Fields and Sandra H. Wiley

the author.; we Zath re,a.are 1 auislanis un the ate uf in Virginia, this news letter focuseson town- the Instituteof Government. government article. The 1971 Constitution county relations, long overshadowed by the also for the first ime gave constitutional Town government in Virginia is surely one more controversial patterns of city-county recognition to Virginia's cities as indepen- of the most neglected areas of research in he relations. dent incorporated communities not a part of Commonwealth. At first glance, the towns' THE LEGAL FRAMEWORK the adjacent county. It goes on then to define population totals seem to indicate that this towns as "any existing town or an incorpo- neglect is warranted, for the 188 towns in The traditional distinction made in the ratedcommunity within one or more Virginia account for only about 7 percent of United States betwean counties and munici- counties which has become a townas the total state population and 11 percent of pal corporations (towns and cities) has been provided by law" (Article VII, Section I), the total population residing in the counties.' that counties are established as administra- thus explicitly adopting the principle that a However, towns do . :count for 58 percent of tive and territorial subdivisions of the state, town, unlike a city, feet), remains a part of the state's 324 vinitf; of local general purpose while municipal corporationsare established the county in which it is located, its residents government (countks, cities, and towns), by an area's residents for the purpose of subject to county taxes and entitled tomany and only twenty-one of the state's ninety-five providing local services that are neither county services. Towns may become cities if aunties have no incorporated towns within needed nor wanted by the surrounding area. they have a minimum population of 5,000 --their boundaries. The Commonwealth of Virginia historically and meet oth,-r conditions :,et by state law; Furthermore, the significance of towns in recognized tkis distinction by giving cities currently, sixteen Virginia towns meet the Virginia cannot be judged solely on the basis ar... towns broader powers to offer local population standard.2 of statistics. Many residents are justifiably services such as garbage collection street Townsetredistributedfairlyevenly proud of the lifestyle associated with their lighting, and fire protection. Howeve4,as the throughout the counties in most parts of the towns and of the long and historic tradition twentieth century's rapidly expandingpopu- state, except' in the North= Neck and of their town governments (seven of Virgin- lation began to spill over the boundaries of Richmond suburban areas,where few ia', towns were incorporated before 1800). In cities and towns, many once-rural counties communities are incorporated. Whilemost addition, although many towns in Virginia found themselves with suburbao concentra- are quite small in terms of population, they tions of populations needing municipal-type :The moratorium on the transition of town to cities. due to nonetheless possess a wide array of legal local services as well. To help meet this powers and responsibilities that define, to a expire July I, 1980, was pan of a broader temporary moratorium demand, the Commonwealth has gradually or. city-initiated annexations enacted by the General Assembly in degree, awir zelationship with the counties in given counties more discretion andpowers which they are located. An analysis of the the early 1970s to give that body time to find a solution to some regarding county managern-at and service critical problems in city-county relations. In 1979 the General ways in which counties and towns vork provision. In 1966, the General Assembly together or at cross-purposes can add to the Assembly enacted a package of legislation that revised the granted to counties many of thepowers it annexation statutes, some of the formulas determining state aid understanding of Virginia local government hal *eddy granted to cities and towns. to as well as provide insights into intergovern- localities, and the provisions for towns becoming cities. The Similarly, the 1971 Constitution blurs the onditions under which towns can become cities, too mental relations. As a step toward further traditionaldistinction by dealing kith numerous to encouraging the study of town governments explain here, arc roc fneth in Virginia code, teen. 15.1-977.23 and counties, cities, and towns in a single loca: 13.1-982.1 through 15.1-1009.

Population figures are derived by the authors from data in U.S. Bureau of the Census.Population amainandProjections - 19,7Population Estimaits for CountiesandIncorporated Places The Institute of Government is pleased toannounce the following new publication: in Virginia.Series P5. No. 859 (Washingtoc. D.C.: U.S. Zoning and Subdivision Law in Virginia: A Handbook Government Printing Office. November 1979), PT A.TheTown of Draper in Pulatki County is not included in the count of IBS by Stephen P. Robin towns because no municipal officers arc elected in the town. This volume presents an overvier' of the legal frameworkof land use regulation and control in Virginia through a discussion oftwenty different subjects. Copies of the handbook are available at a price of $3 each (witha 20 percent discount for orders of This ness s letter is based in part onast7 :es of interviews five or more copies) from the Institute of Government,207 Minor Hall, University of with selected county and town officials fromacross the Virginia, Charlottesville 22903. Please make state. The authors wish t.s thank those persons, too all checks payaLle to the University of numerous to name here. who contributed their rime and Virginia. insights to this study.

INSTITUTE OF GOVERNMENT UNIVERSITY OF VIRCINIII f CILIRLOTTE.SVILLEf JUNE 1980 37 un one to three towns within regulation of the state and federal govern- towns over 3,500 population are responsible es, some counties 'nave as ments. for their own roads, except for interstate and r sevenand Accomack has While the county has retained the major vast majority of Virginia's primary highways, whereas roads in all but responsibility for these functions, the growth two counties, as well as in the small towns, tall; 104 of them have under of suburban areas has caused the county also are part of the state's road and highway .ts. Even so, the towns range in to enter into the delivery of municipal-type system. In keeping with their general tacit o uffield in Scott County, with a servicesonce considered theexclusive responsibility for roads, counties also hay of 63, all the way to Blacksburg, purview of the towns. For example, towns only limited, specified powers of tra' ornery County, which has a and counties now have similar grants of regulation.3 of 27,693. The size of the town in authority to create many public works, In recognition of the groving interde- n to the total county population including water, sewer, electrical,gas, and :s widely. In Montgomery County, pendence of local governments ;and the other utility systems; to provide for garbage increasing potential for duplication of effort, .nt of the residents live within the collection; and to manage solid waste the state has encouraged interlocal coopera- two incorporated towns, while only disposal. They also have similar powers in cent of Albemarle County's population through a broad grant of authority many other areas of activity, including allowing two or more jurisdictions toagree :sides in Scottsville, the county's only libraries, recreation, and planning andzon- to exercise jointly any power they cao ing. exercise alone. In addition, the General wns can expand their populations and Planning and zoning, particularly, reflect Assembly has enacted numerous statutes boundaries through annexation pro- a major expansion of the county's role authorizing interlocal cooperation in specif- Jings. Under Virginia's annexation laws, through both mandatory and permissive ic functional areas. Localities also may enter ens have the right to petition the circuit legislation. The state now requiresevery into a number of interlocal agreements, such urt for the purpose of annexing county locality to appoint a planning commission, as mutual aid assistance pacts and service :operty into the town's corporate limits. In to develop a comprehensive plan, and to contracts. Thus, a legal framework exists for ddition, county residents in adjacent areas enact ordinances regulating subdivisions. In towns and counties to work closely together an petition the court directly for annexation addition, counties as well as townsare to deal with common problems. into a town. Although areas annexed bya finding zoning to be a useful tool in the town remain a part of the county, town regulation of ;:rowth and land us-. The state SOURCES OF FRICTION annexnion may stillbecontroversial, has been fairly firm in assigning to towns the particularly if the town meets or is close to power toplan and zone withintheir As this overview makes clear, the distinc- meetingthepopulationstandardsfor corporate boundaries; while limiting the tions between the respective roles of the becoming a city. Also, the county may lose county'sjurisdictiontounincorporated county and the town are becoming increas- son.e revenuefromthe annexed area areas only. This general rule holds true for ingly blurred; the ;88 towns and 95 counties because some town levies pre-empt county zoning purposes and, exceptin three in the Commonwealth today possess similar ones. Thus, town annexations nay affect counties, for subdivision regulationsas well. legal powers in many areas of their day-to- county collections from the business, profes- However, the county's comprehensive plan, day operations. Even so, they are still quite sional, and occupational license tax; the 3nder some conditions, may includetown diverse in economics, geography, popula- utility license tax; the utility consumertax; territory, although the plan hasno legal tion, and traditions. Not surprisingly, then, the motor vehicle license tax; and the county status therein unless approved by the town counties and towns have chosen to work on' 1percent retail sales tax. However, the council. Likewise, The town's planmay be their relationships in a variety of ways ; property tax revenues of a county are not extended to adjacent county areas under on the basis of a number of factors ott... reduced by town annexation..:; any town similar conditions and upon approval by the than just the legal powers encouraging levies on property are added on to existing county bnard of supervisors. cooperation. In an attempt to find outmore county ones. A recurring issue in town- Counties have even enter -d an area of abouttheirrelationships, personal and county relations is wh:ther or not town public service perhaps most closely associat- telephone interviews were conducted with residents receive a fair share of county ed with municipal governmenttheprotec- numerouscountyandtownofficials. services in return for the taxes paid by town tion of property. Both counties andtowns Though not designed to yield quantifiable residents. may establish their own fire departments; data, these interviews make clear that a wide alternatively, they may appropriate fundsto variety of forces comes intc play intown- volunteer companies for equipment and county relations. 11.ES OF THE COUNTY AND TOWN physical facilitic:fliolunteer squads also One such set of forces consists of theway generally provide emergency rescue services in which counties and towns perceive The roles of the county and the townare and arc supported by contributions from the themselves and each other. Some towns,as a ncd both by their traditional legal status county or the town, or both.) For many matter of local civic pride, want to handle as changing demography. In its role asa years, municipalities and counties have been many town affairsas possible without vision of the state, the county still involved in law enforcement, the former county involvement or interference. This ; primary responsibility for election th;ough the operation of a police depart- attitude seemsparticularly apparentin "stration and has specified duties in ment and the latter through the operation of connection with certain servic: 3 once unique ion with the state court systemas the sheriffs department, with onlya few to municipalities but increasingly undertak- o counties, unlike towns, must have counties authorized to establisha police en by counties as wellas, for example, ,nstitutional officers, whose duties department. However, effective July I, !980, recreation. Counties tend to support consoli- 'ered partly state and partly local in the authority to establish a police depart- dation of such services under their aegis to he state statutes do allow two of ment will be extended to all counties in the avoid duplication; towns tend to resist sucha isconstitutional officersthe state. The county sheriffs department (or move, in part because they think that their er of revenue and the treasurer police department) has the power within own programs are better than those of the tted to similar positions by the 'own limits to enforce state criminal law and .ounties. nent.) county ordinances, but not town ordinances. Behind the concern of some towns to keep functions that are considered Town ordinances, of course, haveno legal the county government at arm's length isa 'de importance also have been effect beyond corporate limits. Effective July firmly held view that historically they have thin the county's domain. In I,1980, however, any locality will have been treated as stepchildren by the count- Istance, only four towns in police powers over property itowns that is Whether correct or not, this percept rate school divisions, while located outside its boundaries (e.g.,reser- almost guarantees that where it prevails,auy the towns are included in voirs and sanitary landfills). interaction or cooperation with the county Similarly, towns in prac- One clear and continuing distinction libility for the provision between the functions of towns and of ' welfare services, which counties sArlinwon and Hennco counties have been liven greater power involvesthe construction and here. since they are responsible for the roads within their to counties under the maintenance of streets and highways. All boundaries. 3 4 will be regarded with suspicion and hostility. isolated part of the county. Some larger goingtobe able to'identify their common But the past colors counties preeptions of counties report attempts to deal with the problems and arrive at workable, mutually towns as wall, for some county respondents geographical problem by locating branch acceptable solutions. Virginia's towns and expressed resentment that town officials countyoffices in those towns distantly counties have experimented with a variety of nevc seem to want to have anything to do located from the county seat. (If, however, both formal and informal Ittethods to with them except when they need funds or the county expects the town government to improve communication. Among formal assist a nee. contribute directly to the funding of these means, perhaps the one most frequently tried Itis not history alone that generates offi:es, the effort may become a new source or considered is joint meetings of county and conflict and friction, however. Rural resi- of conflict.) Another county is combatting town governing bodies. Wythe County has dents may resent county funding of urban- the problem of geographical isolat:Jn for found quarterly joint meetings of the county type services mainly t eneficialto town one town through conscious efforts to board of supervisors and its two town residents, such as water and sewerage promote state improvements to farm-to- councils to be successful. Another method systems or solid waste disposal. Town market and s,-condary roads leading to the sometimes used is for a representative from dwellers, on the other hand, sometimes feel town. A town .:pulation relative to that of one governmental bodysuch as the mayor that the county favors unincorporated arcas the county is also significant, as is the orthechairmanoftheboardof over incorporated ones in the provision of presence of a city adjacent to the county. If supervisors- to attend the other's meetings. services. For example, some countics help to such a city is the county seat (as is the case Communica.ion is also facilitated if the fund v. intt.--:r fire departments throughout with almost 15 percent of the counties), the county supervisor whose election district the county, but the towns are expected to county may be more inclined to enter into includes a particular town is an effective supplement the coun:y's effort by contribut- cooperative arrangements with the city, to advocate for the town with issues that come ing to those dedartmcnts serving the town's theneglect of the town. Furthermore, before the county board. Unfortunately, that population. Similarly, some towns complain because the stakes in a county's relatiorship is easier said than done; one of the most because thc county will.riot assist them with withacityare so much higher (the frequent! voiced complaints of town offi- tho'town rrocrams that also serve persons annexation problem), thcre is a tendency in cials isthattown interests are not adequately livingimmediatelybeyondthetown's counties with adjacent cities for that rela- represented at the county level. Communica- borders. tionship to overshadow their concern for tion is also aided if a county and its towns The root problem, of course, is the great thew own towns. establishjointsingle-issuecommittees, difficulty of ensuring, or een of getting appointed as needed, for the study of agreement on the principle, that towns and BASES FOR COOPERATION mutual problems. Additional communica- non-town residents alike get only the public From what has been said, it is evident that tion methods are annual joint meetings of services they pay for, and pay only for those town and county officials do sometimes find the town and county governic^ bodies with services they receive (and not for someone ways to solve their problems amicably. their General Assembly delegates and the else's). But even when services are evenly Whether or not they do so, respondents exchange of a variety of written materials, distributed, disagreement between towns- insist, depends in no small part on the including the minutes of county board and people and others may still arise over the personalities of the varicius officials and town council meetings. proper level or quality of services. This is leaders involved. Personality seems to be Some governmental activities by their readily apparent in the field of putlic especially important in the relationships very mature encourage cooperation. Plan- education. Town residents sometimes press between law enforcement agencies; itms ning is a good example. Because planning for nigher teacher salaries, more capital frequently cited as nn important reason f r a clearly has ramifications that go beyond ,mprovements, and a higher quality of good (or bad) working relationship between governmental boundaries, it necessitates a education than the other county residents the county-sheriff's department and town close working relationship between arc willing to support. Difficulties can even police.But tieinfluence of individual jurisdictionsone often achieved through iris:out-f such smilingly innocuous personalities is not peculiar to that area. the planning commissions themselves. Some decisions as closing all county schools Town mayors and chairmen of county town councils, with the approval of the inciuding those located within a town boards of supervisors in some counties make county board, designate the cotinty planning shen snow has madc rural roads impassable. it a point to meet frequently for informal, commission as the town, commission. In A town may have cleared its strcets, but the congenial discussion of mutual problems several cases, the county comprehensive plan school for its children will still be closed. and concerns, while in other counties they incorporatcs these of its towns, and one Another issue with considerable potential are continuously at loggerheads with each countyplanningcommissionroutinely for muddying town-county relations is that other. No doubt objectivefactorsare consults the appropriate town commission ofannexation. Comments from respondents involved in the contrasting situations, but bcforc undertaking any actions affecting the reveal that in some cases the bitterness of both town and county officials repeatedly town. past annexation battles, particularly thosc sat- zed the importance of the personal Despite these and similar methods of resulting in towns becomingor threatening factor in brit ging their differences. coordination, conflict may also arise be- to becomeindepcndent cities, has erectcd The presence of professional administra- tween a county and its towns due to basic barricrs to cooperation t'nat are difficult to tors is also invaluable in fostering coopera- differences in planning orientation (or to overcome. Even without that scn of legacy, tion and communication between counties noor communicatior). While recognizing to many county officials the word "annexa- and towns. Town managers and county the desirability of encouraging growth in the tion" has negative connotations not always administrators alike report frequent infor- vicinity of existing towns, county leaders related to its real impact. But the annexation mal exchanges and contacts with their admit that they are sometimes reluctant to threat is a real one in those counties with counterparts in other localicie: as a routine channel growth into areas they may not larger towns having the potential to become part of their job. Also, town managers and control in the future because of possible cities. Fortunately, in some cases both sides county administrators are much more likely town annexations and even transition of have recognized that a town's transition to to view town-county problems in an ()flee- towns to cities. Towns, for their part, may be city status would result in a "no-win" tive, nonpartisan fashion and may be better upset if the county does not plan for growth situationfor both the county and the able than local elected officials to defuse (or the right kind of growth) in their vicinity. municipality. forcing thcm to acknowledge highly controversial issues and to work Recent legislation removing extraterritorial their interdependence and jointly to make together to discover possible solutions and powers from most counties and towns may conscious effons to solve their problem, compromises, Coordination of administra- exacerbate the possibilities of disagreement awewithout a change in status. tive functions such as data processing, in this regard. The interviews conducted Geography can affect town-county rela- purchasing, and building inspections L.: make it obvious that failure to communicate tions in several ways. A town that is the becoming more common tls town and county in the planning process can lead to disgrun- county seat, or is located near thc county administrators seek ways to cut governmen- tlement, anger, and the duplication of seat, very likely will have more informal, tal costs. services. In one instance, a county recrea- day-to-day contacts with county officials Effective communicationisobviously tional project intended also to serve a small than one that is a great distance away, in an crucial if county and town governments are town did not include swimming facilities 375 n. The town, which had a regional water system that includes one of twenty years in exchange for partial county during the planning of the towns. financin, )f the water system servingthe ., then decided to develop Evcn when financial considerations are town and its surrounding area. In addition, nd requested the county's not the primary motive for a cooperative the town has agreed not to promoteor seek ce to do soa request that effort, the localities involved are still faced annexation actively for the ty some consternation. same twenty-year withdecisions about the allocation of period, although citizen- initiated annexa- the multiplicity of factors costsas, for example, the financing for tions are still permissible. Agreements baser' :mine the course of town- volunteer fir.: departments that serve both on a sharing of finances may become mo is, one should note the crucial the town mad the county. Often, the town common in the future, in part encouraged by politics. Electoral or other pays for most or all of the building and land 1979 legislation that allows counties tsiderations not sometimes lead costs, while both jurisdictions share in the immune from annexation and theirtowns to Jr the county board of supervi- purchase of equipment. Some counties and enter into agreements that both define nit themselves to being, in effect, town towns have developed innovative financial annexation rights and provide fora sharing amen on the county board. Other arrangerm nu for law enforcement services. of resources and liability. re reported in which town leaders Thus, the Town of West Point contracts with nized political moves to achieve the sheriffs department of King William CONCLUSION :epresentation on, if not outright County for full-time police protection. In of, the county board. But the Southampton County, three towns have a Town-county relations in Virginia cover a process does not always work to written agreement with the county whereby a broad spectrum. In some instances, it is fair tze town and countyinterests. deputy sheriff is assigned to each town. In to say, towns have had littlepolitical ing to some local officials, candidates return, each town pays one-half of the influence, and town-county relations have : county board sometimes downplay expenses for its resident deputy, with the been so distant that the towns have with- moaance of the town and emphasize county paying the other half. drawn as mrch as possible from are xl the value of concern for the county as interactions with the county. Similarly._ nole. The politics of town council Cooperative arrangements may also grow out of the need to ensure the future economic counties have sometimes felt so victimized .ions may also reflect mixed tendencies, by past town actions (particularly in the a some campaigns stressing the need health of both the county and the town. This is particularly applicable when a town is event of town transition to city status) that Iressively to seek county aid and support, they are extremely wary of any town tile the goal of others is to preserve town already eligible (or will soon be) to become a city. The Town of Wytheville's petition for attempts to snrigthen their own positions. depe::dence to the greatest extent possible. city status was the impetus for a revenue- However,itisencouraging that some he political interaction between towns and counties and towns have recognized their :ountier is further complicated by the fact sharing agreement between Wythe County and its two towns. According to the te.ms of muttu. . needs and have successfully devel- that county elections are partisan in nature, the agreement, a designated portion of the oped good working relationships, including while town elections are often to varying a variety of cooperative agreements, to degree: nonpartisan. county's total I percent sales tax revenue is paid to each of the two towns; in return, the ensure their continued well-being. That line of development is not necessarily COOPERATION AND FINANCES towns agree not to incorporate as cities. tin actuality, the possibility of city status for the the direction of the future. Some observers A. the heart of many aspects of town- second town, Rural Retreat,isremote believe that the expanded role of the coun county cooperation are financial considera- because of its small size.) This course of and the small size of many of the towns ha left the towns with few rcasons for existence. tions. Financial pressure can be a major events has...served as P. catalyst for the force promoting cooperative ventures such development of a closer working relation- Others are staunch defenders of the town's as water and sewerage operations that are ship between the county and the towns in roleintheintergovernmentalscheme. trohibitively expensive for a single small other matters as well. Whatever the ultimate prospects for the wernment to support. For example, the six The motivations behind joint agreements town as a governmental unit, for now the vns in Southampton County have asked cannot always be neatly categorized. An welfare of the Commonwealth's counties lounty to assume full responsibility for interesting example of an agreement gener- and towns depends heavily on their willing- Iwn-operated water systems. While the ated by several forces involves a fifty-year ness to continue to search for the nost has been reluctant to agree to the agreement betwe.m Roanoke County and effective and economical ways to coe. request, it has been performing the the Town of Vinton. In essence, the town has Ance for the systems and is initiating given up its right to seek city status for "iitsioLl Code. sec. 15J-1058.1.

'IVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

Entered as secondclass matter Charlottesville, Virginia

ieskey H. Wiley ember through University of 3. The views ose of the oresenting 'ruversay. 37G 1925, at der the

,ate University

.sly Printing Office. THE UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA VOL. 58, NO. 3

This News Letter way reproduced with permission from the Institute of Government, University of Virginia.

WOMEN IN VIRGINIA STATE ANDLOCAL GOVERNMENT By Mary Jo Fields

Ms. Fields is a research assistant on the staff of the about whether or not women still suffer Institute of Government. women held over three-fourths of the significant discrimination in the workplace. positions as librarians, registered nurses, telephone operators, prekindergarten and Within the past decaue, the proportion of WORKING WOMEN: AN OVERVIEW women in the civilian labor force has risen kindergarten teachers, bank tellers, and dramatically. Women accounted for 43 Although women today have more diverse secretaries. On the other hand, not very percent of civilian workers in1980, an career opportunities than in the past, they many women were employed as engineers, increase of nearly one-third over the 1969 still tend to cluster in a more limited range of dentists, carpenters, automobile mechanics, level of 33 percent. Indeed, by 1980 morc occupations than do men. In July 1981, plumbers, or firefighters; men held at least than one-half of all women over sixteen slightly more than one-third of employed 95 percent of these positions. years sf age were part of the labor force.' women over twenty years old were clerical A recent study by the National Research The growing number of women in the workers; 18 percent were service employees, Council for the U.S. Equal Employment workforce reflects ongoing and fundamental while17 percent were professional and Opportunity Commission tEE0C) states changes Li the role a women in American technicai workers. Thus, these three catego- that the earnings for fulltime, year-round society. Many women :lave chosen to pursue ries encompassed approximately 70 percent women workers are, on the average, less than fulltime careers; many have moved into the of this group of employed women. In 60 percent of men's earnings. Some of the workforce after their children left home; and contrast, slightly more than one of five men factors that account for this disparity in other women have sought to combine the over twenty years old were craft workers, earnings ace differences in education, work traditional role of mother and homemaker followed by 16 percent professional and experience, and job commitment: women with a new role as a second breadwinner in technical workers, and 16 percent managers earn less because they have less education, the increasing number of two-earner fami- and administratorsaccounting for about havebeen inthe workforce for a shorter lies. Still other women have been pressed 54 percent of employed men in that age period of time, and are more likely to have into the workforce by virtue of their status as group.2 discontinuous career patterns than men. heads of households in an era in which nsing Specific occupational breakdowns from Another factor affecting the earnings gap is divorce rates h've produced an expanding the 1980U.S. Statistical Abstractshow that the differences in the types of occupations number of female-headed families. some occupations are heavily dominated by that men and women hold; the types of jobs Although social commentators may de- either men or women. As examples, in 1979 that women typically hold tend to pay less bate the implications of the changing role of than the types that men hold. The Council women as it may affect the future of such :Compiled by the author trom Employrrent and Eanungs. p. 22. study concludes that women's earningsare institutions as marriage and family, clearly therole of woman as workeriswell' established and likely to expand still further. INVITATION F:"..R MANUSCRIPTS This News Letter will examine the status of women in the workforce, giving particular The editors invite submission of manuscripts that might be consideredfor attention to Virginia. The analysis begins publication in theUniversityofVirginia News Letter.Articles should focus on a with an overview of the role of women in the discussion of some particular public policy orconcern, and its impact on various national workforce and then proceeds to a instruments of state .and local government. Preference will be givento articles that consideration of the changing legal environ either (1) address situations within the state of Virginiaor (2) shed light on a situation ment for working women. The News Letter in Virginia through regional or other cross-sectional comparisons. then looks in some detail at the employment A News Letter article contains some 4,600 to 4,800 words andshould be a patterns of women in Virginia state and local rninik.....1 of 16 but no more than 18 double-spaced typedpages. We regret that we government. The final section of the article cannot pay contributors, but each author will receive twenty-five copies of the issu- discusses alternative interpretations of the containing the published article. Virginia data in light of the national debate For complete inform :ion, please write to University of Virginia News Letter !Compiled by the author from U.S. Department of Labor. %mu Attn: Sandra H. Wiley of Labor Statistics. Employment and Earning, (Mott p. 7: and U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the :emus. Institute of Government Historical Statistics of the :lotted States. Colonial Times to 1970.2 University of Virginia rots.(Wastangion. U.S. Government Printing Office.197V, 1:127- 207 Minor Hall 2S. 377 Charlottesville, Virginia 22903

OF VW/ X.111:.\ I' UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA / CH .1 RLOTTEWILLEl NOVEMBER 1981 lower in part because womenare concentra- Federal efforts to discourage sex discrimi- permitted only on the basis of a bona fide ted in lower-paying occupationsto a greater nation in employment began with the Equal extent than are men.3 occupationalqualification (BFOQ);for Pay Act of 1963. This act, which amends the example. it is not discriminatory to hire only Two questions are raised by this conclu- Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938, requires sion: (1) why are women concentrated in femal actresses to play female roles. The equal pay for men and women performing BFOQ provisions have tended to be defined certain occupations? and (2) what affects the substantiallyequal pay scales for these occupations? The role of work under similar narrowly by the courts, thus making it working conditions. The actcovers federal, women as homemakers has influenced the difficult for employers to justify "males state, and government employers, as types of occupations that women in the past only" or "females only" positions. well as those employers in the privatesector chose to pursue, as well as those that they who must follow minimum wage standards. Thu impact of the Equal Pay Act and Title were allowed to pursue. Women once were Wage differentials are permitted by the VII on the employment of women illustrates relegated, in large part, either to occupations act if based upon merit, seniority, production,or the ways that changing social normsare that did not require long years of education, another system that is not based reflected in the legal structure. During the training, and work experience on sex. or to those Complaints regarding wage discrimination latter part of the nineteenth century, reflect- requiring skills that were easily transferable are filed with the EEOC, which has the ing the view of women that the Victorianera from one organization to another withouta power to investigate charges, to conduct symbolized, states began enacting protective large investmentin on-the-job training. compliance reviews, and to file suitto legislation that established maximum work- Because of the social norm thatwomen were ing hours or weight-lifting restrictions for expectednot enforce the act. The court c n order the to work except at home, payment of back wages, the discontinuation women employees or that excluded women particularly if they had a family,women of discriminatory practices, and fines and entirely from certain occupations suchas were not prime candidates for jobs that imprisonment. mining or bartending. This type of legisla- entailed steady career advancementover a tion was based on the belief that women, number of years. The continued practice of The Code of Virginia (section 40.1-28.6) because of their physical characteristics and separating occupations by sex is affected by also prohibits wage discriminationon the childbearing role, needed more protection in avarietyof factors that may include basis of sex. The Virginia statute applies only the workplace than men. (Some persons also discrimination, career preferences, the avail- to employers not covered by the Fair Labor have arguedthatthisprotective labor able job market, and the training and Standards Act and does not assign enforce- legislation may have had the purpose of education levels of both men andwomen in ment provisions to a government agency. protecting males from female competition in the labor market. Certainly women today Under t .ie state act, individuals, rather than the workforce.) Title VII, on the other hand, agencies, must initiate lawsuits. have more diverse career opportunities than is predicated on the belief thatwomen and in the past, and they now are entering While the purpose of the Equal Pay Act is minorities need legal protection to prevent occupations that traditionally have been narrowly focused onpreventing wage any discrimination that would inhibit their dominated by mares. differentials, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act employment opportunities. Under Title VII The second question, concerningpay of 1964 prohibits not only sex discrimination (and, in selected instances, the Equal Pay scales for female-dominated occupations, in allaspects of employment but also Act as well),protectivelegislation that can be approaCied from two viewpoints. discrimination on the basis of race, color, excludes or restricts the employment of The firstis that the pay scale for any national origin, and religion. In addition, women is discriminatory. occupation is a product of the labor market 1978 amendments to Title VII specify that Discrimination on the basis of race, color, system and reflects the skills and training the prohibition on sex discrimination incor- required, as well as the availability of labor, sex, national origin, and religion also is porates discrimination based on pregnancy, prohibitedbyfederalExecutive Order to fill that position. Therefore, occupations childbearing, and related medical condi- pay what they are warth to the employe. A 11246, as amended by Executive Order ions. The provisions of Title VII apply to 11375. This order currently applies tomost second viewpoint is that occupations held private einpldyers of fifteen or more personi; mainly by women pay less because they federal government contractors and subcon- are fedefal, state, and local governments;em- tractors. Guidelines ism:A by the U.S. Labor held by women and that the pay scales do no't ployment agencies; labor unions; andap- actually Department, which coordinates the imple- reflect thetrueworth of the prenticeshipcommittees. The EEOC is mentation of the order, require contractor occupations. This second viewpoint is thy: responsiZ c for enforcing Title VII both in one advanced in the National Researai to maintain affirmative action programs the public and private sectors. The EEOC designed to ensure equal employment. The Council study mentioned earlier, although has the power to receive complaints,to Virginia Fair Employment Contracting Act the minority report to this study supported investigate compliance with equal employ- the labor market theory. (Va. ode, sections 2.1-374 through 2.1- ment standards, and to seek court enforce- 376.1) prohibits discriminatory employment THE LEGAL ENVIRONMENT FOR ment 'of Title VII. The court, in turn, can practices for many state contractors. In WORKING WOMEN order employers to stop discriminatory addition, contracting agenciesare prohibit- practices, and to take affirmative actionto ed from discrimination in the awarding of Equal employment legislation has been ensure equal employment. Discrimination is contracts. Specific enforcement provisions both a cause and a consequence of the growing numbef of employedwomen. The Table 1, Classified Employment in VirginiaState Government By Sex and Job participation of more women in the work- Category, 1981 force initially contributed to efforts toenact legislation prohibiting discrimination in the Male. as % Females as % workplace. Once enacted, that legislation Job Category of total males of total females he ed to broaden the career avenuesopen to Official/Administrator 9.1% 3.0% women. As women have become a signifi- Professiodal, Technical, & ant part of the labor market, increased Parapi ofessional pressures have been exerted, particularly by 38.9 45.3 Protective Service women's rights groups, for more, rigorous 15.1 1.5 enforcement of laws against sexual discrimi- Office/ Clerical nation. The extent to which sexual discrimi- 6.1 39.4 Skilled C -aft nation persists will continue to bea subject 14.6 .3 of debate, but federal and state effortsto Service/ Maintenance enforce laws prohibiting discrimination in 16.2 10.5 Totals the workplace already have contributedto 101..(1% 100.0% the expansion of career opportunities for SOURCE:Compiled by the author from Commonwealth of women. Virginia, Virginia Equal Employment Opportunity Committee,Annual Report to the Governor of Mould .I. Tretman and Heidi I. Hartmann, Women. Work, and Virginia on the Administration of ExecutiveOrder No. 1(July 1981). Data used are Wager Equal far for Jobs of Equal Value (Washington. D.C.. from a table in AppenclIx B entitled "ClassifiedEmployees by Race and Sex by Job Nauorul Academy Press. I981). p. 12. Category for Each .F,eretariat" (nopage numbers given). elt 6(1', are not provided, however, and the act national employment gures should be Virginia Local Government. Information specifically states that it does not "empower made only tentatively, however, because the on Virginia's local government employees is any agency to require a contractor to grant occupationalclassificationsystemsare available from tile EEOC, which collects preferential treatment" to any person or somewhat different for the two groups. data yearly on both state and local govern- group. The state government's male classified ment employees. Some explanation of this 1111 Equal employment provisions also are employees were much more likely to be data is needed, however. Under Title VII of included in other federal statutes, including employed as skilledcraft or protective the Civil Rights Act of 1964, state and local many grants-in-aid programs. For grants-inservice employees than women; in -10, men governments with 15 or more fulltime aid legislation, the provision usually prohib- held about 98 percent and 90 scent. employees are required to file report with its employment discrimination in any project respectively,of thepositionsinthese the EEOC on a periodic basis, ranging from funded by the grant-as Title 1 of the categories. In addition, a larger number of once a year for governments with 0 or Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1973. to give employees in the official/ administrator and more employees to once every six years for just one example. On the other hand, the service/maintenance categories were men governments with15to 24 employees. anti-discrimination clause in tne State and titan women, with men holding about 74 Because all governments do not ,ile a report Local Fiscal Assistance Act of 1972 (which percent and 59 percent. respectively, of these each year, the data collected by the EEOC authorized revenue sharing) is very broad; positions. Women, on the other hand, held are adjusted for non-reporting and non- employment discrimination is prohibited in abort 87 percent of the clerical positions and sampled jurisdictions before final reports are all programs conducted by. the recipient 56 percent of the professional, technical, and made. Thus, the data presented in the final government, not just those funded by pa)dprofessional positions. Overall in 1981. reports are subject to sampling error; the revenue 0.aring. women held a greater percentage of posi- sampling error increases as the subpopula- The Fill of Rights inVirginia's 1971 tions within each job category than they had tions decrease. Constitution (Article 1, Section 11) prohibits in 1977, with the exception of the skilled The data presented in Table 2 are based on governmental discrimination on the basis of craft category.) moons filed with the EEOC for 1979 by sex. To date, the Supreme Court of Virginia Female employees of the state tend to have counties,cities,and towns inVirginia. has interpreted this provision rather narrow- lower salary rani, s than their m°le counter- (Employees of local school boards and ly. The Court has ruled that a sex-based parts. In April 1981, 26 car of women special distrkts are not included in that table classification can be used if the classification and 9 percent of men emplo ; made less becausetheseinstitutionsfileseparate is related to the objective embodied in a state than 59,000. (The salaries of h classified reports with the EEOC.) law. In this particular case, the Court upheld and faculty personnel are included in these As Table 2 indicates, women were most a statute allowing women to claim an figures.) The largest percentage of women likely to be employed by local governments exemption from jury duty by virtue of (42 percent) and men (29 percent) were in the asclericalworkers,professionals,and having custody of either children under $9,000-S12.999 salary range. While 13.3 paraprofessionals. Men were most likely to sixteen years of age or impaired persons. The percent of the str ta's male employees made be protective service, service/ maintenance, case was brought on the grounds that the 525.000 or over, the comparable figure for and professional employees. In terms of exemption did not apply to men as well.' females was 1.8 percent; however, in 1979 overall employment, the EEOC data show WOMEN IN STATE AND LOCAL only .9 percent of the women and 9.4 percent that men held about 60 percent of the county GOVERNMENT of the men employed were in this top salary positions and 70 percent of the municipal State and local governments are included bracket. While inflation accounts for some positions. An examination of the distribu- among the service-producing industries (as of the gains that women have made, women tion of men and women within job categories opposed to goods-producing industries such did move into the top salary range at a faster reveals that men held over 90 percent of the as al:ning, manufacturing, and construc- rate than men.' skilled craft and protective service positions in local governments, while tion). The expansion of job opportunities in site 1977 employment figures were compiled from Common women held these industries has been a significant factor wealth of Virginia. Department of Personne! and Training.Sperost about 90 percent of the office/clerical and in the increase in the number of working Report on Vogutta's State Government Emplolee, 1974 (unpub- over 60 percent)f the paraprofessional women. In fact, many of the occupations lished) P. 27. positions. The professional positions were 'Commonwealth of Virginia. Department of Personnel and fairly evenly divided between held mainly by women-such as registered Training. Virginia Elul Employment Opportunity Committer. men and nurse,secretary,teacher,librarian, and Annual Repot+ to the Governor of Virginia on the Admontstratton women. Women traded to be concentrated social worker-are found disproportionate- ul Erreutwe Order No f (Richmond. July 1981). Data used are in the lower- paying job categories, with the ly in the service-producing industries. In from a table in Appendix B entitled -Salars Level Dhtribution by exception of the service' maintenance posi- Race and Sex" (no page numbers given). general, the proportion of women in the total tions. For all job categories in both counties workforce of state and local governments in Table 2. Fulltime Employees of Virginia Counties and Municipalities Virginia is increasing, and the percentage of By Sex and Job Category, 1979 women in administrative positions also is increasing. What follows is a brief review of Counties Municipalities these developments. Males as Females as Males as Females as Virginia State Government. In May 1981, % of % of % of % of Job Category total males total females total males total females 74,355 classified employees worked for the Official/ Commonwealth ofVirginia.(Faculty members are not classified employees and Administrator 6.4% 3.1% 6.3% 2.4% therefore are not included in these figures.) Professional 13.8 21.2 10.6 24.9 Of this number, 51.7 percent werewomen. Technical Table 1 shows the distribution of the state's 11.6 8.1 9.3 6.0 classified employees by sex and job category. Paraprofessional 2.0 10.4 2.6 9.0 As TableIindicates, women were most likely to be employed within either the Protective Service 35.2 5.3 26.6 4.8 orofessional, technical, and'paraprofession- Office/ Clerical 2.1 47.2 2.2 43.3 al category or the office/clerical category. Mt 1: were distributed more evenly through- Skilled Craft 12.4 .5 12.9 .5 )ut ttot job categories, although men were Service/ most represented in the professional, techni- Maintenance 16.5 4.2 29.5 9.1 cal, and paraprofessional grouping. The Totals 100.0% percentage of women employed as clerical 100.0% 100.0% 100.0% workers in the state government labor force SOURCE: Compiled by the author from U.S. Equal EmploymentOpportunity is slightly higher than in the national civilian Commission, "State and Local Government Information (EEO-4), 1979 Summary labor force. Comparisons of state and Report" (unpublished). 'Archer e. Mayes. 213 Va. 631 194 S E. 2d 707 (197)), NOTE: School bond and special district employeesare not included in the table. 379 and municipalities, females' earnings were Editors' Note: We are interested inhearing readers' comments on the topics below the median salary; on the other hand, discussed in the University of Virginia male local government employees earned News Letter. If you have comments, questions, at or information on this month's articleon tt _men in Virginia government, or any !east the median and. in mostcases, above related issues, please address them the median salary. to: Ms. Mary Jo Fields Virginia Educational Institute of Government Institutions. As 207 Minor ' {all mentioned earlier, the preceding description of local government employment did University of Virginia not Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 include employees of educational institu- or telephone Ms. Fields at 804-924-3396. tions. In the 1979-80 school year, the school divisionsinVirginiaemployed65,241 instructional employees. (This figure does In terms of salaries, the average female against women employees. A more moderate faculty member in 1977-78 made notincludenon-instructionalpersonnel less than interpretation of the data is thatcareer performing clerical, service, skilled craft, her male counterpart. Looking onlyat opportunities fol women have expanded, and laborer duties.) Of these instructional universities, which tend to have but the legacy of traditional views toward the higher salary ranges than other institutions employees, approximately 74 percentwere employment of women is still felt in the of higher education, the median women. Women held about 88 percent of the salary for a workplace. In addition, the effo., of state elementary and 63 percent of the secondary fulltime nine-months appointment fora andlocal governments to female faculty member in 1977-78 increasethe teaching positions and about 55 percent of was 86.6 employment of women and minoritiesare the supervit,ory and supportive positions percent of the total median salary; the influenced by a variety of factors somewhat comparable (which include guidance counselors, social figureforamalefacvity beyond their control. Economic limitations, member was 104.2 percent. Women's workers, and psycholoests). On the other medi- for example, limit a government's abilityto hand, 77 percent of the principals an salaries exceeded the total median only at recruit aggressively and to train its and theinstructor em- assistant principals were men.' Thetop rank;thegap between ployees, as well as to create new positions position in the local school system, that of women's median salaries and total median actions that cc.:Id aid in achieving equal division superintendent, is presently held by salaries was largest at the professorialrank. employment opportunity. a woman in only one county. Preliminary figures for 1980-81 showthat While women made up almost three- women's median salaries as a percen: of total Employment trends for women in Virgin- quarters of the public school instructional median salaries have actually decreasedto ia's governments parallel inmany respects staff, the picture was quite different in the 80.6 percent of the total median salary forall those nationwide. Women employeesin institutions of higher education. There, faculty members.8 Virginia state and localgovernment are women held only 26 percent of the instruc- concentrated in lower-ranking and lower- CONCLUSION paying occupations. At the tional positions in academic year 1977-78; To some degree, any interpretation of same time, moreover, they were concentrated in the women are moving into the upper echelons employment datawillbe governed by of government and lower echelons of academia. By rank, only 12 are holding upper-level attitudes toward the changingrole of decision-making positions in both prcent of full professors were women; the women. Persons holding more traditional state and local governments. Furthermore,progress comparable figures for associate professors, views of women as homemakersmay view assistant professors, and instructor: should continue as women gain seniorityand were 18 the inroads that women have made in the work percent, 30 percent, and 49 percent, respec- experience.Nevertheless, wome workplace as evidence of the failure of employees are in vulnerable positions, in tively. Preliminary figures for the 1980-81 society to preserve the homemaker role. part because of their recent entry intosome academic year indicate a slight increase in Others may view the statistics as evidence of theoverall number of women faculty occupational areas. Economic downturns the need for stronger equal employment and layoffs in the private and public members, with women making up 27 percent practices to end continuing discrimination sector. of the instructional faculty. will have a disproportionately largereffect on women than men. In addition, relaxation 'Commonwealth of Virginia. Depannent of Education. 'Commonwealth of Virginia. Council of Higher Education. Virgatia's Panda'Profile: Fall. of equal employment and affirmative Supph of Public School burrDonal Personnel: A Reporrfor the 1977SRid:mond. September 19781.pp.9 and action 14. Preliminary figum for 198041 were obtained in a telephone Year 197940(Richmond. 19801. pp, 2 and 21. practices could adversely affect thefuture interview with the Council. status of women employees nationwide.

THE UNIVERSITY pF VIRGINIA

Entered as seconcfclass matter Charlottesville, Virginia L T E

(ISSN 0042-0271) Editor I James A. (Dolph) Norton Assistant Editor / Sandra R. Wiley Published each month from September throu August by the Institute of Government, Univenity off Yuman, clsarlotterflik, Virginia 22903. The views and opinions expressed herein are those of the author, and are not to be interpreted as g the position of the Institute or the Unive rsity. Entered as moond-elass matter January 2,1925.at the poet office at Cluuiottesville, Virginia, under the act of August 24, 1912. 1911 by The Rector and Visitors of the Univerw: of Virginia. Printed by the University Printing Office. NO. 4

This News Letterwas reproduced with from the Institute of Government, Universityof Virginia. NEWS LETTER UniversityofVirginia InstituteofGovernment DECEMBER 1983

AN UPDATE ON LOCAL GOVERNMENTCONSOLIDATION IN VIRGINIA By Mary Jo Fields

Ms. Fields is an associate in research on the staff of the THE CONSOLIDATION PROCESS Institute of Government. The Virginia Constitution, in Article VII, IN VIRGINIA Section 2, provides a broad grant of author- After a decade of relative inactivity in ity to the General Assembly io enact proce- local boundary adjustments, local govern- Consolidation is the merger or combining dures for the consolidation of counties, ment consolidation once again has become a of two or more governments. A consolida- cities, towns, and regional governments. topic of discussion and debate in Virginia. tion usually takes one of three forms: (I) the Article X further allows the legislature to During the past two years, consolidation has complete unification of the governments in permit different rates of real property taxa- been studied in at least six areas of the state: an area, resulting in one government and tion in consolidated governments. Clifton Forge-Covington-Alleghany uniform services for the entire jurisdiction; The consolidation procedure established County; Staunton-Augusta County; Mar- (2) the unification of some, but not all, by the General Assembly allows any one or tinsville-Henry County; Emporia-urtens- governments with the retention of service more counties or cities with a common ville County;Charlottesville-Albemarle differentials, generally by taxing or service boundary or any county and all of its towns County; and Pulaski-Dublin-Pulaski district. Virginia law allows each of these to consolidate as a county or city. The County.The renewal of interest in consolida- types of consolidation. tion was triggered in part by the enactment Because consolidations are difficult to of the "annexation package" of legislation achieve anoZie:r type of reorganization has by the 1979 General Assembly, which sig- beensuggested as an alternative toconsolida- On December 13 at the State Capitol, nalled the end of a series of moratoriums on tion. The comprehensive urban county Governor Charles S. Robb announced city-initiated annexations, city incorpora- involves the tranfer of some functions to an that the National Endowment for the tions, and some consolidations that had areawide government, usually a county gov- Humanities has awarded a grant of bn in place for most of the period since ernment, with the retention of more special- 5205,000 to the Institute of Government 1S/1. ized functions by municipal governments. for a series of twenty public forums The interest in consolidation is by no Thus the comprehensive urban 1..Nunty really leading up to the commemoration of the means new to Virginia localities; indeed, Vir- is a partial functional consolidation. While 200th anniversary of the United States ginia has seen more consolidations of local current Virginia law does not provide for Constitution in 1987. governments than any other state in the this type of consolidation, the General "The Constitution and the Common- wealth: nation. From 1952 to 1974, fourteen coun- Assembly probably will be asked to consider TheVirginiaCourtDays ties, cities, and towns combined to form the legislation allowing it since the Staunton- Forums, 1984-86" is a part of a broader five consolidated cities in Tidewater Virgin- Augusta County proposal (discussed later in arrayofcommemorativeactivities iathe cities of Hampton, Newport News, this article) would establish this type of planned by the Institutr which was asked Virginia Beach, Chesapeake, and Suffolk. arrangement. by Governor Robb in 1982 to offer staff assistance and support for opportunities During the same time period, referendums Constitutional and statutory provisions "for Virginians to reflect on our constitu- on consolidation were held in five other governing the consolidation process in Vir- areas of the state, and consolidation was ginia are flexible and fairly simple. Gener- tional heritage." Governor Robb has been represented in the planning for considered in at least twelve more. ally, the state laws do not place obstacles in ThisNews Letterwill focus on recent local the way of local efforts to consolidate; Court Days and other commemorative activities by A.E. Dick Howard, Counse- government consolidation activity in Virgin- further, the General Assembly generally has ia by presenting an overview of the consolida- lor to the Governor and eminent constitu- responded to requests to amend the process tional scholar. tion process allowed by Virginia state law, to facilitate merger negotiations. In con- Further details on the Court Days reviewing the status of consolidation efforts, trast, some other states either do not permit and discussing the effectiveness of consolida- series are provided on the back page of local governments to merge or have fairly this News Letter. tion as a means of governmental reorganiza- restrictive and cumbersome statutes govern- tion. ing the process. 20

following outline includes only the major only factor that motivates consolidation those twelve years, referendums on consoli- stepsinthe consolidationprocedure campaigns. Experience in Virginia and else- dation were defeated in Winchester-Freder- required by state law) where in the nation suggests that major ickCounty(1969).Roanoke-Roanoke structural changes often occur because of a 1. The local governing bodies County (1969), Charlottesville-Albemarle "precipitating event" that may be viewed as a County (1970), andBristol-Washington negotiate a consolidation agree- crisis situation by either the local electorate ment. (The Code also provides for County (1971). The only consolidations that or political leaders. Other important factors occurred during these years were town citizen-initiated consolidation include the support of local political leaders efforts; a decision by the Virginia mergersbetween Tazewell and Non h Taze- and the sense of a community of interests well in 1963 and Christiansburg and Cam- Supreme Court on theconstitution- between the consolidating governments. ality of these provisions currently bria in1964. Then in1972 Nansemond is pending.) Cot.nty consolidated with its two small 2. Aftertheagreement is HISTORY OF CONSOLIDATION townsHolland and Whaleyvilleas the reached, the agreement must be EFFORTS IN VIRGINIA sty of Nansemond. Two years later, the filed with the circuit court, neigh- merger of the cities of Nansemond and Several of the consolidations that have boring jurisdictions must be noti- Suffolk went into effect. While annexation occurred in Virginia had a common precipi- fied of the agreement, and the had a role to play in these consolidations, tating eventthe threat of annexation bya some city officials feel that a more important agreement must be published in antral city. The threat of annexation, local newspapers. motivation was the voters' feeling that h 3. If a consolidated city is pro- coupled with the statewide practice of city- consolidated government would save county separation, was a factor in the series posed, a special three-judge court money. of events leading to the creation of the five determines if the city is eligible for Frustrated with the problems of boundary consolidated cities in Tidewater Virginia, city status. adjustments between Richmond and Hen- although the importance of annexation var- 4. The referendum on consolida- rico County, the 1971 General Assembly ied from situation to situation. tion is held; to pass, it must receive enacted a moratorium on both annexations Hampton, the first example of city-county a favorable majority vote in each and city incorporations for certain areas of consolidation in the state, resulted from the irisdiction proposing to consoli- the state. The next year, this moratorium merger of the City of Hampton, Elizabeth date. was applied statewide to :'; counties adjoin- City County, and the Town of Phoebus ;- 5. The General Assembly must ing cities; in addition, the General Assembly enact a charter for a consolidated 1952. Annexation certainly was a m: pet a halt to the ability of these counties to city; in some instances, General factor in this case; Hampton was more cie become cities through consolidation. The less forced to join consolidation efforts when Assembly approval must be sought morato.ium removed consolidation as a if a consolidated county is pro- Elizabeth City and Phoebus began consider- possibility for some local governments, and ing merger as a city to prevent Hampton posed. interest in consolidation waned as a result. from annexing, a move that would have left 6. In the case of a consolidated Between 1972, when Suffolk and Nanse- Hampton with no means of expansion. county, new county officers are mond voters elected to merge, and 1983, (While Hampton was the first merger of a electedpriortoconsolidation, only on: consolidation referendum was unless the consolidation agree- city and county, the cities of Richmond and heldir the town of Front Royal and Manchester had merged in 1910, and the ment otherwise specifies the mem- Warren County in 1976. That consolidation towns of Waynesboro and Basic City had bership of the governing body. effort was unsuccessful. consolidated in 1923.) 7. On the date specified in the As previously noted, the recent surge in Then in 1952 Warwick County incorpo- agreement, the consolidated gov- consolidation can be attributed in part to the rated as a city to thwart possible annexation ernment comes into being. lifting of the moratorium in 1979 and to Virginia law allows local officials wide attempts by Newport News. Concern about other parts of the 1979 annexation package, the economic and political future of the latitude in aesigning the form of a consoli- particularly the provisions relating to negoti- region led these two eies to consolidate in dated government. A county oi city can be ation of boundary disputes. Whether any of 1958. proposed; special taxing and service districts the efforts will culminate in a merger, how- Until 1960 the state's consolidation sta- can be established; the size and method of ever, is open to question. In fact, one of the tutes applied only to a limited number of election of the governing body can be deter- consolidation efforts has already met defeat mined. Also, town governments can be local governments in the state. In that year, at the polls. however, the statutes were amended to apply retained; in fact, towns do not have to be a statewide, primarilyto RECENT CONSOLIDATION ACTIVITY party to a consolidation agreement between accommodate merger talks between the City of Richmond Pulaski County-Pulaski Town- a city and county. In this case, the agreement and Henrico County. The consolidation does not have to be approved by the town Dublin Town council, and town voters do not have to referendums held in those localities failed, however, and instead consolidation activity approve the consolidation in a separate The most recent consolidation referen- moved south across the Hampton Roads referendum. The discretion permitted local dum held in the state sought the approval of port. In 1962, the City of Virginia Beach and officials understate law certainly has contrib- the voters of Pulaski County and the towns Princess Anne County merged as the City of uted to the high success rate (whencom- of Pulaski and Dublin on whether their pared to other states) that cbnsolidation Virginia Beach; the City of South Norfolk governments should consolidateasthe efforts in Virginia have enjoyed. and Norfolk County merged as the City of County of Pulaski. The referendum was Chesapeake. Both these consolidations were While the flexibility of the statutory pro- defeated by the voters in each of these viewed as means of avoiding annexation by cess governing consolidation can affect the localities in July I9g3. The results of the consolidation effort, it by no means is the the central cities of Norfolk and Ports- referendum were a major blow to efforts to mouth. reorganize the local governments in Pulaski After 1962 consolidation efforts were County. Me basic procedure (or consolidation is contained in Virginia unsuccessful until the merger of the cities of Those efforts began during the early 1980s Code. sections 15.:1130.1 through 13.14107. Suffolk and Nansemond in 1974. During with a series of meetings between officials

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from the Town of Pulaski and Pulaski 19S2 General Assembly. in order the facili- territory from city annexation and city incor- "ounty about a possible town annexation tate the negotiations among the govern- poration. The Waynesboro city council sit. These meetings evolvedintothe ments in Pulaski County. amended several voted in August to begin annex,on pro- appointment of a joint study committee on sections of the consolidation statutes relat- ceedings; the Staunton city council took consolidation, city status, and annexation, ing to the establishment of shires, specia: similar action in October. In the meantime, with members appointed from the county service and taxing districts, and the consoli- negotiations between the county and each of and the towns of Pulaski and Dublin. This dation of a county and all towns within it as the cities had begun, .gith the purpose of committee commissioned a report, issued in a county. Legal oarriers to reaching a consol- reaching a negotiated settlement for the August 1982, on function, and governmen- idation agreement thus were not a problem partial immunity and annexation proceed- tal consolidation, as well as city status for in Pulaski County. ings. In December 1982 the Commission on and annexation by the Town of Pulaski. The Seco.1, the consolidation effort should Local Government recommended against report recommended the complete consoii- have been aided by the fact that the county partial immunity for Augusta County, and dation of the two towns and the county already provided some services to town negotiations over theannexationsuits city status was judged to be too costly, and residents, including education, social ser- resumed again. While Waynesboro con- annexation would be only a temporary vices, and the functions performed by consti- tinued to press for annexation, Augusta solution, while consolidation would save tutional officers. Because independent cities County and Staunton began considering money.2 were not involved in the consdidaticsa cam- consolidation as a solution to their interlocal A consolidation agreement then was pre- paign, it would seem that the merger might problems. By March 1983, the localities had pared by a consolidation advisory commit- have been somewhat easier to achieve. agreed to sit the consolidation of their tee; by March 1983, the three localities had Regardless of the dependent status of Vir- governments int., a single. two-tier govern- agreed to hold the referendum on the consoli- ginia towns, however, town residents have ment in which general government services dation. The consolidation agreement did not strong ties to their communities. 5 veral would be handled by the first tier and special receive unanimous support from all of the persons at the public hearings held on the urban services, by the second. governing bodies involved, however, and, as cot,solidation campaign in Pulaski County The agreement reached between the city noted earlier, it was rejected by the voters. testified that they feared the loss of co mmun- and county also specified that the localities The consolidation agreement would have ..,. identity in a consolidated county. News- were to hire a consultant to develop a established a unique local government in Vir- paper accounts on the day after the referen- consolidation plan based on the two-tier giniaa consolidated county.3 The agree- dum noted that voters had indicated more government, appoint an advisory committee ment proposed that the two towns and the concern about protecting their community to assist the consultant, and a; point an county merge as a county, that the county be identities than saving tax dollars through appeals commission to handle disagree- divided into shires (two of which would merger. ments about the consolidation study. The consist of the former towns of Pulaski and Staunton-Augusta County agreement contains strong incentives for nublin), a' .2 that the Dublin and Pulaski consolidation: if the referendum on consoli- sires also would serve as special taxing and Staunton, the birthplace of the city man- dation is not approved, Staunton will annex service districts. Additional servicesside- ager form of government in the United Augusta County territory. The amount of walk and street maintenance, fire protec- States, is now a partner in the proposed territory will depend on which government tion, law enforcement, recreation, and street creation of a new form of local government faiis to approve the agreement or, if the lightingwould be provided within these in Virginia: the tier-city. The proposal, while agreement passes. on the results of the districts. The governing body of the consoli- new to Virginia, resembles proposals for the consolidation referendum.Ifeither the dated county would be a seven-member creation of urban county governments in county board or the county voters reject board of supervisors, elected from single other states, Indeed, the proposal is not a consolidation, Staunton will anr,cabout 16 member districts for four-year terms. complete consolidation, as two governments square mile% of territory. In the event the city The defeat of th' consolidation referen- will continue to exist. council or city voters reject consolidation, dum in the county t -cl the towns highlights The proposal for the consolidation of the city will annex onlyIImiles. The the importance of the factors that motivate Augusta County and Staunton into a consol- rejection of the consolidation plat, by the consolidation. First, while annexation by idated Augusta County and the tier-city of city and the county means the city will ant= the town was an issue, there really was no Staunton was unveiled in October 1983. The about 13 miles.' "precipitating event" or crisis situation to city and county now are trying to reso'sle In October, only several months after the command the allegiance of both the elector- differences over some of the points in the county and city had agreed to study .onsoli- ate and political leaders for consolidation. consolidation plan. The localities are work- dation, a consolidation plan was pr.sented Second, local leaders were decidedly not ing under an immediate deadlineany bills w the localities. Some of the major points united about the consolidationas an exam- to amend state statutes that concern the included in the plan, as proposed by the ple, newspaper articles noted that four consolidation must be filed with the General consultant hired by the localities, are sum- members of the Pulaski town council voted Assembly by January 11. If the '4,ty and marized below.s in favor of holding the referendum on con- county are able to reach final agreement on solidation but did not endorse he proposed the consolidation plan and the General Form of government. A consolidated agreement. Assembly makestheneededstatutory county (to be named Augusta) is proposed On the tither hand, two factors should changes, the, referendum will be held in the as the upper or general er of government. have worked for the consolidation. First, fan of 1984. Provided the referendum is The second tier is the ties city of Staunton, once again the flexibility of Virginia statutes approved by both th" county and city voters, which includes almost doubl: the area of the governing consolidation was proven. The the consolidation wail take place on July I, present city of Staunton. The proposed tier- 1985. oity, unlike other cities in Virginia, is not The consolidation plan followed a year and a half of meetings, confrontations and +See Muniapal Advisors. Inc. Report to the Joust Study negotiations between the county and city .SttulaAtrrensent fur Contuhdonon. agreement hei.een Committee on Coruohaetoon. City411a.andAf1,414110M1 Augusta County And Staunton, Virginia (licroied, March 21, August 1981.202.4. that began in April 1982, when Augusta County filed notice with the Commission on 190). +Consolidatson Advisor/ Committee, Agreement ratehluhutz +Municipal Advisors Inc. A Ciniadarnin Minh Int the the Tow and Conthtioeu of the Coluoltdarton of: lb. 0/ Local government that it intended to peti- County of Augusta. ;Wino end the Cur II &suntan. Virginia. Orden Torun oftuSitakt. County oftuldsti(utost8.ri tion oartial immunity of some county hitunte llh The Consohdastnn ha. tzernacd.Octoher 15.19x21 3 8' 22

independent and separate from the county; submitted for arbitration to the appeals fund. The share is based on a fixed like towns, it is part of the county. commission, whose decision is binding. As percentage of the total assessed Governing bodies and elected officials. of early December, the city and county were value of taxable real property. Under the terms of the proposed agreement. debating a number of issues. including the 2. The fundisthen divided each tier has its own elected governing body. boundary of thetier-city. whether the between the city and county by a The county board of supervisors has either county should operate under the county formula based on population and seven or eight members (depending on the manager form of government. whether fire true real property tax rates. results of a referendum), each elected from a services should be consolidatedinthe 3. A limit is put on the total single-member district. (The tier-cityis county government, the number and boun- amount of funds that can be trans- divided among three of these districts.) daries of the county magisterial districts, ferred to either jurisdiction from Because the plan specifies that the county and what revenue sources the tier-city will the fund. would operate under the county manager have. The agreement went into effect in 1983. form of government, the only other elected For this first year, the net effect was that the officials for the county are the sheriff, Com- Clifton Forge-Covington- county transferred $1.3 million to the city. monwealth's attorney, and circuit court Alleghany County The county's payments will increase as its clerk. The tier-city has a seven-member The independent cities of Clifton Forge tax base grows; but if the county's popula- council elected at large. No separate constitution grows faster than its tax base or if the tional officers are elected in the tier-city. and Covington and Alleghany County had a combined population in city's relative wealth increases, the amount Because the tier-city is part of the county, 1980 of about 28,500 persons. These three local govern- paid by the county will decrease. tier-city residents vote for both county and Also included in the revenue sharing agree- tier-city officeholders. ments were facing stagnant or declining population growth and decreases in state ment is a provision requiring the city and Division of services. Additional services and federal aid, and they were concerned county to appoint a committee to study the that can be provided by the tier-city include about the future economic growth and devel- desirability of either total governmental con- police: street. roads, sidewalks, and storm opment of their region. Covington was solidation or the consolidation of services drains: garbage collection and disposal: threatening to initiate an annexation suit; only. To date the committee has requested a water and sewerage; public transportation: the county and Clifton Forge were consider- background study on governmental consoli- parking; and cable television. Functions to ing consolidation as a means of forestalling dation as well as studies in a number of be assigned to the county include education. Covington's ability to annex. functional areas, including law enforcement, health, welfare, courts. property assessment, In an effort to work together, in March social services, and education. The delibera- fire services. voter registration. library ser- 1982 the three localities agreed to explore a tions of the consolidation study committe- vices, street lighting. and housing of prison- range of alternatives for delivering public are continuing, although at this point cons( ers. The consultants predict that through the services in the Alleghany Highlands. The idation does not appear to be an immediati. elimination of some positions and increased alternativesselected alternative. efficiency, the co.-:solidation would save for study included annexation by Covington, economic growth almost half a million dollars in the first Martinsville-Henry County budget year. sharing, consolidation of Clifton Forge and Alleghany County, consolidation of all three Taxes. Under the agreement, the county In 1981 the Martinsville city council and governments, and consolidation of services has exclusive power to levy the personal the Henry County board of supervisors but not governments. The study's results, property tax: consumer utility tax; business, created a merger study commission that was released in February 1983, concluded that asked to "analyze functional and political professional, and occupational license taxes; consolidation of all three governments was and local motor vehicle registration licenses. aspects of the two governments and deter- the best long-term solution for the area's Both the coth.ty and tier -city have authority mine the feasibility of total or partial governmental problems.6 to levy real estate taxes. Thus, tier-city merger."8 At a June 1982 joint meeting of In November thethree governments the council and board, the study committee residents would pay real estate property agreed to develop a consolidation plan that taxes to both tiers of government. Despite recommended the full merger of the city and will be put before the voters in a referendum this, the estimates are that current Staunton county. A month later, the two localities by May 1985. The consolidation plan will city residents would experience a 20 percent appointed a committee to draw up a consoli- include an annexation back-up agreement reductioninreal dation agreement. That committee prepared estatetaxes; current that will specify voluntary boundary adjust- Augusta County residents that become tier- a draft agreement establishing a consoli- ments in the event the consolidation attempt dated city and drawing heavily upon consoli- city residents would see increases in their is unsuccessful. real estate taxes, while the remainder of dation plans developed in the Tidewater. Last April, however, the city and county Augusta County residents would realize a Charlottesville-Albemarle County slight reduction in taxes. negotiating teams reported that they were Expansion of the tier-city. The tier-city In February 1982 governing bodies of the unable to overcome two major areas of will not be able to regain city status for thirty Cityof CharlottesvilleandAlbemarle disagreement: the handling of existing debts years following consolidation. Ten years County reached an agreement in which in the consolidated government and the after consolidation, however, the tier-city Charlottesvillerelinquishesitsrightto method of election (ward or at-large) of new will be able to initiate annexation suits. The annex county territory in exchange for shar- city officials. The movement toward full territory included in Augusta County's peti- ing the revenues collected from real estate consolidationof the two governments tion for partial immunity will not be subject property tax levies in the county.' Revenues appears to have come to a halt, although to annexation by the tier-city. are shared as follows: administrative and elected officials are still Since October, when the plan was subinit- I. The city and county put a exploring the possibility of the consolie ted to the city and county, both localities share of their real property tax tion of some services. have prepared lists of objections, additions, revenuesinarevenue-sharing recommendations, and corrections to the `John McNair and Assoctates. Alleghany Highlands Gown,. iMartirmille.Herry County Merger Study Committee. Sum. proposal. Points on which the city and mental Summary: Executive Summary (December 1982). man, Repott to a Joint Session of the Henry County Booed of 'Annexation and Revenue Sharing Agreement Between the Coy county are unzole to reach agreement will be Supenuoes and Martinsville Coy Council (zeroxed. June 28. of Chatlotterytk and Albemarle Counry(xeroxed. June 28. 1988). 1982). 23

Emporia-Greensville County pending political crisis. A well-developed 3. Consolidation weakens community body of literature in public administration identification. Citizens' identification with The consolidation of the City of Emporia favors larger and more efficient local govern- counties, cities, and towns will not be carried and Greensville County has been discussed ments, which are sometimes best obtained over to the new, larger consolidated govern- for over a decade. The most recent impetus through consolidation. In any consolidation ment. for consolidation began in 1978 when a campaign, a number of additionalrgu- group of citizens petitioned the circuit court 4. People are closer to smaller governments for the effort are advanced; oppo- ments than larger ones. Further, smaller to force the initiation of the consolidation nents of consolidation counter these with process. City and county committees were governments are more easily controlled by their own set of arguments. Here is a brief the people. Two or more governments are appointed to develop a consolidation plan, summary of the arguments that generally are but they were not successful in their efforts. preferable to one bigger government that made both for and against consolidation. will rely on a larger impersonal bureaucracy. TheninApril1981thecircuit court appointed a citizens committee to develop Arguments in Favor ,r Consolidation 5. Consolidation trades the status quo for the consolidation agreement, as allowed by the unknown. Resistance to change often Virginia's consolidationprocedure. The I. A consolidated government is more thwarts attempts at consolidation. (On the city, however, challenged the constitutional- efficient and effective than several smaller other hand, dissatisfaction with the status ity of these provisions of the procedure. Th at governments. Costs can be held down and quo may be a precipitating event, if some case has been heard by the Supreme Court of perhaps reduced through the elimination of type of crisis emerges.) Virginia, which is expected to render an duplicative services, personnel, and equipment. Further, the larger unit may be able to opinion early in 1984. Conclusion In the meantime, the Emporia city council take advantage of "economies of scale" or voted to annex over six miles of Greensville lower per-unit costs for government ser- Whatever the arguments are for or against County territory. In Septemb'er 1982 the city vices. consolidation, this process, like annexation, and county, with the help of a mediator, 2. Consolidation helps eliminate spill- has been a means for some cities to solve the announced that they had signed an intergov- overs or externalities. Many government problems of fixed borders, declining popula- ernmental agreement that allows Emporia services benefit citizens in adjoining areas tions, and stagnant economies. In Virginia. to annex over four square miles. The Com- who neither pay for the service nor share in however, the process has been used to pre- mission on Local Government subsequently the effort involved in its delivery. These vent the expansion of central cities by sur- gave its approval to this agreement in May "spillovers" are eliminatedif the taxing rounding them with other cities, which can- 1983. However, the agreement will not jurisdiction is coterminous with the service not be annexed. Thus the consolidations in become effective, and the annexation will jurisdiction. While the complete elimination Tidewater resulted in a landlocked Norfolk not take place, until the Supreme Court's of spillovers is probably impossible, the and Portsmouth. If the Staunton-Augusta opinion on the constitutionality of citizen- larger jurisdiction is better able to avoid the County proposal is approved, Waynesboro initiated consolidation effortsis handed problem than are several smaller ones. will be unable to grow. down. If the court rules that the consolida- 3. The environment for decision making Other cities, such as Richmond and Roa- tion effort is to proceed, then the annexation and long-range planning is improved. A noke, are unable to annex territory because case will be postponed until that effort is single government in an area is better able to the counties that border them are immune resolved. A successful completion of a con- coordinate policies and decisions than are from annexation. Cities reaching annexa- solidation agreement and approval of that several governments. tion agreements since 1979 may have had agreement at the polls would mean an end to 4. Consolidated governments, with only their last chance at territorial expansion the annexation case. If the consolidation one governing body, are easier for the citi- since the county areas surrour ding them effort fails, however, the annexation will zens to understand and use. Decision mak- may well be immune from annexa'inn by the proceed.9 ing and service responsibilities are more time the cities are allowed to stet the clearly defined and understood. process again. Thus, cities such as Frede- Thinking About Consolidation 5. Consolidation matches area needs with ricksburg, Harrisonburg, and Williamsburg area resources. Tax burdens within a com- may find themselves precluded from future Recent experience in Virginia reinforces munityare equalized through the creation of the idea that some type of precipitating event annexationefforts.Charlottesvillehas a government that more clearly corresponds excluded itself permanently from annexa- may be necessary for the voters and elected to area needs. officials to contemplate or agree to a govern- tion through its participation in the revenue sharing agreement with Albemarle County. mental change as drastic as that of consolid a- Arguments Against Consolidation tion. Research on local government consoli- Whether consolidation will be a viable dations in Virginia and across the nation I. Larger, consolidated governments do future alternative for cities that cannot exer- often point to the need for this precipitating not save money; in fat.statistics show that cise the annexation option is open to ques- event to spark the consolidation momen- larger governments have greater per capita tion. It may well be that other "precipitating tum. Consolidation efforts, however, repres- costs than smaller ones. events" will develop, or, as could happen in ent more than a response to some type of 2. By consolidating, the benefits of diver- Charlottesville and Albemarle County, the sity of governments are lost. Citizens arc not spirit of cooperation engendered by revenue- able to show their approval or disapproval sharing agreements or cooperative activities of government policies by moving. Consoli- may help lead to consolidation. On the other hand, consolidation activity may well con- 'Commission on 'coal Gounment.Report on the Cityof dation results in a monopoly that-stifles the EmportoCounty of Grernsvilk Annexe:son Agreement 'Rich- competitive drive, produces uniformity, and tinue at its present pace, but with very few :rout. May 1983). decreases options for citizens. completed mergers.

Persons or institutions may be placed on the mailing list to receive copies of the News Letter by sending a written request to News Letter, 207 Minor Hall, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903. The complete mailing address should be printed or typed, and the Zip Code should be included. 02p )0c:- THE CONSTITUTION AND THE COMMONWEALTH' THE VIRGINIA COURT DAYSFORUMS, 1984-86

"The Constitution and the Common- "The Constitution as Symbol and Sub- wealth: The Virginia Court Days Forums" is SWINDLER, John Marshall Professor of stance: What DoesConstitutionalism a series of twenty public forums on the Law Emeritus at the College of William an(' Mean?" The palelists for the forum include Mary, and author ofCourt and Constitutio United States Constitution to take placeat A. E. DICK HOWARD, White Burkett various sites in the 20th Century;and THAD W. TATE, throughout the Common- Miller Professor of Law and Public Affairs wealth over the next three years. The series is Director of the Institute for Early American at the University of Virginia and author of History and Culture at the .2ollege of Wil- intended to promote a broader public under- Commentaries on the Constitution of Virgin- standing of persistent issues of constitu- liam and Mary and author of "The Social ia;MERRILL D. PETERSON, Thomas Contract in America, 1774-1787," in the tional governance, as the nation looks ahead Jefferson Professor of History at the Univer- to its third century under the Constitution; William and Mary Quarterly.Further sity of Virginia and author ofThe Jefferson to foster a greater appreciation of the Consti- details or. the Williamsburg forum will Image in the American Mind;WILLIAM F. appear in the January 1984 tution and of Virginia's contributionto its News Letter. creation and evolution; and toencourage citizen participation in the discussion of SCHEDULE OF FORUMS public affairs, through the revival ofthe (CH:Courthouse) Court Days tradition of eighteenth century Virginia. 1984 Forums Each forum will be held in a city or county THE CONSTITUTION AS SYMBOL ANDSUBSTANCE (Colonial Williamsburg CH of 1770)/ courthouse at a site relevant to the constitu- RELIGION AND THE CONSTITUTION (OrangeCo. CH)/ DEMOCRATIC REPRESENTA- tional issue to be discussed. The forum itself TION UNDER THE CONSTITUTION (LoudounCounty CH) /COURTS AND THE CONSTI- will bring together a panel ofexperts- - TUTION (Richmond City John Marshall CourtsBldg.) drawn from the fields of history, political economy, philosophy, and lawwith a 1985 Forums general audience, who will join withthe panel in a free-flowing discussion of ideas FEDERALISM AND THE CONSTITUTION (DanvilleCity CH)/THE PHILOSOPHICAL and points of view on the topic of that ROOTS OF THE CONSTITUTION (AlbemarleCo. CH)/THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT AND INTERSTATE COMMERCE (Wise Co. forum. The historical background andcon- CH)/TECHNOLOGY AND THE CONSTITU- temporary debate on the issue to be dis- TION (Augusta Co. CH)/ CONFLICTING RIGHTS UNDERTHE CONSTITUTION (Hanover Co. CH)/ SUFFRAGE AND THE CONSTITUTION cussed at a particular forum will beexam- (Roanoke City CH)/SCHOOLS AND THE ined in an article in theUniversity of Virgin- CONSTITUTION (Hampton City CH)/ CH ANG1NG THECONSTITUTION (Westmoreland Co. CH)/THE CONSTITUTION AND THE BUREAUCRACY ia News Letter,which will be issued six to (Alexandria City CH) eight weeks in advance of the forum. Tenof the twenty forums will be videotaped by the 1914 Forums Central Virginia Educational Television Cor- FOREIGN POLICY UNDER THE CONSTITUTION poration for later broadcast on WCVE-TV, (Fredericksburg City CH) /DEMO- CRACY AND THE CONSTITUTION (Winchester City Channel 23, in Richmond. CH)/THE CONSTITUTION AND THE WORLD ECONOMY (Norfolk City CH)/ FEDERALISMAND THE CONSTITUTION (Bristol The first forumto be held at the Court- City CH)/ NATIONAL AND STATE CITIZENSHIP house of 1770 in Colonial Williamsburg UNDER THE CONSTITUTION (Peters- on burg City CH)/STATE CONSTITUTIONS AND February 28, 1984will deal with the topic, THE U.S. CONSTITUTION (Henrico Co. CH)/ CAPITALISM AND THE CONSTITUTION(Lynchburg City Old Hustings CH) Editor's note: Since 1987 will mark the 200th anniversary of the Unned States Constitution. the News Letter is and puhlications on constitutional themes of interest carrying regularly in this space announcements of upcoming activities to Virginians. Funding for this service has been provided in part bya grant from the Virginia Foundattor for the Humanities and Public Policy. For further information on the 200thanniversary of the H.S. Constitution in Virginia. contact Timothy Unhersity of Virginia. Charlottesville 22908 G. 0' Rourke at the institute of Government. 107 Minor Hall. or A. E Dick Howard at the Office of the Governor. Richmond 23219.

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

NEWS LETTER

(ISSN 0042-0271) Executive Editor I James A. (Dolph) Norton- Managing Editor / Sandra H. Wiley Published. monthly by the Institute of Govern- ment, University of Virginia,tharlottesville, Virgin- is 22903. The views and opinions gemmed herein are those of the anthers, and are not to be interpreted as representing the official position of the Imitate or the Untvenity.. Entered as secood-eims matter Aviary 2,1926, at the post offccat Chmiotteeville, Virginia, under the act of August 24, 1912. 1983 by The Rectorand Visiton of the University of Virginia. Ptintad by the University Printing Office.. OL. 60 NO. 8

This News Letter was reproduced with permission from theInstitute of Government, Universityof Virginia. NEWS LETTER University of Virginia Institute of Government APRIL 1984

ANNEXATION RESUMES IN VIRGINIA Jack D. Edwards

The author is professor of government and acting dean political incompetence and corruption. These of the faculty of arts and sciences at the College of Willsam for this purpose. Reliance upon the judiciary and Mary. He also has been a member of the board of citizens, once they had become suburban has been questioned upon occasion, but it supervisors of James City County since 1972. residents, used their political influence to has always been reaffirmed.' This News Letter obtain laws that made annexation by the city does not attempt to evaluate the practice of After eight years of legislative struggle, the less likely. Some states provided that only judicial determination or that of city-county Virginia General Assembly in 1979 approved unincorporated areas could be annexed and separation. a new annexation statute, to become effective then made it easier for small territories outside From the passage of the state's annexation in 1980. The .passage of this statute ended the city to incorporate; many states provided statute in 1904 until the general moratorium a moratorium on annexation that the General that annexation could take place only after on annexation in 1971, Virginia's cities were Assembly had imposed initially in 1971. Some a favorable vote of the people in the affected highly successful in annexation litigation. newspapers announced that the statute also area. The effect of these measures was to slow Some city requests were modified by judicial marked the end of annexation as a majo- the pace of annexation, as well as to make panels during the course of the proceedings, issue in the state. While that was a sound it more controversial. and occasionally a city lost a suit, but nearly prediction for some parts of the state, the One additional factor has made annexation all annexation casec were resolved in ways new statute merely marked the resumption in Virginia more controversial than elsewhere. acceptable to the cities. This situation worked of battle in many other areas. This News In other states, a city is part of the county satisfactorily, if not happily, as long as the Letter, after a brief review of Virginia's annex- in which it is located. The county is usually cities were the only effective providers of ation process, will focus on five communities authorized to tax the property of all residents necessary services. But in the 1950s and 1960s, that have gone through all or part of an of the county, including those living within when some counties began to develop tra- annexation controversy since passage of the city boundaries. Thus, an increase in the ditional municipal services, annexation con- new legislation. jurisdiction of the city does not decrease the troversies began to pit one service provider taxing power of the county. Virginia is unique THE ANNEXATION PROCESS against another. This conflict intensified pres- in having a statewide system of city-county sure to abolish annexation. The General Annexation is the process by which a city separation. Each city and county is respon- Assembly, recognizing the fact that the state's extends it boundaries to include unincorpo- sible for providing services only within its increasing urbanization would only exacer- rated land lying outside the city. Annexation borders; there is no overlap of political juris- bate the problems surrounding annexation, traditionally was one o'" the major ways in diction and taxing authority. Thus annexa- imposed its moratorium in 1971 to provide which American cities expanded, especially tion in Virginia is a "zero-sum" game: what- time for con:Adering other solutions. between 1850 and 1920. Extension of a city's ever a city gains is lost to the county. This boundaries was a logical way to provide fact obviously increases the divisiveness of The greatest impetus for the moratorium services to people in fringe areas near the city. annexation in Virginia. may have come from the celebrated annex- This solution was usually satisfactory to both ation dispute involving the City of Richmond the city that provided the services and the and the counties of Henrico and Chesterfield. fringe residents who needed them. Further- THE DEVELOPMENT OF ANNEXATION IN In 1964 Richmond win an annexation decree more, theoutlying jurisdiction (often a VIRGINIA against Henrico County, but the city declined county) usually did not object strongly since Prior to 1904, changes in city boundaries the award because it considered the compen- it was unable to provide the necessary services. occurred as a result of special acts of the sation to be excessive. The city then activated a Annexation has been less useful for solving Virginia General Assembly. The Constitution longstandingsuitagainstChesterfield the "metropolitan problem,"that is,the of 1902 authorized general laws pertaining County; after long negotiations, the two juris- existence of numerous political jurisdictions to boundary changes, and the General Assem- dictions reached a settlement before the trial within a single social and economic metro- bly approved st'ch a law in 1904. The Assem- began. The court decree, which ratified the settlement, was then attacked in both federal politan area. Many persons aided by the bly's legislation vested decision-makingpow- ready availability of the automobile, began ers in the courts. Since that time, annexation and state courts. While annexation ultimately to choose a home outside the city, in order determinations have been made by three- was upheld, the lengthy proceedings made it to escape the aspects of city residence that judge courts, with appeal to the Virginia I. Commonwealth of Virginia. Report of the Cornmunon on were considered undesirablethe high costs Supreme Court. While Virginia is not unique CuyCounty Relattoruhtpt, House Document 27. 1975. pp,, 33. of living in the central city, for example, as in employing the judicia: process forannex- 35. Thomas 5, 3Asehie and Marcia S. Muhaw. 'Annexation and well as what was perceived as the city's State Aid to Lecalines A Compromise is Reached." Untvertuy ation, it has been the leading user of the courts of Vvruue Newt Letter. July 1979. g 41.

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clear that some reconsideration of the annex- not illustrate a single clear point, instead, they Harrisonburg sought a substantial part of ation statute was needed. show considerable diversity among commun- Rockingham County. The proposed annex- At the same time that the moratorium ities that may appear to be quite similar. This ation area included 9.1 percent of the county's was imposed in 1971, the General Assembly diversity points to the difficulty of writing population, 14,1 percent of the county's prop- established the Commission on City-County general statewide legislation that will work erty values subject to local taxation, and a Relationships (usually referred to as the fairly in a variety of circumstances. substantial 65.4 percent of local sales tax Stuart Commission) to review the entire mat- receipts. The Commission on Local Gov Irn- ter. In 1977 the General Assembly came close ment recommended approval of almost all to passing an annexation bill, based largely HARRISONBURGROCKINGHAM of the annexation request. The Commission on the Stuart Commission's recommenda- COUNTY \also ...commended that Harrisonburg be tions. When that effort narrowly failed, the The dispute between Harrisonburg and to assume a portion of the county's Assembly extended its moratorium (sche- Rockingham County was the first case to be long-term debt and to compensate the county duled to expire on June 30, 1977) for ten decided under the new statute. Harrisonburg, for a loss of net tax revenue, The annexation years. Then-Governor Godwin signed the with a 1980 population of 19,671, has expe- court, in turn, approved the Commission's measure only after extracting promises from rienced little growth during the past two recommendations, with very little change. many interested persons, including leaders of decades except for the expansion of James Many annexation controversies are fueled the Virginia Municipal League and the Vir- Madison University. Harrisonburg is typical by a desire on the part of a city to capture ginia Association of Counties, that they of the small cities that are the protagonists a particular revenw:-producing development would work toward a prompt resolution of in the current generation of annexation cases. that lies just beyond the boundaries of the the problem. This agreement provided sup- Since the new statute became effective, no city. This element was present in the Har- port for the process that culminated in 1979 large cities have been involved in annexation risonburg-Rockingham struggle. The Valley with the final approval of the new annexation suits, since usually they are rurrounded by Mall, located within the annexed area, con- statute, which became effective in 1980. the more populous counties that are com- tains approximately 40 percent of all retail The new statute made one basic change pletely immune under the .new statute. space in major shopping areas in the Har- in annexation law by providing permanent Rockingham County had a 1980 popula- risonburg area, and about 50 percent of the immunity to the nine counties that are con- tion of 57,038, which is large for a Virginia retail sales volume within the annexation area, sidered the most urban in Virginia. In addi- county. The county has been growing rapidly according to the Commission's report. This tion, a new "partial immunity" provision in some of the areas near Harrisonburg. In one shopping mall had contributed abtAt half authorizes a county to seek immunity for spite of its large population, Rockingham of all the sales tax revenue in Rockingham designatod county areas adjacent to a city that County will not be immune from annexation County. Annexaticns can be particularly divi- are valuable to the county and might be the for many years. To qualify for immunity, sive if a city has an opportunity toannex subject of an annexation suit. If the local a a major part of the county's tax base without county must meet standards of density as well at the same time receiving a comparable circuit court determines that this portion of as total population; since Rockingham is the the county meets certain criteria, it becomes proportion of expenditure needs. third largest county in Virginia in land area, permanentlyimmunefromannexation. it will not become immune until it has a The course of the Harrisonburg-Rock- Annexation decisions are still made by judi- population in excess of 120,000. ingham County annexation case seems little cial panels, which must determine "the neces- different from what it might have been under sity for and expediency of annexation." Sev- The Commission on Local Government the traditional annexation law in Virginia. It eral provisions of the statute do encourage heard the Harrisonburg-Rockingham County was a long dispute, partly because an earlier case in November and December 1980, and cooperation between localities. The statute Harrisonburg suit had been caught ina it also appointed a mediator, at the request also established the Commission on Local statewide moratorium. Harrisonburgwas Government, which promotes local negoti- of Rockingham. After negotiations proved awarded most of the land area it sought, a unsuccessful, the Commission rendered its ations in addition to making recommenda- result consistent with the history ofannex- tions to annexation courts. In other respects, report in February 1981. The case subse- ation prior to 1971. The participation or the even though some changes were made in the quently was heard by a three-judge annex- Commission on Local Government was new, standards for determining the need for annexation court in September 1981 and decided of course, but itis not clear whether the ation, the law's provisions remained similar on appeal by the Virginia Supreme Court in Commission was an important factor in the to what had existed prior to the moratorium. September 1982. outcome. The Commission did provide a A great deal of annexation activity has In considering the "necessity for and expe- mediator for a short time, but unfortunately occurred since the new statute went into effect diency of" annexation, the report of the the parties were not able to come together. in 1980. More than thirty cities and towns Commission on Local Government began The Commission's analysis, preparedas a have expressed interest in annexation, bound- with an assumption that Harrisonburg had recommendation for the annexation court, ary adjustments, and consolidation. Annex- a need for additional land development. was in no way unusual. The final award by While the reasons supporting this need ation disputes have been litigated in a few are the trial court was very similar to determi- not adequately articulated in the report, the localities, and several other disputesare head- nations under the old statute. On appeal, the assumption of need is a critical element of ing toward final disposition by the courts. Virginia Supreme Court said: Although additional information will be the recommendation. Once the need for devel- Under the legislative scheme, when opable land is stated, the remainder of the needed before any firm judgments can be a county cannot qualify for immun- made about the effectiveness of the statute, case becomes relatively easy. While the legal ity,it remains a matter of proof burden of proof remains with the city, the information about the early cases may help which local government can better emphasis becomes not so much "Why should to decide whether the new statute is changing serveanarea proposedtobe the way in which boundary disputes are this annexation take place?" but rather "Are annexed, and the question must be resolved, and whether the new Commission there reasons for not allowing this needed resolved by the traditional neces- on Local Government has made a significant annexation?" After surveying a variety of sity-and-expediency analysis? difference in the process. public services, the Commission concluded Thus, the standards for annexation seemed that Harrisonburg had a better record than to remain essentially unchanged for all coun- The following discussion focuseson five the county in supplying several of these ties except those made immune by thestatute. of these cases, each involving a small, inde- services.Consequently,theCommission pendent city. Taken together, thecases do 2.County ofRockingham vCoy ofHcosonbury. 224 Vs found no reason to block the annexation. 62, 77: 294 S.E.24 625.6)2 (1962).

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FREDERICKSBURGSPOTSYLvANIA giving the county "complete and perpetual COUNTY Several other factors made this annexation immunity." Thus, to impose a moratorium dispute sontewhat more limited than the Whilethis now would result in a "premature inflexibil- disputebearsconsiderable others. Since there was no major tax gem esemblance to that in Harrisonburg-Rock- ity" that is inconsistent with the interests of near Williamsburg's border, it had to recog- ingham, the differences may be more signif- the state to promote and preserve viable local nize that any gain in its tax base through icant. The City of Fredericksburg, slightly governments. County officials,however, annexation might be matched by accompany- smaller than Harrisonburg, failed to grow adamantly maintained that there would have ing needs for services in the annexedarea. significantly during the 1970s. Spotsylvania been no agreement without the moratorium. Thus, for Williamsburg, a big annexation was When that issue was presented to the County, which is smaller than Rockingham annex- not necessarily better than a small one. Furth- County, was the fastest growing Virginia ation court, it declined to accept therecom- ermore, Williamsburg was not desperate to ;minty during the 1970s. Since the county mendation of the Commission. The court said reverse its financial fortunes. Because the city more than doubles in population during that (I) an annexation court has limited and not obtains so much revenue from tourism, only decade, it substantially increased its commit- general jurisdiction, and its jurisdiction does 31.5 percent of its total local revenue in fiscal ment to public services. not extend to the immunity question; and 1982 was derived from property taxes.' This (2) even if an annexation court did have the Fredericksburg might be described as a fact decreased the pressure on Williamsburg general jurisdiction to decide the immunity to increase its property tax base. struggling city with a modest tax base. Over question, it would not do so on the basis the past few years, the effective rate of its of speculation about something that might real property tax usually has been at least or might not occur. Given the forces mentioned above, the city 50 percent higher than that of Spotsylvania. did not insist on adding a widearea. Accord- By 1981, the gap had closed a little because The outcome of the Fredericksburg-Spot- ing to the finkl agreement,the countygave of increasing expenditures in Spotsylvania; sylvania case seems to offer the strongest up 1.9 percent of its population and 4.1 percent the effective rates that year were S.91 in the affirmative argument thus far that thenew of its total assessed property values thatare City of Fredericksburg and S.63 in Spotsyl- annexation statute is changing annexation in subject to local taxation. In addition, the vania County. Leaders in the citywere con- Virginia. Some of the principals involved in settlement included a fifteen-year moratorium cerned about a stagnant tax base, while their those negotiations believe that the partial on future annexations; a substantial transfer counterparts in the county were worried immunity suit, brought as a result of pro- from city ownership to county ownership of about providing services to a rapidly growing visions in the new statute, was instrumental water lines that are located in the county; population with suburban needs. in persuading Fredericksburg to seeka set- and transfer of some jointly owned property tlement. Many tilso believe that the agreement to the county. In Spotsylvania County, as in Rock- might not have materialized without the assist- ingham, a major component of the tax base ance of the mediator appointed by the Com- The settlemen, process was lengthy. Dis- was located near the city's boundaries. This mission on Local Government, also created cussion began in January 1980. When Wil- area, growing because of its proximity to by the new statute. Given what has happened liamsburg and James City County announced interstate 95, included the Spotsylvania Mall. in other areas of the state, however, it isnot in May 1981 that they had reachedan agree- The mall, which contributes greatlyto the clear that the outcome in the Fredericksburg- ment in concept, they were the first localities county's retail base, includes five major stores Sipe Sylvania case would have beenany dif- in the state to settle an annexation dispute. that have moved there from the city since ferent under the old statute. But translating that general accord intoa 1979. The financial significance of the mall specific agreement took a long time,a fact made it a central factor in the bargaining that perhaps reflected the general feeling that between city and county. WILLIAMSBURGJAMES CITYCOUNTY annexation was not such a pressing issue in the community. In 1981 Fredericksburg indicatedan inten- In 1980, the City of Williamsburg had a tion to begin annexation proceedings. Spot- population of 9,870, and James City County sylvania County then seized the initiative by Were the provisions of the new annexation had a population of 22,763. James City is statute important to the resolution of this filing for partial immunity. At thesame time, growing at an annual rate of about 4 percent, case, and did they affect its outcome? In this the county also requested the Commission while the Williamsburg total remains almost on Local Government to assist in the nego- author's opinion, probably not. Williamsburg constant. The community's character has indde a traditional case for its annexation tiation of a settlement. With the help ofa been heavily influenced by two major insti- request; James City County did not seek mediator, the parties reached agreement in tutions, Colonial Williamsburg and the Col- partial immunity; the parties did notuse a about nine weeks. The agreement covered lege of William and Mary, which are located land area,compensation,jointutility mediator, and the report of the Commission primarily in Williamsburg but also have hold- on Local Government does not contain any arrangements, and a twenty-five-year mora- ings in James City County. The two insti- torium on additional annexations. unusual analysis. Both the city and thecounty tutions have contributed an unusually large were motivated by a desire to avoid the The Commission recommended number of professionals to the community. expense of litigation and the divisiveness of ape royal Growth in the county has been led by the of the settlement. Its report is noteworthy in adversary proceedings. The latterwas espe- expansion of the Williamsburg Pottery and three respects. First, itis as long as the cially important in this community because the development of the Anheuser-Busch brew- Harrisonburg report, even though of the existence of a joint schoolsystem. one is a ery and theme park. sharply contested adversary proceeding while the other involves a local agreement. Second, One major factor in this annexationcon- the Commission was careful tosay that it troversy was quite different from the previous CHARLOTTESVILLE ALBEMA RLE was not reaching a judgment about the equity cases. In this instance, there was no single COUNTY of the agreement. Third, the Commission revenue-producing development locatednear This case started out as a typical annexation recommended against approval of the twenty- the city waiting to be annexed. Harrisonburg controversy anended up in a way that no five-year moratorium. The Commissionrea- had ,reached out for Valley Mall, and Spot- observer would have considered likely. The soned that, if Spotsylvania continued togrow sylvania County had tried to protect Spot- at the rate it had during the past decade, the ultimate resolution was one that madethe sylvania Mall. In the Williamsburgarea, county would be eligible for total immunity however, there was no comparable focal point 3 Viramia. Communion on Local Government.P' ...rs on she before the end of the moratorium, thereby Coy of WillsorsubwriCownsy of hums CoyAnne:own Arm. for the dispute. owns. 1963. p. 16.

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annexation statute inapplicable to the actions Supporters of the referendum told county of the parties. In spite of that, that is almost double the area of the present or perhaps voters that approval would mean an imme- City of Staunton. because of it, the case can teach us a good diate increase of S.I0 in the realproperty tax deal about the realities of annexation. rate, but that annexation would probably Each jurisdiction will have a referendum on the consolidation proposal, and the results The City of Charlottesville, with prove to be much more expensive. In a a 1980 will determine the fate of annexationas well. population of 39,916, is larger than the cities referendumthatsurprised some cynical observers, mom than 60 percent of the voters If consolidation is approved, the annexation in the previous cases. It grew only 2.7percent issue is moot. If the consolidation proposal between 1970 and 1980. Albemarle County, approved the plan. The agreement went into effect in 1982. is defeated, however, the parties have agreed in contrast, increased its population by 47.6 on the annexation that automatically will take percent during that decade, bringing tne total In a narrow sense, the changes in the 1980 effect. If only the City of Staunton failsto population in 1980 to 55,783. The county is annexation statute were not important in ratify the Charlottesville-Albemarle County the consolidation, the area to be unusual in that five of six election districts case annexed will be a small one. If only Augusta border on Charlottesville; this means that because the parties found a solution that made the statute inapplicable. Since no annexation County fails to ratify, the annexationarea nearly everyone on the county's board of will be a large one. If both jurisdictions decline occurred, no Commission review andno supervisors had an intense interest in the to approve the consolidation, the annexation outcome. The community has an active pro- judicial approval were required. Ina broader sense, changes in the 1980 statute possibly may area will be larger than in the first instance fessionalandbusinesssegment(partly but smaller than in the second. The alternative because of the location there of the University have affected the way negotiationswere con- annexation arrangements providedoincen- of Virginia), and the professional. leadership ducted, although, in this author's opinion, it's difficult to support that possibility. tive for voters to support consolidation, supported accommodation without litigation. because a negative vote may leadto a less After Charlottesville indicated its intention favorable annexation settlementforthe to annex part of Albemarle County, the STAUNTONAUGUSTA COUNTY voter's jurisdiction, whether that is the city or the county. parties began negotiations. They made little Of the five controversies discussed here, all progress, however, until a revenue-sharing As this article iswritten,itis unclear are completed, or virtually so, except for the whether the Staunton-Augusta initiative will agreement was suggested. The county and the case of the City of Staunton and Augusta city quickly agreed upon the proposal in be successful.Itis an ingenious attempt, County. This case has taken on new interest concept, and soon therrIter they reached however, and one that is all the more remark- because it has become intertwined with the accord on a detailed plan. That plan calls able because of the highly negative question of city-county consolidation and atmos- for the annual creation ofa revenue fund, phere that typically surroundsan annexation could have major implications fen other with each jurisdiction contributing com- dispute. Past study groups in Virginia an amount munities. some- equal to .37 percent of the %slue of its taxable times have mentioned the desirability of local Staunton is a small city, having declined real property. Distribution-from this fund is consolidation, but state laws have not from 24,505 in 1970 to 21,857 in 1980. The pro- based on a formula that gives equal weight vided adequate incentives to accomplish that to population and to tax effort; one party's real property tax base in 1981 was S18,522per goal. If the Staunton-Augusta County capita, a figure that placed Staunton in the con- share increases as its population and tax effort solidation proposal works, it will be lowest 26 percent of all localities in Virginia. a note- rise, relative to the other party. The formula worthy example not only for Virginia but also Most of Augusta County is rural although is one that promises to be useful forsome for the nation. time bemuse it is so sensitive to changes in the population grew from 44,220 in 1970to need. The agreement will terminate only if 53,732 in 1980. The land area of Augusta is the second largest of all court...es in Virginia. the two governments mutually agree to end THE NEW ANNEXATION STATUTE: WHAT or change it, if they consolidate, or if Char- The annexation situation is a complicated HAS IT CHANGED? lottesville ceases to be an independent city. one because Augusta County is subject to annexation by two cities, Staunton and Way- Passage of the new annexation statute, The revenue-sharing agreement isan inge- nesboro. Finding equitable and acceptable which became effective in 1980, followedmany nious one that has clear advantages for both solutions to annexation issues isdifficult years of intense discussion. Fron, the first parties. For ti.,:. City of Charlottesville,the enough with two parties, and it is farmore. moratorium on annexation in 1971until advantage was an immediate and guaranteed challenging with three. Augusta was worried approval of the legislation in 1979, annexation infusion of funds. Albemarle County paid Lhout what the two cities would do, and the was one of the dominant topics in Virginia Charlottesville about SO million for fiscal county was impressed with Spotsylvania politics. This intense discussion resulte.in year 1983, the first year of operation. If the County's success in using to its advantagea a statute that gave nine urban counties per- city had proceeded with an annexation suit, claim for partial immunity. Consequently, manent immunity from annexation. Most of it would have faced long delaysas well as Augusta brought suit for partial immunity the other statutory changes, affecting the uncertainty about the final result. For Albem- against both cities. Each city then brought remainder of the state, fall intoone of three arle County, the plan was attractivebecause an annexation suit. The Commission on categories: the standards for showing the need it provided long-term relief; the citymay not Local Government recommended denial of for annexation, the doctrine of partial immun- bring an annexation suit for the duration of the partial immunity claim and later approved ity, and the creation of the Commissionon the agreement. The county's future liability a substantial portion of Waynesboro's annex- Local Government. ation suit. is limited by a provision that the annual The earlier statute required that the court transfer payment cannot exceed .1 Events subsequently have taken percent of a different be persuaded of "the necessity for andexpe- the real estate tax base in the county. Thus, turn in Staunton. Negotiations between Staun- diency of annexation." This givesenormous the county has obtained permanent immunity ton and Augusta County, which appeared latitude to judges in the making of policy from annexation at an annual cost that will headed for a deadlock, were revived byan determinations. The scope of judicial discre- not exceed S.10 per S100 of real' property in imaginative proposal to tie annexationto the tion sparked an early battle over whether it the county. possibility of consolidation. A consultantwas was an unconstitutional delegation of author- hired to recommend a plan for a consolidated, ity to the judiciary, but the Virginia Supreme Because of the far-reaching consequences two-tier government. If the consolidation is of the agreement, both in legal and policy Court upheld the law. The new statute leaves adopted, a general-government tier willcover terms, county leaders concluded that a ref- the wording intact. A number of changeswere the entire city-county area, whilea special- made in the standards for determining "neces- erendum on the proposal wasnecessary. services tier will be established for an area sity ... and expediency," but those changes 41

thus far have not proved to be important. of the 1980 statute) that annexation by liti- the time of annexation. Surely "fair share" Both the Commission and the courts, appar- gation is just too costly and divisive.It's has different meaning for a poor city sur- ently assuming that the 1980 statute largely interesting to note that of the four virtually rounded by a prosperous county than it does codifies existing case law on the standards completed cases discussed here, two did not for a wealthy city adjacent to a struggling of annexation, have rendered decisions that have a mediator, and yet they both ended county. are quite consistent with annexation decisions in settlement. The issue of tax equity was certainly present under the old law. In making its recommendations to annex- in the cases discussed in this article. Four The partial immunity section was added ation courts, the Commission has followed of the five cities discussed here had a higher to the statute to give a county the opportunity a traditional approach to the need for annex- real property tax rate in 1981 than their county to protect an area of value to the county if ation. Its reports have not contained much counterparts; the rates of the four ranged the county could prove that it was providing analysis that is significantly different from the from 44 percent to 130 percent higher than adequate urban services to that area. Some earlier efforts of annexation courts. This the corresponding county rates. On the other observers think that partial immunity will makes it difficult to know whether the Com- hand, all five of the counties in these cases have a significant impact upon annexation, mission is leading the courts, or whether the had a greater real property tax base per capita but the evidence thus far is inconclusive. Some Commission is anticipating what the courts than the adjacent cities, with the proportion officials in Spotsylvania County, as men- would probably do anyway. ranging from 13 percent to 45 percent larger tioned carlier, believe that their partial immun- than for the cities.' Since these figures tell ity claim was instrumental in persuading In a couple of instances where the Com- only part of the story, however, a more Fredericksburg to negotiate. On the other mission has made somewhat novel recom- sophisticated analysis would be needed for hand, in the only contested partial immunity mendations, the results have not proved to ea& community. A substantial argument can be helpful. In the Fredericksburg case, the claim that has gone as far as the Commission, be made for annexation by some cities, Lrst Augusta County lost its claim to Waynesboro. Commission invited the courts to disallow a much of that argument remains unarticulated. The statute gives wide latitude to the Com- twenty-five-year moratorium that was central The real issues surrounding annexation are mission and courts to consider the equities to the agreement. The court declined the further obscured by reliance upon decision- in each annexation case; it is doubtful that invitation. In several cases, the Commission making by judges, which tends to make the the addition of a partial immunity suit to the has recommended that the city be required cuestion of annexation appear to be one of basic annexation suit will affect those deter- to adopt land use taxation. Since that policy fact or law, rather than one of policy. The minations. is optional for localities, and since its sound- annexation process in Virginia, if it is to be ness is disputed by both experts and elected continued, might be improved by paying The new statute's creation of the Commis- officials, it is surprising that the Commission sion on Local Government may have more greater attention to the critical question of has recommended that annexing cities be equity. significance than the previous two provisions. required to adopt it. The Commission has two major functions: CONCLUSION to encourage settlement of annexation dis- There is a good reason for the Commis- putes and to make recommendations to the sion's lack of success in charting a new Virginia's new annexation statute, which courts prior to litigation. To date, the Com- annexation path. Virginia's statute has always became effective in 1980, provided complete mission has been more successful with the given great latitude to the courts in making immunity from annexation to nine urban first than the second. annexation policy, and there is a long list counties. Throughout the remainder of the of relevant judicial precedents that the Com- state, the criteria for deciding annexation In encouraging settlements, the Commis- mission cannot ignore. At the very least, it cases has remained essentially unchanged. sion provides information, maintains an office probably will be years before the Commission The most important innovation in the statute for contact about all kinds of annexation can have a major impact upon court decisions. was the creation of the Commission on Loc?1 problems, and appoints mediators for nego- Government. The Commission's ability to tiating parties. While each of these activities A distressing lack of candor seems to exist provide mediation services may have a major may prove helpful to some localities, medi- inofficialdiscussionsaboutannexation impactupon the annexation process, ation is the activity with the largest impact. around the state. In committee hearings, although thus far it does not appear to have A mediator has a stake in settlement per se, commission reports, and court opinions on wielded great influence through its formal the subject, one may hear about needed space rather than in how particular issues arc written reports. for development, desirable population mixes, resolved. Therefore, a mediator can help by One obvious result of the new statute is encouraging frequent met, ngs, discouraging the need to extend services, and the imperative that it has reawakened local governments' negative behavior, and providing a line of for growth. But among local officials, all of interest in annexation. So far more than thirty communication between the parties. Both these are dwarfed by one considerationtax cities and towns have engaged in negotiations, Fredericksburg and Spotsylvania County base. Discussions about potential tax base indicated an intention to start proceedings, credit the mediator with an important role are nice, and they can justify arguments about or expressed interest in information that is in its settlement. Even in the Harrisonburg- a city's ri..ecled space for development. But essential for annexation. Some cases have Rockingham County Case, the mediator pro- existing tax base is the real issue. This point been completed during the three years since vided by the Commission apporently helped was made in the Charlottesville case: When the statute went into effect, and more are in to make some progress toward an agreement, Albemarle County made a revenue-sharing progress. Most of these cases probably will although it proved inadequate for a settle- proposal, the city abandoned the subsidiary be resolved within another three years. When ment. Officials from other communities also arguments and focused on that proposal, which would give it immediate revenue. this round of annexation controversies comes have praised the work of mediators provided to a close, Virginia must again face the by the Commission. It may be that the strongest argument for essential question: V/hat arc the benefit and Prior to the 1971 moratorium, these were annexation in most areas lies in tax equity, harm of annexation, and how do we want practically no settlements of annexation dis- not urban services or the growth imperative. to protect both local and state interests in putes; since the new statute took effect in 1980, Yet the statute and the decisions made pur- the future? there have been few contested annexations. suant to that statute are almost silent on this 4. Virpn,a. Department of Taxan.. The 1981 Virginia Assess. What has caused this great change? The offer subject. While one can find some discussion mem/Saks Rano Study. 198). tables 5 and 7 A broader analysis of mediation could possibly be a maj,r factor. about a city's obtaining a fair share of a of local focal capacity is attempted by the staff of the Joint Also, local officials may have decided (partly Legislative Audit and Review Commission in Study of State region's future growth, there is no analysis Mandates and foal Financial Resources (prelimme7 briefing. as a result of the debate surrounding passage of the relative wealth of city and county at June !). 190). 42

CONFERENCE ON ALTERNATIVES TO LITIGATIONIN THE PUBLIC SECTOR July 26-27, ;984, Charlottesville The Institute of Government will presenta conference on ALTERNATIVES TO LITIGATION IN THE in Charlottesville on July 26-27. Cosponsored PUBLIC SECTOR by the Virginia Association of County Administratorsand the Local Government Attorneys of Virginia, the conference is designedto help local government officials learn about effective with conflicts. methods for dealing Litigation has become increasingly common in the past decade, resulting in overcrowdedcourts and increasing costs. Perhaps more troubling, the individurls involved in a dispute tend to lose control as it enters the formal litigationprocess, and they must hope for a talented attorney and sympathetic juryto address their grievance. To deal with these problems, alternatives have been developed in recent years. Lawyersas well as local officials are finding ways of negotiating differences and using third-party mediatorsin order to maintain control of the conflict and that satisfy both sides. find resolutions At the UVA conference, several issues will be covered, including intergovernmental disputes, boundary-lineand land-use disputes, and neighborhood mediation centers. "Skill-building" sessions, in small groups, will be featured, givingparticipants an opportunity to learn effective negotiation and mediation ;kills. In addition, an approach to assessing thecosts and risks of litigation and its alternatives will be explained. The opening address at the conference will be by A.E. Dick Howard, professor of lawat the University of Virginia. Others on the program include Peter L. Szanton, vice-presidentof En Dispute (a firm specializing in designing alternatives William R. Drake and Michael Lewis from to litigation); the National Institute for Dispute Resolution;and representatives from the Institute for Environmental Negotiation at the University of Virginia, Public Mediation Services,the Virginia Commission on Local Government, the Virginia Municipal League,and the state Attorney General's Office. The conference will be at the new Hilton Hotel Conference Center in Charlottesville. Toget a complete program, registration forms, or more information, contact Russell Linden, Institute of Government, Minor Hall, Universityof Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia 22903/phone (804) 924-0955.

Erratum: The March 1984 News Letter in:orrectlyreported (p. 39. col. 2) that the in Virginia in 1983 was 10 percent below the national average annual salary paid city and town managers average. In fact, the average annual salary paid to city,town, and county managers in Virginia in 1983 was 10 percent below the nationalaverage for that same group.

Persons or institutions may be placedon the mailing list to receive copiesof the News Letter by sending Letter, 207 Minor Hall, University of Virginia, a written request to News Charlottesville, Virginia 22903. The completemailing address should be printed typed, and the Zip Code should be included. or

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA Entered as secone-class matter Charlottesville, Virginia

NEWS LETTER

(ISSN 0042-0271) Executive Editor / James A. (Dolph) Norton Managing Editor / Sandra H. Wiley Pubhshod monthly by the Institute of Govern- ment. University of Virginia. Charlottesville, Virgin- ia 22903. The views and opinions expressed hereinare those of the authors, and are not to be interpreted as representing the official position of the Institute or the University. Entered as seeond-clau matter Januar), 2,1925. at the post office at Charlottesville, Virginia, under the act of August 24, 1912. ° 1934 by The Rector and Visitors of the Uni- versity of Virginia. Printed by the University Printing Office. POWERS & STRUCTURES OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT INVIRGINIA

In 1634, the Grande Assembly of the Colonyof Virginia created 8 counties (originally called shires, as in England). Travel and trade were by water and population was dispersed along the rivers andclustered on the plantations. County governments grew in number until the boundarieswere set and the state's area was included in 100 counties. (The number has dropped to 95 today, due to the incorporation ofsome counties as cities.)

Though the Assembly encouraged the locationof towns, centers of trade, itwas 1722 before the first town charterwas granted to Williamsburg. Early towns were the forerunners of our presentday cities.

VIRGINIA IS UNIQUE THE ONLY STATE IN THE NATION WITH A STATEWIDE SYSTEM OF INDEPENDENT CITIES WHICH ARECOMPLETELY SEPARATE FROM COUNTIES. Connecticut and Rhode Island do not have counties. There are independent cities in other states (i.e.,St. Louis, Baltimore, and Denver), though they are exceptions. VIRGINIA'S 41 CITIES ARE CARVED OUT OF THEIR SURROUNDING COUNTIES, ANDARE SEPARATELY CHARTERED BY THE STATE. This separation upsets some national statelocaldata, and creates competition and legal problems betweenneighboring governments with a system of complicated annexationlaws. However, there are advantages to not having a level ofgovernment between the state and the cities. It saves tax dollars and simplifies the ballotfor voters..

Virginia is a "Dillon's Rule" state. Local government powers are definedvery carefully in the Virginia Code, Title 15.1,since local governments have only such powers as are svcifically grantedto them. plus those necessary to implement or carry out an approved function. Judge John F. Dillon of the Iowa Supreme Court promulgated this concept of limitedlocal power in Clark v. City of Des Moines, 19 Iowa 199, 212, 87Am. Dec. 423 (1865). Dillon's Rule also states that "Any fair, reasonable, substantialdoubt concerning the existence of power is resolved by the courts againstthe corporation, and thepower is denied."The "corporation" is the local government. Cities and counties actually may not have the power to dosome things that local people think they should do.

A considerable number of bills in each sessionof the Virginia General Assembly seek authority for localgovernments to undertake actions that in the "home rule" states would not require legislativeapproval. (Home Rule states are those which permit local governments to change theirown charters wid/or powers without legislative action.) An article by Paul G. Edwards (in Morris and Sabato, Virginia Government & Politics) pointsout that local problems may not be understood by legislators from otherparts of the state. Negative votes in the General Assemblyon such local problems as trash disposal reports, dog license fees, or control of vagrants haveinconvenienced local governments for decades, and led to innumerable proposalsin the legislature to allow localities to govern themselves, subjectto review by state government. There is a hint in some literature that, in spiteof their protests, local officials in some Dillon's Rulestates are comfortable using their limited authority as anexcuse for not dealing with some of their problems. Whether this is true in Virginia or not is testedwhenever the "home rule" bills are debated in the legislature.

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393 Virginia law does not permit elected school boards. Over 90% of school board members in the United States are elected. In Virginia, all are the local governing body, appointed by or (in many counties with the*traditional" form of government) by a school boardselection commission, appointed court. by the circuit The ratiznale is that unlessa school district is formed with taxing authority (which is separate not possible under Virginialaw), the decisions made by the school boards must be financed by state andlocal government: Therefore, the circuit court or the board of supervisors actingfor the state, or the local government chartered by the state, should appointthe school board. Voter approval of bonds for school construction is stillrequired by law in most cities andcounties.

Local Constitutional Officers Most counties and cities ofVirginia elect five officials called constitutionalofficers, so named because specified in the Virginia their positions are Constitution. They are paid in part byfunds appropriated by the General Assembly, on the recommendationsof the state Compensation Board, and elected by the voters of eachjurisdiction. -Sheriffs - elected by localvoters, 4-year terms. -Commissioners of the Revenue- elected by local voters, 4-year terms -Treasurers - elected by localvoters, 4-year terms -Circuit Court Clerks- elected by local voters, 8-year terms -Commonwealth's Attorneys- elected by local voters, 4-year terms A few chartered cities, and counties with alternateor modified forms of government, have eliminated some of the offices, such as treasurer,and/or commissioner of revenue, replacingone or both with a department of (with an appointed head, finance supervised by the administratorand board or council). Some jurisdictions have redefined the responsibilities ofthe constitutional officers (with approval of the legislature)to separate their duties from those of the professional departments. Incumbents and supporters resist the down-grading or elimination of these offices thatformed the nucleus of courthouse political power in previous decades. The News Letter (see Section C) on "Virginia's Local Executive ConstitutionalOfficers in Historical Perspective," ends with references to Jacksonianaccountability of elected officials to the citizenry, and notes that Virginiais not unique-- other states have elected officials that seem out ofsync with modern professional government. The article suggests thatvoters may appreciate that accountability evenmore, given "the prevalence of the bureaucratic with its emphasis model, on replacing elected administrators withprofessionals chosen by and responsible to elected policy makers." The News Letter of May 1982, "...A Contemporary Profile," quotes a survey that showsa high percentage of constitutionalofficers had experience to qualify jobs, and most are reelected. for their "One may take more thana little comfort from the fact that constitutional officers do feel responsibleto the public by virtue of election.'

General Powers of Virginia Local GovernmentCounties enjoy a historic privileged status. They were the original local have funding advantages government units, and they that carry over from earlydays. their expenses County sheriffs and are underwritten by the state, andcalculated on an entirely different basis from the funds available to municipalpolice departments. Except for Henrico and Arlington counties, almost allcounty roads have been built and maintainedby the state since 1930. some cost. Fairfax and Chesterfield share The 1979 "annexation bills"addressed this inequitable cities, offering them treatment of some balar'.ing funds, specially neededin recent decades of

G 10 flight to the suburbs and diminished urban tax base. Funds for this assistance must be included in each biennial budget.

In other states, counties are arms of state government,a separate and intermediate layer coordinating the local governments intheir geographic area, and providing some services. They do not take the place of municipal governments. (Example: county governments in New Jersey and otherstates operate health and welfare and other services for the cities,towns, and unincorporated areas within their borders.

From the first, Virginia counties were assumed to be the unitof local government serving a rural area. Cities were 6,artered as separate jurisdictions to accommodate urban populations. Today, the distinctions are less clear. Virginia has several urban counties with "city"population densities, principally in Northern Virginia. The cities of Chesapeake, Suffolk, and Virginia Beach include considerable undevelopedland, and encompass former cities, towns and counties.

POWERS OF COUNTY GOVERNMENT- The broadest grant of authority is that contained in the "general police power," in which "anycounty may adopt such measures as it may deem expedient to secure and promote the health,safety and general welfare of the inhabitants of such county, notinconsistent with the general laws of this State."

POWERS OF CITY GOVERNMENT- The Uniform Charter Powers Act specifies additional powers that may be extended to cities andtowns in their charters -- "all powers...and all other laws...which are necessary or desirable to secure and promote the general welfare of the inhabitants of the municipality and the safety, health, peace, good order, comfort,convenieli,v, morals, trade, commerce, and industry of the municipality."

AUTHORITY: THE CODE OF VIRGINIA, (Title 15.1) Pcwers that may be delegated to counties, towns, and cities are listed in the VirginiaCode, Title 15.1. Applying these powers to specific situations introducesthe dynamic tension of Dillon's Rule, opens the actions of localgovernments to scrutiny by the courts, and "clutters" the General Assembly with local bills. When does a locality overstep its jurisdiction?What powers must be specially requested? What powers may be granted? Local governments are never mentioned in the U. S. Coilstitution -- they are creations of thestate, and the state retains the ultimate authority to grant powers and to take themaway. Regardless of what a charter or act of the legislaturemay say, local government powers can be changed or rescinded merely by adding toany law a phrase such as "notwithstanding any other provision of the lawt.o the contrary." Since Virginia is not a "home rule" state, charter changesmust be submitted to the General Assembly, and cannot take effect without theirapproval.

Elected officials take an oath of officeas prescribed in the Constitution, Article II, Sec. 7, and they may be required to post bond. Councils and boards must conduct public hearings on the budget, aftera summary and hearing '.tiCe is published in the newspaper with general circulationin the area. oard and council meetings are open to the public. A journal of 'edings is maintained as a public record, and individr,1votes on all ,ances and resolutions are included. Closed executive _essions may be - on personnel matters, sale or acquisition of real property, investments,

G 11 3 ar legal matters, matters which will be the topic ofan advertised public hearing, and other specified items in which confidentialityis permitted. Forms of County Government Under the "traditional" form ofcounty government, as it is now called, members of the Board of Supervisors are electedto four-year terms from magisterial districts of approximately equalpopulation, in accordance Irith the "one person, one vote" principle. Almost all (87) of Virginia's 95 counties still have this basic form ofgovernment, though they have hired administrators to act on behalf of the Board of Supervisors. Under the traditional form, the administrator assumes the post o4clerk of the board and is responsible for performingthe staff work for the 3-11 supervisors. member board of All appointments (employees,boards, and agencies) the board of supervisors, except are made by those made by the circuitcourt or the constitutional officers. The county executive is notempowered to hire, fire, or supervise departments or other staff,or to coordinate the activities of the county government, unless the board of supervisorsspecifically delegates these functions to him/her. The board functions in boththe legislative and executive capacities, performing local government dutiesas well as some in the name of the state. Supervisors are responsible forpreparing the county budget; levying county taxes; appropriating funds; approving bills(claims) and ordering payment (referred to as issuing warrants);constructing and maintaining county buildings andfacilities; enforcing the county's comprehensive land use plan and related ordinances; making andenforcing ordinances for police, sanitation, health, and other regulationspermitted by state laws; and providing for thecare and treatment of indigent and handicapped citizens.

The governments of the remaining counties (Albemarle, PrinceWilliam, Henrico, Fairfax, Arlington, Scotz, Carroll, and Russell)are variations of the traditional form. Specific powers are delegatedto the appointed administrator, thus reducing the executive responsibilities ofthe Board of Supervisors. If you live in one of these counties, check withyour administrator and/or with the Virginia Code to see thespecific differences. Urban Counties, with a population exceeding 90,000, whichare not adjacent to a city having a population of 200,000or more, may adopt either the urban county manager or executive form of government provided bythe General Assembly in 1960 for Fairfax County. This form of government givesthe board of county supervisors the authority to assign dutiesamong departments and to establish departmentsas needed. This has been particularlyimportant in the consolidation of sanitary districts to facilitate planningand administration of sewer and water services in a congested area. No new towns may be incorporated within an urbanscanty.

City and town governments receive their charters from the GeneralAssembly. In 1722, Williamsburg received its charter as a separatecorporation, and other cities followed suit (there are 41 independent cities today). Cities have different needs in order to accommodate a concentrationof people, so their charters give them greater latitude in decidingabout services and the taxes to support them. Those with less than 10,000population are considered 2nd class cities and share their commonwealth attorney,circuit court clerk, and sheriff with their neighboringcounty.

G 12 3 9G A CITY GOVERNMENTS IN VIRGINIA ARE ALL COUNCIL-MANAGERGOVERNMENTS. This form of government originated in Staunton, Virginia.The council is the legislative and policy-making body, composed ofcouncillors elected at-large or from wards for terms specified in their charters (usuallyfour years, with half elected each second year). Councillor elections are on the firstTuesday in May, unless the city charter provides otherwise. The manager is in charge of implementing policy as chief administrator,and appoints most department heads. Each city's charter shows the structureand the dove-tailing of duties with the constitutional officers.

In.other states, council-manager governmentsmay have "weak" or "strong" mayors. A "strong" mayor is one who has administrativepowers shared with the executive, and may even be paid asa fulitime employee of city government. Virginia's mayors would all be classifiedas "weak," meaning that they have no separate administrative or political powers. Their relative effectiveness is a function of their particular abilities and personalities. Depending on the stipulations in the charter, the mayormay be elected to a 4-year term. or chosen from the membership of council fora two-year term. In either case, mayors serve as chairpersons of the council.

-- If you live in a city or town, what are the powers of the electedmayor and councillors of your community?

Town governments are chartered, but they remaina part of their parent county. They may have their own town council andregulate some of their own activities, but the town population is alsorepresented in county government. A town is formed when residents ofa particular area want (and are willing to tax themselves to pay for) services that theircounty is not prepared to offer. Town residents pay county taxes in additionto their town levy. Larger towns generally select the council-managerform of government, and smaller towns may choose the mayor-council form,which gives the mayor more responsibility for administration. Towns of 5,000 or more populationmay apply for city status. See the Institute of Government NewsLetter "Town-County Relations in Virginia," formore insights on town government.

Regional planning districtsare a layer of coordination created after the Hahn Commission's recommendation in 1966. The entire state is divided into 22 districts, each with an advisory commission composedof elected members of local governments in the district and interestedcitizens. The 22 regional planning district commissions are served by planningstaffs that assist local governments in sharing capital and serviceprograms, and to prevent overlap and duplication, particularly in federal andstate-funded activities. Planning districts have no taxing power, anddepend on basic funding from the state and assessments from local governments intheir districts. Natural resources (i.e., water), traffic, health care, and otherservices do not stop logically at city and county lines. Coordination can provide economies of scale. Planning districts have taken onnew significance in recent years of financial cutbacks, by helping localgovernments pool their efforts, personnel, and facilities onprograms that might not be cost-effective for one jurisdiction. (See B 20 - 21, and map #7)

Service districts or authorities havebeen created (with General Assembly approval) within or among local governmentsfor the management of resources such as water (and sewers), and for theconstruction of bridges, water

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OC),-; treatment plants, transitsystems, low-income housing, and facilities. many other Some may have separate contractualpowers, depending on how they are set up. In many/most instances, these legal entitieswere created to circumvent the debt restrictions imposed on local governmentby the state, enabling localities to borrowto respond to capital needs.

The 1966 legislation also visualized service districts that mightgrow from the planning districts if all the local governments ina district consolidated services, creating a new and larger element of government. To date, none have been formed in this way, but many planning district offices havecoordinated grants or money from member localitiesfor selected area services.

SMAs are Standard Metropolitan Areas, designated by the federalgovernment to identify major r:ities and the areas that are interrelated withthem. Virginia has ten SMAs: Charlottesville, Danville, Johnson City-Kingsport-Bristol (Tennessee and Virginia) Lynchburg, NewportNews-Hampton, Norfolk-Virginia Beach-Portsmouth, Petersburg-Colonial Heights-Hopewell,Richmond, Roanoke, Washington, D. C.-Maryland-Virginia (see B 22 forthe names of all the local jurisdictions included in each).This designation recognizes the regional aspect of the population and growthpatterns of these urban areas, which contain 75% of the population of the Commonwealth. Note: These areas were originally called Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas (SMSAs).

The Virginia Municipal League and the Virginia Association of Countiesare the sources of information for local officials. Both organizations work with the Institute of Government at theUniversity of Virginia on the publication of handbooks for officials, andon conferences for newly-elected office holders. These publications may be purchasedfrom the Institute of Government.

Virginia's unique system of independentcities has also. produced a unique system of annexation. The usual pattern in other states isthat cities extend their influence into theunincorporated areas that surround them, and when the voters of a nearbyarea want the urban services, they petition and/or hold a referendum to become partof the city. Since Virginia's cities are not part of their surrounding counties, the counties resl-tthe annexation of land into the city,because it then is lost to the county tax base. Competition is exacerbated between cityand county by the annexation process, which is a legal struggle-- the city offers money for the land it needs, the county may reject the offeror modify it, and a 3-judge court makes the decision. The residents of the affectedarea have little say in the matter. Since the case may be decidedon the basis of which jurisdiction will offer the services appropriate for thearea, there has traditionally been duplication of water mains and sewer lines in the city'sfringe areas where both city and county attempt to serve the residents. Disputes may be bitter and legal fees consume millions of dollars.

In an effort to stop the waste, legislation has made it possible inrecent years for counties and cities to negotiate settlements,even to share revenue without annexing land. This last option makes it possible for the city to share in the growth of thearea of which it is the hub, even though the growth of tax base takes place outside its boundaries. (SeeNews Letters)

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Q0c- tit.r() LOCAL GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION & CHARTS

Charts can be drawn to show many different kinds of relationshipsin a business or social group.

Charts can show who interacts with whom. A sociogram is a chart with lines between names of individuals who relate to other individuals in specific or general ways.

Government organization charts show levels of responsibility and lee reports to whom. A local government is a hierarchy, meaning that eachemployee reports to a boss, who reports to a boss, etc. Responsibility comes down from the top, the voters and taxpayers-- to officials the voters elect to make policy -- to employees who carry out the policies. The elected supervisors or councillors serve as legislators, passing ordinances andmaking policy on matters that are within their power to decide. In every county, city, and town in Virginia, they also have the responsibility forhiring and supervising the administrator, manager, or executive), who is in chargeof the daytoday running of the local government. A welldrawn chart shows clearly which people or positions are elected and whichare appointed, and who makes the choices. Two sample charts are shown on the-next page. Compare them with our local government chart.

The working relationship between the manager and the elected bodyoften determines the effectiveness and efficiency of the cityor county government. If elected officials do not trust the manager to do his/her job, theymay spend too much time and attention on the details of howto accomplish certain objectives, and undermine the authority of themanager. If they fail to make clear policy and to back their policies withproper funds and authority, they may cripple the manager's ability to accomplish his/her job. Colleges and graduate schools of public administrationacross the nation train managers to accomplish the tasks of local government, and harness communityresources (government and nongovernment, personnel and facilities)to implement the policies determined by the elected officials. Note: In the past decade, an increased number of shortterm or parttime serviceshave been contracted out to specialists, consultants, or private companies,so that local government can avoid the greater expense of hiring additional fulltime employees. Another recent trend is returning some activities andfacilities to the private sector (local organizations and volunteers)to manage.

LOCAL GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION CHARTS

One the next page, there are two sample charts,one county and one city. Can you see how they are different? Compare our local government chart with the appropriate one. Make a list of the boards and commissions, and fill in the names of all elected officials and department heads in our local government.

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3qC LOCAL GOVERNMENT ORGANIZATION CHARTS

Here are two samples, one county and one city. Compare our local government chart with the appropriate one. Make a list of the boards and commissions, and fill in the names of all elected officialsand department heads in our local government.

County Voters Virginia Voters

Elect Elect

General Assembly

I I I I County Board of Commonwealth's Oerk of Sod arid Watet Appoints Sheriff Supenisors Attorney Circuit Court Consavadon District Directors (2) I Chant Court Appents

I Appoints I I I r 1 CountyCounty Oerk Departments: Boards. Cornmbsicess I 1 Executive Attorney of Board Board of I Wisterias Deturtmat Electoral School Board Fiume Department Zoning Appeals Board Executives Homing Coordinator I Staff temec ures Dapermst Genera hen sod Iecetica epatment Rees= Nicene! Depertenent plansind Deparunest Soda! Services Drowsiest

CityVoters ruginia Voters

Elect Elect

General Assembly II I I City City Commissioner Commoowealth% City Clerk of Sheriff of Revenue Attorney Treasurer Circuit Court Appoints

Appoints Circuit Court

I I I I I I Appoints Clerk of City City Director Boards. Commis ions Council Ihript Assessor of FitUltelt 1 IBoyd of Board of Electoral APPOIPt2 EqueiLttiell ZAWSIS Appeals Baud

General Regina/ I Manager% Staff Staff Departments: QtrAttorney's Mot Flu Depittment Comma? Development Department htta and ReantiOn DOW mat Data hatable Demurred Potty Deportment Eamomie Desslopment hbhc Weeks DePetimext hesootiel Department Redevelopment and Headed Authority Sun Social Unitas Department

G 16 OUR LOCAL GOVERNMENT Student Per 1. the form of our local government is 2. Under this form, the legislative function 4s the responsibility of 3. Administrative policy is the responsibility of 4. Day to day operations are the responsibility of 5. The power of local government in Virginia comes from 6. The powers of city and county government are spelled out in the 7. Cities and towns are granted power through a 8. All city governments in Virginia have the form known as 9. This city government form was first introduced in 10. How long is the term for city councillors and county supervisors? 11 Charter changes must be approved by and 12. In a "weak mayor" government, the mayor is selected by 13. In the "strong mayor" form, the mayor is selecteq by 14. Most counties in Virginia have the form of county government. 15. Modified and alternate forms of county government give some powers to

, and some also change the responsibilities of 16. List the constitutional officers, their responsibilities, and terms of office:

17. Name the members of our board of Supervisors or council. Are all elected at once, or are terms staggered? 'tdicate when their terms expire?

18. Our board/council meets at P.M. on the of each month, at (place) 19. Our school board members are appointed by for 4year terms. List the current members, and indicate when their terms expire.

20. Our school board meets at P.M. on the of each month, at (place) 21. Is there a time set aside for the public to speak at these meetings?

22. What are the qualifications for voter registration in Virginia?

23. When is the registration deadline for each election? 24. Where should eligible people go to register in this district? 25. Describe how a voting machine is used:

26. Who is running for what offices in the next election?

27. Tell one good thing and one bad thing about a ward system.

G 17 .U1. 28. lell one good thing and one bad thing about at-large voting.

29. Tell one good thing and one bad thing about mixed ward systems.

30. Tell one good thing and one bad thing about party electionsat the local level.

31. Tell one good thing and one bad thing about nonparty electionsat the local level.

32. What is the principle source of local government revenue?

33. Can property owners protest their tax assessments?How?

34. The local tax rate is $ . for each one hundred dollars of assessed valuation.

36. How much would the taxes be on real estate assessed at $30,000? (Multiply the assessed valuation by the rate. The answer will be between $275. and $450., depending on your local tax rate.)

37. What other sources of revenue does your local government have?Make a list and check each one that you or your family pay.

38. Look again at the chart you made showing the services of government. Which ones are provided by your local government?

39. List here the issues/problems that our local government is likely to be addressing during the coming year.

40. Identify any jobs in local government that might interestyou -- either elected or appointed. What do you need to do to qualify for such an opportunity?

41. Our local government (is/is not) part of a service district. Services provided are

42. Our regional planning district office is in . Our district includes

G 18 4 2 LOCAL MEETING OBSERVER'S REPORT Name

Attend 2 meet; gs in succession. Stay for full meeting or at least 2hours. Report due at beginning of class the nextday after the meeting.

Was the meeting held at the time and placecustomary for this group? Time Day Place Was the meeting announced in the newspaper?__ radio ?_ TV? Was the agenda listed or were agenda itemsdescribed in pre-meeting publicity? Identify media and items:

Were members of the press at the meeting? Did they stay till the end? Did they show particular interest inany items? Which ones?

Does the public appear to be welcome and expected at these meetings? Was there adequate seating? Could all see and hear? Did the chairperson explain to the audience what actionws called for on each item, and the backgrbund and any legal constraintsor requirements? Was there time identified/announced for "Mattersfrom the Public," when any citizen can be heard on any topic? Did anyone speak?

How many members of the public attendedthe meeting? Did they appear to be there for a particular agenda item? Which one? Was a public hearing scheduledon this item? Did they seem to feel that they had beenheard? (describe on back

Were copies of the agenda available to allattending the meeting?

What decision-making aids or procedures didyou see or sense in action? Commission/committee recommendation staff analysis staff recommendation outside "expert" recommendation reference to long-range plans public input on-site inspection maps, charts, films, other A-V

If you were a reporter, whit headlinewould you write for this meeting? What other points would you include?

If you heard/saw radio/TV coverage of thismeeting on late news, whatwas included? What was left out?

Additional credit for articles appearing in the next few days: paste themon a poster, suitable for the bulletin board, andadd notes about anything omitted or items you do not think were reported accurately.

ON THE BACK OF THIS PAPER: 1 - List the members of the board/council at this meeting. 2 - List other officials in attendancewho provided information. 3 - Make a chart showing what actionwas expected/taken on each item on the agenda, and what public participationwas included. Ex: Rezoning, Public Hearing Joe Petrol, lawyer for gas station Central Ave 14 neighbors, against gas station Decision re-zoning denied for gas station 4 - List items that you expect tosee on the agenda for the next meeting.

G 19 WARD SYSTEM OR AT-LARGEREPRESENTATION

WARD SYSTEM A city or county is divided into sectionsapproximately equal in population. Each voter votes only for the representative(s)from his/her ward or magisterial district. This is the system in Virginia'scounties. It is sometimes criticized because each supervisormay be more concerned with the needs of his/her own district than with thebalancing of causes and expenditures in the entire county. Where political electionsare permitted, the parties sometimes exercisesome unifying force.

Al -LARGE SYSTEM - Candidatesrun for office from the whole area. Each voter casts a vote for each vacancy. This is the system in 33 of Virginia's41 cities and towns. At-large elections tend to favor majoritygroup candidates, and in many Virginia cities, blacks havenot been elected to a proportional share of public offices. As a matter of policy, the National Associationfor the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)regards at-large elections as discriminatory, though some black leaders testifiedagainst the ward system in one recent court case in Virginia.

MIXED WARD SYSTEM - Some candidates run for seats representing only theirown wards, others run for at-large seats. A mixed system might include 4 councilors representing the 4 wards, plus3 elected at large from the whole city. Some jurisdictions have looked toa mixed system as the way to have the benefits of both ward and at-large elections,then found that the at-large members unbalance the geographic representation,and that the increased size of the governing body has diminishedthe impact of each ward representative.

AT-LARGE SYSTEM WITH WARD RESIDENCY REQUIREMENT- Candidates run for the seat designated for their home ward, but theelection is citywide. The candidate preferred by the ward may be defeated byvotes from the rest of the city.

Factors that influence the choice ofan election system include the population distribution, the geographic size and distancesbetween parts of the jurisdiction, the concentration of minoritygroups that feel separate representation would enhance theirpower, and the feelings of the citizens about which system would result inmore satisfactory government. There may not be a best answer or one that fits allor similar communities. Attempts to solve local problems of low voteror minority participation by changing to or from one system or the other, havenot always produced the desired results. In any system, skillful politicianscan trade votes, work in coalitions, or make political deals.

NONPARTY LOCAL ELECTIONS have been importantin parts of Virginia, since the Hatch Act forbids federal employeesto be political party leaders or candidates. In most of the state, party candidatesand independents vie for local offices. National political parties dependon local elections to maintain the "grass roots level" of theirorganization-- to raise funds, manage campaigns, and to find andencourage candidates for local, state and national office. Those who favor nonparty local electionsnote that there usually is no need for a party positionon trash collection, zoning, street repair, or other local issues.

Draw up a list of ward and at-large arguments,from your own ideas and from

G 21 4 0 4 the ideas suggested on this sheet. Since there also may be a difference in the way elected bodies make decisions, beready to discuss this as well.

THE ELECTION PROCESS 1 - Should every member of a local governing body have broad-basedsupport in the entire community to An public office?Since most voters have friends and contacts in wards/districts other than theirown, should they be able to vote for the persons they feel are most qualified,regardless of their home neighborhoods?

OR, should different neighborhoods haverepresentatives of their own particular choosing, people whom they feelcomfortable approaching with questions or requests?

2 - Traditionally, minoritypower in government has been diminished by drawing district lines that split minorityvotes into segments of otherwise majority districts OR by packing all or most minorityresidents into a limited number of districts whose representatives thenmay be outnumbered on the governing body. Other members of that body may actually feelrelieved not to have to be concerned with their problems --"they have theirown representative..."

Should ward lines be drawn to guaranteeseats for particular religious, ethnic, or racial minority groups?

OR, do religious, ethnic, or racial wards tendto keep minorit' persons in -particular neighborhoods? Is this identification of a ward witha religious, ethnic, or racial group good or bad for thecommunity? for the minority?

3 - From what you know of yourown community, are new leadership and independent candidates more likely tosurface for ward elections, where campaigning efforts are more focused and aptto be less expensive?

OR, since at-large elections allowa voter and a party (where party elections are permitted) to try for balanceon a governing body, can at-large elections encourage candidates who representor reside in different sections of the community?

OR, if your community is closely split in partyaffiliation, is it likely that minority candidates may be the loserson both/all party tickets in at-large elections?

THE GOVERNING PROCESS

The more members of the body thereare, the greater the number of votes necessary to pass an ordinance. A ward representativemust convince other ward representatives to vote for his/her project. Ideally, councillors serve the entire city or county, and shouldadvocate equal treatment to all segments of the community. In reality, some ward representativesare not so public-spirited. At-Large members may consider the greater goodof the community, or they may be guidedmore by the wishes of the segments of the community that they feel won them theelection. The predicted minority vote in the next election may determinean at-large member's concern with issues of importance to minority groups in the community.

G 22 4 5 4110 STUDYING LOCAL PROBLEMS Teacher Instructions

KNOW YOUR SCHOOL GROUNDRULES. Some school divisions may require that you consult the principal or other administrator before you discuss the local government unit with local government officials. Invite your supervisor to go along, but be sure he/she knows what help you will be requesting and how you plan to conduct the unit. Check first with other teachers and coordinate your plans and requests to avoid pestering officials.

1 - See A 15, suggestion #5, for a list of materials you might request. Another idea: some government teachers and classes have found 'a project and discussion topic goldmine in the community's long-range planning booklet. Discuss with officials a list of problems that students might research to give them a feel for the issues of local government. Appropriate suggestions might include facts on controversial decisions; pro and con arguments on local issues; public opinion on some aspects of local government; job opportunities, training and experience qualifications for local government positions; or plans on which officials would like public input. Make a list during your discussion. (If you tell the official ahead of time that you will be looking for a project list, one may be waiting for you when you walk in the door.)

2 - Discuss the lists in your classes and assign teams to investigate each one chosen. There is no harm in teams from several classes working together. The results are apt to be better, and you'll have a couple of experts in each class to help with current events discussions. Give team members a date when they will share their information with the class, and a date 3 - 5 days earlier when you expect them to meet with you to outline their presentation, their charts, transparencies, or other A-V, and the sources of their information. Be sure that decision-makers, time constraints and deadlines for resolution of the problem are clearly identified.

NOTE: The work on individual or team reports can be going on outside of class, while classtime is being spent on the history and power of local government in Virginia, the structure charts, and other background information.

3 - Do not try for closure or decisions on topics and reports. Use "who would support?" and "who would oppose?" questions on the test -- as well as "List 3 reasons why" and "3 reasons why not" -- and essay questions that ask for expressions of personal points of view backed up vith data. Test questions could be taken directly from the reports -- if students have made question outlines a part of their presentation -- or you could ask each team to hand in suggested questions. (Be sure to keep the questions from each class separate from other classes!) If there is a local government issue that is not understood by the public, students might design a public information program, perhaps with slides, tapes, and other A-V materials, that could be offered to service clubs and group meetings, after practice sessions with other classes. Stay flexible -- and be prepared to offer credit for student effort and enterprise, but be firm about balanced presentations on controversial d'apics, and clearance with school and government officials.

The following report form can be given out to students when they sign up for local study topics. It will help them organize their research and their presentation. It can be the outline for their pre-report discussion with you.

G 23 406 LOCAL PROBLEM Team Names

How did you find out about this problem?

Does this problem affectany members of this team or their families?

Describe why the problem is important:

In the library, check to see if there is any literature that would helpyou identify the causes, responsibilities,and possible solutions to the problem. The more you learn in advance, themore useful your interviews with locals officials are likely to be. Are there local or national studies thatyou can read before you consult the officialsconcerns' with the probleffi7

Have any recent events, political, private,or neighborhood organizations or people brought the problem to publicattention in the newspapers, radioor TV? If so, you can check with the reportersor files for names and how to locate them (address or phone).

From what you have read/heard, would it beuseful to interview them?

Who are the officials concerned withthis problem? Name Phone Where did you find this information?

On the back of this paper, writea list of questions you should ask when you interview an official about this questio7dproblem. Be sure your questions and research will give you enough informationto briefly describe 1)the history of the problem, 2)the extent and effects of the problem, 3)the alternative solutions and their costs, and...4)theurgency or recommmended timetable for dealing with it.

Have any local special interestgroups lined up in favor of one solution or another? Identify the group and position:

What maps, diagrams, charts, videotapes,go-see trips, (other?) would you recommend to help people understand thisproblem?

How can you help each student understand the problem and form an opinionon the alternatives open to governmentto deal with the problem? Design an interesting and informative presentationfor your class. Write up an outline on a separate piece of paper and be preparedto discuss it with your teacher.

G 24 SETTING PRIORITIES ON LOCAL PROBLEMS

If you cannot salvage enough time to letyour classes do OUR LOCAL BUDGET, there are shorter exercise' thatcan address some of the issues.

A 2-DAY ACTIVITY Preparation: See your local officials for a list of 10-12 budget requests that require new money. They probably have great numbers of problems appropriate for this exercise, andcan give you a list and dollar costs for a dozenor more very easily.

One plan is published in Joint Council for EconomicEducation, Analyzing Tax Policy, pp. 69-73. (Your school should have a copy of this workbook.) Divide the class into groups of 2-3 students andgive them a list of at least 10-12 local needs beyond the normal budget, completewith pricetags.Tell them the budget will stretch to permit theexpenditure of only one half the total money represented on the list. This is a forced choice exercise, dealing only with new programs. It does not deal with basic appropriations. Let student groups discuss their choices anduse the decision-making process described in their textbooks (oron p. 73 of the workbook) for one class period.

The next day, ask for reports from thegroups. Write all items on the board, and record the votes received for each. Write a separate list of the criteria used by the groups to reach their decisions. Discuss why they chose the items they chose. Evaluate the decision-making criteria and thechoices, the small group effectiveness and the class participation.

If you want to keep the exercise completely theoretical,use the list of 12 problems in the JCEE workbook, pp. 71-72.

G 25 40C "OUR LOCAL BUDGET" A Political Process Exercise Based on The Fairfax County Game With Complete Directions for Adapting It for Your Community

HOW WILL THE GOVERNING BODY MODIFY THE BUDGET PROPOSED BY THE ADMINISTRATOR (OR EXECUTIVE OR MANAGER)? WHAT EFFECT WILL PRESSURE GRCUPS HAVE ON THE DECISION-MAKING AND THE ELECTION THAT FOLLOWS?

TIME REQUIRED: At least 10 class periods are recommended, with advanced preparation during the preceding 2 weeks. Additional activities on G 29-30 r.ould expand the time requirements to 20 or more classes, OR, BY INSERTING LOCAL PROBLEMS, INTEREST GROUPS, DATA, AND INTERRUPTERS IN THE EXERCISi, THE ENTIRE LOCAL GOVERNMENT UNIT COULD BE TAUGHT WITH AND AROUND THI., ACTIVITY. Budget- making involves all the structure and process of local govirnment, and includes priority-setting and decision-making practIces. It is a natural vehicle for local government study.

Introduction - The purpose of this activity is to involve students in a simulation of local government process and local government decision-making, to arouse student interest in the role of the individual and special interest groups, and to help students clarify their attitudes about local social and political issues. Students assume the roles of members of the Board of Supervisors (or councillors) and members of special interest pressure groups. All "experience" the political realities of local government.

OBJECTIVES CF THE EXERCISE: After completing the activities, students should be able to: State several ways local government affects their everyday lives. -Describe and use credible arguments to support realistic local priorities. -Describe the roles and political realities of the Board or Council member. - Describe the roles and political realities of local special interest groups. List the major elements of a local government budget. - Use and describe the function of compromise in decision-making. -Plan and take part in logical cral presentations. -Work more effectively in small groups.

The teacher revises and assembles student materials appropriate for the particular community (instructions on next page), sets the timetable, acts as advisor, and leads the critique discussions at the conclusion of the exercise. This exercise (unlike those that involve a courtroom) can be done successfully without a great deal of attention to protocol and meeting format. (This exercise sends students out into the community to gather information and opinion. It compliments the Model General Assembly, Section E, which teachr legislative and committee processes and Robert's Rules of Order, in addition to state issues and politics.) If you have used a role play on Congress, you might try the more compelling state and local cnes instead.

OUR LOCAL BUDGET EXERCISE - START THE PLANNING AT LEAST TWO WEEKS BEFORE YOU CONCLUDE YOUR PREVIOUS UNIT -- ASSIGN ROLES AT LEAST ONE WEEK IN ADVANCE:

1 - Read through this guide. Decide whether some or all of your classes will use this activity to develop a deeper understanding of local government and problems. Identify leaders who will keep groups on track.

G 27

4 2 - Decide whether you will use the proposed budgetprovided (for an urban county) or whether you will aska local official to provide one closer to your own local budget. Your student "administrator" should be ableto enlist the help of an official toprepare a similar, simplified, category budget, and a suggested tax rate, withsome examples of tax bills and data on how much a se (or other) increasewould change them.

3 - Decide whether you will use the specialinterest groups provided here, or whether you want to tailor the list to fit thegroups in your community. (If you tailor descriptions too specifically,you may be pressed to involve the real groups inyour exercise!) Duplicate copies of the summary statements about thegroups to give to all participants.

Will you assign students to the interestgroups or offer them a choice?

4 - Decide whether you will use the votetotals provided (G 36), or whether you will adjust the numbers to reflect the.total votesin your locality. (If you are changing the materials provided,you will need to make new vote slips for the bloc chairpersons to draw.) All participating students should know the total vote for thelocality.

5 - Plan the calendar for the exercise. Edit and duplicate materials for distribution BEFORE the final section of thepreceding unit. Correct board/council & executive/administrator/managerdesignations, and allow extra time when you think your localgroups or issues might need it. Fill in exact dates or use the calendaronly as a guide. Be realistic -- there is never time for everybody be heardor to consider every angle!

AT LEAST ONE WEEK BEFORE YOU BEGIN THE EXERCISE,USE PART OF A CLASS PERIOD TO ASSIGN ROLES AND DISTRIBUTE THE CALENDARAND OTHER ADVANCE INFORMATION.

6 - Select (or have students elect) 5 membersof the Board of Supervisorsor City Council. Use the "Ward System or At-Large Representation"handout and choose representation at-largeor by wards/magisterial districts--by home address or quadrant of the class. The board elects a chairperson, who distributes the Budget Calendar. - Board/Council meets briefly and appoints another student toserve as executive, administrator,or manager. Teacher gives this student a copy of "Manager Materials" and coordinateswith other teachers an appointment with the local administratorto obtain local data and ideas.

7 - Other students select (orare assigned) to special interest groups: - Conservative Taxpayers Group - Business Interest Group Education Interest Group - Ecology Interest Group - Liberal Human Relations Group - Give all students a copy of the Special Interest Group summariPs(G 35). Ask groups to elect their own chairperson,who then draws from an envelope a share of the voting bloc slipsto determine the group's popular support. - Each group's voting strength may be kept secret, or flaunted. Groups imumualaiseplatel122rform coalitions.

G 28 4 0 A class calendar might include the following-- with or without specific dates. It should be edited to suit your particular plan,and posted or distributed.

BOARD OF SUPERVISORS BUDGET CALENDAR

5 to 10 days before Day 1 - Elect Board of Supervisors - select chairperson - Name County Administrator - give him/her green budget info sheets - Organize Special Interest Groups - distribute summary statements

Day 1 - FIRST COUNTY BUDGET MEETING- Administrator presents budget and answers questions. Public Hearing date set. - Supervisors go into executive (closed) session. Discuss budget. - Special Interest groups caucus to plan lobbying and statement for presentation at the public hearing.. 2&3- Supervisors "office hoursm'in the classroom- Special Interest Groups have 5-10 minute appointments with individualsupervisors to present their points of view. 4 - PUBLIC HEARING ON THE BUDGET- Special interest groups deliver written statements in brief (2-4 minute) presentations,questions by members of the board. Other public reactions. 5 - Supervisors meet in executive sessionto draft a final budget, with the same categories and such additional line itemsas necessary to define the local programs. The page should show the administrator's proposed budget, the amount of the change, andany change in tax rate that will be necessary to fund the expenditures. Special Interest groups meet to evaluate theirlobbying. 6 - BOARD OF SUPERVISORS MEETING- VOTE ON BUDGET AND SET TAX RATE. Chairperson explains/justifies, line byline. Administrator posts the votes of each supervisoron each major category. 7 - Special Interest Groups meet to drawup statements on their reactions to the budget and the coming election.

(Optional - if the votes are split and hotlycontested, how about having a Candidate Forum for Board of Supervisorselection? Each candidate. responds to questions, justifying his/her budget votes.)

ELECTION OF BOARD OF SUPERVISORS-- Top 3 vote-getters win. 8 -General discussion of the exercise.

INTERRUPTERS TO ADD PROBLEMS & INTEREST TO THEBUDGET PROCESS

Announce privately to the Board of Supervisorsthat a dangerous condition exists in several public buildings (asbestosceilings that are crumbling,a bad roof on the high school,or some other crisis situation).... OR Write on the board the news flash that thejail is over-crowded and $$ will be needed to match state funds for constructingan addition.... OR Write up an official-looking document saying thatthe federal government orders the county IMMEDIATELY UPON RECEIPT OFTHIS ORDER to build a wall around the dump and clean up toxic run -off that hasbeen found seeping into a nearby stream. The official delivering the document to theadministrator or

G 29 411 to the board (privately or ina public meeting) tells the board that itmay cost as much as $2 million to cleanup the mess, and they will need to locate another dumpsite.... You could complicatethis by including the fact that the source of the toxic material is suspected to be theplant owned by a member of the board, which also is the largest employer in the community. Decide how this information should be released tothe public -- by the board,a leak in the press, or inside information providedto the Ecology Interest Group. OR Pass the word in a Special Interest Groupcaucus that a finance official has been seen unexpectedly loadingup his car and a moving van. Is there money gone from the county accounts? Should an emergency investigationbe launched? How much will it cost? OR The state has just sent a reminder that' entativelongrange capital plans ($700,000 per year OR??) are due in theDepartment of Planning before the end of the month. What should be on it? All items require a majority vote. OR Some other unexpected financial problemof your choice.

Evaluation of "Our Local Budget" Exercise

While the Board of Supervisors is inexecutive session, Special Interest Groups may meet to discuss the followingquestions with the teacher. How realistic were your demands? How willing were you to compromise? Did you form any coalitionsor enhance your postition in other ways? How effective do you feel youwere in stating your position and negotiating with the supervisors? in person?in meetings? How successful do you think you will be ininfluencing the supervisor's budget?What would you do differently next time? What groups in this community might takecomparable positions?

Board of Supervisors may meet while SpecialInterest Groups are planning their strategies for the election, to discuss theirroles with the teacher: Do you think the positions you tookwere very realistic? How would your vote be different ifyou were representing a rural magisterial district?a suburban district? an urban district?

At the conclusion of this exercise,the entire class should consider questions such as the following: How realistic was the simulation? What do you know now about local governmentand about political processes that you did not know before? What things surprised you most? Are there dangers in assuming that the realbudget process would be similar in every detail to whatyou have experienced in this exercise? What do you think would be different inthe real world? Would you like to run for elected officesome day? What kinds of statements would you include inyour platform?What kind of constituents would you want to have? What qualifications do you think should be required/desired in candidatesfor local government office? Refer to student objectives (openingpage of this exercise) for more ideas.

G 30 STUDENT ADMINISTRATOR'SINSTRUCTIONS

1 Read over the sample (Fairfax) budget and "Administrator'sJustification." 2 Plan questions you'll need to ask an official to get comparable information about your own local government. 3 If other classes are also doing this exercise, askyour teacher to help you coordinate one meeting with the local administrator to give information to all the student administrators. 4 Visit the administrator -- take with you the suggested categoryoutline and a notebook and pen. Ask the administrator to help you with numbers and information about your own government. 5 Write up your justification statement (see model next page). 6 Make copies of your budget and statement for the board and forthe special interest groups. Make a transparency showing the category amounts, to help you with your presentation.

(Fairfax Data) Previous Year's Budget PROPOSED BUDGET

Schools $140,000,000 $155,000,000 Buildings & Equipment $45,000,000 Personnel Teachers & administrators 90,000,000 Custodial Services 4,000,000 Materials 10,000,000 Plant Operations 6,000,000 Public Safety 18,000,000 20,000,090 Police 15,000,000 Fire 5,000,000 Justice 1,500,000 2,000,000 Courts 500,000 Penal Institutions 1,500,000 Parks & Recreation 11,500,000 13,000,000 Purchase of Parkland 8,000,000 Operation, Parks & Recreation 5,000,000 Health & Welfare 17,500,000 19.000.000 Hospitals 10,000,000 WelfarePayments & Services 9,000,000 Waste Disposal 5,000,000 7,100,000 Trash 2,000,000 Sewers 5,000,000 Air Pollution Control 100,000 Libraries 2,500,000 2,900,000 County Administration 4,000,000 6,000,000

TOTALS $200,000,000 $225,000,000 Total Increase over previous year's budget $25,000,000

Tax Information: The main source of income for this county is the property tax. The population is increasing rapidly, while the amount of land remains the same, thus the value of property is rising, and the county income from property taxes is rising at the rate of 10% peryear. This increase mean that the county budget can increase 10% ayear without increasing the property tax rate. If the new budget were $220,000,000, no increase in taxes would be necessary. However, each $1,000,000 that the supervisors increase the total budget over $220,000,000, automatically will cause a 1% increase in the tax rate. Each $1,000,000 decrease in the budget under $220,000,000 would decrease taxes by 1%. The county executive's proposed budget requires a 5% increase in taxes. How much difference would that make in dollars to the average propertyowner in the county? JUSTIFICATION OF THE COUNTY EXECUTIVE'S BUDGET

Honorable Board of Supervisors Fairfax County, Virginia

Ladies and Gentlemen:

The County Executive's proposed budget, which you have just received, is presented for your consideration. You will note that it calls for a total of $225,000,000, an increase of 12.5% or $25,000,000 over the previous year's budget. This increase has been caused by three main factors:

1. The continued rise in the cost of living, which means that equipment, materials, land, and salaries for government employees cost significantlymore than the same items during the previous year.

2. An increase of 4.5% since last year in the number of people living in the county.

3. An increase in the demand for services in our increasingly wealthy county.

The $25,000,000 proposed increase would require a 5% increase in taxes. This increase is necessary if we are to provide minimum improvements in the services that the county government provides.

What follows is a justification for this increase. I will discuss each major item in the order in which it is listed on your copy of the proposed budget.

The proposed budget for schools, as you will note, would requirean increase of $15,000,000. Actually, this is $10,000,000 less than the School Board has requested. Twothirds of this $15,000,000 increase will go to raise the salaries of teachers and administrators. This was negotiated by the teachers' association and the amount will be difficult to change. $3,000,000 of the increase is the result of rising costs.This leaves only $1,000,000 to improve the school's program. The schools requested a great deal more than this, and this figure will eliminate or cut a significant number ofnew programs. However, I feel that the county simply cannot afford to give the schools any more money, since we have so many other needs.

The Public Safety budget would be increased by $2,000,000. There are three principal reasons for this:

1. The police department wishes to purchase $500,000 worth of riot control equipment, in case this may be needed in the future. 2. An additional fire station is needed in a rural area where housing developments are planned. The county zoning law requires that these houses cannot be built until the fire station is authorized.

G 32 A'7 4 STUDENT ADMINISTRATOR'S INSTRUCTIONS(cont'd)

3. It will be necessary to employ additional policeand firemen, because of the county's growth in population, and to give allpolice and firemen a raise in salary.

The cost of justice would increase $500,000. This amount is necessary to modernize and air condition the county jail. This budget would maintain the court system at its present level of operation,even though two additional judges were requested to speed up the judicialprocess.

The majority of the $1,500,000 increase for parksand recreation would be spent to purchase a large tract of land in thecounty for use as a park. This land would otherwise be developed into high densityhousing. The remainder of the increase would provide improved recreationprograms in areas of high population density.

The $1,500,000 increase for health and welfarereflects only a very small improvement in welfare services and no increase inwelfare payments. The majority of the increase is the result of the risein the cost of hospital services.

$2,000,000 of the $2,100,000 increase in the wastedisposal budget would go to improve existing sewerage treatment plants andto build a new sewer line for the proposed housing development in thearea where the new fire station would be built. The $100,000 for air pollution control isa new item in the budget. It will allow the county to employ three air pollutioninspectors and to pay the county's share of the MetropolitanWashington Air Pollution Study Committee. It is hoped that in some future yeara fullscale air pollution control agency will be funded.

The library budget increase of $400,000 wouldbe used to purchase additional books for our expanding population, topurchase an additional bookmobile to serve developing areas of the county, and to setup a central processing system.

The 50% increase in the budget for countyadministration will provide the following: 1. New office equipment 2. Increased travel allocations 3. 100 additional personnel to serve our rapidly growing population. 4. A 15% salary increase for the members of theBoard of Supervisors, the county executive, and agency heads. 5. Salary increases for county employees otherthan those previously mentioned.

G 33

41.:7 r; 3. Ati BUDGET WORKSHEET

Record the amounts approved and puta check mark below the name of each supervisor who voted FOR the approved amount. FAVORABLE VOTES BY SUPERVISOR

BUDGET ITEM SUBTOTALS CATEGORY TOTAL

Schools Buildings & Equipment Personnel teachers and administrators custodial personnel

Public Safety Police Fire

Justice Courts Penal Institutions

Parks & Recreation Purchase of Parkland Operation, Parks & Recreation

Health & Welfare Hospitals Welfare Payments & Services

Waste Disposal Trash Sewers Air Pollution Control

Libraries

County Administration

TOTAL

Change from Executive's Proposed Budget

% Increase or Decrease in Property Taxes

G 34 4 6 SPECIAL INTEREST GROUPS

Conservative Taxpayers Group: This group believes in the general philosophy that "the government is best whichgoverns least." It generally opposes increased urbanization, new expenditures,and higher taxes. The group is a strong supporter of the police department andgenerally backs the "law and order" theme. A favorite target of thegroup is the school system. Their objections are that schools spend too muchmoney and teachers' salaries are too high.

Business Interest Group: This group believes in the generalphilosophy that growth is good. It generally favors improved governmentservices, good schools, expanded sewerage facilities, andalmost anything else which may improve the image of the county/cityand stimulate business growth. The group opposes excessively high taxes which may discouragenew business from locating in the area. It favors planned and orderly development,and stresses the goal of improved employment in thearea through business expansion and the free enterprise system. It usually opposes increased expendituresfor welfare programs because it does not want toencourage welfare recipients to locate in the area. Included in this group might be homebuilders and real estate associations, and, perhaps, the Chamber ofCommerce.

Education Interest Group: This gr*oup includes those organizationswhich are usually very supportive of good schoolsand school improvements. Such groups are the PatentTeacher Associations, special parentgroups, and teacher associations. Where industry may work with the schoolsto support technical education programs, business people alsomay be part of the group. They are likely to favor higher taxes whennecessary for school improvements, libraries, and teacher salaires. If budget cuts are required, thisgroup is likely to feel that cuts should be made innonschool items.

Ecology Interest Group: This group is made up of conservationistswho are concerned with the effects of urbanizationupon the environment. They will usually support increased expendituresfor parks and strong controlson pollution of air, land, and water. They urge recycling of trash. They generally favor low density population andoppose developments which result in rapid increases in the growth of population. The group will likely support the improvement of existing facilitiesfor sewerage and waste disposal, but may not support the addition of newsewerage systems which would encourage population growth.

Liberal Human Relations Group: The primary concern of this group is with improving the social fabric of thecommunity and attacking the causes of unrest. They feel generally that thereare segments of society, especially the poor, for whom the government shouldprovide better services. They would usually support higher taxes in orderto provide better benefits and programs for the poor, day care for the elderly andfor children of working parents, provisions for the handicapped, legalaid and better penal institutions. They would often agree with the ecologygroup's desire to clean up the environment. They might oppose large increases in schoolexpenditures if they felt that this would cause otherprograms to be cut. They would be less inclined to increase expenditures forpolice than some of the othergroups.

G 35 VOTING BLOCS

If you are using the Fairfax vote totalsof 122,000 - make a copy of this page and cut out the squares. Mix them in an envelope and havethe chairperson of each special interestgroup draw 7 squares to determine the group's voter strength.

If you are using your own community's vote totals, make anew sheet in a similar way for 'our interestgroups to draw.

The whole class should know the totalvote you are using, but special interest groups may keep theirtotal secret. They may also combine to form coalitions. The number of votes eachgroup represents will help determine its clout in meetings with thesupervisors.

10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 10,000 VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES

10,000 5,000 5,000 5,000 VOTES 5,000 VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES

. . 5,000 5,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES

2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 2,000 VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES

2,000 2,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES

1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES VOTES

. 1,000 1,000 1,000 1,000 -0- VOTE VOTES VOTES VOTE VOTES

G 36 4px, s The many processes by which water movesincluding precipitation. runoff, percolation. groundwater flow. evaporation, and transpirationare collectively called the hydrologic cycle. Water travels continuously through the atmosphere, rivers, oceans, and aquifers in this never.ending cycle.

H - VIRGINIA'S WATER RESOURCES

Plans & Ideas for Using Section H H 3 - 5 The State of Virginia's Waters- Problems & Opportunities H 7 - 14 Charts and Flyers to Reproduce for Class and Student Use H 15 - 24 Local Responsibility for Virginia's Waters H 25 Our Own Area's Water Supplies, Conservation, and LandUse 111, - Student Worksheets H 26 - 30 Virginia Water Rights & Water Laws- Surface Water and Groundwater H 31 - 32 Who's in Charge ? Virginia Water Management H 33 Proposals for Reorganizing Administration & Regulationof Water H 35 - 37 University of Virginia News Letter: William E. Cox: "Water Supply Management in Virginia" Political Realities- An Analytical Problem for Advanced Students H' 38 Excerpts, Report of Governor's Commissionon Virginia's Future H 39 - 43 University of Virginia News Letter: "Virginia Assembly on the Future of Virginia'sEnvironment" Federal Funds & Programs Affect Virginia'sWaters H 45 - 46 Federal Water Law: What Does It Say? H 47 - 48 What Will It Cost to Catch Up--Wastewater TreatmentConstruction H 49 - 50 Hazardous Wastes- Teaching Ideas I-1 51 Who Should Clean Up? Who Should Pay? - Worksheet for Our Area H 53 - 54 University of Virginia News Letter:' Collins & Waters: ."Hazardous Waste Management inVirginia" Area Studies . #1 Save the Bay-- An Intergovernmental Program H 55 - 62 #2 Northern Virginia- Citizen Effort Produces Cooperation h 63 - 66 #3 Tidewater- Saltwater - Save Water - What Water? H 67 - 69 Analysis & Comparison of Water Problems- Student Worksheet H 70 Class Activity - Water Emergency !! H 71 - 73 Virginia Water Resource Research Center- Virginia Water Project - Clean Water Action Project- tither Groups Active in' Virginia H 75 - 77 Vocabulary H 79 - 80 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The editors wish to record their sincere appreciation for the assistance of many people knowledgable on the technical and practical aspects of Virginia's water supply questions. To William E. Cox, for writing the University of Virginia News Letter, "Water Supply Management in Virginia" expressly for this Section H. To Kathryn Sevebeck, Education Coordinator, Virginia Water Resources Research Center at VPI-SU, and Treva Cromwell of the League of Women Voters of Virginia, who made substantive and editorial suggestions. To The Council on the Environment and Keith J. Buttleman, irector, who saw this project as a way to acquaint teachers and 12th grade students with efforts to restore the Chesapeake Bay, and awarded a grant that funded part of the cost of developing this unit. May the next generation be good stewards of Virginia's resources!

This section is the culminating unit for the notebook Resources for 'reaching Virginia Government. It contains crossreferenced material that will be more useful if it is kept with the previous sections (A through G) ina notebook.

A Government teacher once said: "the book that can be updated and the publisher that will send out a newsletter to keep it current will havemy vote for the resource of the age."THIS IS IT, but the keeper of the notebook must put the new pages in when they appear each spring.

For ideas on how to use it all, see

the QUARTERLY, a newsletter to accompany and update RESOURCES FOR TEACHING VIRGINIA GOVERNMENT

Watch the mails-- and be sure to return your preferred mailing address to:

TEACHER RESOURCE SERVICE INSTITUTE OF GOVERNMENT MINOR HALL UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA, CHARLOTTESVILLE, VA 22903

*It will continue as long as the Teacher ResourceS4rvice is funded at the Institute of Government. It's for you! Use it! Share ideas! Remind your legislators each year to be sure it is included in the budget-- to help you teach about glyIstate and their, job, Virginiagovernment.

H 2 PLANS & IDEAS FOR USING SECTION H

This material is designed to be used with other sections of the notebook, RESOURCES FOR TEACHING VIRGINIA GOVERNMENT.

-See general ideas in Section A. - Use water information to augment the economic and political decision- making and group activities in Sections B and D. -Use the water issues in the model General Assembly in Section E. - Use water information with the tax and budget materials in Section F. -Use water information with the Local Government activitiesin Section G.

Section H information shows how all three levelsof government CAN work toward common goals. You may find all three in your newspapers atany time.

TEACH SKILLS with Section H-- Point out distinctions between fact and value claims--Ask local officials formore maps, graphs and charts of water supplies, water use, drought statistics and floodfrequency charts -- Use the group activities and decision-making activities-- Assign position papers and promote debates.

TEACH FEDERALISM & DIVISION OF POWERS with SectionH. Identify the particular responsibilities of each level of government andhow they reinforce each other.

TEACH CITIZENSHIP with Section H-. Identify and interview local officials concerned with area waters-- survey public information and reactions -- assemble information and make it availableinthe community-- enlist muscle-power for local activities suchas Virginia Water Project.

1 - FIRST: READ THROUGH THIS SECTION TO SEE WHAT ISHERE AND TO PICK OUT ACTIVITIES APPROPRIATE FOR YOUR CLASSESAND YOUR AREA.

2 - CHECK MATERIALS IN YOUR SCHOOL AND COMMUNITYLIBRARIES: When were they written? This is a fast-moving topic-- materials more than a couple of years old may not reflect recent populationprojections or scientific advances in water treatment or detoxificationof pollutants. School and community libraries should both have the followingbooklets of the Virginia Water Resources Research Center at VPI-SU (Address ison page H 75):

A Groundwater Primer for Virginians (1984)A 22-page booklet with fine diagrams, maps, and descriptive materialson Virginia and the groundwater problems and opportunities for the future.

Virginia's Waters (1985) An overview anddescription of each of Virginia's drainage basins, including thesignificance of the river in the history of the Commonwealth, statementson quantity and quality of water, and the likely demands of thearea served. This is a useful addition to the Planning District Worksheet activity inSection B.

For more precise information, contactthe State Water Control Board fora copy of the latest Water Quality Inventory, whichincludes a detailed description of sources and pollution ofevery river segment and lake in Virginia. Check with science teachers. Your library can request a copy foryou.

H 3

421 For information on the Chesapeake Bay, contactthe Council on the Environment and the Chesapeake Bay Foundation.

3 - PLAN TO USE STUDENT WORKSHEETS in Section H-- adapt them or make up your own. Send students to find information aboutthe real situation in your area. Worksheets that ask for public and studentopinions also stimulate family interest and help studentsto notice news stories about water in the local media, thus increasing class discussionand community participation.

4 - START WITH LOCAL INFORMATION &ACTIVITIES: Make a classroom set of "Local Responsibility for Virginia Waters."Read and discuss it or share the information with the class ina manner of your choosing. Then hand out copies of pages on local water supplies, controlsand conservation efforts-- to be filled in outside of class, fromsources indicated. While students conduct their research and interviews, classtime can be devoted to state and federal responsibilities and programs.

See the coach and members of the debateteam in your school-- the topic for this year is a national waterpolicy.

Consider a student report on the findings of the "Report of the Commissionon Virginia's Future." The findings on Environment and NaturalResources are included in this Section H.

Current information about Virginia'swater problems and legislation is provided in the monthly publication "Water News." Subscriptions are free in Virginia, and class setscan be provided of any issues/articles if 6-weeks notice is given. Plan ahead.

The activity, "Water Emergency" at the end of this section has itsown teacher instruction sheet. Don't ask your students to do thisactivity without adequate preparation.

While Section H topics may be "covered" in lectures, individualand class activities and resourcesare described here to engage students in inductive, analytical, simulation or other group activities in the community-- specific objectives of the Standards of Learning. If your immediate alla does nothave some of the problems described,you might split the class int., recO,onal committees for their investigations and write to officials to augmentthe information in this section andin the materials listed.

COMBINE THESE MATERIALS MANYDIFFERENT WAYS. USE THEM AT DIFFERENT TIMES DEPENDING ON YOUR COURSE PLAN AND WATER EMERGENCIES, LEGISLATION,OR OTHER WATER EVENTS IN THE NEWS. Each segment has its own worksheetsand suggested activities. Start by reading through the entiresection. For the next several years, there will be legislation proposed in the GeneralAssembly to accomplish some of the tasks describedin this section. When those bills are announced or debated, use the materials in Section H for backgroundand class activities. This information alsocan be used by students to develop their own proposals and suggestions, whichyou might encourage them to share with state and local government officials. Why limit their creativity to ideas already written by otherpeople?

H 4

.a. I, A., USING SECTION H TO MEET OBJECTIVES OF THE STANDARDS OF LEARNING

The following suggestions are only a starting point. Notebook materials can be used many ways to teach more about Virginia state and local governmentand to encourage student activity in the classroom and in the community. 12.1 The student will participate in civic activities. Worksheets suggest questions students can ask local officials and candidates.

12.2 h will I r r inl . V Irh i.1 i n through the use of decision-making skills.Ask for opinions. Follow with discussion, debates, guest panels, opinion papers,as well as group and individual community action. Help students analyze decision-making.

12.3 Thy student will recognize the uniqueness. worth. and dignity of self And others through the use of interpersonal skills. Several pages suggest activities involving groups and interpersonal skills.

12.4The student will analyze the basic rights andresponsibilities of American citizens and describe the historical evolution of the these Water rights have been regarded as property rights. What of public rights and concern for the environment?

12.5 The student will explain the role of the executive,legislative, and judicial branches of government at the federal,state. and local levels.

12.6 Th .n will x 1 in h .f -..r. i n .f ..w r in ludina checks and balances, and, its imurtance ina democratic system. Water is the subject of federal, state, andlocal legislation. Federal, state and local agencies execute the laws. Court decisions settle disputes. This issue involves all branches and levels ofgovernment.

12.7 The student will analyze the Virginia and UnitedStates Constitutions. the documents which preceded their adootion,and the evolving interpretations igaurstann. The Virginia Constitution, Article XI: Conservation, detailsa new government responsibility, to protect its "atmosphere, lands, and waters from pollution, impairment,or destruction, for the benefit, enjoyment, and generalwelfare of the people of the Commonwealth."This is a landmark statement.

12.8 Thy student will define free enterprise. identifyits characteristics. and explain its operation. Supply and demand in local water pricing policy is a useful study. Should rates encourage conservation?

12.10 The student will identify and analyze thefactors affecting decision- makinu at all government levels in the UnitedStates.. Pressure groups, media, public opinion, and fiscal policyconsiderations are easy spot in current controversiesover the protection and use of our reseui.les.

12.12 The student will demonstrate data-gathering skills. Individual and small group projects in thesepages use library and interview activity, a refreshing change for a teacher who traditionallyuses lecture formats.

12.13 The student will statg characteristics and functionsof United States political parties. Water is a political issue in some areas. Informed students might participate through interest In environmentalquestions.

H 5 THE STATE OF VIRGINIA'S WATERS

"A man-made drought and economic stagnationloom on the horizon for Virginia's most populous areas.The Virginia State Water Study Commission has determined that water demandwill significantly outrun water access in the northern, tidewater,and valley areas of Virginia over the next two decades. The immediate future holds accelerated costs of water treatment as increasedwithdrawals raise the ratio of pollutants in the water supply,"

This statement by The HonorableJames H. Dillard, II, Delegaze from Fairfax, summarized the problem addressed in1981 by the State Water Study Commission. The report called fora detailed survey of Virginia's wateruse and described possible changes in water law and theneed for coordinated administration.

Five years later, statisticson water flows and water use are becoming available. Population growth continues to compoundthe predicament of Tidewater and capricious rainfall periodically causes problems for otherareas of Virginia. Pressure is mounting for changes inthe law and for some of the specific proposals outlined in the1981 report. Nationwide, strides have been made in identifying toxic substances and educating the public on the needfor protection of our waters. Congress is discussing state enforceddeadlines for Clean Water Act compliance andcuts that will increase state funding responsibility, and Virginia is already funding a considerable shareof the cost of restoring the ChesapeakeBay.

In 194, the Governor's Commission on Virginia's Future recommended that the State Water Control Board (SWCB) be established as the waterresource planner and manager, resolver of conflict, and coordinator of surface andground water distribution. In 1985, Governor Robb asked theSWCB to design a new water management plan for the 1986 legislature. A recent survey shows thatmany citizens and groups favor coordinatedadministration that would include:

- PROTECTION AND DISTRIBUTION OF WATER SUPPLY in timesof plenty and times of drought, - PROTECTION OF WATER QUALITY, above and belowground, - TREATMENT FACILITIES planning, financing andmonitoring, - PUBLIC EDUCATION, CONSERVATION PRACTICES AND POLLUTIONREDUCTION, - LONG-RANGE PLANNING for residential, agricultural,and industrial users, and protection of potential reservoirsites.

Virginia's traditional laissez-faireprinciple kept the state out of the regulatory business in the 1800sand early 1900s, but modern industry, agriculture, and urban populations require guaranteed delivery ofmillions of gallons of water each day, and there seems to be no alternativeto a stronger role for state government to provide the water or to regulatethe providers. We can not afford to leave water regulation to the courtsbecause they can only assess damages after thelosses are established, after the after the aquifers wells are dry, are contaminated, after industry has departedand farmers are ruined. As federal funding cuts returnresponsibility to the states, money and direction from Washingtonmay be less available to fund capital needs such as treatment facilities. Virginia will have to takemore active charge of its waters and develop a management system that willserve all our people and our needs into the21st century. SOME BASIC WATER FACTS AND QUESTIONS

1 - SUPPLIES ARE FINITE. We have the same amount of watertoday as we have always had. It just keeps recycling. Most of the precipitation falls into the oceans. which cover 3/4 of theearth. Water also falls onto the land where it is used by living things, seeps into the ground, fills lakes,runs into streams and rivers, andevaporates. The hydrological cycle doesn't distribute water evenly aroundthe earth. Periods of "normal" or adequate precipitation, drought, and floodsare unpredictable.

2 - THE We are more fortunate than many states because a tremendous amount of water flows throughVirginia every year. Much of our 42" annual precipitation(rain and show) is lost to evaporation, but the remainder seeps or runs into groundwater suppliesor our surface water systems: the nine majorriver basins, thousands of milesof streams, hundreds of inland lakes andwetlands, the Chesapeake Bay, and thousands of miles of shoreline andsalt marshes. Our water, generally, flows down the mountains and out of thestate, except for the New River anda few smaller streams that bringwater from West Virginiaor North Carolina into Virginia. Our precipitation patternsvary from.month to month andyear to year, and often from one communityor one side of the mountain to another. How much of it runs off and how much seeps into the groundwatersupply is determined by the composition of the material above the groundand the nature of the soil. There have been periods ofdrought and flooding in different areas of the state and varying degrees of intensity down through theyears. 3 - WHO "OWNS" THE WATER? It depends on where it is at the time! In 1985, in Virginia, if the water isabove ground, one set ofcommon law understandings controls its use. If it is below ground, eitherof two different sets of common lawunderstandings may control its in certain areas that use...unless it is are regulated by a law that appliesto a few users of the water in that area. (Many people may be confused.)

Water ABOVE Ground: Riparian law identifies rightsof landowners to share water on or bordering their land. Disputes are handled by law suits riparians. between There is no provision for planningwater use, no priority for municipal use, no clear understanding of a riparian's"share" (an obvious problem in drought years), and no provision for waterfor nearby non-riparians (those who do notown land on the waterway). Most of Virginia uses waterfrom rivers and above groundsources.

Water UNDER Ground: Virginia courts say that waterUNDER the land (also called groundwater) is for 1)"reasonable" use on the land above, its owner, with OR2) by no restrictions. In either case, there isno requirement for sharing, "reasonable" is not defined, nor is thereany connection to the law governing water that escapes to the surface, or to others whoshare the aquifer and the land aboveit.

Is water a resource that should belong to all the people ofVirginia? residents of a state have Do all a right to expect clean water to beavailable for them? Would sharing takeaway an economic advantage that is the land value, an advantage already part of that the area may wish toprotect for the future? Who should decide? What is the role of government?

4 - NEULATION GROWTH HAS INCREASEDDEMAND FOR WATER. AND INCREASED Our burgeoning population has POLLUTION. multiplied the need fora dependable water

H 8 425 supply for residential and agriculturaluse as well as for the industries that provide jobs. This requires a wiser use of groundwater and surfacesources, more storage capacity, more reservoirs, andmore treatment plants to return usable water to our rivers and streams.

5 LANDUSE DECISIONS AFFECT OUR WATER SUPPLY. At almost every planning commission, city council and board of supervisorsmeeting in Virginia, pressure is applied by highly sophisticated developers to boardsand commissions which until recently decided largely withrural issues.

6 EA_C_DROUGHT PERIOD SPREADS ITS EFFECTS TO MOREPEOPLE AND BUSINESSES. Droughts in 1977 and 1980-81 demonstratedthat Virginia's agricultural and industrial economy and quality of lifedepend on reliable fresh water supplies. Crisis control actions do not usually correctunderlying problems, and may pit one area or one interest againstanother.

If you were a farmer who dependson irrigation to water your fields, what would you do if your water supplywas low and dirty and you were not permitted to pipe water from a nearby riverthat was full?

If you owned a small manufacturing plantthat employed a number of people in your community, what wouldyou do if your springfed pond could not supply the wateryou need for your production process?

If you were responsible for the watersupply for a small city, what would you do if the reservoirswere drying up and there was no rain?

If you were a conservationistor a bass fisherman, what would you do if the water in a naturalarea were drained for other uses?

Do you think state or local governmentwould be asked to step in, to allocate water? or to establish procedures and emergency boardsor other mechnisms to decide? Should decisions be made under such conditions or should priorities beestablished ahead of the crisis? 7 CONSERVATION IS NOT ENCOURAGED BY MOSTVIRGINIA WATER RATES. Only a few localities use an escalating ratesystem to discourage waste and inefficient water use. Has the price of water changed inyour area in the last ten years? What does your community do toencourage wise water use? Are there building codes that require watersaving appliances and plumbing? Do big water users pay lessper gallon? How would you find out?

8 CONSTRUCTION AND PAVING INTERFERE WITH NORMAL RUNOFF PATTERNS. Some parts of the state have had several "hundred year floods" in the lastdecade. In open land and agricultural areas, water spreadsout and seeps into the aquifer (underground supply), but it may become a destructive torrent when itwashes over a shopping center parking lot intoa pipe or a stream that has been squeezed or diverted. Urban runoff is also a pollution problem,since it usually contains oil and manmade pollutants, lead, mercury, cadmium,zinc, copper, chromium and other toxic substances,organic matter, and ordinary dirt. 9 CONSTRUCTION. PAVING. AND POLLUTION ENDANGER UNDERGROUND WATERS. About 807 of Virginians use some groundwater every day. includingapproximately 1.5 million residents whose entire domestic water supply is from privatewells or springs. Seepage cannot occur through cement, asphalt, or buildings,so the recharging of a groundwater supply in an area of growing populationbecomes more difficult -- while at thesame time more water is being pumped out. However, the H 9 426 most serious concern of all is contamination,since most toxic chemicals do not break down or filter out of wateras it seeps down through the ground We do not know what substances may be inching theirway into our aquifers from old waste dumps, abandoned or improperlydrilledwells, mines, highway runoff, and trash filled sink holes. There is new awareness of the problems of failing septic systems-- improperly located, improperly maintained, or no longer containing the sewage due to changingconditions of land or drainage. (A decision to permit residential developmentin some parts of the state allowed septic systems where the soildid not percolate, or where the water table was so high that sewageran out on the surrounding land when it rained OR sewage ran directly into.the undergroundwater, the aquifer.) In Tidewater, saltwater intrusion thatmay be irreversible can occur when wells are drilled too deep or when too much water is withdrawn.

The National Governor's Association andthe Conservation Foundation have recognized contamination and depletionof groundwater as a widespread and urgent national problem, anda Groundwater Policy Forum has been created to head off massive groundwaterpollution. Few states have comprehensive efforts, and Virginia is notone of them. Proposals currently under discussion (1985-86) may form thebasis for such a plan for Virginia.

10 SURFACE WATER IMPOUNDMENTS MAY NOTBE ADEOUATE FOR THE FUTURE. Most communities in the state relyon water flowing through the area to provide them the quantities they need: they divert it, use it, and return it(often dirtied) to the river or stream. In fastgrowing areas, reservoirsites may already be scarce and expensive. Acquiring and protecting them aheadof time requires money and often the "taking"of land by eminent domain. Logical sites may even be located in otherjurisdictions, and require state leadership to spur local cooperation. Areas of concentrated population havehad to impound water behind dams to have it available in drier times. Since most areas have only a 1 3 day surface water supply instorage, a major drought would also draw down the groundwater supply. What storage capacity does area have? your

11 SHOULD SURFACE WATER AND GROUNDWATERBE CONSIDERED ONE IN THE LAW AND ADMINISTRATION? IN Groundwater is brought to thesurface by nature and byman, and surface water runs or seeps into the groundwater supply. The problems that affect one may become the problems of the other, andsome "cures" for one may even oulg problems in the other. We use Ilichever supply suitsus and our area at the time. Each is regulated tosome extent, but by completely separate Virginia laws, basedon different premises. Should we have a comprehensive water plan would considerboth as parts of the same resource?

12 WHAT HAS VIRGINIA DONE ABOUTPOLLUTION ABATEMENT? The State Water Control Board was begun in 1946, making Virginia one of the firststates to start a statewide water pollution controlprogram. Sewage and waste were pouring into 35 of the state's 53 riversand streams. See the contrast in 1980, after eight years of CleanWater Act regulations and funds: 1946 1980 million pounds of pollutants generated per day 6.5 7.5 removed through treatment 11% 957 million pounds of pollutants discharged to VA waters 5.8 .38 Since 1980, more pollutants are being generated per day, and the 957.removal through treatment has risen only a fraction, so the pollutant dischargeis on

H 10 4 2 7 the rise. What will happen if funds are cut? How will we replace wornout, leaking pipes, and build treatment plants to accommodateour growing population?

13 THE TIMEBOMB SOLUTION TO POLLUTION IS DILUTIONWhen water QUANTITY is a problem, water QUALITY becomes a greater problem.A amount of some unappetizing or harmful substance may not be obviousor threatening in a large body of water, but when the water level is low, thatsame amount of pollutant may be toxic and very difficult to wash away from the site.

Water quantity affects water quality. Example: The waste from three cows might not dangerously pollutea fastmoving river or a large reservoir, but it could foula small slowmoving stream, and produce significant changes ineven a large pond. Such wastes can cause eutrophication, turningthe water green with algae and making it unusable. Note: Cows still wade in many streams in Virginia, though it is against Best ManagementPractices for pollution control.

Question # 1: Our local governments spend millions of dollars ofour money and federal funds from all oris to build a treatment plant to clean our used water before it goes back intothe river. Downstream, a farmer saves the cost of a fence,a pump, a pipe, and a trough and lets his cows wade in the river to drink. What can be done?

Question # 2: Suppose the polluter upstream isan industrial plant, the largest employer in the area. Can the plant be made to clean the water (how clean?) before it returns it to theriver? What if they say it would be too expensive and they'll justhave to move the plant to another area or another state? Suppose a boss in the company (or a member of his family, or his lawyer,or close friend) is on the board of supervisors, or in the state legislature? If you were in charge of keeping the river clean, what problems mightyou have? What kinds of testimony do you think is heard in Congresswhen they discuss enforcement of deadlines for ending pollution?

Question # 3: Suppose the pollution is hydrocarbons producedby cars and trucks, industries and power companies,all decreasing Virginia's air quality and raising the likelihood of damagefrom acid rain. Sulphurous air is now obscuring vision in the mountainareas during much of the summer, trees and plants are showing damage, and fishare at risk in our streams. Predictions are that air quality and acidrain will worsen in the coming years. What should we be doing? How would you find out?

Question # 4: Applying more fertilizer, insecticides, pesticides,or herbicides than the instructionssay will not make things grow better, but will crqate toxic or nitrogenfilled runoff,algaefilled reservoirs and rivers, and further pollute waterwayslike the Chesapeake Bay. How do we help people touse these chemicals more wisely?

Pollution increases with each increase inpopulation. Just to maintain present water quality levels will costmore: IMPROVING it (and several places need it) will cost even MORE.

14 MANY AGRICULTURAL AND INDUSTRIAL CHEMICALS.NATURAL AND MANMADE POLLUTANTS ARE NOT READILY REMOVED FROMWALE. They remain in the water, defying filtration and destruction, ORthey combine to create other hazardous

H 11 428 substances, which are carried into Chesapeake Bayor ,into our groundwater and spread in unpredicted directions to taint wells and water suppliesover the coming years. Where in the world is it safe to dump poisonous materials? We are just beginning to alter some of them chemically, to burnor recycle them. How long can we wash them away tosome unknown, next or final destination.

Example: In California, water was diverted to irrigate land which contained toxic minerals. The runoff poisoned birds and animals ina nearby wildlife refuge and endangeredarea residents. The irrigation is stopped, but the clean-up will take decades andmillions. Who pays?

15 - iMA.LUrN-T3EIILHNENKRTHRt. Power plants andsome industrial users withdraw millions of gallons of water for coolingpurposes, and then return it to our lakes and streams ata different temperature. Some aquatic life -- plants, fish, and animals-- may not survive the change. Do we care? How much?What are we willing to give up inour society so that wildlife is not endangered?

16 - FEDERAL PROGRAMS AND FEDERAL FUNDS HAVEBEEN INSTRUMENTAL IN SOLVING VIRGINIA'S WATER SUPPLY AND POLLUTIONIN THE PAST. WILL THE PROGRAMS BE AVAILABLE IN THE FUTURE?Will debt-ridden federal budgets curtail thewater supply and wastewater tr'atment funds forstates?Will Virginia have to pay more of the costs?How much can be passed on to water users? At what point might the cost of water chaseaway industries we need to employ our people?

17 - HHAT COOPERATION WITH OTHER STATES ISIMPORTANT TO VIRGINIA'S FUTURE WATER SUPPLY? We have several interstate and inter-governmentalagreements to protect our shoreline and water supplies:regional flood controls and power projects, waste dump siting, andour commitment to revive the Chesapeake Bay. What other types of cooperationare necessary?

18 - VFIKIBIAILANKQESNOT REGULATE THINGS THAT COULD BE LEFT UNREGULATED. Change may be a political liability andpersons who advocate it may not be reelected. Virginia regulation tends to bea collection of small intrusions ratherthan major redefinitions of law and responsibility. By not establishing administrativeresponsibility for managing water, we have left much of thisvaluable resource untended except in the courts after damage has been done-- and court decisions are more likely to be based on legal technicalities andnarrow points of law than on public policy considerations. At the present time, Virginia has policepowers to use in a water crisis but no comprehensiveplan to prevent a water crisis.

Whoever can dig the deepest well andbuy the strongest pump can take anduse the water in most places in the state,regardless of the needs of others in the aquifer. Should the right to pump be protected? Should individuals and businesses be denied some of theircurrent freedom to use and waste water?

Will we lose industries tostates that can assure water supplies?Which farmers may be wiped out by drought whilewater flows freely a few miles away? Which wells (and aquifers?) willbe exhausted or tainted? How many tax dollars will be used in legal strugglesbetween localities over water rights?

How can we provide appropriate waterfor residents, agriculture and industry, as well as the animals, birds, and fish thatcontribute to our quality of life and our economy? How will Virginia decide?

H 12

4ci Water News Virginia Water Resources Research Center Blacksburg, Virginia Vol. 16, No. 8 August 1985

POLL SHOWS VIRGINIANS WILLING TO MAKE ENVIRONMENTALEFFORTS The majority of Virginians rate the quality of their air anddrinking water as good or.excellent and almost all believe that government should controlthe way business and industry use natural resources. These are some of the findings ofa statewide environmental quality poll conducted bythe Gallup Organization during Water Center. June for the

"The survey is part of theWater Center's citizen education program forgroundwater protection and was designedas a field test of Virginians' knowledge and opinionsabout their environment," explained WaterCenter Director William R. Walker. "The Environmental Protec- tion Agency and the WaterCenter provided funding for thesurvey because the quality of any state's environment dependson the concern and awareness of its citizens."

The total of 1,628 citizenspolled in the random telephone surveywas divided among the four main physiographicregions of the state -- Coastal Plain, Piedmont, Valley and Ridge (including the Blue Ridge),and Cumberland Plateau. "The survey was conductedand weighted according to actual 1, state statistics of region, sex, educationlevels, and income brackets," explained GarySelnow, Tech assistant professor of communications studieswho designed the questionnaire and worked with Gallup statisticians to analyze theresults. "The margin of error is plus-or-minus three percent for each of the resultsof the poll." Edward Born, the Center's assistant director for publications,discussed some of the specific results of thepoll. "One thing indicated by thesurvey's results is a willingness on the part of the people of Virginia to domore as individuals to vent certain types of pollution. pre- For example, 81.9 percentof the respondents believe that the small amounts of paint, varnish,pesticides, and other toxic stances left in supposedly sub- empty containers can contaminatethe environment when those containersare put in a landfill. Most would support a 'returnablecontainer' program whereby they wouldpay a deposit on a container and took the container to get it back when they a collection center for safedisposal."

H 13

4.3U When asked about the "bottle bill," which would requirea deposit on all soft-drink and beer containers, 75.9 percent of the respondents who had heardof the proposed legislation voiced support for it. The poll also revealed that only 43.1 percent of Virginians have heard of the bill, which has been proposed invarious firms for the past 11 years and defeated each time in the state legislature.

Government control of the use of natural resources by businessand industry was rated somewhat or very necessary by 92.7 percent of thosepolled. Virginia's government was described as good or excellent in protecting theenvironment by 56.6 percent; the environmental concern of the state's businessesand industries was rated good or excellent by 50.8 percent.

When the respondents were asked to rate the qualityof air and drinking water in their parts of Virginia, air was categorizedas good or excellent by 73.9 percent and water by 71.6 percent. The pollution of lakes and streamswas the only environmental problem rated by the majorityas mcderate or severe. "There appears to be a difference of perception between the general publicand the State Water Control Board over the quality of the state'ssurface waters," Born said."Out of more than 27,000 miles of streams and rivers in Virginia,only 296 miles are rated as severly polluted by the board."

When given a list of substances thatcan cause groundwater pollution problems, the respondents rated trash and garbage in publiclandfills and dumps as the greatest problem. "The U.S. Environmental Protection Agencyconsiders human and household wastes from septic systems and petroleumproducts leaking from underground storage tanks to be the most threatening substanceson the list used in the survey," Born said.

Ten-and-a-half percent of the respondentspersonally know someone whose well water has been contaminated with bacteria and seven percent know someone withchemically contaminated well water. "The percentages are low but theyare startling when translated into numbers of people. They mean that a least 400,000 Virginiansknow someone whose well has been bacteriallycontaminated and more than 200,000 know someone whose well has been chemically contaminated," Born explained. The poll also revealed that, of the respondents who get their drinking water from wells,only 55.2 percent have had those wells tested for bacterial contamination andonly 42.2 percent for chemical contamination.

WITH ALL THIS EVIDENCEOF PUBLIC SUPPORT FOR OUR RESOURCES... EFFICIENT MANAGEMENT OF

WHY DOES THE GENERALASSEMBLY CONTINUE TO A PROPER MANAGEMENT KILL OR DELAY SYSTEM FOR OUR WATERRESOURCES? WHY DID THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY KILL THE."BOTTLEBILL" AGAIN IN 1986? WHAT OTHER VALUES AND FORCES ARE BEINGHEARD?

IS YOUR VOICE BEINGHEARD:

WHAT CAN YOU DO TO HELP PREVENT POLLUTIONOF OUR ENVIRONMENT?

ARE THERE THINGS YOUMIGHT 00 TO HELP ORGANIZED? IN YOUR COMMUNITY IFYOU HAD A GROUP OR IF YOUR CLASSWORKED TOGETHER?

H 14

431 CHARTS & MAPS USEFUL FOR STUDYING VIRGINIA'S WATER RESOURCES

Students vary in their ability to use charts andmaps for information. These skills are included in the Standards of Learning (12.12)and they should be a part of every appropriate unit.

The maps in Section B include many that will be useful inrelation to a study of water: River Basins, Population, Industry, Minerals. There are several charts on water use and expenditures in Section H.

Send to the Virginia Water Resource Research Center,617 North Main Street, Blacksburg, VA 24060-3397 for a large and colorful Groundwater Map that includes information on Virginia's groundwaterresources in each part of the state.

And watch THE OUARTERLY, from the TeacherResource Service, for information on new ones!

Can your students explain the relationships between water supply,pollution, and conservation? Try them on this chart:

CONSERVATION =SAVINGS

SAVINGS ON TAXES TO FINANCE STORAGE& TREATMENT FACILITIES SAVINGS ON YOUR WATER & SEWER BILLS

WATER LEVEL UP WATER LEVEL GOWN

POLLUTION DILUTED POLLUTION CONCENTRATED

IS CONSERVATION CONSERVATION CRUCIAL ,..."...... 4.06.4444. NECESSARY ?

H 15 402 TRENDS IN WATER USE AND POPULATION IN VIRGINIA, 1960 1980

6000 NO....they don't add up I

What happens to water AFTER it is used? 5000 Think about it.

Some of it evaporates back into the atmosphere. 4000 Some returns to the surface or ground water supply it 0 came from most reently -- often dirtied. r 3000 Some of it is redirected to other sources on the surface or underground -- often dirtied.

2000 IT'S ALL USED AGAIN AND AGAIN. THE CHALLENGE IS TO HAVE 0 ENOUGH OF IT

/00 - 7 WHERE YOU WANT IT musinua WHEN YOU WANT IT, AND CLEAN ENOUGH TO USE 0 690 I; cn 0 0 THEN RETURN IT CLEAN ENOUGH FOR SOMEONE ELSE TO USE I i 500 -b z

'U Which of these uses do you think would return reusable 00 4 Z water to the same source?

300 ° Which of these uses would result in losing the most to ti evaporation?

- D o Which of these uses would be likely to increase the most 111/11AL in the next decade? (Note the chart is foreshortened-- 169 I the top two lines are really a separate chart.) 96110ANON

L J 1 Write a statement about each line telling what information 1959 1960 196S 19/0 19/5 191:0 1905 it reveals about trends between 1960 and '980.

Source: State Water Control Beard

4ci TOTAL AGGREGATED WATER USE IN VIRGINIA, 1980

Write statements GROUND WATER SURFACE WATER that you can TOTAL Mgal/d MOI/d Mgal/d document with the information Public Supply (served 3,864,000persons, 72 percent of on this chart. population)

Domestic 78 367 445 Commercial, irrigation (golf course and nursery), general Industry and all other non-domestic use 39 112 151 Total 117 479 596

Rural, Self-Supplied (served 1,482,000persons, 28 percent of population)

Domestic 148 148 Livestock 3 26 -29 Which uses do you Total. think return clean 151 26 178 water to the river, aquifer, or lake? Irrigation 8 19 28 Thermoelectric Fresh 1 4330 4331 Saline. 4036 4036 Total. 1 8366 8367

Industrial, self-supplied

Fresh Which users return 111 356 467 Saline. <0.5 81 the water directly 81 Total to the source? 111 437 548

crane Total:

Including thermoelectric 389 9328 9717

Tr.tal fresh 389 5211 5600 What does Mgal/d Iota, saline mean? <0.5 4117 4117 Excluding.thermo- eloctric 388 962 1350 Total fresh 387 881 1269 Total saline <0.5 81 SI

NOTE. -- Partial figures may notadd to total because of Independent rounding.

< Less than.

H 17 435 VIRGINIA SEWERAGE CONSTRUCTION GRANTS- FY 1972 - 1983 Charts from State Water Control Board- Water Quality Inventory, July 1984

vV FEDERAL gff MUNICIPAL FACILITY INVESTMENT, 1958-1983. 1972 (69.4) CAPITAL INVESTMENT FOR MUNICIPAL WASTEWATER STATE 1973 FACILITIES.BY SOURCE OF FUNDS. I i?' (77.4) LOCAL 1974 (116.5)

TOTAL ( ) 1975 SEIMEMii7,4 (131.4)

1976 .g.Plilvs.xexftnan%.313:-.vv.P$3:f 14:: /,;./4 (335.7)

1977 (29.3)

1978 r.'AfFifaiNtialtitir, A (117.6)

197921MJr:xxvxn: (108.1) co 1980 a.IEUMfln (81.5)

1981 URSA (59.5)

1982:Vag (57.9)

19833ANHIMn (62.6)

0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

FUNDS IN MILLIONS FEDERAL: $ 998,566,830 STATE: 52,078,160 LOCAL: 351,476,144 figures are sums actually spent inVirginia,. pursuant to TOTAL: $1,402,121,134 Section 201, Clean Water Actas amended.

88 PROJECTS REMAIN ON THE PRIORITY LISTOF THE VIRGINIA STATE WATER CONTROL BOARD. ESTIMATED COST: $1,093 BILLION, INCLUDING $702 MILLIONIN FEDERAL GRANT FUNDS. EPA EXPECTS VIRGINIA'S CONSTRUCTION NEEDSWILL EXCEED $1.549 BILLION BY FY 2000.

4 3 4 3 7 r Jur EtAS Ns

IT PROTECTS IT PRESERVES YOUR IT'S EASIER THAN 41_14 YOUR WATER 21 ENERGY RESOURCES YOU THINK Used motor oil pours,. In backyards, streams and rivers, The energy value of Improperly disposed of used oil is Collection sites have been established at local service down sewers or pieced In trashcans can eventually end lost forever. By recycling, this energy value can be re- stations near you to accept used oil collected from up polluting Virginia's water. claimed In two ways by reprocessing It es heating oil your autos, motorcycles, boats, lawn mowers and tractors. Research shows that each year over 4,400,000 GAL- for industry, or by rare fining It back Into lubricating oil. LONS of used oil WS disposed of Improperly by doit- These facilities ere being provided at no cost to you as a public service. yourself oil changers in Virginia alone. For example, by reprocessing, the 4.4 million gallons 4 Just ONE GALLON of oil can form en oil slick of of Virginia's used oil wasted each year could be used to Drain used motor oil Into en unbreakable sealable neatly eight acres In sire. heat the equivalent of 8000 Virginia homes for an entire container, such as an empty plastic milk carton. And as little as ONE OUARTof oil, when completely year. dissolved or dispersed in water, can contaminate up to 4 Protect used oil from debris andwater as contaminated oil can't be accepted for recycling. 2,000,000 gallons of drinking water, depending on In- I In rerefining, 21; quarts ofnew motor oil can be ex- dividuel testa and odor sensitivity. tracted from one gallon of used oll..And, raralined oil Is Piggyback the return of your oil with other trips In addition, the toxic substances and known car- p'oduced using only X the energy of refining from crude during gawk* station business hours. Containers left cinogens found in oil can product chronic harmful ef- oil. overnight may be vandalized. fects in plants, animate and aquatic life. From the 4.4 million gallons of used oil disposed of Examine the list of collection site! inserted In this Improperly each year in Virginia, 2.76 million gallons of Stonn sewer openings lead to the nearest creek, brochure for the location nearest you. If the list of sites clean lubricating oil could be meting:I. river, or lake, And oil poured into them thus pollutes our Is mi:eing,call 1- 800.662.3831 toll.free for site locations, WOW.

4011 dumped in sanitary sewers goes to thesewage treatment plant where It can disrupt and Increase costs of plant operation: IA heavy rain willcause oil spread on a driveway or IT'S ILLEGAL TO field io rise to the surface end float sway, again causing 11) DUMP YOUR OIL pollution problems. 3 AND REMEMBER... boo dumped in the trash goes to landfills when the Discharge of oil Into or upon the waters of the Common- You may. not have stopped tb think about It, but the oil may seep into groundwater. wealth Is prohibited. Violators can be held liable for the cost of Wasted and Improperly disposed of used oil Is cost of cleanup, and failure to report a discharge Is sub- extremely high. Its high In terms of reduced quality, 4 The best way to protectyour water from the pol- lect to civil penalties. In addition, some localities have and thin. quantity, of our water, and it's high in term: of lution of used oil Is to take It to your closest used oil strict ordinances prohibiting the disposal of used o3 a 1c3t energy source. collection site for recycling. onto land.

X* CYCLE IrJrj VSEI:11)) 4°8 43; TEN TIPS FOR LOOK FOR THE FOLLOWING YELLOW & BLACK SIGN AT THE JOBS NOT CHANGING OIL LOCAL SERVICE STATIONS: FINISHED 1. If possible, change the oil after the car has run for awhile. The old oil will drain out more quickly RETURN and completely if it's hot. 'TIL THE OILS 2.Block the wheels and apply the parking brake be- USED OIL fore getting under the car. HERE 3. Remove the drain plug on the bottom of the oil RECYCLED pan, allowing the old oil to drain into your drain Mit NiroemAtIOR CA111.110a-SS2-3331 pan. ifitGINU MO ill ICKYCLING PROGRAM

4.Use a filter wrench to loosen the old filter, then spin It off and drain as much oil as possible out of the filter Into your drain pan.

5.Wet the rubber seal on the new filter with oil, For more information on Virginia's Used Oil Re- A then spin it on. 00 NOT USE A FILTER WRENCH cycling Program and collection sites near you, contact: to tighten the new filter. Tighten It snugly with your fingers. Replace the drain plug and make sure Virginia Office of Emergency it's tight. and Energy Services 310 Turner Road 6.Add the new oil. (Most cars take 5 quarts, but Richmond, Virginia 23225 check the owner's manual.) (804/323.2891)

7.Start the engine. The oil pressure warning light Or will be on, but should go out after a few sec- e onds. Let the engine run a few minutes. State Mier Control Board 2111 North Hamilton Street 8.Turn the engine off and check the oil level. Also P. O. Box 11143 check around the filter and drain plug for leaks. Richmond, Virginia 23230 (804/257.6343) sq 9.Wtite mileage and date of oil change on a door- jamb sticker or in a record book, plus type and or, call this toilfree number staewide: brand of oil installed.

10. Pour the used oil into an unbreakable container such 1-80-552-3831 as a metal gas can or a plastic milk jug and RETURN USED OIL TO A COLLECTION CENTER! AND RECLAIM CLEAN W ER /This brochure & related materials funded by a grant to the State RECYCLE USED OIL Water Control Board by the U. S. Environmental Protection Agency under Section 2011 of the Cl^4n Water Act (P.L. 92.50011 HERE'S WHY. 440 0 441 0 IIIICIlels gvatton An inexpensive aerator a._tied to the kitchen ik/AfgWISE. faucet will save water. Alt POMP IFIE

Plug the drain or use a pan when washing vegetables. Fill 'er Up Later, the water can be poured on houseplants. In many machines, a full load of clothes uses the same amount of water as a half load. Since most Use the garbage disposal sparingly. Accumulate the machines use 40.60 gallons of water, make every letste and dispose of it cycle count. Unless you load the machine to its all at once by flushing rated capacity, you're with cold wateror not receiving full value better yet, save all the from the water and waste for composting. energy you're using. The permapress cycle Keep a jar of drinking uses 1/3 more water GALLONSP 167 water in the refrigerator, than regular settings. A FLUSH ' 1 rather than letting the 6-to water run in the sink A If you've invested in a GALLONS until you get cold water, Inn!A watersaving washing . 1.1 Or, to avoid opening the refrigerator door, keep ice 26 MONS Mille machine, remember to water in a picnic jug on the kitchen counter. WASHING pislifs use the proper water- WA 51-11110 level setting. BY NANO CLOT tSeflows : 8-20 GfiliONS. so=40-60 Noll aLOP Use dish pans or plug the sinks when washing dishes Remember RITEgig by hand. Don't let the water run continuously when I 711IiWil Your hands are the best conservation devices. washing or rinsing. 0III Use them Load the dishwasher to capacity. Operating it To turn off the water partially filled wastes water and energy. when it's not being used, 000 I to fix leaks, to install water saving devices, 0 and more.

Be water wise. tooter, Wise

For mute oltuntation. contact TiPs 4he Virginia W1101 1100111COS Research Canter I Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University or VirTlenier 617 North Main Street 4 Water Blacksburg, Virginia 24060.3397 Phone 17031961 b624 12 81:5m

442 443 OK YOUR WATER WAFER -WISE WAYS W I beLY BY SEEKING t THEt.EAK. Otif61 .14

Take Me to Your Meter Sing Shorter Songs Close the Hose First, turn off all water faucets and taps and don't Shorten showers. A. When washing the car, fill a bucket with warm, flush the toilet. Next, find your water meter. It shower uses 5.10 gallons soapy water. Sponge the entire car. Then rinse. Do should look like one of these a minute. Use a kitchen not leave the hose running. Use a cutoff nozzle for timer as a reminder. easy shut off. Consider installing flow restrictors and watersaving shower heads. They are inexpensive and easy to install.

I( any dial moves within a hal( hour, you hava a Turn off the water leak somewhere. while shampooing or soaping up. A flow cut-off To Sprinkle or Not to Sprinkle valve can be added to the shower head or purchased Lawns do not need regular watering. Less frequent Drip ... Drip... Drip as part of the unit. waterings with sprinklers that spray low, broad Check your water line drops will allow the water to seep into the ground, connections and faucets If you prefer tub baths, promoting deeper root for leaks. If necessary, 1/4 of a tub should be systems that better tighten the connections. enough. Put the stopper withstand dry weather. in the drain right away, Avoid watering too Replace all the worn-out washers. You need ^ Ay a rather than waiting for the water to warm up. heavily because the soil screwdriver, pliers, and the right size washer. cannot absorb too much Toilet ... Water Closet... Commode water all at once and Beware of the Strong, Silent Type Whatever name you use, the toilet is the single the extra will just run off. Leaving the hose running A toilet leak can waste hundreds of gallons of largest water user in the home, accounting for 40 for 4 hours will use about 1,500 gallons of water. water a day. Listen for an ominous "HSSSS" percent of a household's water use. Use a timer to avoid overwatering. sound. Since many leaks are silent, put a few drops of food coloring or a If it's agreeable to Mulch flower and vegetable gardens, shrubs, and dye capsule in the toilet family members, (lush trees to hold more moisture in the soil and to tank and wait 15 only when necessary- - control weeds. In the garden, a soaker hose is the minutes. If the color 2 or 3 uses, or when most efficient way to water because it puts water shows up in the bowl there's solid waste. close to the roots and reduces evaporation. and the toilet has riot been flushed, you have Cut off the top of a a leak to repair. plastic bottle, weight down with some stones, Investigate new flushing and place in the toilet devices that replace the ball cock and float. Many tank away from the flushing mechanism. When you of these devices also have built-in leak detectors. flush, you save the amount of water in the bottle.

A44" 44 5 S Best Management Practices

, " for ;l-i ict.''''''N. i 4., The Urban Dweller leaf Or..)'sic-, i:P Cl 'N rill' ::.

9. Watch for soil erosion around your home. Seed to grass, install sod or plant ground cover to C Reduce your driving. Use a carpool, mass protect the site. transit, bicycle, or walk. This not only saves you money but reduces pollution from automobiles. BEST Information to help you Improve water quality may be obtained from the local Cooperative Extension, MANAGEMENT Soil and Water Conservation District,or Soil Conservation Service 011ices. They can tell you CODE what variety of grass or plants to use, where to gel PRACTICES soil tests, and the local agency responsible for 4.0111 BOOK water quality. FOR POLLUTION 7. Home sewage disposal systems should be located, constructed, and installed according to regulations. Maintenance and prompt correction CONTROL of problems are important,

Virginia Cooperative Extension Service programs. activities, and employment opportunities are available toall people regardless of race. color, religion. sex. age. national origin. handicap. or political affiliation. An equal opportunity/affirm Prepared for and under a grant irom the alive action employes. Slate Water Control Board, Commonwealth of Virginia Issued In furtherance of Cooperative Extension work. Acts of (Slate Water Control Board Information Bulletin 532) May 8 and June 3s).1914. and September 30.1977. In cooperation with the U S. Department of Agriculture. W 11 Van Dresses. Dean. Extension Division. Cooperative Eiden .ion 9. Direct root water onto a grassed area. Be careful Service. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Slate Urnvessily, itdoes not flood your or your neighbor's Blacksburg. Virginia 24061; M C. !larding. Sr.. Administrator. Extension Division basement. Roof chains should not be connected 1890 Extension Program. Virginia Stale University. Petersburg. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and Slate University into a sanitary or storm sewer system. Virginia 23803. Publication 4WC132 April 1980

41. 4 4 1 BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES BMPS FIR THE URBAN DWELLER 7. Chlorides are present in the street runoff. mainly Sugg..'stions to Reduce Urban Wonpoint Pollution due to deicing chemicals. At high levels they can Ros.ad Z. Wheaton and Edward B. Hale' be damaging to plants and aquatic organisms. Storm runoff from urban areas poses serious threats to State waters. There is evidence that urban runoll.(nonpoint source) is as harmful to the What Can the Individual Do water quality as the municipal sewage plant Each individual should be aware of the pollutants, discharge (point source). When rain falls and runs their sources, and their water quality effects. off,itpicks up pollutants from the air, land Construction activities,a major source of 3. Pick up litter and animal wastes before thc y surfaces, streets, and sewer systems. Best sediment, are regulated under the State Erosion wash Mtn the storm drains. Management Practices (BMPs) can be used to and Sediment Control Law. Local governing bodies reduce the pollutants in the runoff water. are responsible for application of BMPs in Urban Followingisalistof some common urban Areas.Ifyou are concerned about pollution, pollutants,their sources and effects on water contact your local governing body. quality. There are many BMPs that each individual can use. 1. Sediment is the result of soil erosion. It carries Here are a few: nutrients, pesticides, and other pollutants. Tho large volume may plug sewers and dralnways, fill reservoirs and cover fish spawning grounds. k 0-$ 2. Nutrients come from fertilizer washoff and -r-r° higivALsv decomposition of leaves, grass clippings, and so -0<.0;1 forth. The nutrients of greatest concern are nitrogen and phosphorus which can lead to 4. Recycle grass clippings and leaves by mulching or composting. If this is not possible, collect and large algae growths in lakes and ponds. dispose of them according to local provisrtns. 3. Pathogenic Microorganisms from fecal wastes represent a health hazard. Primary sources are bird and animal droppings and septic tank overflows. 1. Fertilize your lawn and garden according to {USED OIL 4. Toxic Substances Include heavy metals, needs as shown by soil tests. Try not to apply RECYCLING Fertilizer when it might be washed oil by heavy SIMION asbestos, pesticides, and other chemicals. -11- .iy rains. may prevent the use of the water, cause fish kills or enter the food chain causing long-term damage to aquatic organisms. 5. Oxygen Demanding Substances includeall organic materials. As they decompose, they deplete the oxygen in the water, often resulting infishkills. Animal droppings, septic tank wastes, loaves and grass clippings are examples of these materials. 6. Petroleum Products. especially gasoline, oil and grease, are found IA the street and parking lot el*fle runoff. These products are particularly dam- V. 3 itt 5. If you change your own oil, disposo of the used r;.. oil at a recycling depository. Chock with your aging to aquatic organisms. local service stations for locations of such 2. Apply pesticides according to the labels on the 'Visiting Professes and Extension Specialist respectively. Dept facilities. DO NOT dump the oil into a storm of Agecullurat Engineetieg. VI idSt1 containers. drain.

448 44 5 S LOCAL RESPONSIBILITY FOR VIRGINIA'S WATERS Prior to 1940, providing water for domestic and industrialuse was largely the 1111 responsibility of local government. Population and industrial growth and water quality and supply problems brought more state involvement. Today, the State Department of Health (SDH) regulates the safety of local publicwater supplies and makes some attempt to monitor private supplies, thoughthat is particularly difficult in rural areas. SDH budgets and procedures are stretched, particularly since we now know that protection ofour groundwater quality is not as simple as we once believed. Local governments make small contributions to SDH, but most funding is state and federal.

The State Water Control Board (SWCB) monitors water qualityin the rivers and streams of Virginia and works with local and federal officialsto clean up pollution. The SWCB prepares a Water Duality Inventory, availableon request.

THE MAIN POLLUTION CONTROL OF LOCAL GOVERNMENT IS THROUGHLAND USE PUNNING. Significant water policy decisions are made by localgovernments at almost every meeting, when they approve building, decide on land use in the watershed and allocate land for reservoirs, require run-offcontrols, or ban industries that are big water users or polluters.Since water resources are an important determinant of the capacity of anarea to sustain growth and economic development, they are key components of local landuse planning.

SPECIAL AREA PROBLEMS: Some parts of the state (mainly mountain-valleyareas and the Piedmont) do not have adequate and accessiblegroundwater. Their dependence on surface water means that theyare hit flrst and hardest by periods of low rainfall, andas quantity is reduced, quality usually suffers.

In southeast Virginia, if the groundwater level islow because of drought or excessive draw-down, saltwater is likely to takeits place. Since the quantity of fresh surface water is inadequate forits tremendous population growth, Virginia Beech is looking to Lake Gastonand an 85 to 100-mile pipeline for its future supply.A 1975 case may tie up the plan in courts for years, since the state granted local governments thepower to control waters within their borders, even if the land surrcundinvthe water is owned by another jurisdiction. This law is regarded by many as an obstacle to interbasin transfer (piping water fromone drainage area to another). In addition, Lake Gaston is locatedon our border with North Carolina, which is suing to prevent the diversion of Lake Gastonwater to Tidewater Virginia. Water engineers still search for affordable-ethods to remove the salt from

water, but none appear to be practical at 1, time for the volume required.

WATER RATE STRUCTURESSpecial rates granted through the years to large water users have not encouraged wise water use and conservation. The SWCB's proposal to assist localities in setting rateswas accepted though not funded by the 1981 General Assembly. It probably will have to be done in the future. Do rates influence use? Do rates influence waste?

LIMITED WATER RESOURCES HAVE NOT LIMITED POPULATIONGRQWTH Cities are located where water supplies are not dependable. Should communities be required to limit growth to the level of their water supply? How can local government assure a fair and economical distribution of the available waterand maintain the quality of the water for allusers, now and in the future?Water recognizes no lity, county,or state lines. How can we coordinate the actions of local, state, and national government, and buildthe support and compliance of all components of society: individual and familywater users, as well as farmers, business, and industry? What is our community doing about this?

H 25

4500 WATER SUPPLIES IN OUR AREA Name !III One official has stated that there is almostno part of Virginia that does not have a water problem- either drought, flooding, pollution, saltwater intrusion, or the exhaustion of the supnly- at this time, in the past, or projected in the future. Some areas, such as Virginia Beach, have all of these problems. Look at the water maps and charts and locate thearea where we live. How do you think it compares with neighboring areas? (Quantity and quality of supply? reservoirs? other?)

How does this area compare with the stateas a whole? What are our problems, and how serious are they?

Answer the following questions, from whatyou know of our community. You also may ask your family, neighbors, friends, classmates, otherteachers or local officials. If you intend to contact local officials,call during business hours and plan to shareyour answers with at least 6 other students,so that officials will not be bothered by toomany calls. Be ready to discuss your answers in class, as well as the sources ofyour information.

1 - Does this area depend on individual wells? public water supply? both?

2 - If wells, then how many people in this areause them? Is the groundwater supply dependable? Has groundwater diminishedor dried up at any time in the past ten years? During a drought emergency, what didpeople do for water? Have any measures been suggested toguard against a recurrence?

3 - What .ificials/offices manage watersupply in this area?

4 - Are area jurisdictions cooperating to manage water? If so, which ones'

5 - Has there been a water shortage inthis area in the past ten years? Which years?

6 - Did water quality sufferas quantity was reduced?

7 - What measures were taken toconserve water?

8 - What measures were taken to increasewater supplies?

9 - Who are the biggest waterusers in this area?

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r 10 - Do these big users return clean water to thesystem?

If not, what are their reasons?

11 - Are there open waters in thisarea that are certified as swimmable?

12 - What is the source of the public water supplyin this area? (i.e., river, lake, bay, or aquifer name)

13 - Is the quantity of water availablefrom this source adequate for the needs of our community at this time?

14 - Is the quantity adequate for theneeds predicted in the future?

15 - Have any measures been takento assure supplies for normal rainfallyears in the future?

16 - Have any special provisionsor plans been made for dry years ?.

17 - Have any provisions been madein this area to control damages from flooding and run-off? How serious have these problem been inthis area?

18 - Are impoundmentsnecessary to accommodate seasonal supply and demand? If so, describe where theyare located:

19 - Does this area have the capability 1*,) connect to other reservoirsand supplies without service interruption? Which ones?

20 - Is water supply a current topicof discussion in this area?

21 - Virginia's water supplies can certainly be made adequate for allour citizens, but the development ofproperly-located impoundments and other longterm solutions are and will beexpensive. What recommendations have been discussed for this area?

22 - What approvals and fundingare necessary?What is the expected completion date? What will this area have to do inthe meantime?

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2, r .2. c) 40% WATER CONSERVATION IN OUR AREA Name

Decreasing water use is much more cost effective than expandingreservoirs and treatment facilities to handle greater volume. Conservation saves tax dollars and saves each of us dollars on our own water bills. Everyone benefits!

1 - Identify the agency of our local government that is primarily concerned with conservation of our soil and water resources? What is its name?

2 - Has there been any recent public educationor media campaign to help local citizens use water resources more efficiently? How recently?

3 - Does your family customarilyuse any of the following conservation measures? If you adopted them recently, have youan estimate of the amount of money you saved on your water bills?

a. Check for drips. yes no

b. Tighten all connecti^:s, replace washers,stop leaks. yes no

c. Check/repair toilet tanks. Use water limiter (plastic bottle in the tank) so you don't use 5 gallons forevery flush. yes no

d. Shorten showers and use flow-restrictor showerheads. yes no

e. Limit tub baths to 1/4 tubful of water. yes no

f. Use water sparingly for yard and outdoorcleaning. yes no

g. Use soaker hose in early morningor at night to water yard. Do not over-water -- prevent waste in evaporation. yes no h. Do a full load of clothes or dishes at a time yes no

i. Use dish rinsing or clothes rinsing water(grey water) for plants and other uses that do not require drinkingquality water. yes no

j. Wash dishes, hands, and other thinys ina little water in the sink or in a basin, rather than running water continuously. yes no

k. Catch and use top-of-the-pipe water,as you wait for the hot or cold. Save cold drinking water ina refrigerator jar. yes no

1. Use less cooking water anda lid to prevent evaporation and nutrient loss. yes no

m. Use low-phosphate detergents thatare easier to clean out of the water. (Check labels- Save the Bay!) yes no

n. Catch and re-cycle the old oilfrom all vehicles, so it won'trun into our surface or ground water supplies and pollute them. yes no

CONSERVE WATER! ASSURE VIRGINIA'S FUTURE! AND SAVE ONYOUR WATER BILLS!

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45 3 LAND USE PLANNING IN OUR COMMUNITY Name

One of the major administrative tools available to localitiesin Virginia is the power to regulate land use-- to decide when and where agriculture, industry, high or low density residentialuse or park land will be permitted. The availability of water.is alwaysa key factor.

1. How does your community handle these decisions?

2. Do you think that the public isaware of the land uses planned for different areas of your community?

3. How many kinds of land uses are includedon your community plan? Name the categories:

4. Are copies of the la use map available on request?

5. Are planning commission vacancies advertised? Do appointments represent the major segments of the community?

6. Are planning commission meetings heldat publicly announced times?

7. Is special notice given toowners of nearby property when a land use change or a variance is to be discussed? What notice d:es the law specify?

A. How is public input included atplanning commission meetings? Are citizen committees ever used to give adviceon the problems of particular areas?

9. Is site plan review a regular functionof the planning commission? Are waterways treated specially byyour planning commission? Is erosion control a major consideration?

(None Some All) of this community is served bya public water supply?

10. Do parts of this community havea water problem? Do parts of this community havean unusually high water table or percolation problems that would affectplanning for septic systems?

11. Describe the problem (briefly):

12. Does our local government have its own water department? Or does it share area resources with a regional authority?

13. Who is in charge?

14. Is there a longrange planto assure wate, supplies?

15. Are special land use controls neededfor areas where water suppliesare expected to be low? Identify the areas:

16. If an industry thatuses large quantities of water wanted to locate in this area, could its managers be assuredthat their needs would be met?

17. If water is sometimesa problem in this area, list the people and organizations who might oppose the industry:

H 30 VIRGINIA WATER RIGHTS & WATER LAWS

Source of information: 1111 League of Women Voters of Virginia

Virginia's water laws do not recognize theinterrelationshipof ground and surface water; therefore the state hasan independent set of laws for each.

SURFACE WATER IS REGULATED BY THE RIPARIAN bOCTRINE

Riparian owners have a common law right touse a reasonable amount of surface water bordering or crossing their property, thoughthey do not "own" the water. The riparian doctrine, established by court decisions,indicates that i riparian may not cause unreasonable injuryto othsr riparians using the same water source -- though a riparianmay legally exhaust a water supply for household use or for watering livestock.Sharing is a basic aspect of the doctrine, but the riparian upstream has theclear advantage. In water-rich rn lik Vir ini h Ri ari n D rin work a isfactorilY01 lona as supply is adequate for all andconflicts are few.

Municipal use is n considereda reasonable riparian right. If riparians are harmed, the public system usually hasto purchase their rights, either with their consent or by eminent domain. (Ex: The city of Richmond has rightsto James River water, and Newport Newsto Chickahominy water.)

There is no fixed quantity of water assured to any riparian. It depends on rainfall and the volume used upstream.No record is kept of unused water rights or of prescriptive rights, whichmay be acquired when a person uses water unlawfully for 20 years withouta challenge.

Under riparian doctrine, watermay be used only on the land within the watershed of the particular stream. Exceptions have teen allowed by Virginia courts when the water was deemed "surplus,"and present and future ownerswere not likely to be harmed. However, many people feel that it wouldbe unlawful to pipe water from one watershed in thestate to another (interbasin transfer) because of the difficulty of defining surpluswater. Surplus in a year of plenty might not be surplus a few short months later, and they fear thatloss of the water from the original watersned might hurt riparians or keepsome job-producing industry from locatingthere in the future.

The only parties who can bring suitare the riparians. Disputes are settled through individual lawsuits, riparianagainst riparian, with little state expense or involvement. However, decisions may hinge on a tech-icalityor a very narrow issue, not on what should be publicpolicy. Recreation uses and wildlife are not represented,nor arc such concerns as dilution of nonpoint pollution. In addition, riparian doctrine isno help in alarming for the future. sigglmwecan appear in court until after damage has been done.

If you were planning new water lawsfor Virginia, how would you allocate the supplies available forour citizens? Is water a resource that should belong to all the people or to the propertyowners who paid more for the land because it was there? How would you define the rights of theproperty owners? the fish and wildlife? sports and recreation? Are there such conflicts inour area? Should public systems be able to takeor buy needed water for a growing population from privately-owned landor from another jurisdiction? What changes must be considered in times ofdrought?Who should decide?

H 31 CONFUSION ON RIGHTS TO GROUNDWATER Source of information: League of Women Voters of Virginia

Virginia courts have not establishedone basis for dealing with questions of rights to groundwater in most of the state.The Absolute Ownership (English) rule of common law gives absolute ownership ofground water to owners of the land above it, which seems to include the right touse it, transport it, or sell it. The Reasonable Use (American) rule allowsuse of water only on the overlying land, though "reasonable" in thiscase does not require sharing, and may even result in depleting the neighbor's supply. Both these rules have been applied to Virginia water disputes, and it isnot easy to predict what rights an "owner" may have. Whoever can drill the deepest well and buy the strongest pump usually will win the water. In some areas, groundwater is hard to distinguish from surface water, sincestreams flow both above and beiow ground, and many of our lakes and reservoirsare springfed. Who has the legal use of how much? Does the sharing concept of riparian law apply ifthe spring gushes out a foot short of theproperty line?Who decides?

THE GROUND WATER ACT OF 1973

In 1973, the Ground Water Act (GWA) introduceda state administered permit system for water shortage areas designatedby the State Water Control Boardas groundwater management areas. Thus far, only two areas have been designated: Southeastern Virginia and Virginia'sEastern Shore.

The Act requires permits fornew uses of more than 50,000 gallons per day (gpd), except water for liveslock, agriculture,domestic use. and (after an attorney general's ruling) municipaluse. Existing uses are exempt so longas they are "beneficial" (the term is notdefined). Permits cannot be granted if they would interfere withanyone having prior rights. (Those words krigr rights indicate that the earliestuser of the water in a certain area has the best claim. Western states call this the "appropriationdoctrine," and it was not previously a feature of Virginiawater law.) Can you think of water users who would need a GWA permit? Who would support or oppose their applications?

The GWA is presumed to limituse, but the grandfather clauses exempted existing uses, so that it hadno effect on the situations that caused problems in the first place. The GWA does not resolve disputes (whichmust still go to court), and obviously, the decisions haveno effect on the rest of the state. The GWA does add anotherarray of questions: How long does a permit last?Who has the right to reviewor rescind permits? How does this relate to withdrawals ofsurface water that may be part of the same water source?How can the SWCB consider the totalarea's water management program if it has onlylimited control over the surface water in the area? Municipal use is not included,so how can a water management program serve populous areas?

Can you describe any situations that mightbe confused further by the GWA? Can you think of people orgroups who would prefer to continue operating with the inconsistencies? What is a "grandfather clause"?

With $148,700 from EPA, tne SWCBdeveloped a strategy to improve septic systems, woodpreserving operations, leakingsurface impoundments, landfills. storage, and disposal facilities. It will not deal with LUSTS (:eaking underground storage tanks), which will beconsidered separately.

H 32

456 WATER SUPPLY--WHO'S IN CHARGE? Information from the League of Women Voters of Virginia

Virginia has no comprehensive waterresources management plan at this time, 1985. We have a multiagency approach to the protectionand development of our water. ihg State Water Control Board (SWCB) is the primary waterresource lgency. but thirteen other_indegendent state agencies have significant authority over water matters: State Corporation Commission (SCC) The Stat:' Department of Health (SDH) Marine Resources Commission (MRC) Virginia Soil and Water Conservation Service (VSWCS) Council on the Environment (COE) Commission of Game & Inland Fisheries (CGIF) Commission of Outdoor Recreation (COR) Virginia Institute of Marine Sciences (VIMS) Department of Conservation & Economic Development (DCED) Virginia Port Authority (VPA) State Department of Highways & Transportation (UHT) Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services (VDACS) Virginia Resource Authority (VRA)

Do you think that fragmentation ofauthority may hinder planning?

The 1981 General Assembly mandatedthe SWCB to draw up an administrative plan for Virginia's waters, to collectdata on stream flow and wateruses, and to assist localities with rate schedules. Funds for the added responsibilities were not appropriated. In 1984, the Governor's Commissionon Virginia's Future identified this as a toppriority. In 1985, Governor Robb requestedan increase in the SWCB budget anda plan for the management of Virginia's waters to be presented in January 1986. Advisory Committees have been appointed,the plan has been proposed and discussed at citizen forums around the stateand will be addressed by the 1986General Assembly. Watch the news!

The State Corporation Commission (SCC) regulates hydroelectric andcertain other dams as well as public utilities such as water and sewer companies. The Attorney General has ruled that the SCC's authority over stream flowreleases is greater than the other stateagencies. including the SWCB

The State Department of Health (SOH)is the agency with major responsibility for water supply, especially through itsimplementation of tt:e Safe Drinking Water Act, regulation of publicwater supply systems and regulation ofwaste disposals which threaten groundwaterquality. Do SDH offices have adequate trained personnel? Are they subject to pressure fromdevelopers to loosen requirements? can they protectour groundwater from leaky septic systems?

The Council on the Environment (underthe Secretary of Commerce and Resources) manages Virginia's part of the 10year campaignto restore the polluted Chesapeake Bay. Virginia is improving water qualityand educating the public on the need for protecting the Bay. (The research and writing of thisunit was partly supporter' by a grant from thesefunds.) Since most of our rivers flow into the Chesarvlake, we must clean up many rivers to restore theBay.

What do you know about the otheragencies? Where would you find information?

H 33

457 PROPOSALS FOR REORGANIZING ADMINISTRATION ANDREGULATION OF VIRGINIA'S WATERS

Virginia has been working on water pollutionproblems since 1946, when the State Water. Control Board began to -egulatewastewater and runoff. Actually, we were one of the first states to navea pollution abatement program.

The 1977 General Assembly adopteda resolution calling for a study of water supply and allocation problems of Northern Virginiaand Southeastern Virginia. The Water Study Commission proposed twobills: One passed that allows local governments to requirethe use of water saving devices. One did not pass that would have required permitsfor use of Potomac Basin water.

In 1978 and 1979, the Commission orderedstudies of available groundwater in southeastern Virginia, a study of the legaland economic implications of changing Virginia's water allocationinstitutions, and the development of alternative provisions for a comprehensivenew water code incorporating groundwater, surface water management,and water quality control.

The groundwater study was completed and reported to the public. Preliminary results of the other two studieswere presented in the Commission's December 1979 report. The Commission was continued andfurther moves were suggested to protect the waters of the Potomac forVirginia use.

LEGISLATION PROPOSED IN 1980

In 1980, the State Water StudyCommission Report summarized the water administration problems in Virginiaand offered three alternatives for consideration by the people of Virginiaand the General Assembly:

Alternative a The State Water ControlBoard would be commissioned to collect data on water users, in-stream flows, and to developa planning assistance program under which the state would helplocalities with demand management strategies (water prices) and proceduressuch as permits. The Water Control Board also would prepare a state water administration plan. The added workload for the Water Control Board was estimated to costone million dollars per year for the next eight years. Alternative A was ultimately approvedby the General Assembly. though itwas not funded until 1984.

Alternative B The riparian doctrine would havebeen modified to allow "harmless use," declaring thatany beneficial use of water would be lawful unless it caused harm by interfering with valid existing uses,or by decreasing the market value ofriparian land.

*The words beneficial and harmless use were not defined legally. This was considered a major flaw.

Interbasin transfer of more than 100,000 gallons of waterper day would have required approval of the SWC8 -- with an appeal board of circuit court judges . *Some people oppose interbasin transfer and some criticized AlternativeB for not dealing with technical and legal questions (e.g., definitionof a basin, rights of way, andcompensation).

Virginia's centralized public water systems (regional or municipal)would be established as valid riparianusers of stream and river water.

H 35

458 Pr000sals for Reorganizing...(cont'd)

*Some people believe that riparians should be compensatedfor municipal withdrawals of water. How much compensation? for how long?

Alternative C A new water code for Virginia was proposed witha new philosophical foundation: the belief that water resources belong to all citizens, and that maximum beneficialuse of water is a public trust to be administered by the state. (*Some people said this representedan unnecessary expansion of government power. Do yDIL think it is necessary?) -- A parttime citizen board, with regional advisory groups would actas policymaker for a comprehensive water managementagency. The Water Resobrce Board would set prioritiesamong users of water, and establish user fees for permits and user surveillance. The fees would provide compensation to "damaged" parties and be usedto purchase and protect future reservoir sites.

-- Users of more than 5,000 gallons per.day would have to obtain permits from the State Board. Initially, all existing users would beissued permits automatically upon application. Public water utilities could receive permits for up to fiftyyears to facilitate bond sales and capital improvements. All other permits would be for tenyears. Interbasin transfer of water would be possible ina permitting process.

*The permit processwas considered unnecessary in some parts e the state. Also, experience in Florida and otherstates was cited to document a fear that a new bureaucracy would be createdto administer the permits.

-- The new water code would replace the Groundwater Act, whichwas felt to be deficient. Separate legislation was proposedto license well drillers, since :properly drilled and maintained wellsare known to be a major threat to groundwater.

Licensing of well drillers has beenproposed in each session of the General Assembly since this report. It has not been passed.

-- Existing water pollution control provisions were gathered andgrouped into one chapter of thenew code.

Copies of the 1980 report were sentto 'interested parties throughout the state. Sixty speakers, mainly representinggovernmental bodies, public agencies, and other organizationstestified at hearings several weeks later. There was general agreementon a need for change and on the inadequacy of existing systems to cope with wateruser conflict, but many were unwilling to endorse Alternatives B or C withoutmore time to study and understand them. Some speakers criticized interbasintransfer, any changes in riparian rights, unnecessary expansion of state government underAlternative C, and other points starred above. The Commission requested that AlternativeA be adopted by the General Assembly and that thecommission be continued to workon the other ideas with more public input. The Commission was continued.

H 36

4 5 SUMMARY OF BILLS (Prepared by Legislative Services, Fall 1985)

The State Water Commission was established by the General Assemblyto study all aspects of water supply and allocation and to coordinate legislative recommendations dealing with the Commonwealth's waterresources. This year the Commission asked the State Water Plan Advisory Committee (SWPAC),a citizens group which advises the State Water Control Board, for its suggestions on ways to address water resource problems.

Legislation has been drafted to implement the SWPAC's recommendationsand it is currently being studied.The Commission held hearings on these proposals to solicit the public's comments and suggestions. Summaries of the bills are as follows:

1. Virginia Water Withdrawal Act This would establish a syztem to regulate all withdrawalsof water in excess of 300,000 gallons per month. A permit, which would be issued by the State Water Control Board, would be required for alluses of surface and groundwater in excess of that threshold. Agricultural irrigators using water from a pond, fed only by diffused surface waterand holding less than 30 acrefeet, would not be regulated.

2. Amendments Pertaining to the Water Use ReportingExemptions for Crop Irrigation State law enables the Water Control Boardto collect information on water use in excess of 10,000 gallons per day. However, the Board may not require crop irrigators to report their consumption. That exemption would be rescinded, enabling the Board to obtaina complete data base on the use of Virginia's water resources.

3. Amendments to the Groundwater Act The Groundwater Act established proceduresfor protecting sensitive groundwater areas and directed the State Water Control Boardto regulate large withdrawals of groundwater in thoseareas. The exemptions for agricultural and municipal uses would be rescinded,and the threshold for regulation would be lowered from50,000 to 10,000 gallons per day.

4. Well Construction This would direct the Board of Housingand Community Development to adopt minimum standards for the construction ofwells, if they are not currently regulated by the Department of Health,as part of the Uniform Statewide Building Code. These standards would helpensure the protection of human health and groundwaterresources, and would be enforced by local officials.

5. Acquisition of Planned Reservoir Sites Amendments are proposed to clarify the authorityof local governments and water and sewer authorities to acquire landfor future reservoirs by using the power of eminent domain.

From what you know of Virginia's water problemsand the public willingness to have the state regulate theuse of natural resources, wh t do you think happened to each of these proposed bills? Give reasons eor your answers. After you have reached yourown conclusions, check public records, newspaper files of December 1985 and January 1986,and your own Delegate and/or Virginia Senator to find out what did happen to theseproposals.

H 37

4 Go voL.6l. NO.10

NEWS University of Virginia Institute of Government JUNE 1985

WATER SUPPLY MANAGEMENT IN VIRGINIA by William E. Cox

The author is associate professor of civil falls into inaccessible areas such as the Ches- groundwater use represents a substantial pan engineering at Virginia Tech. apeake Bay, and a lot of it evaporates or of the available supply within a large region is transpired by vegetation. Only that water is the area south of the James River. Water supply problems and associated becoming part of either the surface runoff. Table 1 summarizes Virginia's water use controversies have achieved unprecedented which is most accessible in the form of at five-year intervals from 1960 through 1980. attention in Virginia in recent years. Drought- streamflow, or the groundwater resource is That table shows several interesting trends. induced water shortages in the Norfolk-Vir- available for use. First, even though the state's total with- ginia Beach area have resulted in controver- Over 90 percent of the state's total fresh- drawals for offstream use have increased over sial proposals .o transfer water into the area water withdrawals for offstream uses comes the twenty-year period. per capita water use from Lake Caston on the Roanoke River. from surface sources, but groundwater is a has decreased. Second. while industrial water Years of ci-bate and controversy in Northern major source of supply in some regions. use. the largest creaory. has increased. it has Virginia ended only recently with the adop- Groundwater availability is greatest in the represented an eve- decreasing percentage of tion of a complex agreement for regional coastal plain region. where extensive deposits total withdrawals. a result of environmental water supply management. In the western of sand and gravel form highly productive controls and other factors. The increased use pan of the state. Roanoke and Montgomery aquifers. while availability is most restricted for public supply purposes reflects the pop- counties have disagreed about the desirability in the Piedmont and Blue Ridge regions. The ulation growth that the states urban areas of a federal water project to include water only part of the coastal plain where current have experienced over the past two decades. supply and other purposes. Do these conflicts indicate that the period of favorable water resource conditions has ended? Does the state need to modify its water management program to help resolve such Each week national news stories reinforce the importance ofstate and conflicts? While these questions have received local governments in our federal system. Strengthening thesegovernments much attention. most notably from a special by research, consultation, and education is the mil on of the Institute legislative study commission. final. answers of Government of the University of Virginia. have not been reached. This News Letter gives an overview of the current water resources To do its work better. the Institute is seeking funds to provide graduate situation in Virginia and presents information fellowships and to support adjunct appointments for professionals available that may help in finding answers to these to work with us. questions.

We welcome your tax-deductible contributions in large or small VIRGINIA'S WATER RESOURCES amounts to either of these purposes. We would be glad to discuss commemorative, Virginia. with an average annual rainfall gifts with anyone who is interested. of 43 inches. is traditionally classified as a water-abundantstate. It is largelyan -upstream" state: with a few exceptions like Call or write:James A. (Dolph) Norton the New River. water generally flows away Director, Institute of Government from rather than into the state. Most of the 207 Minor Hall water available for use originates in the form Charlottesville. VA. 22903 of precipitation within the states boundaries. phone (804) 924-3396 which produces approximately 30.5 trillion gallons of water per year. A large portion of this water cannot be used. however. Some

461 58

Table 1 to a proposrl for interjurisdictional groundwater development, resulting in strained rela- Fresh Water Withdrawals in Virginia, 1960-1980 tions among the area's local governments. The locality at greatest risk is Virginia Beach sine it purchases water from the City of Norfolk. Amount of Withdrawals in MGD '(% of Total Withdrawals) the region's largest water supplier. The Nor- Type of Use 19611 1965 1970 1975 1980 folk system obtains water from a series of impoundments. direct nver withdrawals, and wells used to supplement surtace sources Self-Supplied during shortages.TheNorfolksystem Industrial Water° 4200(88.9) 4800(85.6) 3700(90.6) 3700(89.9) 4300 (88.3) includes components located both inside and outside the city's boundaries. Public Supply 260( 6.4) 290( 7.01 390( 8.3) 440( 9.01 600(10.7) Several strategies are potentially available Rural Use' 88( 2.1) 100( 2.4) 100( 2.1) 110( 2.3) 180( 3.2) foraddressingthissituation.Thefirst. drought management.involvesaccepting Irrigation 36( 0.9) 27( 0.7) 35( 0.7) 20( 0.4) 28( 0.5) water shortage during drought as a periodical occurrence to be managed through a pian to restrict water use during droughts and to Total Withdrawals 4100(100) 4100(100) 4700(100) 4900 (100) 5600(100) mitigate the adverse impacts of shortages. This approach minimizes investment in water supply facilities and is often adsocated as Total Consumptive Use 120( 2.9) 130( 3.2) 150( 3.2) 71( 1.4) 230( 4.1) deserving more attention in water supply planning. It has received no support within Per Capita Use 1300 GPD° 1200 GPD 1200 GPD 990 GPD1000 GPD the Virginia Beachea. however, particularly because projected growth in the region would make future shortages occur more frequently.

SOURCE: Data from U. S. Geological Survey Circulars 456, 556, 676, 765 and A second strategy receiving increased atten- 1001 (1961-1983). tion is reduction in present or future water ' Million gallons per day. demand. In the case of Virginia Beach. this b Includes cooling water for thermoelectric power facilities but excludes hydro-electric power strategy has been implemented in part by use. building code modifications providing for the 'Includes domestic and livestock use. use of water - saving plumbing. Future pro- ° G :Ions per day. jections and planning assumt. continuing suc' water - savingmeasurestoreducewatt. demand. More stringent measures to reduce WATER SUPPLY PROBLEMS significant water problems at certain locations demand. such as restricting lawn watering. Identifying water supply problems requires within the state. have been imposed only on an emergency comparison of water use and e ailable supply. These problems are due largely to distri- basis. Such comparison is difficult because of the bution of water supply and water demand. substantial amount of reuse that occurs along Water supply isaffected by vanations in A third strategyIs 10use existing supplies many streams. Nevertheless, certain compan- distnbution over time since drought periods more efficiently through such means .as opti- ions can offer a useful perspective. For exam- occur when the available supply is much mizing use 01 reservoir storage or Cully inte- ple. the state's average total withdrawal in below average quantities. Both water supply grating the existing well capacity into tne 1980 15600 million gallons per day) was and demand vary in their geographic distri- present supply system for ase dur:n.4 approximately equal to the combined average bution. A major cause of Virginia's water droughts. This approach %sould be most :Mee- flows of two of the state's rivers: the James supply problems has been the lack of coin- use d applied on a regional basis. incorpo- River at Richmond (4854 mgd) and the cidence between centers of water demand and rating all major water supply tat:flutes: but Rappahannock RiveratFredericksburg supply. Development of large water demand such action would require a degree 14 inter- (1072 mgd). Another interesting comparison in areas of relatively scarce natural supply junsdicuonal cooperation not currently in is that the total consumptive use R., the state would be unlikely to occur if water were a evidence in the southeastern region of the in 1980 (230 mgd) generally equalled the major factor in determining the location of state. In tact. recent water supply plans make average flow of the Occoquan River near socioeconomic activity, but studies shJw that no provision lor the continued sharing el Manassas (279 mgd). other factors have a greater influence on surplus water among political subdisisions in These comparisons indicate that Virginia's growth. that region because of perceised insecurities tradition or water abundance continues on One of Virginia's publicized water prob- associated with the idea. Localities in North- a statewide basis and provides potential for lems involves attempts to expand the public ern Virginia. in contrast. have joined with substantially increased water use to accom- water supply in the Norfolk-Virginia Beach others in the metropolitan Washington. D.C. modate future growth.' But at the same time. area, where existing supplies are increasingly ,..rea in a long-range regional water supply recent controversies declare the existence of unable to satisfy normal demand during sig- program based on cooperatise management. nificant droughts. such as those that occurred which has largely eliminated the need tor in 1977 and 1980-81.: The most recent short- major water project construction there for a ages generated a hems of lawsuits in response considerable time. Fut .1 TUN Jel.ulcO awswneni ot water usc n Voteulle. L Shaomen. W E. Cue. enel I)I) LcOvuto. 'An A,wIlment II Water Ilse old Av.ul.thilite W.Iler Reututee A fourth strategy is to expand the Ovate Region%IIVItetnw Intougn the Year NM.' Depenment nt oho 401.111Vovinu ik.mat *Mt supply ..tu.mon s .m.11%/o1 Avneutturel Ecunumu3 Reitz:en Repute AE-c2. Varela ran. W.net Nuppls Niuth, 'tampion Roads %wpm+. %Mum supply to a desirable level in uependabilit BleCtibutl. VA. IRut Dottn.l. UN Atm Cum of FItneets. sottnIk. %A, IOU by constructing new projects. Even though

462 59 adoption of the other three strategies could for resolving water use conflicts that have While the riparian doctrine grants a pref- reduce the need for much additional supply been established in the accumulated decisions erence to domestic use by individual land- development. this strategy has continued to of the courts. Water allocation under the owners over other competing uses, this pref- redominate water supply management. Vir- doctrine remains a function of the state crence does notapplytopublic water einia Beach has selected the transfer of water courts, and the only enforcement mechanism suppliers. In fact. Virginia follows te major- from Lake Gaston on the Roanoke River as is the private lawsuit between parties to a ity view that public supply is not a reasonable the preferred approach. This choke appears specific controversy over water use. use if it conflicts with valid riparian uses. This to have been strongly influenced by a desire position appears to be based on several !ac- to avoid future inteijuriseictional conflict. Water rights under the riparian doctrine tors. First, excluding public suppliers from which has been so intense among the area's generally exist as a result of owning land that the domestic category can be justified since local governments in recent years. This desire borders or is crossed by a natural watercourse. they oftrn serve commercial and industrial is reflected in the decision not to consider Under Virginia's current interpretation of the uses as well as domestic use. Second. the interjurisdictional watersurpluses and ground- doctrine. use of water from a stream must concentration of water demand through pub- water as continuing sources of supply. be on riparian land. and it must be reasonable. lic suppliers can significantly disrupt indi.. I- To be considered riparian, the land must be ual water uses, which are the doctrine's focus. VIRGINIA'S PRESENT in physical contact with a particular stream Third. public suppliers usually violate the MANAGEMENT SYSTEM and within the stream's watershed. This exclu- riparian land restriction since they generally sion of land extending beyond the watershed provide water to nonriparian landowners as Virginia's water supply management sys is generally interpreted as prohibiting inter- well as those in riparian locations. This posi- tem is a relatively decentralized approach that basin transfers. However. the prohibition of tion means that public suppliers cannot dis- consists of three essential components: ( I) use on nonriparian land is not enforceable place riparian water users w.chout purchasing procedures for allocating water among com- if ripari'n interests have not been harmed. their water rights, either through negotiation peting interests by defining property interests or use of the public supplier's power of in water. (2) regulatory measures imposed by eminent domain condemnation. different levels of government that cor.strain The reasonableness concept defines the magnitude of the water right.'"Reasonable the exercise of property interests, and (3) Public supplieri may use surplus water not programs for water supply development and use" is relative and depends on the individual circuit. being used by riparian landowners due to the related support services.) ;noes (tithe particular situation; however, a general guideline is that a given water doctrine's requirement that injury must occur use must be compatible with other uses relying before the right of legal a '-tion arises. Surplus Water Allocation on the same source. Thus. sharing the avail- water therefore can be used for public supply State government has traditionally exer- able supply is a basic concept of the riparian or other purposes not recognized by the cised the basic water management responsi- doctrine. riparian doctrine. Use under these conditions. bility of allocating available water supply however, has to be limited to a magnitude among competing interests by defining water that causes no adverse effects on other us, s. The reasonableness concept does not neces- sights. But this authority is subject to limi- whereas withdrawal under a riparian right sarily prohibit all adverse effects th it one tations. especially in the case of interstate allows some adverse impact. provided the water user can inflict on othz sonly those wattrs. Interstate connicts over water use in effect is not unreasonable. A use dependent exceeding some reasonable level. The right on surplus waterisinherently uncertain some case may be resolved in federal courts of action does not arise until actual injury or. alternatively, through negotiated inter- because previously unused %rian rights occurs; therefore. the riparian owner who is state agreement. Restrictions on state author- may be exercisedor existinguses may not using water or is not adversely affected ity to allocate the waters of intrastate streams increase. However, the *lower of eintnent by a reduction in streamfiow has no basis are less extensive and exist pnmarily in the domain provides a hails for resolving conflict for a legal action. This factor is the primary form of federal powers under the commerce resulting from these conditions. distinction between the reasonable use theory clause of the U.S. Constitution. of the riparian doctnne and another known State authority to allocate water can take as the natural flow theory. Under tit. natural A special category ot surplus flow that nas two general approaches. One. based on water- flow theory. legal action can he initiated at considerable potentialtor exploitation hs use legislation. functions through an admin- the time of streamtlow reduction and is not public suppliers without established water istrative program responsible for creating and dependent on the existence of actual injury rights is flood water. While courts in western supervising private water rights. The other. arisingfrom a reducedwatersupply. states have recognized the right of riparian a more passive approach, allows the judicial Although the Virginia Supreme Court has in owners to continuance of these seasonal over- process to define and enforce water rights some cases used language suggesting approval flows because of irrigation benefits and sedi- without the direct involvement of the exec- of the natural flow theory. a mujorit:c of the ment enrichment of land bordering streams. utive branch of state government. Virginia court's decisions indicate acceptance of the this area has not received attention in Virginia primarily follows this latter approach. To reasonable use theory. water law. define Virginia's water allocation law requires consideringstreamfiow separatelyfrom groundwater. The right to use water under the reason- Water rights held in navigable waters are ableness concept may vary over time due to subordinate to the government's power to changes in water availability or other con- exercise control over such water. While public Allocation of Streamflow. Streamfiow is ditions. One potentially significant change in control generally h:s been limited to such allocated in Virginia by the riparian doctrine. conditions occurs when new water uses are purposes as naviga i, flood control, and which is simply a collection of legal principles initiated, based on preciously unused riparian power production. a few states have included rights. Such rights generally are not lost public water supply in this superior class of because of nonus- but continue to attach to uses. This position has not been taken in Virginia s ruff supple TaRa$CFACRI sts1CM ..lescnned in riparian property: they make up a major Virginia. but cases do exist where municipal F. Cul Leonard A Shabm.m, SerAlra C Ham and Source of uncertainty for water users in ripar- Lounev."Virginia's Water Rewurces Pones Management supply has attained a special status indepen- Issue." Debarments 11 Agncolioral Economics .rid Civil Engl. ian junsdictions since no record of water dent of the nparian doctrine. A primary netnng. Virginia Teen. Blacksburg. VA, 1941 rights exists. example is the City of Richmond, where early

..6 60

legishtive action by the state created special The Groundwater Act exempts from the traditional onsite water or land use, are under water rights in association with authority for permit requirement "the use or supplying of essentially no constraints w,th regard to the canal construction along the James River. groundwater for agricultural and livestock impact of that use on others, and they can The city now holds these rights, which orig- watering purposes, for human consumption legally destroy a neighbor's supply. This con- inally were vested in the James River Com- or domestic purposes. or for any single indus- cept of reasonable ttse therefore is fundamen- pany ;n 1784. Although these special rights trial or commercial purpose in an amount tally different from reasonableness under the have been recognized as limiting certain ripar- not exceeding fifty thousand gallons a day" riparian doctrine, where the rights of each ian rights. the extent of their possible impact (Va. Code. sec. 62.1-44.87). While the act does party are determined with regard to the needs on the development of water supplies within not specifically exempt municipal use or pub- of the other users. the James River ,;as never been fully resolved licwater supply,theVirginia Attorney in the courts. General ruled in 1976 that municipal withdrawal for human consumption and other The absolute,ownership doctrine places na restriction on the place of water inc, but the domestic purposes is exempt without regard Allocation of Groundwater. Virginia cur- reasonable use doctrine as it has developed rently uses two separate groundwater allo- to quantity. in other states limits water use to the land cation systems: ( 1)a legislative created cony -il from which it is taken. This limitation on program within specially designated geogra- Exempting municipal use from control place of use has seen considerable application phic areas and (2) a common law system in under the Groundwater Act has given state in other states to constrain municipal water the remainder of the state. government a minimal role in resolving con- suppliers who were attempting to pump water flict over groundwater development in the from parcels of outlying land and pipe it into southeastern area of the state. Exemption of urbanized areas. The Groundwater Act of 1973 (Va. Code. significant classes of use also creates water- secs. 62.1-44.83 through 62.1-44.106) autho- rights uncertainty within designated manage- The Virginia Supreme Court has never rizes auministrative controls over ground- ment areas. The intent of the act is to replace watr.' use within geographic areas designated decid--:: a case involving interference between the common-law system of water rights with wells. but the issue has been discussed in cases through procedures established in the act. a system of administratively created rights: Enacted in response to large-scale industrial involving coat- mininginterference with however, questions concerning the continuing pumping in the southeastern area of the state, groundwater supplies. Although the court's status of common law groundwater rights of views in those cases cannot be taken as the act focuses regulatory measures on those parties not affected by the legislation, and areas having problems such as excessive precedent. they suggest that the court leans their relationship to administratively created toward acceptance of the reasonable use decline in groundwater levels or artesian rights. have not been resolved. pressures. well interference, or groune titer doctrine. Under this approach. landowners pollution. The State Water Control Joard appear to be free to pump water for use on (SWCB) is responsible for designating the In those parts of the state outside the two their own land without regard to the impact groundwater management areas: the only two designated management areas, common law on others:the injured groundwater user thus far are the coastal plain region lying is the sole groundwater alkication mecha- appears to have no recourse but to sink his south of the James River and the Eastern nism. Because of the limited number of cases own well deeper. Should the pumping imolve Shore of Virginia. to reach the Virginia Supreme Court. com- export of water for use at another location. mon law groundwater rights have not been however. the reasonable use rule probably completely defined. In fact, the court has could be invoked to protect nearby ground- A landowner within a designated manage- neverexplicitlyacceptedanyparticular water users. ment area generally cannot initiate or expand groundwater doctrine because of its position groundwater use without state permission in that its decisions to date would have been Regulatory Constraints on the Exercise the form of a permit. The basic legislative the same under either of the two doctrines of Water Rights criteria to glide the SWCB', decisions in generally accepted elsewhere in the eastern granting a permit for a proposed well are United Statesabsolute ownership and rea- Regulatory constraints on prate eater that new uses must be for beneficial use. that sonable use. nghts primarily take the torm of permits and undue interference with existing wells will not approvals that a water user has to obtain from be allowed, and that those having prior rights different levels of government. Theseman- of beneficial use will not be deprived. Under the absolute ownership doctrine. datory approvals often focus on construction landowners have complete ownership and of related facilities rather than on wateruse control over water underneath their land. The itself. The federal government's controls orig- The question of what constitutes either only limitation on using groundwater or inally focused on protecting navigation. but "undue interference" with existing wells or interfering with its movement through land they have expanded over time to include deprivation of those having prior rights isan development is that waste and malicious environmental protection as a major purpose. important issue in additional groundwater injury to others generally is unlawful. Thus. One of the current controls of gicatest scope development. Full use of aquifer potential the doctrine constitutes a rule of capture and is the permit requirement in section 404 of may draw down artesian pressures before a creates essentially no enforceable water rights the Federal Clean Water Act 133 U.S.C.A. new stable conditionis reached, thus re- since no right of legal action exists for injury Section 1344). which applies to construction quiring some impact on additional wells. produced by the activities of others. within most of the nation's waters. Related While the act does not explicitly address the legislation provides for evaluation ofpro- issue of developing additional groundwater The reasonable use doctnne recognizes the posed project impacts on specific components through compensatory arrangements right of each landowner to make any rea- of the environment such as fish and wildItte. between new and established users. general sonable use of groundwater on the overlying scenic nvers. histoncal sites. and endangered provisions authorizing cooperativeagree- land or to develop property reasonably, even species. ments among users within an area may pro- though interference with the water supplies vide the basis for such action. This unresolved of others may result. Undo this groundwater The Commonwealth of Virginia exercises issue could become an important factor in doctnne, landowners engaged in a -reason- the southeastern area. somewhat less comprehensive controls o'er able use," generally interpreted to mean any water development. The state regulates public

4 G 61

water supply to protect public health, and m I' ough 1983, the commission was of the Groundwater Act appears to be needed it regulates the rates and quality of service ' a permanent state agency in if the act is to acconnlish its original objec- of certain private water suppliers. Construc- wish the duty of studying water supply tives. In view of recent co iflicts concerning tion of dams is iegulatcd by state government and alli,cation problems and coordinating development of surface waters. adopting one in some cases. r..latedlegislative recommendations from of the other two proposals also appears other sources. desirable. The current decentralized approach Localgovernmentsgenerallyregulate hinders the determination of a proposal's water development through zoning and other The commission's recommendations have overall relationship to the public welfare. land use controls that impose constraints on resulted in expansion of state water supply perpetuates controversy. and increases costs the construction of facilities. A more specific planning activities,but recommendations associated with conflict resolution. control in Virginia applies to water supply have not been formulated on several major developments constructed by local govern- institutional proposals for resolving water While the comprehensive statewide permit- ments outside their own boundaries. Ao- supply conflicts. The most comprehensive ting program is a more desirable approach proval of the host jurisdiction is required for change considered is adoption of a statewide wh,ce conflicts are numerous and involve a such projects. subject to an appeal to a special water-use permitting program' This program general cross-section of water users. the more court in the event approval is denied. would replace both the riparian doctrine and selective approach is be-Zer where conflicts current common-law groundwater allocation primarily involve a few majir p-oposals for Support Services for Developing procedures with administrative controlr that interjuriseictional public water supply devel- Water Supply would govern all water uses except small ones opment. The latter case more closeiy describes exempted from the permit requirement. Th:: the current Virginia situation: but a more Local government has borne Primary approach would be consistent with that tsken definitive analysis of future supply-demand responsibility for developing wate in recent years by several other eastern states. relationships.includingconsiderationof State legislation authorizes local governments instream water uses and environmental con- to carry out water development activities and siderations, may suggest the need for more to provide water supply to their citizens and A second potential change, less broau in 'comprehensive controls. The SWCB is now others: to enter into contractual arrangements scope, is the establishment of a special insti- conducting studies to allow a more informed with one another to provide that supply; and tutional mechanism solely to address conflicts choice. Adoption of either of the two pre.- to form regional water supply organizations over water transfers among localities for posals would require establishing coordina- such as water authorities. public water supply purposes.s The proposed procedure would aim for negotiated solution mechanisms between the new water-use tions: but, where necestiary, it would replace control and the existing Groundwater Act. The federal government assists local govern- the riparian doctrine and other controls with ments by allowing municipal water supply asingle deci-',n process where all interests to be included in federal water projects, under Significant opposition has been expressed are consideres.. Because this process would to some of the potential changes by individual contractual arrangements providing for com- apply only to the transfei of water across interest groups who perceive adverse ir,-;-...cts. pensation. In addition, federal financial assis- political boundaries. it would leave the major- Citizens and local governments in as where tance is provided in the form of loans and ity of water-use conflicts to be resolved by water transfers might originate oppose the grants. The state government also provides current institutions. This prowsal would transfer management mechanism. which they financial assistancethrough theVirginia require the water transferrer not only to believewillincreasetheprobabilityof Water and Sewer Assistance Authority Act compensate the water's area of origin for any transfers. Implicit in some of the opposition (Va. Code. secs. 62.1-197 through 62.1-223). injury, but also to share the benefits created isthe assumption that water transfer and the SWCB assists localities with water by the transfer. Under the current system. is unlikely under existing institutions. However, supply planning. Both state and federal gov- payments are limited to actual injury. The additionalwaterdevelopment. en ments traditionally have acceptedthe proposal conflicts with the traditional view possibly including transfer. is an inevitable p; -t responsibility for collecting, storing, and ana- that water not being used is state propeny: of continued poir..iation growth. Opponents of lyzing the extensive data needed to manage however, the Additional compensation would institutional change must decide whether the water supply development. enhance thepolitical feasibility of water existing or the proposed otem will likciy transfers. ensure more favorable conditions of transter. POTENTIAL CHANGES IN WATER MANAGEMENT INSTITUTIONS A third proposal is to modify the Ground- To be acceptable. an administrative transfer water Act to remedy current deficiencies. A management process must be designed to In' 1977, the Virginia General Assembly, primary change would be to eliminate all approve only those transfers creating a posi- concerned over the ability of the existing categorical exemptions except small uses tive net effect for the citizens of the state. management system to resolve potential water below a specified magmarde, thereby estab- 'The process must ensure a proposed supply shonages in the nonhern and south- lishing state control over municipal ground- transfer will be prohibited if itis likely to eastern regions of the state, created the State water development in the southeastern region. produce substantial economic or environmen- Water Study Commission. A primary objec- This change would reduce the current ambi- tal disruptions within.its area of origin. The tive of the commission as originally created guity created by the concurrent existence of process also should provide for sharing with was to assist the SWCB in developing recom- administrative and common-law ground- the area of ongin the benefits from the mendations to address problems associated water rights. transfer. These measures will ensure that withexistinginstitutional arrangements. transfers create mutual benefits rather than When the commission could not complete its How desirable are these proposed institu- simply shifting water-related benefits work and submit its repon during 1977. the among tional changes? At a minimum, amendment regions. Providing fair and equitable treat- 1978 legislature continued the commission for ment to all regions will enhance the political two years and reorganized it to functton more feasibility of an institutional change that has Independently of the SWCB. although the 'Cct Voripms Aiwmpit, Ha 14:0 190 I substantial potential 'o improve water supply agency was directed to provide staff assist- ' 1K W E. Co. 1..4 t.t ;mi.... -itsrpota% WIttf t management and increase the welfare of Vir- ance. After additional yearly cont'nuances lM Initromulwbonal friniter Vows, Reunorrt Lw. H(1 :31419,(11 ginia's citizens. 62

FIRST FELLOW IN VIRGINIA INVITATION FOR MANUSCRIPTS GOVERNMENT SELECTED The Institute o: Government and the Curry School of Education Theedit.s invite interested authors to submit manuscripts to be at the University of Virginia are pleased to announce the appointment considered for Publication as future issues of the University of Virginic of the first Fellow in Virginia Government, MelanieJ.Biermann, News Letter. While we cannot pa, contributors, each author wilt receive an outstanding classroom teacher of government and world civilization twenty-five copies of the issue containing the published article. in the Fairfax County Schools. Ms. Biermann will coordinatethe. Each issue of the News Letter focuses on a discussion of some Teacher Resource Service at the Institute of Government for the 1985- particular public policy issue or concern and its Impact on state and 86 school year. working with a statewide advisory committee that local government. Generally, we prefer articles that either (1) address includes social studies supervisors, scholars, and officials. situations within the state of Virginia or (2) shed light on a situation The Teacher Resource Service was started at the Institute of in Virginia through regional or other comparisons. A major goal of Government in 1982 under the leadership of Helen B. Snook, a former the News Letter is w give a balanced. informed presentation that high school government teacher. The service received initial financial is well written and has been well researched. assistance from the University of Virginia and the State Department of Education, and funding from the 1985 Virginia Assembly has made Our approximately 5.000 subscribers cover a wide spectrum, but it possible to continue the program. they tend to be well-informed civic and community leaders, public The goal of the Teacher Resource Service is to provide cunent officials, educators, professionals, students, and other citizens. There- materials that will help teachers to increase Virginia state and local fore, articles should be directed toward an intelligent but nonspecialized content and student participation in the 12th grade government course audience. Please avoid any academic jargon or complex statistical in high schools of the Commonwealth. As the service's coordinator. analyses. Prospective authors probably should review several (:cent the Virginia Government Fellow will edit a new publication for issues of the News Letter before submitting a manuscript. government teachers to provide background material on current issues News Letter manuscripts generally are from 5.500 to 6.000 words in state government and politics; prepare updated pages for the or aboT 3 double-spaced typed pages, including footnotes, which notebook developed at the Institute. Resources for Teaching Virginia should kept to a minimum. A manuscript may include tables or Government; and offer workshops and inservice programs forgovern- graphs, but preferably no more than two or three. ment teachers and school divisions in Virginia. Ms. Biermann. the 198546 Fellow, is a native Virginian and a All manuscripts received are read by both editors and generally graduate of Lynchburg College. She received a master's degree in sent to an outside reader as well. A manuscript accepted for publication the classics from the University of Colorado and nas done additional is edited, as necessary, to ensure that the article conforms to the News graduate work at the University of Virginia and George Washington Letter's standards regarding readability, style, and length. After a University. During her eleven years with the Fairfax County Schools. manuscript is accepted for publication. the editors will get in touch she has cznducted workshops for teachels, designed a self-guided tour with the author and discuss a possible publication date. of the Hall of Western Civilization for the Smithsonian Institution's If you have a manuscript ycu think would make a good News Museum of Natural History, tested and evaluated educational materials Letter article, please send it for review to: for the World Bank, and conducted several summer tours of Europe for students. In addition, she has presented and published praessional University of Virginia News Letter papers nn state and local government, written a weekly news column Attention: Sandra H. Wiley. Managing Editor for the Alexandria Port Packet, and served in managerial positions Institute of Government in several local political campaigns. Her classes have researched and 207 Minor Hall. University of Virginia lobbied for legislation in the General Assembly. Ms. Biermann will Charlottesville, VA 22903 begin work at the Institute on August I. Teachers interested in applying for the 1986-87 fellowship will find If you want to discuss a prospective article before submitting it. information in the first issue of the Teacher Resource, Service's feel free w call Ms. Wiley at 80a-9244944. We would also be haooy newsletter, which will be mailed in September to the social studies to hear from readers who would like to suggest possible topic. departments of all Virginia public high schools. future .zsues.

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA Entered as second-class matter Charlottesville, Virginia

ium NEWS LETTER

(ISSN 0042-0271) Executive Editor / James A. (Dolph) Norton Managing Editor / Sandra H. Wiley Ptblished monthly by the (mime of Government. University of Virginia. CharloutsmUe, Virginia 22903. The views and opinions atpressed herein pre those of the authors, atx1 are not to be interpreted as reprmenung the orscial position of the Institute re the Uoiwxaty. Entered an second-clam matter January 2. 1926. at the post office at Charlottesville, Arpin. wader the act of August 24, 1912. 1945 by The Rector and ViSitOti of the Univenity of Virginia. Panted by the Univmsity Printing OfSce. AN ANALYTICAL PROBLEM FOR Name ADVANCED STUDENTS OF POLITICS 1111

1 - Read Article XI of th. Virginia Constitution.

2 - Read carefully the summary of "The State of Virginia'sWaters," other information on Local Responsibility for Vieginia's Waters,University of Virginia News Letter: "Water-Supply Management inVirginia" by William E. Cox, and other sources you can gather.

3 - Find and read information on Virginia populationgrowth projections. (See Section B of the notebook,Resouin_gln.) 4 - Read the summary of "Proposals for ReorganizingAdministration and Regulation of Virginia's Waters" aid the "Summary ofBills Proposed for the 1986 General Assembly."

5 - With the guidance of your teacher, selectand interview one or more officials of local government, regional planningdistrict, the Virginia General Assembly, and any other state officialsavailable to you. Ask questions and make notes on their viewson Virginia's water supply problems.

6 - Write an essay (2- 4 pages) on the merits of the various proposals. Identify properly your own ideas andthose from other sources.

Write a follow-up essay using whatyou know of Virginia politics to describe how and when you think theCommonwealth might solve more of its water supply problems.

Discuss your paper with your teacher andyour class. Consider sending a copy to the officials you interviewed and/or thoseyou think might be interested in your analysis.

Note: If this activity is used foran entire class, it might culminate with -committ^n reports representing the positionsof areas of the state, -debates on he proposals or on the question of localversus state interests, or -a seminar, inviting the officials interviewed andany others interested.

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4 6 7 TOWARD A NEW DOMINION: CHOICES FOR VIRGINIANS Report of the Governor's Commission on Virginia's Future

administrative and financial commitment ENVIRONMENT AND reflect these ossumptions of perpetual abun- NATURAL RESOURCES dance and quality. Virginia's Constitution and its Code are The Commonwealth is confronted with unequivocalthey declare a determination to clear evidence of serious and spreading water protect and enhance the bountiful natural problems. Failure to respond will be costly to resources of the Commonwealth. Virginia Virginians. There are few priorities more does not need o new or revised statement of urgent than to assure Virginia of the quality public policy. and quantity of water needed fair nion's specific uses and far sustaining a wholesome What is required is a serious commitment living environment. to satisfy the commands of the Constitution and Code, backed up with well-designed pro- Localized cases of ground water contami- grams and appropriate funding. Fulfilling this nation have been reported across the state. commitment by investing the necessary effort For example, the residue from on eight month will provide for the future welfare and happi- tire bleze in Frederick County now threatens ness of Virginia's citizens. If Virginians foil in bath ground and surface water. Residents of this responsibility, their state will be deprived the Lee County town of Janesville hove hod of its mast distinctive and valuoble assets, and their water supp:ies interrupted. Oil drilling the lives of all citizens will be diminished. operations ore suspected to hove introduced crude oil and drilling 'detergents into the Virginia has seen slow to respond to spring that is the source of water for 5,000 cus- mounting evidence of serious environmental tomers, who have had to use water trucked in degradation. Signs of danger are beginning from Pennington Gap. Seepage from under- to appear oll ocrass the Crnmonwealth. Care- ground gasoline storage tanks imperils ground less waste disposal is contaminating ground water sources across the Commonwealth. water; regional water shortages are beginning to be felt; Chesapeake Bay fishermen Virginia's total water supply will remain report sharply declining stacks of many spe- well in excess of total demon d. This fact has cies; rivers are increasingly polluted; and con- induced complacency and persistent govern- gestion aggrovotes land use problems in ment inaction. Unless these long-standing atti- rapidly towing suburban counties. tudes and ald habits are discarded, the Com- monwealth will face water contamination, 15. Virginia reeds o newly defined Depart- bitter interregional disputes over water ment of Natural Resources headed by a Sic:e- transfers, and a state government powerless tc:1y of Natural Resources.' The state govern- to ensure adequate supplies of clean water in ment struc:ure for dealing with eotural all parts of the state. resources problems is too scattered. Many V>. State government should exert more pos- departments, agencies, and commissions, within both the executive and legis!ative branches, itive and comprehensive leadership in the design hove responsibilities touching on Virginia's and implementation of o state water resource environment. Jurisdictional conflict and confu- management program. The state has tended to sion hove been the result. leave water pollution control to the federal government, water distribv on to local governments, and intequrisdictional transfers to WATER: QUALITY, QUANTITY, the courts. This is not practical ar satisfactory. AND DISTRIBUTION The changes needed in water management ore so comprehensive that they cannot be Virginia's abundant water supply has achieved immediately. The potential conse- encouraged people to use water freely, with quencr-.. of continued inaction cre sa severe little concern that or some times and insome that a beginning must be node now. ploces demand will exceed supply. The public has not under stood that an expanding population and a growing economy will reduce 'Implementing this recommendation os water quality and require greater effort and well as that of the Economic Developm,:n more funds to protect svoplies and treat Task Force (see Recommendation Two' would wastes. In general, water laws and the level of create one new cabinet secretary by dividing the duties of the present Secretory of Com- merce and Resources.

H 39

468 23

administrative and financial commitment ENVIRONMENT AND reflect these assumptions of perpetual abun- NATURAL RESOURCES dance and qualih,. Virginia's Constitution and its Code are The Ummonwealth is confronted with unnquivocaithey declare a determination to clear evidence of serious and spreading water protect and enhance the bountiful natural problems. Failure to respond will be costly to resources of the Commonwealth. Virginia Virginians. There are few F -'aritiesmore does not need a new or revised statement of urgent than to assure Virginia of the quality public policy. and quantity of water needed for man's specific uses and far sustaininga wholesome What is require.. is a serious commitment living environment. to satisfy the commands of the Constitution and Code, banked up with well-designedpro- Localized cases of ground water contami- grams and appropriate funding. Fulfilling this nation he-;e been reported across the state. commitment by investing the necessary effort For example, the residue froman eight month will provide for the future welfare and happi- tire blaze in Frederick County now threatens ness of Virginia's citizens. If Virginians fail in bath ground and suKoce water. Residents of this responsibility, their state will be deprived the Lee County town of Jonesville have had of its most distinctive and valuable assets, and their water supplies interrupted. Oil drilling the lives of all citizens will be diminished. operations are suspected to have introduced crude oil and drilling detergents into the Virginia has been slow to respond to spring that is the source of water for 5,000cus- mounting evidence of serious environmental tomers, who 'nave had to use woter trucked in degradation. Signs of danger are beginning from Pennington irap. Seepage from under- to appear all across the Commonwealth. Care- ground gasoline storage tanks imperils grc.ind less waste disposal is contaminating ground water sources across the Commonwealth. water; regional water shortages are beginning to be felt; Chesapeake Bay fishermen Virginia's total water sunply will remain report sharply declining stocks of many spe- well in excess of total demand. Ibis fact has cies; rive s are increasingly polluted; and con- induced complacency and persistentgovern- gestion aggravates land use problems in ment inaction. Unless these long-standing atti- rapidly growing suburban counties. tudes and old habits are discarded, the Cam- monwealth will face water contaminotion, 15. Virginia needs a newly defined Depart- bitter interregional disputes over water ment of Natural Resources h. aded by a Secre- transfers, and a stcte government powerless tary of Natural Resources.* The stoh govern. to ensure odequote supplies of clean water in ment structure for dealing with natural all ports of the state. resources problems is too scahered. Many departments, ogencies, and commissions, with- 16. State government should exertmore pos- in both the executive and legislative bronches, itive and comprehensive leadership in the design have responsibilities touching c.n Virginia's and implementation of a state waterresource environment. Jurisdictional conflict and confu- management program. The state has tender to sion hove been the result. leave water pollution control to the federal government, water distribution to local governments, and inter-jurisdictional transfers to WATER: QUALITY, QUANTITY, the courts. This is not practicalor satisfactory. AND DISTRIBUTION The changes needed in water management are so comprehensive that they cannot be Virginia's abu' font water supply has achieved immediately. The potentialconse- encouraged people to use water freely, with quences of continued inoction are so severe little concern that at some times and insome that a beginning must be madenow. places demand will exceed supply. The public has not understood thatan expanding population and a growing economy will reduce 'implementing this r3commendationas water quality end require greater effort and well as that of the Economic Development more funds to protect supplies and treat Task Force (see Recommendation Two) wouici wastes. In general, woter laws and the level of create one new cabinet secretary by diviriirT the duties of the present Secretary of Com- merce end Resources. H 40

4 W) 24

17. Prime responsibility for waterresource management should be assigned to the State LAND USE Water Control Board under the direction ofa The richness, beauty, and variety of Vir Secretary of Natural Resources. Current admin- ginia's landscape are eltraordinary. Yet land istrative arrangements in state government for is finite and vulnerable. As Virginia's popula- water resource management are not focused tion and industry have grown, thepressures of sufficiently to assure efficient implementation multiple demands on landresources have of a comprehensive state waterresource man- intensified. The prospect of substantial growth agement program. carries with it the promise of even sharpercon- flicts over the uses of available land. Three specific responsibilities should be assigned the State Water Control Board: 1) Competition over the use of land in Vir- clarify state policies andpropose improved ginia's metropolitan areas will be keen. In policies; 2) collect and make available techni- these areas, the familiar problems arising cal and economic data as a basis for water from rapid growth and urbcn sprawl will mul- management decisions; and 3) take the initia- tiply. Conflicts among central cities, tive in resolving conflicts suburban among water users. counties, and adjoining rural areasare likely 18. An administrative process for review and to heighten as all attempt to cope with the approvdi for interiuriscfictiorial transfers of ground consequences of growth. These prospects water and surface water fri; public use should be underline the need for comprehensive,areawide approaches to prevent deterioration adopted. Reliance ona court-administered sys- of tem for approving intetjurisdictional transfers the land base upon which economicopportuni- of water Lased upon common low riparian ties and the quality of life depend. doctrine will not serve Virginia's long-term needs. An administrative procedure would Virginia's constitutional separation of city pro- and county discourages broad attention vide for the analysis of the need far each to pro- metropolitan areas' assets and liabilities. posed transfer in relation to alternativesour- Decisions on land use tend to be madeas if ces of supply; it would embrace a full evalua- the adjoining localities tion of related economic, environmental, and were feifdcms rather than interdependent parts ofone community. 410 social issues. Water transfers under thisproce- dure would be approved subject to conditions Respect for private property and local necessary to protect the area c. origin, includ- decision making is fundamental. But it would ing the payment of compensation. be a mistake not to recognize thenew demographic and economic Forces that, being of 19. The Virginia Groundwater Act should be regional and statewide modified to extend the State Water Control scope, require region- Board's authority to manage ground al and statewide authority for the benefit of water v;ith- the citizens of the Commonwealth. Existing drawals. Amendment of the Groundwater leg- Act islation, institutions, and land to cover all municipal wells would subject management these wells to state evaluation practices ore not adequate for those as part of the purposes. perm:t process and would providea basis far factual determination of water availability and potential impacts of pumping. This information would help resolve related conflicts over ink:rjurisdictional water transfers.

20. New approaches to finandng thewater resource program should be initiated. The S4 billion cost of delivering, protecting, andtreat- ing Virginia's water for increasing needs=I- nc,: ..`= met with present financing practices. One possible approach is debt financing repaid by user fees. These fees should be paid by these who use the Commonwealth'swaters for wc:,te eqwosal and those who willbenefit from investment:, in water supply facilities.

H 41 21. The state government should provide 24. The General Assembly should review the more active leadership to deal with the intensify- statutory authority of local governments to zone. ing pressures on land. The response of Virginia's These laws, as enacted and as interpreted by the state government to the growing problems of courts, may not provide adequate authority to land use has be.piecemeal and lacking in local jurisdictions attempting tocope with the con- content and follow-through. During the com- sequences of growth. ing decades, population pressure upon Virgin- ia's land will intensify. The Commonwealth 25. The General Assembly should review the needs now to define those aspects of landuse findings and recommendations of the Virginia that are of regional or statewideconcern; Outdoors Plan of 1966, revise it to take account establish clear policies to carry out the consti- of the developments since its adoption, and then tutional mandate to protect and enhance Vir- affirm its support for the revised plan. The Com- ginia's land resources; and create me,:hanismt monwealth's commitment to acquire land for that are effective in asserting regional and st_ie parks, embodied in the Virginia Out- state interests on an ongoing basis. doors Plan of 1966, has not been fulfilled. No state funds have been approved for a major 22. The General Assembly should create, park acquisition since 1970. The program within a Department of Natural Resources,an adc-ted in 1966 should be updat:..d and rees- adequately-staffed and adequately-fundedagen- tab:islted. Funds should be provided for acquir- cy responsible for advising the Governor and the ing land far state parks and ecologiOally im- General Assembly on regional and state landuse portant natural areas. Financial aid to acquire policies. Since the Division of State Planning land for parks and oden spaces should bepro- and Community Affairs was abolished,no one vided to localities. in state government has had the authority and responsibility to Ixpress the Commonwealth's WASTE MANAGEMENT broad interest in the use of land within its boundaries, ar to anticipate statewideor Safe and economical management of regional land use problems. waste will be a pressing problem for individ uals, municipalities, and industries. Virginians. 23. The Planning District Commissions should like citizens of other states, have learned that be given a key role in developing and administer- the casual, thoughtless disposal ofwaste ing the Commorretalth's landuse policy, and exacts o heavy toll. In ;983, for example, the they should be given the authority andresources State Office of Emergency Services responded necessary to play that role. In carrying out o to over one hundred waste spills, several of land use policy, a strong instrumentality is which required evacuation of people nearby. needed at the regional level: Landuse deci- Ten Virginia sits have been nominated for the sions that hove impacts across city andcounty U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's Super- boundaries need to be resolved with the par- fund pric7ity cleanup list because theypose a ticipation of residents of all affectedareas. In significant long-term danger to public health the absence of any authoritative regional plan- and the environment. One of these sites is in ning process, no reliablemeans exists for Culpeper County where copper, arsenic, and organizing such participation. chromium used by a wood preserving firm The Planning District Commissions should have contaminated local groundwater serve os liaisons between the localities and th, supplies. state land use agency. They should take the A complex body of federal law and initiative to identify important environmental regu- laticins dictotes Virginia's wastemanagement areas within thei' districts and sl ould supply policies. These federal enactmentsassume, the state ag,:ncy with informationon land use and mony require, greater state responsibility developments and problems far waste management. Virginia has respond. ed by creating o modest program in which organizational responsibility is di ided.

H 42 27

The federal withdrawal from this critical oreo will place increasing responsibility upon THE CHESAPEAKE BAY the state government to deal more effectively For some time, the unwitting destruction with waste management. Meeting this responsi- of the Chesapeake Boy has been bility will be costly, but for less costly than the underway. One indication is the sharp decline in rockfish, consequences of not doing so. shod, and oysters, which dependupon clean 26. Virginia she uld developa long-term plan water for their survival. A seven-year, 527 mil- for dealing with the problem ofwaste manage- lion study of the Boy concludes thataccumu- ment, with a reliable source of tong -team funding. lating abuse of the Boy's naturalsylem is Assured funding for a comprehensivewaste impairing its productivity critically. management program at the state level is criti- The threat to the Boy hasas oused a wide- cal. The problem will not respondto episodic spread response. The Virginia GeneralAssem- infusions of money. Funds will be neededto bly, acting upon a recommendation by support the central waste management facil- Gover- nor Robb, has appropriated S13 million ity's activities and to provide aidto localities as a and regions. first installment ona 5150 million, ten-year commitment to help clean the Boy. The Com- 27. An apropriate wastemanagement monwealth must meetor exceed this commit- authority should be constituted withina Depart- ment if the Boy is to be saved. ment of Natural Resources and given theman- date to implement The fate of the Chesapeake Baydepends a comprehensive waste man- on actions we recommend that Virginia take agement strategy. Authority for wastemanagement is divided among too to central pollution. But the geography ofthe many state Bay -- which drains a 64,000-square-mile agencies, with the result that the basin development covering ports of six states and all of the and implementation of needed policyinitia- tives is frustrated. The Health Deportment, District of Columbia rolls fara cooperative approach by Virginia and its neighbors. Water Control Board, and Air PollutionBoard operate with inadequate coordination. The 29. The Commonwealth shouldcontinue to Solid Waste Commission's authority is limited. develop a strategy for restoringthe Chesapeake Current state programsore also hampered by Bay in concert with other states, but the lock of a clear legislat;fe Common- consensus on the wealth neds its own ChesapeakeBay program. nature and urgency of the problem. Virginia representatives to bistoteand multi- The waste management ourhority state agencies must work to see that those must agencies responsible for implementing hove staff and facilitiesto build and use a state base of scientific information; and regional strategiesare pursuing the objec- develop stan- tives of improved Boy water quality dards and regulations and administerthem; and envi- monitor progress and make appropriate ronmental manosement. H(vever, the need for multistate cooperationaces not diminish adjustments in programs; and providetechni- cal advice to regions and localities. the need For lasting effort byVirginia to preserve and enhance the Chesapeake Bay. 28. Virginia's approach towaste management should encourage the 30. The Commonwealth shouldc.zalurata use of new the gathering and interpreting technology, which, in the short-run,may be more of scientific data expensive than land disposal A solution needed for effective fisheriesmanagement. a Commercial and recreational fishing waste mancvment problems willrequire the in the use of advanced technology ona regulatory Chesapeake Boy is undergoingsharp change. Some species of fish and programs that rely an finonc:al incentivesto shellfish hove de- encourage compliance. Uses of clined dramatically. The knowledgeto identify new technol- the causes of these changes ogy will grow if the cast of environmentaldam- is locking. age is assessed against the waste handler.A variety of techniques should beexplored, including bonding fees farwaste facilities and o fee system for generators of hazardous waste. With such a system of-fees,the highest fees would be charged forland disposal and no fees should be charged whenwaste is recovered or disposed of withoutenvironmen- tal degradation.

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4,f2 VOL 62, NO. 3

University of Virginia Institute of Government NOVEMBER 1985

THE VIRGINIA ASSEMBLY ON THE FUTURE OF THE VIRGINIA ENVIRONMENT

This speck.. edition of the News Letter at the Virginia Assembly spoke for them- professor ofagricultural economics. presents the final statement of The Virginia selves. not for any institution, organization. VPI&SU. The panelists several of whom A&ntbly on the Future of the Virginia En- or agency with which they might be affiliated. were authors of the issue briefs written for nionment. which met at Wintergreen on The starting point for Me Assembly was the conference. outlined major issues in en- October 25-27, 1985. The 1985 Virginia As- the report of the Governor's Commission on vironmental policy. sembly brought together sixty-eight distin- Virginia's Future. Prior to the Assembly, all The keynote address at the Assembly, "The wished citizens from across Virginia The participants received copies of that report and Future of the American Environment." was trticipants were a cross-section of individ- several issue briefs prepared for the conference delivered by U.S. Senator Daniel J. Evans als and groups with diverse interests in outlining some major issues surrounding Vir- (R- Wash.). forrrer governor of the State of Virginia's environment: they included elected ginia's natural resources. Washington and former president of The 40state and local officials, attorneys, govern- Former Governor A. Linwood Holton. a Evergreen State College. Olympia. Washing- ment executives, business executives, envi- member of the Governor's Commission. de- ton. ronmentalists. academics, planners, and pri- livered the opening statement at the Assem- In its approach. the Virginia Assembly was vate citizens. bly. His presentation was followed by a panel modeled on the American Assembly, which The aim of the Assembly was to provide moderated by James L Sundquist. also a was established by Dwight D. Eisenhower in this diverse group with an opportunity to member of the Commission and senior fellow 1950 while he served as president of Columbia address the important environmental issues emeritus. The Brookings Institution.The University. Over the years.the.4 merkan facing the Commonwealth. A major goal of panelists were William E Cox. associate Assembly has brought together leaders from the Assembly was to identify areas of agree- professor of civil engineering, VP f & SU: J. many fields to discuss important issues in an ment among the participantsto discover the Paxton Marshall extension specialist-public objective and nonpartisan way. interests and concerns held in common by policy, VPI&SU; Wallace F Reed. associate Following this statewide meeting at Win- indiviauals and groups that often have been professor of environmental sciences. Univer- tergreen. four regional meetings will be held at odds. sity of Virginia: and Leonard A. Shabman, at locations across Virginia in the spring of From Friday afternoon through Sunday morning, the participants discussed and debated who they themselves identified as being CALENDAR OF UPCOMING EVENTS some of the most pressing ,rrobkms that the Commonwealth will fate about its environ- January 8-10, 1986 are ti': dates for the Conference for Newly Elected County ment and natural resources. This statement Supervisors, to be held at the John Marshall Hotel in Richmond. This conference. constitutes their final report, the findings and which takes place every other yeas. 13 designed to orient newly electedcounty recommendations they wanted to bring to the supervisors and to answer some of the questions they will be facing as they assume attention of their fellow citizens. office. Experienced supervisors and county administrators are also welcome, This report presents only the points on however, and are encouraged to attend. which those in attendance at th., Assembly Topics that will be a part of the conference program inciude legal issues for reached widespread agreement. Whik this local governments, county administrator-board relations, and county budget de- statement reflects 'he areas of agreement that velopment. The conference is sponsored by the Virginia Association of Counties. emerged at the Assembly, under the proce- the Cooperative Extension Service at VPI & SU and Virginia State University. dures established for the conference, no one and the Institute of Government. as asked to sign it.Therefore, the reader For further information or to re ister for the conference. pleas: writeor call ..hould not assume that every participant Barbara Ralston at VACO. Old Cit.Hall. 10th & Broad streets. Richmond 23219 alsubscribed to every recommendation set forth (Phone 804/788-6652). in the statement. Moreover. the participants

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1986. These regional meetings will provide waters from pollution, impairment, or spurred dramatic growth in Virginia's econ- additional opportunities for Virginians to destruction, for the benefit, enjoyment, omy. Today resource-based industries, like discuss the future of their environment. and general welfare of the people of manufacturing ingeneral, account for a The Virginia Assembly on the Future of the Commonwealth. smaller share of the state's workforce. the Virginia Environment was organized and To address Virginia's environmental prob- As population settles increasingly in met- sponsored by the Instinat of Government of lems. the state has created a panoply of ropolitan places, competition over the usl the University of Virginia and the Virginia programs administered by an array of state of resources will intensify. Agriculture muss Cooperative Extension Service of VPI8r.:" and local agencies. The resulting complex compete with industrial and residential de- and Virginia State University. Cooperating governmental structure leads unavoidably to velopment, roads -I highways, and needs organizations were the the League of Women these questions: Is there adequate focL.s, lead- for recreation and open space. Commercial Voters of Virginia. the Virginia Association ership, and coordination? Are important uses and residential uses will conflict. And of Counties. the Virginia Municipal League. areas left unattended? Does duplication or both will conflict with the need to maintain and the Institute for Environmental Nego dilution of effort exist and result in misal- stream flows at levels that will support plant tiations of the University of Virginia. The I985 located fiscal resources? And then there is the and animal Ffe. Air quality will become Assembly was supported in part by a grant perennial query: Is the scale of the commit- subject to increasing pressure as population from theVirginia Environmental Endow- mentin personnel and fundingequal to and industry continue to settle in concen- nzera. the task? trated patterns and compete for any allowable The views and opinions expressed in this For corn :nience, the environment is deterioration in air quality. The natural re- final statement are those of the participants often talked about in terms of categories of sourees znd environmental problems to come at the 1985 Virginia Assembly on the Future resources (air, land, water), industries will not respect geopolitical boundaries; they of the Virginia Environment. Neither the (mining. forestry, agriculture. fishing), and will cut across existing towns. cities, counties, Assembly's sponsors nor the Virginia Envi- government programs. But this way of and regions. ronmental Endowment have taken any stand talking overlooks the interdependency among These considerations undergrd the chal- on the views expressed in this statement. resources. The quality of air, land, and water lenge that faced this Assemblythe challenge For information about the Virginia Assem- is linked inextricably; the degradation of one of stewardship. How should the commitment bly, pkase contact Robert de Vowsney at the leads inevitably to the degradation of the expressed so clearly intheConstitution of Institute of Government. University of Vir- others. . Virginia be implemented? Whit is the public ginia. 207 Minor Hall. Charlottesville .:2903 Often, the problems with the environment interest and how isit to be asserted. for (phone 804/924- 3396j. and natural resources are expressed in terms present and future generations? Those are the of balance: the balance between the ways the questions that this Assembly dealt with as environment is used and the ways it is de- it developed recommendations for environ- graded; the balance between economic de- mental and natural resource policies through PROLOGUE velopment and environmental protection; the the end of this century. balance betweed private property rights and While the Assembly's participants identi- Virginians are stewards of an envirotmet t the public interest; the balance between local fied and debated numerous environmental of extraordinary bounty and unsurpassed decision making and the assertion of interests problems during the course of the Assemb natural beauty. Virginia's natural resources of the state ond its several regions. What special attention was devoted to proble:. its coal and other minerals, farms and forests. constitutes an appropriate balance is always falling into eight areas I not listed in any order fish and seafood, air flows and waterare elusive, and that makes the concept of balance of priority): basic to the state's economic well-being. This a subject of continuing debate. natural environment is funds....ental to the However difficult it is to strike the right A. Environmental Education quality of life all Virginians enjoy. The quality balance, one point is clear: Policy cannot be B. Water Quality, Quantity, and of stewardship that Virginians exercise will predicated on past conditions. Policy must determine the quality of their own lives, as anticipate the future, taking into account Distribution C. Air Quality well as that of their children and the gener- observable trends that are reshaping Virginia. ations yet unborn. the nation, and the world. D. Land Use E. Waste Management Virginians often used their resources well When the 21st century arrives. Virginia will as they created towns and cities, farms and be a metropolitan commonwealth. with three F. Preserving Biological Div, -si.. forests, businesses and industries, residential quarters of its residents living in areas that G. Governmental institutions and Operations and recreational areasbut sometimes these are urban, not just as defined statistically but resources have been abused. Signs of serious also in character. This change will contrast H. Financing environmental problems continue to appear. sharply with conditions at midcentury when Careless handling of wares contributes to over half the Commonwealth's population The Assembly developed recommendations localized groundwater contamination. Short- was rural within each of thesr areas. Those recommen- ages of water occur in some communities. The bull: of Virginia's future population dations are presented in the pages that follow. Bitter interregional disputes over inteduris- growth will occur in a largely unbroken dictional transfers of groundwater and surface metropolitan corridor extending from Lou- water are in prospect. Water pollution prob- doun County to Fredericksburg io Richmond lems are endemic. Extensive studies document through Tidewater to Virginia Beach. That A. ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION the unwitting degradation of the Chesapeake area will add as many new citizens by the Bay. Rapidly growing metropolitan areas year 2000 as the entire 1980 population of The need to have a public that is educated display disorderly land use and the congested the Richmond metropolitan area. andwell-informedaboutenvironmental transportation arteries that result. Pollutants The Virginia economy is also expanding issues is paramount. Unless the public un- borne on long-dirance flows of air combine and changing. The transition from a manu- derstands environmental issues, environmen- with precipitation to create acid rain that facturing-bared to a jervice-based economy tal policy will remain confused and contra- harms forests and wildlife. will continue. Futy years ago, agriculture dictory. Elected officials, policy makers :- The Constitution of Virginia unequivocally dominated the eccmomy. Now farming em- state agencies, media representatives, yo, declares a worthy goal: ploys only a small percentage of workers. citizens, and adult citizens must know 1,.. It shall be the Commonwealth's policy During the fift:es and sixties, resource indus- facts and understand the issues relating to to protect its atmosphere, lands, and triesandresource-based manufacturing the environment.

4 4n -1-,c 15

Raising the public'slevel of education The .e should enact legislation that to allow eaeli owner of an affected about the environment requires the cooper- establishes administrative procedures to re- facility freedom of choice as to how ation of many groups, including businesses. solve issues of interjurisdictional access to those reductions are met. government agencies, environmental interest surface water and groundwater supplies and to protect cups, schools, and the media. sources. D. LAND USE The state should develop comprehensive The 1985 Virginia Assembly therefore strategies for achieving effective water man- This Assembly identified the use of Vir- recommends that agement. ginia's land as being at the heart of many Virginia should establish a coordinated The state shoub.determine and specify problems of the environment. Locally and public education program that concentrates where the responsibihq lies for protecting the statewide, Virginia's governmental leaders on the base; environmental policy. Such quality of water available from private water have made decisior bout today's problems a program should include: systems, including private wells. but have not addressed adequately issues for Comprehensive environmental edu- The state should develop and implement the future. Land use patterns often become cation curriculum to be introduced a plan for the control of urban and agricul- dysfunctional. As population increases. new by the State Board of Education for turd nonpoint source pollution. demands will arise for urban and rural in- elementary and secondary schools; The Assembly recognizes the problem of frastructure. The state needs a land-use strat- school-based programs that empi;a- the continuing degradation of the Chesapeake egy that uses finite natural resources for the size local environmental conditio:is Bay. We support current efforts by Virginia communitypreserving open space; ensuring and needs; and other states whose lands lie within the air and water quality; meeting needs for readily available programs of envi- Bay's watershed and the District of Columbia transportation, housing, agriculture, forests, ronmental education in the state's to protect and restore the Bay. We recom- and utilities; and protecting critical natural public community colleges, four-year mend that Virginia con:inue to develop and areas. At the same time, it should be fair to colleges, and universities; and implement a comprehensive strategy for the those who, own and improve their land. interdisciplinary training that em- Chesapeake Bay and its tributaries. The prob- phasizes economies and environmen- lems surrounding the Bay illustrate vividly The 1985 Virginia Assembly therefore tal sciences to create an understand- the interrelatedness of environmental prob- recommends that: lems. Each area discussed in this statement ing of the interdependency of natural Ile recommendations of the Governor's resources and the trade-offs surround- (e.g., water, air quality, land use, waste management) has a bearing on the Bay. Commission on Virginia's Future relating to ing uses of resources; land use be commended for implementation.* a required course in scientific meth- Further, the Assembly itself recommends ods for all public college students; C. AIR QUALITY that state government lead by: a public consciousness-raising program involving the media, businesses, Air is one of the fundamental resources developing a strategy for land use environmental groups, aud govern- of all living things. It is pervasive, unavoid- balanced between rights of users and ment leaders to increase awareness able, and essential. The risks that air pollution rights of land owners: of the principles of ecology z.nd hu- poses to human health may be many times updating the Virginia Outdoors Plan man dependency on natural systems. greater than the combined risks of exposure and completing its implementation; to other pollutants. The programs of Vir- using tax incentives for conservation and preservation of farm land, forest B. WATER QUALITY, QUANTITY, ginia's state government directly affect outdoor and indoor air quality. land. open spaces and natural areas, AND DISTRIBUTION as weal as for historic preservation; giving counties and municipalities Water is essential to the wall-being of all The 1985 Virginia Assembly therefore recommends that: more authority for land-use deci- localities in the Commonwealth. This recog- sions; nized fact underlies every inteduriscPctional The Commonwealth should rapidly imple- providing a mechamsni in state law dispute over access to water supplies. Thew ment programs to ensure against any con- for the assertion and the protection disputes share two trends: increasing number_ tinuing problems of airborne and other haz- of state and regional interests in !ann.. and increasing controversy. Declining water ardous wastes, and quality imposes costs upon every water-using The Commonwealth should follow closely requiring local governments to zone species. Some costs are financial, some life- the debate over acid deposition (including land in -ccordance with their com- threatening, and some life-extinguishing. acid rain) and prehensive plans. Virginia's water management policies and support those federal policies and programs must deal ultimately with factors interstate compacts that minimize the giving rise to interjurisdictional disputes and importation of the components of "Wik endorsing in general the recommendations about land use problems contributing to declines in water acid deposition into Virginia: in the report of the Governor's Commusion on Virprna's Future. quality. These policies and programs need to apply strict controls, phased in over the Assembly signalled us speak support of several of the ensure adequate, dependable water supplies time, on emissions that contribute to Comexusston's iecommendanons. which parallel its own: in all localities; it..uep water supplies reason- (Recommendation :11 'The state government should provide acid deposition within the state; mote active kadaslup to deal with the intensifymg pressures on ably free of contamination; and protect Vir- expand, with urgency, programs for land." ginia's natural environment so as to maintain data gathering and analysis, supple- (Recenamendanon :21 'The General Assembly should create. diverse species of fish and wildlife and for menting programs of the U.S. En- enthut a Department of Naturat Resource'. an adeouateirstaffed recreation. sad adequattly.funded agency responsiole for advising Inc Gov- vironmental Protection Agency to ernor and the General Assembly on reponat and state !and use polices' The 1985 Virginia Assembly therefore document degradation effects from acid deposition within the Common- (Recommendation :41 'The General Assembly Mount review recommends that: the statutory authonty of local governmenu to tone. '`.ese laws. wealth; and at enacted and interpreted by the courts. may not provide automate The State Water Control Board should give similar attention to other air- iuthortty to local turtsdittions attempting to cope vnIn the 3ntinueits statewide study of existing water bornepollutants.We encourage con qualms of growth." resources and their quality, providing the those legislative bodies that may con- necommendation :3) -The General Assembly should erne./ findings to all local governments and to state the findings and tecornmendauons of the Virginia Outdoom Plan sidsx mandating American industry of 1966. tense it to take into aceouns developmcnu since iu government. to reduce sulphur dioxide emissions adoption. and then an Its support for the rented Man.' 16

E. WASTE MANAGEMENT of conserving these resources goes beyond The state should expand its research and that. Like the canary in the coal mine, the Modern society, with its information base for making environmental scientific and health of Virginia's wildlife is an indicator decisions and designing policies for the en- technological advances, enjoys a high stan- of the quality of the overall enviro"ment on vironment. To the extent practicable, the state dard of living. Technological advances have which humans depend. Also, an environment should require scientific documentation c not been without their costs, however. In their that is healthy for diverse species will be evidence for all regulatory proceedings involte zeal for a more convenient, timesaving way nurturing for humans. ing the state's environment. of life, people generate larger volumes of The state, in cooperation with local gov- waste in a variety of forms, for which society is often reluctant to accept responsibility. The 1985 Virginia Assembly therefore ernments, should improve is capability for recommends that: long-range environmental and natural re- America has become a "throwaway society," source planning. creating all kinds of wastes that then must To prevent the loss of species and areas As a general practice, the state should make be disposed of. Waste in all it: formssolid waste and of biological diversity, appropriate state agen- economic growth policy consistent with en- cies should identify and develop an inventory vironmental policies. refuse, sludge, hazardous (incluang toxic) of wild species and their natural communities Long-range solutions to Virginia's envi- waste, gaseous pollutants, and radioactive and monitor and protect their wellbeing. ronmental problems should encourage coop- wasteneeds management and disposal The state, should protect these species and eration among'1 levels of government, be- methods that are more coordinated, compre- their natural communities by educating tween state agencies and private businesses, hensive, equitable, :ad innovative. people about their importance and, when between state and federal agencies, and be- The 1985 Virginia Assembly therefore appropriate, by purchasing such areas. tween Virginia and other states. recommends that: Virginia should follow .he lead of a number The state should formalize and legitimate of other states and adopt a natural heritage Virginia state government should develop the use of environmental negotiations to program. resolve environmental disputes. a comprehensive,integratedstrategyfor waste management. State policy on solid wastes t.nd hazardous G. GOVERNMENTAL H. FINANCING wastes should strongly emphasize source re- INSTITUTIONS AND PROCESSES duction, source segregation, and recyclirt. In Protecting Virginia's environment will be this regard, the Gzneral Assembly should In looking at the future needs of Virginia's expensive. But if Virginians do not begin to enact legislation resigned to promote the environment, this Assembly noted certain make this investment now, it will cost them recycling of solidwastes and hazardous deficiencies comrnon to the state's programs even more later. The cost of meeting increas- wastes. for the environment and natural resources. ing needs to protect Virginia's environment The Commonwealth should encourage the These are observable in institutional weak- cannot be met with present financing prac- development of a statewide system of public ness, inadequate data for policymaking, lack tices. Money will be needed to support cur- or private regional recovery, recycling, and of leadership and focus, fragmentation of rent, expanded, and new programs. Several incineration plants for solid wastes and haz- authority, and inadequate intergovernmental recommendations made by this Virginia As ardous wastes. arrangements. To better manage the Com- sembly address the matter of costs whether The Commonwealth should develop pro- monwealth's environment and natural re- the state chooses to reallocate resources or to find new revenue sour-es. This Assembly grams to address within its own borders and sources, the state needs to take steps that cut with others states cross-boundary transfers of across present programs. believes that future demands upon the en- solid,liquid, and atmospherically borne vironment warrant adjustments in policy to wastes. finance environmental programs. The Commonwealth should ensure that The 1985 Virginia Assembly therefore emergency plans and programs will be effec- recommends that: The 1985 Virginia Assembly therefore tive against the accidental release of hazard- recommends that: ous materials and wastes. This includes train- The state should create a separate cabinet State government should develop mecha- ing programs and financial assistan"e to local secretary of natural resources. To advise this nisms for thc stable. long-term funding of fire departments and rescue squads, sup- secretary, the state should create an advisory environmental programs. including such pos- ported by user fees to the extent pratable. board with a balanced membership that in- sible means as dedicated revenues and user cludes scientists, industrialists, environmen- fees. F. PRESERVING BIOLOGICAL talists, and developers. State government should offer stronger tax DIVERSITY The spite should strengthen enforcement incentives and subsidies to individuals and of (and compliance with) current environmen- industries for installing and developing renew- Intensifying pressures on the Common- tal regulations. able energy technology, land conservation wealth's land, air, and water threaten many State government should take a compre- and water resource management measures, plant and animal species. The destruction of hensive approach to natural resource man- and measures to control air and water quality. environmentally fragile areas, and the species agement. The state's program for upgrading sewage they support, has been a concomitant of The state should exert more aggressive treatment plants should be provided with a Virginia's expandiLg population andecor leadership to solve problems concerning re- stable base of adequate long-term funding. omy. sources of statewide significance;italso The state should explore strategics for Protecting threatened species of wildlife should work mote actively to solve environ- compensating parties harmed by accidental and their critical natural communities is im- mental problems' that are of an interstate or environmental damage who are not covered portant for its own sake. But thc importance multistate character. by insurance.

To get on the mailing fist to receive the News Letter each month, justwrite to News Letter, 207 Minor lialL University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22903. Please printor type the complete mailing address, including the Zip Code. 4 76 17

ASSEMBLY PARTICIPANTS The list of Assembly participants is included here as amatter of record. It should not be assumed that every participant subscribed to every recommendation included in the Assembly's final statement. Those attending the Assemblyspoke for themselves and not for any institution, organization. or agency with which they are affiliated.

ADAMS, Sharon Quillen COLE, William C., Jr. FORBES, Esther Natural Resources State Chair Mayor Founder and Leader of FORGE League of Women Voters of Virginia City of Martinsville Board Member, Citizens Clearinghouse Virginia leach COLLINS, Richard C., Ph.D. for Hazardous Wastes AGNEW, Marian K. Director Su:nerduck President Institute for Environmental Negotiations FRASER. James D. The Center for Environmental Strategy University of Virginia Assistant Professor, Department of McLean Charlottesville Fisheries and Wildlife Science ALEXANDER, Jocelyn Arundel CONN, David, W., Ph.D. VPi des SU Board of Directors Chair, Ph.D. Program Blacksburg Virginia Wildflower Preservation Society College of Architecture and Urban Studies GARTLAN, Joseph V., Jr. Warrenton VPI & SU Member ARGOW, Keith A., Dr. Blacksburg Senate of Virginia President COOK, Richard L. Alexandria The American Resources Group Deputy Secretary - Resources GILBREATH, Kenneth R. Vienna Commonwealth of Virginia Manager, Environment. Safety and BAILEY, David S. Richmond Industrial Health Director, Virginia Office COIJNCILL, J. N.J. Jr. Chesapeake-Corporation Environmental Defense Fund Member West Point Richmond Virginia House of Delegates GILL. Davidson J. (Dan) BEARINGER, David A. Franklin Member, Board of Supervisors Virginia Foundation for the Humanities COX, William E., Ph.D. County of Middlesex and Public Policy Remlik Associate Professor of Civil Engineering Charlottesville VPI & SU GIRONE, Joan BENSIEK, W. F. (Bill) Blacksburg Member, Board of Supervisors New Products Engineering Manager CROWDER, Charlie C. Chesterfield County Naval Nuclear Fuel Division Director Member. Richmond Regional Plannina Babcock & Wilcox Co. Newport News Waterworks District Commission Lynchburg Newport News Bon Air BERKLEY, Joanne VANS, J. Randall GREGORI. Harry E., Jr.. AICP Co-chairman, Tidewater Chapter Executive Director Executive Director Chesapeake Bay Foundation Richmond Renaissance Hazardous Waste Facility Siting Council Norfolk Richmond Richmond BORN, Edward PENWICK, George H.. Ph.D. HALL. John M. Assistant Director Virginia Director Director. The Virginia Coast Reserve Virginia Water Resources Research Center The Nature Conservancy The Nature Conservancy VPI & SU Charlottesville Nassawadox Blacksburg FERGUSON, Martin G., Jr. HENDERSON. Arnold R.. Jr. BREHMER, Morris, Ph.D. Permits Program Manager Chairman Corporate Scientist State Water Con ol Board Richmond City Planning Commission Virginia Power Richmond Richmond Richmond FINCH, Earl A. HOLDEN. Matthew. Jr., Ph.D. BRYAN, John R., Jr. Virginia Department of Agriculture and Grace L. and Henry M. Doherty Professor Member, Board of Supervisors Consumer Services University of Virginia Russell County Richmond Charlottesville Lebanon FINLEY, Charles F., Jr. HUDSON, W. Thomas BUTTLEMAN, Keith J. Executive Director Vice President Admi:,ator Virginia Forestry Association Virginia Manufacturers Association Virgins , Council on the Environment Richmond Richmond Richmond JACKSON. Patricia A. OUSE, David FISHER, Joseph L. Dr. Secretary of Human Resources Executive Director President Commonwealth of Virginia Lower James River Association Conservation Council of Virginia Richmond Richmond Castleton

477 1 X Assembly PartIcipuits (cont'd)

JOHNSON, Richard D. MERCURE, Rob SETTI, Beulah T. Program Manager Coordinator Remington W. Alton Jones Foundation Virginia Citizens for Better Reclamation Charlottesville Coeburn SHARMAN, Leonard A. Professor of Agricultural Economics KELLEHER, R. Jeffrey MILLER, David H. VPI & SU Director Chairman Blacksburg W. Alton Jones Foundation State Water Control Board McLean SULLIVAN, Wayne L Charlottesville Manager of Environmental Services MYERS, Vance A. Allied Chemical LANDBERG, Erik W. Commissioner Hopewell Vice President, Merrill Lynch Northern Virginia Planning District Reston Commission SUNDQUIST, James L. Fairfax Member, Governor's Commission on LEE, G. Robert Virginia's Future Clarke County Administrator PASCHALL. Phil Senior Fellow Emeritus, The Brookings Potomac Appalachian Trail C? Institution Waterford Arlington LI,NY, David W. PERKINS, Frank 0., Dr. SYKES, James E., Jr. Virginia Chapter, Sierra Club Dean/ Director Corporate Secretary and Treasurer Charlottesville Virginia Institute of Marine Science Noland Company Gloucester Point Newport News LEVY, Mayer G., Dr. President, York Chapter REED, Wallace E. WALTRIP, G. David Chesapeake Bay Foundation Associate Professor, Environmintz! Scicnces President Seaford University of Virginia Virginia Water Pollution Control Association Charlottesville Virginia Beach MACFARLANE, J. Granger Member ROEHRICH, Henry W. WARREN, Wilma C. Senate of Virginia Vice President, Natural & Environmental Executive Director Roanoke Resources Committee Virginia Water Project Virginia Farm Bureau Federation Roanoke Lawrenceville MeCANDLISH, Charles S. WATSON. J. M. (Bud) Attorney SAACKE, Kristen Senior Staff Attorney Winchester Environmental Planner Chesapeake Bay Foundation Central Virginia Planning District Richmond MeCARTHY, Gerald P. Commission Executive Director Lynchburg WRF.NN. Barbara M. Virginia Environmental Endowment Executive Director Richmond SAUNIER, Jane M. Virginia Solid Waste Commission Piedmont Environmental Council Richmond Charlottesville MeSWEENEY, Patrick M. YARUS. Howard V. Attorney SAUNIER. Paul. Jr. Director McSweeney & 3urtch Piedmont Environmental Council Virginia Citizens Planning Aisoc:atton Richmond Charlottesville Dahlgren

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA Entered as second-c'ass matter Charlonesville. Virginia

NEWS LETTER

(ISSN 06474271) Exectkive Editor / James A. (Dolph) Norton Managing Editor / Sandra H. Wiley Published monthly by the Institute of Government. UllivenitY of Virginia. Charlottesville. Virginia 22903. The views and opinions expressed herein are those of the authors, and are not to be interpreted u A VIo epress:wing the official position of the Institute or t -2a the University. Entered as seeond-elu.s mater January 2. 1925. at the poet office at Charlotte:Wk. Virginia. under the act of August 24, 1912. 19U by The Rector and Visitors of the University of Virginsa. Printed by the University Pnating Office. FEDERAL FUNDS & PROGRAMS AFFECTVIRGINIA'S WATERS so The federal government originally concerned itself only with the protectionof navigation in the states, but today itis involved in a wide range of activities affecting the state'swaters, especially by the Corps of Engineers, the U. S. Environmental ProtectionAgency, and the Soil Conservation Service. Some of these activities impose restraintson Virginians' waver rights.

1.-e U.S. Army Corps of Engineers hasindependent authority to construct dams where they decide th y are needed. These projects are designed primar!lyfor flood control. Theis' construction often divertshundreds of acres of water and dislocates citizens and communities. In some cases, massive citizen campaigns and law suits tave prevailedover the Corps' plans.

. Federal funds have stimulated theconstruction of sewers, treatment plants,' and other water projects to guard publichealth in Virginia and the nation. Federal money has often forcedneighboring jurisdictiot to work together to solve regional problems. During the last decade, the federalfunds have decreased, on the assumption that the responsibility was returningto the states (new federalism). The followinc, chart shows that thestates have not picked up the challenge to increase their spending on these projects.In fact, when federal funds have gone up, state and local spending has tendedto drop.

SUBSTITUTING STATE/LOCAL FUNDING WITH FEDERAL DOLLARS

e % .--'"1 A / 1 / \I . ...,'".\./ // V

\----.....°

r il I 1 I r m I r 140 ms III 1 i 1 r-r 1170 1975 i 19 80 a Federal Funding State/Loca' Funding .Total Funding

H 45

41?) THE RIVERS WERE BURNING...FISH WERE GONE...SWIMMING WAS BANNED...In 1959, the Cuyahoga River in Ohio burned for eight days. In 1969, it burned again. The factories of Akron and Cleveland had dumped waste chemicals, oil, and iron into the river, to add to the untreated sewage from these heavily populated areas. The fires were dramatic and forced Congress to recognize the fact that state and local governments lacked the clout to regulate big industry, and many were not even treating their own sewage. The Great Lakes and many of the nation's rivers were dead or dying. The Federal Water Pollution Control Act had been passed in 1956, but it was not until 1972 that controlswere put on the industries responsible for most of the pollution.

In 1977, the Clean Water Act added new regulations to the federal funding of sewage treatment plants, and the great renewal of America's rivers, lakes and streams began. Today, the Cuyahoga is clean enough for recreationaluse. The Hudson and Potomac are noticeably improved, the Great Lakesare being reclaimed, and thousands of rivers and streams allover the nation have been saved at least temporarily. Our population explosion continues, however, and we still must deal with increased sewage and urban runoff.

One interesting and expensive fact is that the integrityof pipes tends to break down after 20 or 30 years in the ground, andcracks may be caused by tree roots and changed uses and stressescn the ground nearby. Once there is a crack, water can shift the ground and make ita major break. Cracks in water delivery pipes mean possible pollution of drinkingwater. Cracks in sewer pipes mean that sewage can pollute the surrounding ground and groundwater, and that runoff and seepagecan enter the sewers, dramatically increasing the volume of waste that must be treatedin the plants. Locating and repairing leaky pipes may consumea considerable portion of federal Clean Water funds and state money as well-- not a very satisfying expenditure, but a necessary one. Watch for public works trucks with smoke injection equipment checking the lines in your neighborhood.

In the early years of pollution controls, headlineresults could be obtained by stopping the discharges from the biggest and dirtiestindustries. EPA wrote and enforced federal guidelines for about20 of the 50 major U. S. industrial polluters. Should the others be similarly regulated with enforceable federal standards?Or should each state set its own water quality standards for the other industries? Would states be able to control large and mediumsized industries (and some dirty smaller ones?)or woula corporations shop for states with lower requirements?What is the role of federal regulation?

EPA also provides funds for state studies,such as the Virginia groundwater study that resulted in the 1985 proposals.

H 464:0 FEDERAL WATER LAW: WHAT DOES IT SAY? HOW DOES IT AFFECT VIRGINIA? Summary from Sierra Club Clean Water Directory

The Clean Water Act is the nation's fundamental instrumentfor the restoration and maintenance of "the chemical, physical, and biologicalintegrity of the nation's waters." Passed in 1972 and amended in 1977, the interim goalwas to achieve fishable, swimmable waters where attainable by1983, and the final goal was to eliminate discharge of pollutants into navigablewaters by 1985.

What Does the Clean Water Act Do?.. 1 It prohibits the discharge of toxic pollutants in harmfulamounts. 2 It requires state and local governments toprepare and implement water quality management plans, including landuse controls ifnecessary, that will control point (from an industrial discharge pipe) and nonpoint(agricultural, mining, and urban runoff) sources of pollution. 3 It authorizes federal grants for construction ofwaste treatment facilities and for research on pollution controltechnology. 4 It establishes uniform nationwide standards forindustries and municipal facilities, with compliance deadlines. 5 It creates a permit program (NPDES) for regulatingdischarges from industries and municipal facilities. 6 The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers is to controlby permits, the disposal of dredged and fill material into all navigablewaters, including wetlands.

Five major political forces cooperate towardthese goals: federal, state, and local governments, the public, and the polluters.Improvements in many areas are obvious, in spite of the increases in population. If the Clean Water Act had not been in place,many rivers would be burning!

The Clean W ?ter Act is up for reauthorizationin 1985, and it has been under attack for many years by people who wantto cut the power of federal government. THEY SAY that state and local government andindustries are capable of managing our waterresources. They oppose Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) funding requests (some woulddismantle the agency) and they support lowered water quality standardsor extensions of the time allowed tc meet the standards. They argue that the fishing/swimming levelof water quality is too high and that thecosts discourage economic development and make us noncompetitive in world markets. Some industries want Section 404 (#6 above) to pertain only to navigablewaters.

Supporters of the Clean Water Act contend thatcleaning up after yourself (as an individual or as a corporation) is aproper (and deductible) cost of doing business, that industries locate where thequality of life is desirable for their employees, and that corporations andcommunities everywhere should bear the cost of returning cleaned water to the riirs, streams and lakes of the nation. Environmentalists are warning about campaignsto weaken the law. THEY SAY that polluting industries andReagan administration officials seek budget cuts by abandoning national toxicstandards and delaying national Superfund cleanup goals and deadlines. THEY SAY that the weakening of Sec. 404 will result in the yearly destructionof 300,000 acres of wetlands that serve as recharge areas for groundwater andas wildlire habitats. They also warn of attempts to weaken the regulations thatgovern state water quality standards.

H 47

4 Federal Law (coatd)

The Safe Drinking Water Act also regulates water quality byprotecting groundwater from indiscriminant pollution. Among other provisions, it requires states to control the wastes thatare buried or injected into the ground -- e.g., into mines and caves.

Toxic The Federal Insecticide. Fungicide & Rodenticide Act. Regulates manufacture, testing and use of these products.

IteSies111iL.__rA seeks to protect water from pollution that falls from the skies. Acid rain is the current concern, and it has beenshown to be increased by the burning of fossil fuels (coal, fuel oils,and gas) by power plants and industry, as well as by autos, trucks, planes,and boats. Land and water in some parts of Canada and northeastern U. S.have become inhospitable to animal and plant life due to acid rain. Evidence indicates that Virginia will see the effects in the next decade, firston evergreens that retain needles and absorb water all year. Some claim the damage has already begun. State governments enforce the federal law.

The Resource Conservation & Recovery Act. This law governs the management of solid and hazardous wastes. Poorly designed landfills and dumps have become hazardous to health as poisons have leached cut 'fthem into our water supplies; Love Canal is an outstanding example.

Marine Protection. Research & SanctuariesAct regulates discharge ofsewage into oceans and requires permits for dumping intooceans, which it hoped to eliminate by the early 1980s.

Surface Mining Control & Reclamation Act regulationsaim at stopping the sediment runoff and acidity problems in watersnear strip mining sites.

The :lational Environmental Policy Actrequires an Environmental Impact Statement to be prepared before federal fundsare used in any project. The impact statements are often the environmentalist'sbest clue about the extent of trouble that may be caused by suchactivities as clearing, digging, and dredging. Impact statements are criticizedas costly and they may delay construction of important projects, but they also makethe developers conscious of the control of runoff and potential damagesto land and water.

According to fishery biologists, the number ofriver miles in the U. S. that are affected by urban runoff is a;proximately equal tothe number of river miles affected by municipal pointsources (sewage). See charts in Section H, pages 15 to 18.

H 48

c'o WHAT WILL IT COST TO CATCH UP WASTEWATER TREATMENT CONSTRUCTION TO POPULATION'

A 1984 EPA survey of wastewater treatment in the nation listed "backlog" needs in 202 communities that now discharge raw sewage into their waterways, and 2,600 low-level treatment facilities that need upgrading to return better quality water to their waterways. The information found in the Needs Survey Report to Congresi and A Study of Future Federal Role in Municipal Wastewater Treatment - The Situation Nationwide was based on 1984 population. The cost was estimated at $85 billion.

The 1985 EPA budget included about $2.4 billion for construction for the whole nation -- to fund a portion of the $85 billion of 1984 construction backlog. (At this rate, how many decades will it take to catchup to the 1984 backlog needs? Clue: How old will you be in 2020?) This plan will maintain the quality of most present waterways and clean up the most seriously polluted ones. It includes a lot of money to replace pipes (collectors from house and interceptors under the street) and not much money for the treatment plants where the sewage and runoff will be sent. It does not include facilities to serve population growth beyond 1984 levels. Is growth continuing in your area?

169 million Americans send a daily load of 23,000 tons ofpollutants to 15,400 municipal facilities. When all needs are met through the year 2000, the sewered population will be 246 million people, sending 41,000 tons of pollutants to more than 20,000 facilities for treatment.

Virginia's Needs are Estimate at S1.3 Billion to CatchUo Today. Federal funds are allocated on a complex formula that includes populationand land area. At today's federal expenditure of $2.4 billion for ALL 50 STATES,how long do you think it will be before Virginia's share will total 1110 $1.3 billion? Are voters putting pressure on other states'senators and representatives? We will need still more money if we wish to continue improvingwater quality. AND...Population increases will require funds beyond this amountbecause they will further increase pollutant loads.

When a rural area experiences a population increase, it isapt to have a great increase in septic systems, which may threaten thegroundwater and smaller headwater streams that are not now polluted before localgovernment can get the federal and state money and constructa system to treat the sewage and runoff. Secondary (partial) treatment facilities for such growthareas will discharge water quality problems to smaller headwater streamsnot now polluted, unless higher levels treatment or alternate methods of disposal are developed. Can you spot some places in Virginia where this rural-to-urban transition may be in progress today?

Urban areas have particularly dangerous run-off-- full of auto emissions. parking lot oils and debris, industrial and road chemicals,and concentrations of chlorine that combine with improperly treated wastewaterto produce cancercausing trihalomethanes--costly and difficult toremove from water.

H 49 What will it cost to catcilUD ...? (cont'd)

Chlorine kills fish and other aquatic life. In addition, it combines with wastes to create cancercausing substances.Many cities (including Moscow, Montreal and 20 or more in the U.S.) have switchedto ozone treatment. Ozone has been proven more effective, though itis hard to convince traditional chlorine users, and it may increase treatmentcosts slightly (less than 5%). Ultraviolet radiation is another alternativethat is only slightly more costly than chlorine but provides adequate disinfectionwithout dangerous side effects to people or fish. Should we continue to use chlorine?

PROPOSALS FOR CHANGED FEDERAL FUNDING: Is clean water a national priority?

Those who want to cut the federal budgetare looking for different ways to fund the cleanup of our waters. One proposal now under discussion isa revolving loan fund begun witha onetime EPA grant with added statemoney. Low interest loans would be made by thestate to local governments for cleanup and treatment facilities. As the money is repaid it would be loanedout to other localities. Opponents of this plan say that the federalmoney proposed for the states would be less than 10% ofcurrent backlog needs, and state governments would have to make up the differenceand expand their own agencies to handle the loans.

How much would it raise taxes for Virginiansto fund the other 90% of our backlog needs plus the expansion for futurepopulation growth?

What would happen to a state's loanfund if a major industry went bankruptand could not repay the money? What would happen to a state's watersif a neighbor state did not allocate its fundwisely? Is pollution control and cleanup a problem we can leave tolocal option? Is federal government supervision and coordinationnecessary to this effort?

Another option: each locality could pay the fullcost of its own treatment facilities. Most communities would have greatlyincreased local taxes. Would people and businesses flock to the lowtax areas (or nations) that havenot taken care of their sewage and runoff?Would rivers be burning again? Several questions can be phrasedfor debate on these alternatives.

How would you rank clean wateras a priority for our nation?

What part of the responsibilityshould be given to agencies of the national government? state government? local government?

Does the federal deficit influenceyour decisionmaking? Should it?

Take a position on federal regulationand funding. Should it stay at the same level? increase? decrease?

List and organize the argumentsyou think are important.

What points would the oppositionmake?

Hoi would you answer theirarguments? H 50

etc,Li '4 HAZARDOUS WASTES-- Teaching Ideas 1111 The next two pages on Hazardous Wastesare an introduction to a compelling and long-range problem in our state and nation.Hazardous wastes have ominous implications for our health and safety,as well as the quality of our water supplies. They cannot be ignored if weare to live up to our Constitutional charge to conserve and protect the integrityof our land, air and water.

Your school should have a copy of the 376-pagenotebook package, The Dilemma of Toxic Materials. If you do not, send to Dr. Martin A. Tarter,Jr., School of Education, Virginia Commonwealth University,Richmond, VA 23284. It is fascinating to look through-- full of scientific data, experiments, and useful information for teachers and students. The 3-day decision-making exercise (pp. 23) is particularly recommendedfor Government classes.

IDEAS: 2-10 day focus on Hazardous Wastesas background for continuing discussion of current events, national,state, and local: What should be the role of government inthe management of hazardous waste? What distinctions should be made betweenthe roles of national, state, and local government?

Preparation: Inform yourself. 1. Read the University of VirginiaNews Letter, "Hazardous Waste Management in Virginia" andpages H 53 and H 54. 2. Look for local materials, concernedcitizens, and issues.

Consider the following activities,then create some more. Use Section H information to stimulate student interest. Organize students into groups to quiz local officials and interestedcitizens about the local scene. With the assistance of students,develop questions on the blackboard that they think should be researched. What does the public know? What are public attitudes in thisarea about hazardous wastes? Some students might develop asurvey form or a series of questions to ask informally in their families andieighborhoods. When the answers are shared, analyzethe sample that resulted from these informal methods. What segments of the population(e.g., age, sex, race, income level, special interests/professions,religious views) were left out or under-represented? Discuss what you would have to do tocorrect the imbalance if you were conductinga real survey?

Do not overlook local offici ?ls. If they would like to call attentionto some local problem, they might even get publicity about the students' interestin it. (Check your school policy manual before you contact local officials-- some school divisions require prior notificationof the principal or superintendent.)

Look for some aspects of wastemanagement that students and their families and neighborhoods can help toimprove. What are locally acceptableways to dispose of paints, thinners/removers, insecticides, herbicides, medicines

Where are the recycle stationsfor vehicle oil?

H 51

485 HAZARDOUS WASTES WHO SHOULD CLEAN UP?WHO SHOULD PAY?

A steel drum full of some poisonous material,hastily buried years earlier in a field behind a small processing plant,slowly gives way to the forces of nature and pops a rustyseam, letting the chemical seep into the ground. Many years or rains later, some of the materialleeches into a stream at the base of a nearby ravine, and a mileaway a farmer unknowingly puts it on his garden. More of the chemical finds its way through theunderground network of springs to a reservoir fora major city. The pollutant does not filter out of the water, and mighteven combine with minerals or other pollutants to form an infinitelymore toxic substance. The forgotten barrels could harm the health of thepeople of the entire area after they have drunk the water, cooked with it,and bathed in it for many years. The farmer's wife hadno more children, and the family developed strange medical problems. Neighbors who had noticed the barrels,before vines and weeds covered them, were only concernedthat they were unsightly.

Situations like this have been found allover the nation. In 1985 alone, the hazardous waste created by industry in this country amounted to almost2000 lbs'. per person-- NEARLY A TON FOR EACH OF US! The total grows every year. Have you heard of Love Canal? The Environmental Protection Agency(EPA) list of toxic dumps includes many in Virginia, and there may be dozensor hundreds more that are hidden and forgotten. Are there any in this area?

The air we breathe also maycarry toxic materials that fall to earth and pollute our water. How do we locate the sources? How do we clean them up? What do we do with the debris and the fouled earth and water? If we figure out how to do it, who willpay for the effort? Who should pay?

Nuclear wastes are stockpiled-- the industry has not dealt with them.

Virginia's rain is increasingly acid. Evergreens and mountain streamsare the firs, to suffer. Damage has already been Goserved invegetation and trout streams. A major cause of acid rain issmokestack and auto exhaust from burning fossil fuels (coal and oil)that is released into the air without being scrubbed and treated. It may come from hundreds of milesaway.

New engines have been developedthat run on magnetic power and solar power. Will they be produced? Who would benefit? Who would lose? For decades, homes and industries have buried solid trash almost anywhere,and washed liquid trash into the watersupply, everything from poisonous cleaning compounds to wildly toxic industrialchemicals and lowlevel nuclear wastes. We are developing the ability to identify hazardous substances inour land, air and water. We realize that almostno place on earth is safe for their storage or disposal. Water systems on the ground and underthe ground often are interconnected: desert sands drainwater too quickly to be good filters, hot climates evaporate moisture and concentrate pollutants, and mountaincaves develop cracks that permitseepage of stored hazardous materials.

Many substances now can be recycled anddetoxified, and more might be. Many industries are making sincereefforts to be environmentally responsible. Should government press the others tostop polluting? What if they say it costs too much, and they threatento move elsewhere in the world?

H 53

486 HAZARDOUS WASTES: WHAT ABOUT OUR AREA? Name

Every area has toxic wastes. Every neighborhood has toxic wastes, throw-away items that are poisonous or that may combine with othersubstances to produce toxic materials. What does your family do with leftover paints,solvents, bug killers, weed killers, fertilizers, householdcleaners? (These items are all hazardous substances too!)

Has your community approved places and methodsof disposing of toxic or hazardous materials?

Are they well publicized? What can you do to help?

According to the VPI&SU Water News, Virginiaaverages three chemical spills a week, BO% of them during traffic accidents. Some are lethal and require evacuation of an area-- others are minor. Do you know of any in this area?

An estimated 25,000 Virginia businesseseach produce from 220 to 2,200 lbs of hazardous waste every month. Since August 1985, all this must be hauledto authorized disposal sites if itso much as crosses a public road from the place where it originated. Where will dump sites be located? Virginia toxic spirs cost about $30,000 each forcleanup and training for police andrescue workers, but emergency workers often do notknow what chemicals they are dealing with because transport vehiclesare improperly labeled. Federal regulations now require the removal of PCBsfrom electrical equipment allover the nation, yet there is not a plan to safelytransport and dispose of them. Have we had spills of deadly PCBs in Virginia? How would you find out?

Virginia has used a regional dumpsitein South Carolina for hazardous wastes. It may soon be closed to us. Virginia sites have been identifiedfor possible future use. See the UVA News Letter: "Hazardous Wastes in Virginia" and watch for further developments.

Hazardous waste dumpsites are puton a priority list by EPA. At present funding levels, it will takeover 100 years for Superfund cleanup of tt: 800 locations identified so far, andmore are being found all the time. (Some unauthorized dumps are intentionallybeing created by some people, by others who don't know any better, and byothers who see no alternative.) What can you find out about the history of EPA and Superfund? What kinds of pressure resulted in clan -up? What kinds of pressure resulted in slowingthe cleanup? How much has been accomplishedso far? Are adequate funds being appropriated? (See the Readers' Guide to PeriodicLiterature for recent analyses.)

Are any persons or groups vocal on this issue in this community? Who are the supporters and opponents of increasedexpenditures for the Superfund? What arguments does each side use? Is man's future threatened by unchecked pollution? Or is this alarmist talk? Which side do you support? How will you make your views known to the decision-makers?

Write a 2-page paper agreeingor disagreeing with the following statement: "Hazardous Wastes are a Problem in Our Community." Include public reactions such as dIMBY (Not in ay aackYard) or LULU (Locally Unwanted Land Uses)as well as ways this community is organizedto deal with emergencies.

H 54

487 VOL. 59 NO. 4

LETTER University of Virginia Institute of Government DECEMBER 1982

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT IN VIRGINIA By Richard C. Collins and Elizabeth B. Waters

Mr. Collins is professor of plamnng and dirertor of the many other aspects of managementneeds Institute for Envu snment al Negotiatton at the University Mediation is a neizotiation process of Virginia. Ms. Wateritformer associate director of assessment, the development of technical conducted by an impartial indepen- thatInstitute and currently is on the staff of the criteria, and enforcement and monitoring dentmediatoror"thirdparty." Governor's Commission on Virginia's Future. activities. But siting has proved to be the Through mediation,partiestoa According to the U.S. Environmental most difficult aspect; and without appro- dispute meet face to face to explore Protection Agency (EPA), over 70 percent of priate treatment and disposal facilities. other the facts. issues, and various view- all hazardous waste in this country is treated parts of the program break down. points in the dispute and seek to settle or disposed of onsite by waste generators. The difficulty with waste facility siting is in their differences through bargaining leaving approximately 20 percent to be part another instance of the larger national and exploring alternative solutions. treated or disposed of off-site in commercial problem of sitingall kinds of locally If mediation is successful. the patties hazardous waste facilities. The only regulat- unwanted land uses (LULUs). In a 1981 jointly develop a compromise agree- ed commercial hazardous waste facility in article in Planning, Frank Popper says: ment. ...3 Virginia. one that had interim status under By definition a LULU meets a strong, The use of mediation in the siting problem. EPA regulations, is now in the process of usuallyregionalpublicneedor along with providing compensation and eing closed permanently, leaving Virginia private demand and offers (or ap- incentives to host communities. offers the with no regulated commercial facilities. pearstooffer)large regional or kind of innovative approaches that may be This lack of regulated commercial facili- national benefits. The problem is that required successfully to site new facilities. ties presents serious problems for the state. its econontic and environmental costs Virginia as yet does not have a waste These include the increased likelihood of fall mainly on its locality or neighbor- management plan. any siting criteria. or a illegal or "midnight" dumping, the rapidly hood. This imbalance often cannot be comprehensive siting process. The story of escalatingcostsforVirginiaindustries rectified. The local few must suffer the state's attempt to site a facility in the fall having to transport and dispose of wastes for the sake of the regional many.= of 1981 without these helps to clarify where out of state, and the fear that at some point Citizens concerned about the negative Virginiais now init'sefforts to manage other states may refuse to accept our waste. iirr,,act that locally unwanted land uses will wastes responsibl . ,Ind %%her: it has to go. The responsibility to resolve this problem have on their backyards have learned how to liessolelywiththe state. The federal mobilize themselves to lieu all kinds of ATTEMPTS TO SITE k FACILITY facilities. from large refineries and nuclear governmentatthispoint assumes no Buckingham County. Virginia. is a rural responsibility furbitingnew hazardous waste power stations to prisons and hospitals. county about fifty miles west of Richmond. facilities. Treatment and disposal facilities for chemical wastes are particularly controversial. Buckingham is not a wealthy county. It has When theU.S. Congress passed the one of the highest unemplo:.1.1e,.: rates in the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act General public concern about the generation, handling, and disposal of hazardous region. Recently. the county became the (RCRA) in1976.it acknowledged that home of a new state prison: and while the proper management and disposal of hazard- substances has focused on debates over the siting of particular facilities. In many states residents welcomed the jobs brought by the ous wastes was a matter of national concern. prison, they also felt that by accepting the Therefore, the law gave the EPA a mandate this opposition has led to an inability to site any facilities. prison they had accepted their share of those to develop regulations that would enable undesirable facilities that the state needs, but waste to be tracked and monitored from States have been attempting to deal with that nobody wants in the backyard. So in "cradle to grave."' Omitted intentionally this deadlock by developing comprehensive waste management plans, technical siting March 1981, when a group of investors made were any provisions related to the siting of public their plans to purchase a 127-acre site hazardous waste facilities; Congress felt this criteria. and comprehensive siting processes in the county that had a small existing was an area bestleftto the statesto that allow for considerable public participation throughout the siting process. And even hazardous waste landfill. and expand it into accomplish. one of the largest waste treatment facilities Virginia and other states have found that though siting new facilities is not a federal on the east coast. some 1.000 residents 'he siting of hazardous waste facilities is an responsibility. the EPA has been concerned turned out at a public meeting to protest. about the serious consequences of the siting extremely complex and emotional issue. and This site was particularly appealing because 'he problems of facility siting have tended to problem for the entire RCRA program. The EPA has suggested the use of new ap- it was the only one in the state with federal dominate thestate's waste management interim status. a temporary permit.at.ng efforts. Facility siting is integrally related to proaches such as mediation to resolve the impasse: given by the EPA to facilities already in 'H S. Ullman. C Smoson. and Ocrakl w Cormict. Clow Fatunher IlliOrmaISOA SteJohn Gilmour.'Hatarortus and To*ic Sleunennn 14 ben .1dint ileaffim, Sgatie ilanownent Funutet. Wane Disposal; Veneernir of *gine.: ,,,eet Lair/. September Handboot SW.o.14t W.nnington. DC,I. bEmironmental 1980. :hrspg Popper. 47 Plunnine 1:'1,April Mill. Protection Agent.... MD. pI

488 existence prior to 1981. (Since the EPA had responsibilities, including the development governor and the General Assembly in the hot -yet promulgated the regulations for of a hazardous waste management plan, 1983session about the needfor new granting permits to new facilities, expansion promotion of resource conservation and legislation in Virginia. of existingfacilitiesprovided the only recovery, collection of data regarding the The Virginia Solid Waste Commission opportunity for developing additional waste amount and kinds of waste generated in the was established in1973 by the General treatment and disposal capacity, either in state, and the regulation of all generators, Assembly to study problems related to the Virginia or anywhere else in the country.) transporters, and handlers of hazardous collection and disposal of wastes and to offer Buckingham County residents, like people waste in the state. Code amendments in 1980 advice and guidance on matters whe. all over the country. had been alerted to the added the power, with approval from the appropriate; the Commission meets month. dangers posed by improper waste disposal governor, to acquire by purchase, grant, or and reports directly to the governor and the because of the extensive news covqrage of use of eminent domain that land deemed General Assembly. The Health Department Love Canal, Valley of the Drums, and other necessary and appropriate fora waste did not seek the Commission's advice before old dumps that were coming back to haunt disposal site. The Health Department also takingthe option on the Buckingham their communities. The county's residents was granted the power to operate or proviae County site. and the Commission was were very concerned about the effects a fortheoperationof hazardous waste overtly critical of the Health Department's disposal facility in their county would have management facilities, as deemed necessary. actions. As a result. the General Assembly's on their owit health, their children's health, The Division of Solid and Hazardous 1982 action included a moratorium on the and their property values. They also were Waste Management also administers the Health Department's power to purchase or angry at the idea that industries located in federal RCRA program in Virginia. In- condemn land for a hazardous waste site and paying taxes to urban areas would be cluded in the 1976 RCRA Act was a until the Solid Waste Commission completes shipping their wastes out into the country- provision that states should be encouraged its study and reports back to the General side, arguing that the wastes should be kept to assume responsibility for administering Assembly in 1983. closer to where they were generated. They the RCRA program, provided that they During thepastseveral months the argued that because rural areas had less adoptedreguiations equaltoor more Division of Solid and Hazardous Waste political clout, they became natural targets stringent than the EPA's regulation. Virginia Management also has been working to get for unwanted facilities. was granted that authority in November more of the elements of the hazardous waste The tremendous opposition was enough 1981. management program in place. In the spring to deter the investors, who soon announced With the assumption of all these responsi- of1982theDivision commissioned a they were no longer intirested in thesite. But bilities, the Health Department's Division of consultant ,,o conduct a survey of all waste in July 1981 another firm briefly expressed Solid and Hazardous Waste Management generated in the state. what it is. how it is interer in the same site, and in October 1981 now has a double mandate. It is charged on handled. and what individual industry's a third firm appeared on the scenethis time the one hand with promoting the develop- disposal costs are. Many observers feel that a with the assistance of the state's Division of ment of facilities, even to the extent of actual waste inventory is the essential first step a Solid and Hazardous Waste Management. ownership and operation of a facility if state must take in developing a management The Division of Solid and Hazardous necessary. On the other hand,itmust program: it can provide the data necessary to Waste Management can purchase sites to be regulate and carry out enforcement actions determine how many and what type of used for disposal of hazardous wastes; and on such operations. This dui responsibility treatment and disposalfacilities a state this third firm had approached the state complicated the role of the Division of Solid needs. about acquiring the Buckingham County and Hazardous Waste Management in the site and leasing it to the company. After A consultant is conducting this survey s Buckingham County situation and raised that the data on individual firms can be ken some discussions, the state had taken a seri: us questions about potential conflict of ninety-day option on the land with the stated confidential. The consultant will prepare a interest problems. composite report for the Health Depart- intent of studying the site's :::stability for the By December 1981 the possibility of a ment.SincetheHealth Departmentis proposed facility. This move on the part of hazardous waste landfill on the Buckingham the state without prior consultation with subject to the Freedom of Information Act. County site was deadbut not because of the local officials, citizens. legislators. or others Division was concerned that.ifit any decisive court action or because the conducted the survey, a great deal of data at the state level elicited strong reactions developer or the state had withdrawn. It was from many quarters. A series of confronta- would be withheld as confidential ;rade dead because the county resident who owned secret information. On the other hanc. :h.: tions. allegations, and court battlesfol- the sitegrew tiredof the delays and lowed. information for the consultant's survt.: has succumbed to pressure from fellow rest- to be given voluntarily. a fact that raised Objections were raised to the fact that the dents. He sold the site to the county for a concerns about the level of inuustry partici- state had taken an option on the site before it considerably lower sum than the state would pation. But as of October I. the level of had established criteria for evaluating the have paid. andthe county proceeded response was over 30 percent. The final suitability of particular sitesfor waste immediately with plans to close down the report was due some time in mid-November disposaland before it had examined the facility. and will be made available to the public. availability and suitability of any state- TheBuckinghamCounty experience A second activity that the Division of owned sites, as required by statute. And raised a number of serious questions about Solid and Hazardous Waste Management since there was as yet no inventory of wastes the adequacy of Virginia's current laws and has undertaken in the past year has been to generated within the state, it was difficult to procedures for managing hazardous wastes. draft criteria for the selection of sites for evaluate whether the particular type of A number of actions were set in motion at state-owned hazardous waste facilities. The treatment facility proposed was the kind the state level that, in one way or another. are state began this process as soon as they took most needed by Virginia's industry. Finally. certain to alter the nature of state participa- the option on the land in Buckingham criticism was expressed about the state's tion in any future siting of a hazardous waste County. While the criteria now have been failure to develop a formal siting process. facility. through three drafts. they have not yet been which would allow public participation and THE STATE'S RESPONSE adopted. guarantee that the decision would be made Siting criteria tend to break down into two according to some previously approved The hazardous waste management issue processes and procedures. major categories: environmental and socio- received considerable attention in the 1982 economic. Environmental criteria deal woh Questions also were raised about the session of the General Assembly. After the such matters as the nature and suitability of wisdom of Virginia's policy of concentrating events in Buckingham County, Virginia's soils, the potential groundwater or surtac all responsibility for hazardous waste man- legislators felt the need to re-evaluate the water contamination, and the effect ,.. agement in one agency, the Division of Solid adequacy of current hazardous waste man- endangered species. Socioeconomic criteria and Hazardous Waste Management in the agement laws. They passed a Joint Resolu- include the nature of surrounding land uses. Department of Health. Section 32.1-178 of tion (SJR 151 requesting the Virginia Solid population density. site accessibility. and the Code of Virginia givesthe Health Waste Commission to evaluate siting legisla- other similar considerations. The purpose of Department a number of powers and tion in other states and report back to the establishing criteria is to have some standard

C.J. P -Ci tj against which the suitability of any panicu- The rationale for a state override is the coming in. The legality of this is in some lar site or sites can be determined. Most assumption that no community will ever question. A 1980 U.S. Supreme Court states that have adopted criteria use them to willingly accept one of these facilities and decision in the case of Reeves v. The State of evaluate individualsites when they are therefore. without the override, no facilities South Dakota ruled that theInterstate proposed for a facility. However, several could be sited. State laws vary in where they Commerce Clause does not prohibit a state states. including Maryland. Minnesota. and place the final decision-making authority. from accepting waste only from its residents w Jersey also have used their criteria to but many states have chosen to establish when the state is the owner and operator of a /clop an inventory of all suitable sites in independent siting boards (comprised of facility. However, that same decision noted 0the state. screening all of the land in the state local, state, and scientific community repre- that there may be ev:eptions to this decision and identifying that which is best suited for sentatives) to administer the siting process if a state is considered to be hoarding natural hazardous waste treatment and disposal and make the final decision. This avoids the resourcesin cases, for instance, where one facilities. problems inherent in having the same agency state may have the only environmentally When the third draft of Virginia's pro- responsible for both siting and regulating suitable locations in its geographic region. posed criteria was taken to public hearing in these facilities. A siting board also allows For the time being, state ownership of sites July 1982. a large number of comments were some citizen representation on the decision- appears to offer the possibility of excluding offered. One suggestion was that no criteria making body. out-of-state wastes. thereby putting greater should be adopted until new legislation is Another important feature of many siting pressure on all states to meet their own considered and it becomes clear within what laws is the variety of options for compensat- needs. framework the criteria will be used. Applica- ing the local community. In some states the A 1980 report by the National Governor's bility was also an issue. since at present the sitinglegislationestablishesaspecific Association supports the development of criteria are designated to apply only to state- amount of compensation.InGeorgia. interstate compacts for waste management owned landfills. Many people would prefer Indiana, Connecticut, and Kentucky the similar to those being established to manage one set of criteria that would be applicable to compensation is based on a fee system; the low-level nuclear waste. Participation in a both private and state-owned facilities and locality is paid either a percent of the gross compact does not imply that a state will not to all types of facilities: treatment, landfill. income of the facility or a tipping fee of so need its own facilities. What is more likely is and incineration. A request was made for much per ton of waste entering the facility. that neighboring states will develop agree- some guidelines about the relative impor- Another approach is to view compensation ments to establish different types of facilities tanceof the various criteria and the as one item among many that can be part of a designed to handle different types of waste significance that each one should have inany negotiationprocess between afacility and then develop reciprocal agreements for siting decision. Some objections were raised developer and a potential host community. the use of these facilities. What this means about the substantive content of the draft. Although only one state. Massachusetts. has fot. Virginia is that the Commonwealth will For instance, one criticism was that the gone as far asto require negotiations not be able to rely on other states to solve its population density requirements included in between a facility developer and a locality. problem. the criteria bias them in favor of a site's this approach has been receiving increased One unusual participant in the develop- location in rural counties. rather than closer attention. The EPA recently has published a ment of hazardous waste policies for the to where the waste is generated. Included in handbook entitled Using Meliation When state of Virginia is a policy dialogue group the third draftweresome items relating to a Siting Hazardous Waste Facilities. Media- called the Virginia Toxics Roundtable. The ing process that may became superfluous tion, as indicated earlier. involves the use of Toxics Roundtable is composed of individ- illthe state decides to pass some hazardous neutral third parties to assist panics in a uals from the state's business and environ- waste siting legislation of the son already negotiation process. The EPA's handbook mental groups: it was formed in early 1981 to adopted in many other states. At this point suggests that while a hazardous waste facility explore issues of concern regarding the there has been no indication of when a fourth may be a non-negotiable issue for some management of toxic substances and haz- draft of the criteria may be brought to public people. a negotiation approach does have ardous wastes in Virginia. The Roundtable hearing. certain advantages over adversdrial pro- receives financial suppon from the Vireinia SITING LAWS cesses. It enhances information exchange Environmental Endowment throughthe Under present law. the siting process in and allows panics to address the real issues. Institute for Environmental Negotiation at Virginia involves two levels of approval. not just those that can be taken to court. As the University of Virginia. Under the RCRA the applicant must get a the handbook states, mediation is not a In June 1982 a special committee of the permit for the facility from the Division of means of avoiding conflict. What mediation Roundtable, which had met regularlfor a Solid and Hazardous Waste Management. does is legitimize the conflict and provide an year. reached agreement on a proposed But the applicant also is subject to local arena within which difficult decisions can be statute tor siting hazardous waste facilities in zoning laws and must get the necessary =de. Virginia. The essential elements of this draft approvals at that level. After the experience In the Massachusetts law. siting a facility law are a state siting board whose decisions of Buckingham County. several counties in is not contingent upon negotiating a siting would override local zoning: a process for that region passed ordinances prohibiting agreement. Where no agreement can be substantial citizen panicipation and review, the disposalof hazardous wasteeven reached. a three-person state team servesas includingoptionsfornegotiation: and though some of those counties. including arbitrator. But localities in Massachusetts applicabili of this siting process onlyto Buckingham. do not have comprehensive have the opportunity to negotiate a wide commercialoff-sitefacilities.The draft zoning ordinances. While no legal opinion range of issues. including mitigation mea- statute has been shared with the Virginia has been rendered on this matter, the validity sures designed to reduce or eliminate the Solid Waste Commission. which is reviewing of these exclusionary ordinances-isin impacts- of a facility. compelisation for siting legislation in preparation for making question. Legally. of course, the state can impacts that are not alleviated. and provi- its report to the 1983 General Assemblyin override these ordinances with the use of its sions for additional benefits or incentives. January. The activity of the Roundtable and eminent domain power. However, whether Massachusetts has not yet shed a facility its special committee representsan attempt the state can do this politically without the under this new legislation. butitis an on the part of a group of concerned framework of a more formal siting proce- approach that other states are watching. individuals who are normally adversarieson dure is another question. Since many other states have passed siting environmental management issues tocome Twenty-feu r states have passed hazardous laws, one might conclude that Virginia could to some agreement on a very sensitive area of 'aste siting laws to establish the formal just continue to pay the price of transporting state policy. 'ocedures to be followed in siting facilities and disposing of its wastes out of state. This After studying a number of alternatives and to spell out the extent and nature of probably is not a viable long-term alterna- the Solid Waste Commission also has Spublic panicipation. Most of these laws tive. however. States and localities arevery prepared a draftsitinglaw. While the allow the state to override local land use sensitiveabout baringtheburden of Commission's draft shares a number of laws.but no:untilallprocedures are disposing of wastes from another state's features with that of the Toxics Roundtable. completed. all conditions have been met. and industries, and some have gone as faras it is modeled most closely on the Maryland the state is convinced that the site is suitable. trying to prohibit out-of-state waste from law. The major features includean Inventory 49u of suitable sites and a state siting board with becomes the degree of state power used to approach in an effort to re-use valuable override powers that would issue certificates designate a site in the face of foal opposi- resources and reduce the amount of waste of public nersity for approved sites. The tion. Because local land use powers are requiring disposaL Commission plans to hold a public hearing guarded jealously and the state's power to While material and disposal costs will in early December to get public comment on regulate land has been politically unaccept- move industry further in the direction of %iting legislation. The Commission has made able in many states, the siting of hazardous resource recovery, the major burdens and its draft law available in advance, along with waste facilities raises serious ideological and cost, of the total waste management effort a statement outlining the options that should political as well as technical problems. will continue to rest with the states. In a be considered in developing siting campaign document entitled "The Robb legislationincludingsiting boards,site Although the siting issue is the most Plan for Conservation of Virginia's Natural inventories,compensation, negotiation, prominent and set ;itive Issue that Virginia Resources," Governor Robb expressed a publicparticipation. and state override must face in developing a waste management Aron commitment to veloping a total powers. The Commission most likely will plan and strategy, the state probably will not management system for handling wastes in not propose any siting legislation to the 1983 be able to develop siting policy without Virginiaa system that would include not short session of the General Assembly; its dealing with broader aspects oi toxic and only siting needed facilities, but also devel- intent at this point is to report back to the hazardous waste management. Site-specific oping a waste management plan, ensuring General Assembly s.:_dthe governor in conflict offers an opportunity for local the adequacy of personnel to implement the January suggesting further study and seek- concerns to intersect broader issues of waste programs, and giving serious attention to the ing a one-year extension of the moratorium policy. Opponents of particular sites raise safe transport of wastes through the states. on the state's purchase of hazardous waste 'questions about whether industry should be The ability to carry out these proposals sites. If the waste survey now underway offered incentives to reduce the flow of its depends in large part on the resources the supports the need for new hazardous waste waste or waste products if those wastes are stateisprepared to invest. As part of treatment and disposal facilities in the state, generating costly and even disabling site assuming responsibility for administering the Commission would expect to propose issues. These opponents also raise questions the RCRA, the state was required to add siting legislation to the 1984 session of the about why the largest share of industrial additional personnel. The Division of Solid General Assembly. vane is disposed of in landfills. Even if and Hazardous Waste Management current- Obviously, itis not clear if or when landfills are at present the most economical ly has a full-time staff of ten and receives Virginia may have a comprehensive siting method. they argue that industry should some part-time help from other agencies. law. But the extensive public participation make efforts to alter the production process This is still a small staff compared to that of process that the Solid Waste Commission in ways that will aecount for waste products. other states, particularly since the responsi- has included in its considerations of the According to this argument, new technolo- bility for all hazardous waste planning. siting issue and the unique activity of the gies should be developed that would inciner- permitting, monitoring, and enforcement Virginia Taxies Roundtable indicate that ate, detoxify, or otherwise treat wastes as activity currently resides in this one agency. many people in Virginia recognize the need part of a responsible overall strategy. To undertake any additional waste manage- for some unusual coalitions and consensus ment activity would require the commitment building to develop hazardous waste man- These same opponents advocate better of additional resources. agement programs that will be acceptable to methods for recycling wastes.. Virginia has Waste disposal clearly is no lonper a the majority of our citizens. made progress in this matter by initiating a backwater of public policy and administra- waste exchange program.TheState tion. either in Virginia or anywhere in the QUESTIONS FOR THE FUTURE Chamber of Commerce. with a loan from the industrial world. But the emergence of any Congress. by removing the federal govern- Virginia Environmental Endowment. has set acceptable response will involve more than ment from any power to designate or choose up an industrial waste exchange that give: just getting a site that meets appropriate sites.left one of the most critical and businesses an opportunity to lists substances engmeenngstandttds.Theresponsible controversial aspects of hazardous waste that are waste products for them, but may be managementof aardouswasteswill managementtostates and theirlocal useful materials to others. This exchange demand close so unity of the waste genera- governments. Since the siting of a hazardous serves as a cltaringhouse for buyers and tionprocess. careful attention tostate waste facility needs local land use approvals, sellers of waste materials. Only an estimated planning and administration. and exter:ave and since few localities will permit as a 10 percent of wastes generated are appro.- publicparticipation. probablyIncluding matter of right the location of such facilities. pnate for this exchange process: even so. a elements of mediation and compensatton the practical issue in the siting of facilities number of states and regions are using this localities.

UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA

NEWS LETTIM

(ISSN 0042-0271) Editor / James A. (Dolph) Norton Assistant Editor / Sandra H. Wiky Publish xi :wit* by the Institute of Govern- Ws AL 'r....-ir.Ctrtxtesville. Virgins ia:2903. '-.zons expressed herein att thoss of to be interpreted as Prot : s of the Institute or the Ut 'IroutrY 2.1925. at Unix, Virginia. under the act 01 19t ,sitors ottte Unirenity or Weak. ?rinsed by the t Matins Otrux. CASE STUDY # 1

SAVE THE BAV -- AN INTERGOVERNMENTAL PROGRAM

"Few times in American history have the states, thefederal government and citizens' groups developed the potential to work togetherin such a constructive way." (William Ruckelshaus, Administrator, EPA)

In December 1983, seven hundred 'egislators,administrators, scientists and Bay users met in Fairfax, Virginia to developan action agenda for the Chesapeake Bay. The conference was called by thegovernors of Maryland, Virginia, and Pennsylvania and officials oft'e District of Columbia and EPA to mark the end of the EPA study and the bes :finingof a political effort to correct the problems identified in the studies.The 10-year program requires legislation, monitoring and enforcement ofpollution controls and water treatment and millions of dollars from EPA, theDistrict and the states.

VIRGINIA'S SHARE OF THE PROJECT In 1984 and 1985 the General Assembly created administrative machinery and appropriatedmillions to do the job.

More than $3 million was appropriatedto encourage nest Management Practices (BMP) of conservationon agricul,cural lands, and to reduce NONPOINT mime pollution (sediments, toxicsubstances and nutrients from agricultural and urban areas, not fromany one source or location). It requested state and local governments to implementBMPs on lands they own. The Virginia Resource Authority (VRA) was created to encourage publicand private investment, with grants and loansto local governments for the construction and improvement of wastewatertreatment projects. The Authority will borrow funds and issue bonds(up to $300 million) for grants and loans.

More than $5 million was allocatedto assist localities with broken pipes and treatment plant plans, chlorinecontrols, and a grant and loan program to assist low income families with domesticsewage problems.

$3 million was allocated formore research and management of the bay and the James River, and for more health studieson kepone other toxic substances.

The State Water Control Boardwas asked to plan a program to reduce phosphate from all sources leading intothe Bay, and to consult with the Water Resource Center and the ChesapeakeBay Commission on the costs and benefits of a ban on phosphate detergentsand cleaning agents in Virginia.

$5 million was allocated to restore andprotect fish life: fisheries, oysters, sea grasses and artificial reefs to attract finfish. A marine sportfishing license was recommended to the 1985General Assembly. It was not approved.

A joint resolution of both houses askedCongress and the President to fund the $13 million per year EPA budget for theChesapeake Say clean-up Program, and to develop a national nonpointsource pollution control program.

$300,000 was granted for a Youth ConservationCorps and $290,000 was earmarked for the Chesapeake Bay EducationProgram (which funded a portion of the cost of producing this unit) and environmentalpublic service announcements.

Funds continue for 10 years, andon into the foreseeable future to protect the Bay - once we have controlled the waste A now being dumped into it. H 55

492 CHESAPEAKE BAY VIRGINIA'S MAGNIFICENT FRONT YARD

Chesapeake Bay waters come from a 64,000 square mile PEN NS 1 WAN IA NtARILAND drainage area in six states (Virginia, West Virginia, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New York. Four of Virginia's major river systems feed into the Bay: BALTIMORE The Potomac River system, including the Shenandoah River, beginning deep in the Valley of Virginia, and numerous smaller tributary creeks along Virginia's northern border; MSHINCMM The Rappahannock River, which drainsa section of D.C. northcentral Virginia as far as the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge; The York River, formed by the Pamunkey and Mattaponi drains a large area of central Piedmont, westto Orange County; The James River, with headwaters in the Bullpasture River in West Virginia, becomes the James inBotetourt County, flows eastward through the Blue Ridge, past the city of Lynchburg, to Richmond and enters the Bay at Hampton Roads.

Virginia's history, commerce, economic security,and quality of life are significantly linkedto the

Chesapeake Bay, the drowned valley of the Susquehanna "s4Z. River. 15,000 years ago the river overflowed its 4 banks during the melt at the end of the iceage. The

rising sea pushed water into all the lowplaces, \r". C creating hundreds of protected harbors, whichhave been havens for small craft and refugesfor the ocean Harrrtor, weary travelers of previous centuries, as wellas VIRGINIA xoatk natural spawning and nestingareas for an almost infinite variety of wildlife. Flat, slowmoving rivers open out to the Bay and actuallyare pushed back with the tides, mixing salt water withfresh.

Local, state, and national government allcare about the health of Chesapeake Bay. Here are some of the reasons:

1 SEAFOOD PRODUCTION Chesapeake Bay supplies the world's largest bluecrab catch, traditionally 27 million pounds ofoysters per year, and large harvests of soft shell clams and finfish fora total annual catch exceeding $100 million -- a U.S. record topped only bythe Atlantic and Pacific oceans.

2 SHIPPING & COMMERCEThe 200 mile long Bay runs from the Portof Baltimore on the north to the south end Port of Hampton Roads (Norfolk,Portsmouth, Hampton, and Newport News). In 1982, the Hampton Roads complexwas by far the largest U. S. port in foreigncargo, with a total of 68,491,846 tons. Over 897. of this total was exports-- including coal, tobacco and cigarettes, corn, soybeans, wheat, lumber, fertilizers, animalfeed, manmade fibers and textile yarn, plastics and resins, synthetic rubber, iron and steelscrap, and automobile parts-- with a value of over $8 billion per year.

H 57 493 3 INDUSTRY: Shipbuilding and related industries, manufacturers and power companies located around the Bay and its tributariesuse large volumes of water for industrial processes and cooling. The estuary must assimilate wastes from most of these industries as well.

4 POPULATION: 60% of Virginia's population lives on the 1/3 of the state's land mass adjacent to the Bay. In addition, boating, sportfishing, swimming, hunting, and camping lure great numbers of people 'Tom throughout Virginiaand the East Coast. The total of wastes from all these people is staggering.

Our beautiful front yard is a national treasure,a great asset to Virginia, a natural habitat for bird, beast, and fish,a recharge area for all forms of life -- including man, who finds rest and relaxationon Chesapeake Bay.

BUT, UNFORTUNATELY, IT IS LESS LIKE THAT EVERY DAY!

"We are running out of time," saidone waterman. "We no longer need sophisticated measuring devices to test the water quality. I can see it with my own eyes. The water is discolored, the eelgrass isgone, and I can't catch a rockfish."

Ten years ago, 4 million pounds of rockfishwere caught annually in Chesapeake Bay -- the catch today is less than 101. of that amount. The whistling swans that fed on the eelgrass now feed in nearby cornfields,and the oyster harvest is drastically reduced. Other Atlantic seabord statesare also affected by the problems of the Bay, since it is the spawningand juvenile growth area for marine organisms found all along the coast.

The slowmoving rivers blocked by the changingtides trap the agricultural runoff and urban pollution in the Bay. We had always expected that the riverstotheBaytotheocean path for our wasteswas sure: we have learned only recently that a major portion of itstays right there in the Bay. This realization has begun to change water managementacross the state, from the headwaters to the estuary.

A 5 year, $30 million study by the EnvironmentalProtection Agency was completed in 1982. The report showed that nitrogen, phosphorous,weedkillers and insecticides from crop lands and residentialareas, millions of gallons of sewage, and tons of chemicals and industrial waste have beendeposited in the Bay -- making the water murky and stimulatinghigh algae blooms. Algae lowers the light and consumes oxygen, inhibitingthe growth of bottom plants and animals. This means that the "deep feeders"such as shad, striped bass, herring, oysters, and our famous blue crabs,all of which depend on the sea grasses, are disappearing. The entire Bay is endangered, andsome areas are considered ecologically dead during certain timesof the year. The EPA survey documented what watermen and conservationistshad observed over the prior decade: the Bay cannot cleanse itself of the quantityof pollutants we have been pouring into it. In fact, because of the tides and the watercirculation patterns, what goes in the Bay. stays in the Bay.

(See Chesapeake Bay: Introduction to an Ecosystem and other usefulmaterials, including colorful posters, published byThe Council on the Environment, Ninth Street Office Building, Richmond, VA 23219)

H 58 SAVE THE BAY-- A PROGRAM FOR ALL USERS OF THE CHESAPEAKE & VIRGINIA RIVERS

Responsible citizens all over the state are helping wherever theyare -- by keeping clean the rivers that empty into the Bay, byhelping to publicize the effort with bumper stickers, and perhaps by joiningor making a contribution to the Chesapeake Bay Foundation. Everye who swims, boats, fishes, or enjoys the scenery of the Chesapeake Bayk its tributaries can become part of the effort to save the Bay, by helping to decrease thepollution. Here are some specific things that you can do especially whenyou are near the rivers that feed the Bay or in the Tidewater:

CAR CARE Recycle Your Oil One quart of oil dispersed in watercan create an oil slick 6 acres in size. Service stations will accept and recycleyour used oil. Use leadfree gasoline. Wash your car on a grassv_area where the dirt and detergents will be cau& . Dispose of antifreeze. solids. and chemicalsaccordina to local waste Plan.

INSIDE YOUR HOME Conserve WaterBy decreasing your water use,you both decrease the wastes entering the bay and save on water andsewer bills. The average Bay resident uses 75-100 gallons per day: it is estimated that two gallonsper person are needed for cooking and cleaning.See the list titled "Water Conservation in Our Area" for specific thingsyou can do.

Use NO PHOSPHATE detergents Phosphates are a significant Chesapeake Bay pollutant because they can contribute torampant growth of algae that cuts off sunlight to underwater plants and decreasesoxygen available to aquatic life.

OUTSIDE YOUR HOME Don't Overfertilize: Follow instructions on the label! Using more fertilizer than necessary will not makeyour plants grow better. The extra will run off and increase the phosphates thatgrow algae in our rivers and in the Bay. Decrease erosion around your home. ailgalegfhizardous substances Properly

SPECIAL FOR THOSE WHO SWIM. BOAT. OR FISH INTHE BAY OR ITS RIVERS

Use pump out stations: don't put human wasteoverboard.

Take bottles, cans, paper products andother trash to shore: don't throw it overboard. (Campers rule: Leave the place better than you found it.)

Obey boat speed limit signs: don'tcause wakecreated erosion.

Be careful when fueling boats. Avoid gas and oil spills.

Catch only the fish and crabsyou need.

Obey all fishing, crabbing and wildliferegulations.

Establish and maintain natural vegetationalong streams and drainage ways. HELP US ALL TO SAVE THE BAY-- DON'T BE A POLLUTER!

H 59

4 9,5 THE CHESAPEAKE BAY FOUNDATION

The plight of the Chesapeake was brought to theattention of the Environmental Protection Agency and the governors of the neighboring states bya large and growing body of concerned citizens who highlighted the plight offishermen and the concerns of naturalists, and documented the degradation ofthe water quality and wildlife. When the project was finally funded and the plans outlined, the Chesapeake Bay Foundation (CBF) adopted the longtermrole of watchdog to monitor the progress. They fear that the shared nature of the Chesapeake project may make it potentially insecure-- that farmers, industry and communities in the sixstatearea trill fall to blaming each other for the state of the Bay, rather than spend their share of theeffort and funds for the cleanup and protection of the future of this invaluableresource. The CBF will oversee the effort-- as an independent nonprofit charitable organization, with strong support of more than 23,000 membersthroughout the Bay area. Its goal is to promote the orderly management of theBay, with special emphasis on maintaining water quality that willsupport the Bay's diverse aquatic species.

CBF has a paid staff of 42 and dozens of activevolunteers. Its program is focused on four main activities: education; scientificinvestigation; legal protection of the Bay resources; and the preservationand management of significant Bay lands.

CBF's educational program currently workswith over 22,000 students each year, at locations throughout the Bay, to teachan appreciation of the Eay as a highly productive biological system thatsupports a number of different and often conflicting human uses and thereforerequires sound, longrange planning and management. While colleges, clubs, and specialgroups use CBF facilities, most participants are secondary school students. Guided educational canoe trips to observe the natural beauties andthe ecological concerns about the Bay can be arranged through the Foundation,which furnishes pretrip student and teacher resources. See address below.

Through leases, conservationeasements, or outright ownership, CBFmanages more than 3,000 acres of Bay land as a naturalpreserve for educational purposes.

The Chesapeake Bay Foundation hasa yearly budget of approximately $1.8 million. Membership dues are $20 for an individual and$30 for a family. Members learn more about the educationaland scientific programs, and receive advance information about trips and opportunities through the quarterly CBF , News and a multipage Annual Report. Teachers and students are invited to join.

For booklets, slidetape shows, speakers,canoe trip information, or membership, contact:

Chesapeake Bay Foundation 11 South 12th Street Richmond, VA23219

H 60 4,06 WHAT WILL THE STATESDO? MARYLAND VIRGINIA PENNSYLVANIA Governor Harry Hughes laid out Governor Charles S. Robb pro- Calling Pennsylvania a "good an ambitious program designed to posed to make the Bay an important restore the Bay to the condition that neighbor,' Lieutenant Governor William state budget item for at least the next W. Scranton III announced a plan to existed a generation ago. He proposed decade. Governor Robb pledged to that Maryland initiate a set of actions reduce Pennsylvania's non-point pol- include funds in his budget that con- luthrt. The Pennsylvania legislature that include capital expenditures, institute what he called a down payment creases in the staff and operating bud- will appropriate funds, to be matched on the future. He defined a program with federal dollars, that will enable gets of Bay agencies and new legisla- that will begin with constructive first tion. He suggested that the job will the state to contribute to the Bay steps in this biennium to be followed clean-up. Efforts will be concentrated take two decades and proposed that by more ambitious and expensive pro- Maryland begin by:. in the lower Susquehanna and will grams. Robb's initiatives for the 1984- tripling the state's share of federally- reduce Pennsylvania's impact on the 86 biennium would improve the Bay upper Bay by: supported sewage treatment improve- by: ments; "increasing the financial assistance "assisting the agricultural community available to farmers to implement Ofunding dechlorination throughout to prevent erosion; the state; best management practices; "reducing urban runoff through grants I:implementing conservation plans on providing additional technical stoff all farms in critical areas within 5 to local governments for staff and to accelerate BMP programs; years; for demonstration projects; "conducting an education program "correcting infiltration and inflow Oestablishing a critical areas com- that includes the Farmer's Associa- mission to control shoreline devel- problems in old sewer lines; tion, the Grange and the Farmers opment; "installing new systems to replace Union; failing septic systems; "protecting non-tidal wetlands; ' developing a pilot program on man- "reducing chlorine and substituting ure marketing; Oarresting the loss of forest lands; other disinfectants; Oirnplementing pretreatment programs; ' creating a community methane diges- replanting bay grasses; tion system from animal wastes; Ocomputerizing inspection and monitoring data; monitoring toxic chemicals: "funding research on nutnent and "expanding public education pro- pesticide loss from no-till farms; Ocentralizing and enforcing the sedi- grams; ment control program; "implementing the Mason-Dixon Ero- 'improving fisheries data; sion Control project. Odeveloping management plans for major fish species; Odeveloping fisheries management plans; !Stripling the shore erosion program; I:establishing an administrative track- Orestoring oyster and finfish popula- ing system to coordinate in-state tions; programs and monitor their effec- Obuilding a hatchery for black ducks; tiveness. Oexpanding education programs for students.

18 H 61 49 7 DISTRICT OF CHESAPEAKE BAY ENVIRONMENTAL COLUMBIA COMMISSION PROTECTION Mayor Marion Barry of the Dis- Senator Joseph V. Gartlan, Jr., AGENCY trict of Columbia spoke about Wash- chairman of the Chesapeake Bay Com- ington's efforts to dean up the Poto- mission, presented the recommenda- William D. Ruckelshaus, Adminis- mac River "the nation's river tions the commission will make to the trator of the Environmental Protection and talked about what he proposes for the General Assemblies of Maryland Agency. came to the conference, as he the future: and Virginia. Saying that the "critical. said. "without his checkbook." He did, continuing the Potomac Strategy to essential element in the equation is however, offer that he was "cautiously develop equitable, technically sound political leadership." Senator Gart Ian optimistic" about the possibility of wastewater treatment agreements: listed actions the Commission supports additional federal dollars being com- P seeking passage of a Water Pollu- and will sponsor: mitted to the Bay cleanup effort in tion Control Act for the District of "'encouraging Congress to amend the 1985 and beyond. He assured confer- Columbia: Clean Water Act to provide funds ees that EPA remains firm in its intent for restoration of Chesapeake Bay; to support the joint effort to clean up "'correcting erosion and sewer over- the Bay. Administrator Ruckelshaus flow problems in the Anacostia P urging adoption of a national pro- cited EPA's plans to spend 5163 Riven in conjunction with Maryland: gram to address urban and agricul- million in 1984 in the Bay states for "'improving erosion and stormwater tural non-point sources of pollution: sewage construction grants. and 515 controls for new developments in inviting participation in Commission million to support state water quality the city; proceedings by the Pennsylvania programs. In addition, EPA will parti- coordinating Potomac monitoring legislature: cipate in the cleanup p:ogram by: with the states and EPA: providing a periodic forum for evalu- Utargeting 54.2 million in 1984 to designing and implementing dechlo- ation of legislative and budgetary support the liaison office, monitor- rination facilities at Blue Plains; measures proposed by the confer- ing, public participation and state changing sewer rate structures to ence and implemented by the Gen- cost-sharing: eral Assemblies; reflect users' pollutant loads; initiating a toxics program in Balti- developing a fisheries management S taking a leadership role in working more harbor (one of three such program. for passage of specific proposals efforts in the U.S.) to investigate adopted by the Commission in solutions to toxics problems; November 1983. I coordinating federal activities, in- At that time the Commission cluding those within the Depart- supported actions that would im- ment of Agriculture, which affect prove fisheries management, upgrade Chesapeake Bay; erosion control programs. encourage CI providing technical assistance: more sensitive land development, reduce toxics and nutrients, and create a coordinating further development of permanent management structure. the Chesapeake data base: achairing the Chesapeake Executive Council.

-.1

H 62 19 el. c,,, ..rk , (...) CASE STUDY #2 NORTHERN VIRGINIA CITIZEN EFFORT PRODUCES COOPERATION

You step into your morning shower, turn on the water, and aftera few drips the water stops. In fact, the drips were barely enough to brush your teeth.

A bad dream? Water engineer Louis Guy realized in 1971 that it could happen to millions of people in Northern Virginia ina low water year. Population growth had pushed water withdrawals from the Potomac Riverto 388 million gallons a day and Guy knew that this was more water than wouldflow into the supply during a low water year. The reservoirs would be grassy prairies. Homes, school, industries, and the very life of the communitiesand people in this populous area -- all would be brought toa standstill or grossly distorted by the tremendous cost and inconvenience of truckingin water. To make it more scary, Guy knew that thousandsmore people were moving into the area each year. The next drought could make that waterless showera reality for millions of people.

That spring, Guy received a glimmering ofan answer at a meeting of the Washington Metropolitan Council of Governments (COG). The Director of the federal Environmental Protection Agency, WilliamRuckelshaus, delivered a report which showed how the region's water needs couldbe managed and suggested a regional super agency to do the job. As Guy sat listening to that report, his engineer's reaction was radically differentfrom the reaction of the politicians seated around him. The politician 1 immediately became agitated over the proposal ofa regional agency controlling an essential resource like water, and they saw a threat to the independence oftheir local jurisdictions. Guy focused on the report's conclusion that technicallythere WAS a way out of the dilemma, and hesaw himself as an inhabitant of a large river basin that could be drained dry-- unless these fellows could learn to work together.

Many people had recognized the collisioncourse of population growth and water needs, but no proposal had been developed and soldto the politicians and the people. Guy left that meeting convinced that if he couldorganize a group of engineers and develop a workable solution,the politicians would be forced to create the agreements and administrativearrangements to make it happen. Guy organized his engineers' group, the National CapitalArea Water Study Committee, and during 1972 they looked at allthe ideas that had been proposed over the last ten years. They met for lunch in Washingtonevery three weeks, hearing and questioning the authors of the variousreports who represented many points of view and advocating many differentsolutions. The engineers found that the best job of investigatingthe technical problem had been done by the League of Women Voters. They found no one very optimistic aboutthe possibility of getting all the competingjurisdictions to work together ona solution. In fact, a representative of the CitizensCouncil for a Clean Potomac, Liz Hartwell, told Guy: "This problem will be solvedas soon as it stops raining." There was no doubt thatsevere drought would force the political bodies to work outa solution, but crisis agreements are not always the best or most longlasting agreements. Certainly the next drought would stiffen the competition for the availablewater, which might complicate regional solutions that require sharing andgiving up some local control. In December 1972, Guy's group published "Washington'sWater Supply Crisis." It got attention in the newspapers, radio

H 63 499 and TV, and it enlarged and encouraged the group of people workingon the water supply issue. It made Guy a "player in the game." Guy discovered that almost every public body had a time set aside for citizen comment, andhe 0 scheduled himself and his friendsas speakers before every local government in the Washington area. He also wrote letters to the editorof the Washington Post each time water appeared in the news. Guy made use of his statusas a source of information on water to extend hisnetwork of influence beyond the engineers. He volunteered his time to citizengroups and local government officials. He was appointed chairman of theenvironmental resources committee of the local federation of civicassociations. By 1975, he was their vice president and in charge of organizingthe annqal seminar. You can probably guess that he chose the topic of drinking waterfor this big conference, and he organized a prestigious speakerslist to include top experts and officials. elected The media coverage of the event keptwater where Guy wanted it on the front pages. --

Meanwhile, more and more people were moving into Northern Virginiaand other localities around Washington, and the agencies supplyingwater were becoming concerned. The Fairfax Water Authority used water from the Occoquan Riverto supply Northern Virginia though they recognized that thissource was not adequate for the new population demands. The authority needed waterfrom the Potomac, but the river belongedto Maryland. On the Maryland side, the Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission (WSSC)was the water agency and it had its own problems with a population explosion comparable towhat was happening in Northern Virginia. The WSSC wanted to builda dam in the Potomac so it could take water outmore easily. Even though Maryland owned river was a navigable waterway the Potomac, the and any obstruction likea Virginia pumping station or a Maryland dam had to have approval of the U. S.Army Corps of Engineers. It just so happened that the Corps was also responsiblefor supplying water to Washington, D. C. The Corps feared that ifthe suburbs were allowed to take more waterout of the Potomac, there wouldn't for Washington. be enough

Even though the Potomac was a regional resource, the selfishneeds and conflicting claims of the three areas bordering it kept it from beingused to benefit all. Everyone agreed that something had to be done, but thestumbling block was the issue of whowould get how much of the periods of drought. Potomac's water during Working out a "lowflowagreement" among the competing jurisdictions was the majorhurdle.

In 1977, drought struck. Louis Guy's fears of notenough water began to become a reality as car washes were closed down and peoplewere told not to water their lawns. Water was back in the headlinesand even became an issue in the Virginia governor's race. Louis Guy was consultedon possible solutions. A Virginia Water Study Commissionwas appointed and Louis Guy made a member. was The Washington Council ofGovernments held a "water and Louis Guy was invited. summit"

Then the rains came, water restrictions were lifted,and the job of hammering out a lasting water solution seemed less urgent. This time, though, great numbers of people had been alerted and the effortswere not abandoned. A compromise had been arranged by the governors of Virginia andMaryland with the Secretary of the Army. They had agreed to givethe bulk of the low flow of the Potomac to Washington, D. C. in order to gainaccess to more of the

H 64 5 ,:1) Potomac's water during rainy months. This was a particularly bitter pill for the suburbs because they had to finance all of the water supplyimprovements while facing the possibility of not having enoughwater in times of need. With Louis Guy supplying facts and figures, local officialsdenounced the plan and called for a mare equitable solution.

Fortunately, science came to the rescue of politics. The Corps of Engineers published a major study of the area's water resources whichcontained new technical data. The head of the WSSC, a speaker at Guy's water seminar in 1975, sent out a letter proposing that the local jurisdictionsget together and use the data to find a permanent water supplysolution. The Chairman of the Northern Virginia Water Study Commission,a politician with whom Guy had worked, pressed the idea on the metro area's water advisoryboard. In January 1980, a task force was created by the local jurisdictionsand charged with drafting a regional water management proposal. Louis Guy was appointed to this task force, as were many others from thenetwork he had organized years earlier.

Even though there was a commitment among the taskforce members to fi:id a solution, progress was slow. Computer technology contributed the next breakthrough when a program was developed thatcould precict water needs and identify access points so thatvery little water would be wasted. A second echelon of issues such as the details ofsewage disposal and water treatment kept creeping into the committee's deliberations. Guy worked hard to keep the focus purely on water management and to developtrust among the participants. For eighteen months, he drove into D.C. to pickup their representative and take him to task force meetings. Over the months, a bond of confidencegrew and it eventually paid off when the Washington,O. C. representative made the task force's final report a unanimousrecommendation.

In March of 1982 -- over a 'icade after Guy's first work on the water issue-- eight separate agreements w,re signedamong local jurisdictions, and a regional water management plancame into being. The localities had finally come to view themselves as parts of a regional whole.They agreed to share the costs of building and maintaining thedams which would assure an adequate water supply and to share water in timesof shortage. According to Louis Guy, this solution should take care of the Washington area for the next fiftyyears.

H 65

51-1. SOME QUESTIONS ABOUT CITIZEN EFFECTIVENESS AND INTERGOVERNMENTALCOOPERATION

Virginia is fortunate to have adequate rainfalland groundwater in most parts of the state in most year:. Our challenge is to store and clean sufficient water to meet our needs, even in periods of lowwateror drought. Dams and reservoirs that store water require landand big money to construct. How should they be financed?

Water treatment plants also cost bigmoney to construct and to operate. How should they be financed?

Who benefits from these projects? How?

What are the social, economic, and politicalconsequences of NOT building them?

Water supply is one of several componentsof our environment that do not always respond to the actions ofone political jurisdiction. A city or county -- or even a state -- cannot always control its own supply. Look at a Virginia river basin map. Can you identify other areas of Virginiawhere use and control of water resources mightpresent problems between jurisdictions?

What kinds of problems would be likelyto occur in times of low water?

high water?

pollution such as oil spills? Other?

Local officials are elected to make decisionsthat will protect or improve the lives and fortunes of their constituents. They also must make some decisions that raise taxes and interfere withan individual's property rights. List some unpopular shortterm or longterm decisionsmade by local officials?

Name four area problems that requirecooperation between jurisdictions.

Do the jurisdictions in thisarea cooperate on mutual problems? Annexation threats interfere withcooperation between some neighboring jurisdictions in Virginia. Is this a problem here?

Many local governments prefer citizens to speak up BEFORE problems becometoo big or emotionally charged. Are citizens encouraged to speakup at meetings of public bodies in this area? Do citizens speak up at meetings of governing bodies? Is there a specified time for citizencomment?

Many local governments help neighborhoodsto organize or appoint advisory committees to work on local problems and present possible solutionsto the governing body. Is this technique used in thisarea? On what problems? Can you think of local problems thatwould benefit from this type of effort?

Are there citizens in thisarea who have used interest, concern, and expertise to help solve a community problem? Briefly describe the individuals and what they did, or what theyare doing now.

H 66 5 2 CASE STUDY #3 TIDEWATER SALTWATER SAVE WATER WHAT WATER?

(History source: "Anatomy of a Water Problem: Virginia Beach's Experience Suggests Time for a Change" by William R. Walkerand Phyllis Bridgeman, Virginia Water Resources Research Center SpecialReport No. 18, August 1985.)

Joe bounced his ball up the walk to the foorand palmed it as he came through the door, softly mimicking his mothersaying, "Not in the house, Joe." He headed for the kitchen, flippedon the 'radio, and went to wash his grimy hands before attacking therefrigerator. When he turned on the faucet, no water came o ! He scratched his head and tried to remember if he had seen any digging in the streetson his way home. The tune on the radio ended, and his consciousnesswas pierced by the announcer:

"To repeat an earlier announcement: The city government has issueda water emergency ruling. All residents must limit wateruse to 10 gallons for each household or dwelling unit eachday until new instructions are issued or the emergency order is lifted. Watch and listen lot detailson the evening news."

Could something like this happenin a high population area,-- like Virginia Beach?

Let's start in 1923, when the little town of Virginia Beach realized itneeded to buy water from the city of Norfolkto augment the wells thatwere serving its homes and businesses. They entered into an agreement (stillin force today) that Norfolk would providethem with water in return fora pro rata share of the cost of operation,maintenance, and capital improvements. However, Norfolk's own use and the water for the military establishmentsin the area would come first-- and Virginia Beach would have rights only to Norfolk's surulus water. Virginia Beach also agreed not toput any water other than Norfolk water intothose water lines.

In 1940, the town of Virginia Beach had a population of 22,584. (Joe's granddad might have dug a well into plentiful and clean groundwaterfor his home and a small business out inPrincess Anne County.)

Then the population began tosoar. In 1963, after repeated annexation battles, the town of Virginia Beach merged with Princess Anne Countyto become the city of Virginia Beach. To manage their growth and attracttaxable business, they contracted (in 1973)to purchase the pipes and other assetsof the Norfolk water system within their borders, though title will notpass to them until 1993. By this time, it was obvious that Norfolkmight not be able to supply enough water to support the burgeoning population, particularlyin periods of low rainfall. The General Assembly enacted theGroundwater Act of 1973 to gain some controlover the multitude of welldrillers in specially designated groundwater managementareas in Tidewater. Unfortunately, they excluded so many users from the permit requirement that the state stillhas no control over great quantities ofthe water in Tidewater.

The U. S. Army Corps of Engineers began in 1976 to developa longrange water supply plan for southeastern Virginia. They evaluated 36 differentsources, 24 of which were soon eliminated for such reasons as low supplypotentials, public health concerns,or technical problems. In 1975, a consulting firm

H 675 recommended a pipeline from Lake Gaston to Tidewater,setting off a campaign of opposition by Southside Virginia andNorth Carolina.

The summer of 1977 was a dryone, and Norfolk and Virginia Beach adopted water conservation measures that enabled them toget through the drought.

The diJught of 1980-81 wasmore severe, and it forced them to recognize that 851. of Norfolk's raw water is supplied byrainfall and runoff, and is therefore very vulnerable to fluctuations in theweather. The principle water supply for such a tremendous number of peoplecannot be left to the vagaries of rainclouds.

To assure water for their customers, Norfolkdrilled wells on property it owned in the city of Suffolk and thecounties of South Hampton and Isle of Wight. The local governments in theseareas promptly took to the courts to own and control the waters in their geographic jurisdictionand to receive payment for the water withdrawn. Three law suits were brought againstNorfolk -- but Virginia Beach was the real target since, under theterms of their contract, they would have only about501. of their allocation of water forthe summer. Virginia Beach was forced to settle outof court, to hand over to the other local governments the management of the five wells they had drilled. In order to claim the water, VirginiaBeach would have to declarea water shortage emergency and enforce emergency measures. The contract', expire in 1986 for three of the yells and in1991 for the other two.

In the pattern of standard economic problems, water use questionsturn on supply and demand.

The SUPPLY is limited by the weatherand by what we do to the environment. Virginia's precipitation is notdependaole. We destroy our groundwater by pollution. We pave over and buildon ground that must permit seepage to rechargethe aquifer.

The DEMAND is ratcheted upward witheach increase in population. Conservation becomes essential when supply or distribution systemscannot keep up with the demand. That is the case in our rapidlydeveloping areas. Tidewater growth has occurred regardless of its water supplyproblem. Tidewater has been forced to impose water restrictions many times. In years of low precipitation, it is unlikely that the area will be ableto support projected population with thecurrently available fresh water-- even with conservation regulations.

In 1985, Virginia Beach populationwas 324,000, using 25 mgd (million gallons per day) of water. It is expected to climb to 473,000using 50 mgd of water per day by theyear 2030.

Two possible answers have beenproposed:

1 - AN 85-MILE PIPELINE TO BRING WATER FROM LAKE CASTON It would be a 60 inch pipe cutting across 5 counties. This solution was accepted by theU. S. Army Corps of Engineers, thoughit was challenged in court by Virginians and was caught in the crossfi *e of when formergovernor Hunt challenged Jessie Helms for the U.S. Serote. Virginia Beach has filed countersuits to prevent corporationsfrom interfering with the pipeline.

H 68 uc- -,.r Millions of dollars have been spent in legal fees, andthe legal and practical political still have not been set 1 1111

1.' g;

cc ).**5° ./ 1- till all'Arsrei ill/f q:

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2 NEW LOWPRESSURE REVERSE OSMOS_:S(RO) The process removes r;lt and other dissolved solids from water by forcing itthrough a screening membrane. Reverse osmosis originally was rejected because theelectricity to operate the pressurepumps was very costly.Water tends to flow from low salt concentrations to high saltconcentrations: the pumps must reverse this flow and force the water through themembrane.

In May of 1985, a new membranewas introduced by Dupont that promises to separate the salt from the water under lowerpressure, reducing the pumping cost; however, itremoves only about 101. of the salt. Several units would have to be used in tandemto produce drinkable water, and this would increase the cost of installing andoperating the system. The question still remains about thedisposal of vast quantities of the salty concentrate that would remain behind thescreening membranes.

Watch the news for further informationon RO and any other ways that might be economically feasible to obtaindrinking water from the abundant saltwater in Tidewater. EPA has now requested the U. S. ArmyCorps of Engineers to consider RO for Gloucesteras well as for Virginia Beach.

As the Hater News points out, 15years

have already elapsed since the first S 1 I Tidewater water supply studies. The 119 1 iv4Emur same kinds of problems are beginning L to surface in Henrico Countyas the AI111:11 state begins to considera Corps pro posal to divert water from the James N °Vita N River to serve Newport News. Virginia has in tue past moved water fromareas 1111 6.114 lit of plenty to areas of need, butthese OSMOSIS RESERvOL S transfers now seem destined to trigger I lengthy and expensive legal battles. 1 There must be a more economical and 'Si rational way for Virginians to share natural resources! Several suggestions have been presented to the legislature and to the public in hearings before 0 various water study committees and 4f*- commissions, over a period of several Orr. Sul years. What has happened to them?

H 69

5:15 ANALYSIS & CUPARISON OF WATER PROBLEMS Name IN SELECTED AREAS OF VIRGINIA

1 - Read the case studies on Northern Virginiaand Tidewater.

2 - List in your notebook the factors thatare alike or similar in the two descriptions. List the factors that are NOT alikeor similar.

3 - What technical and engineering problems complicatethe Tidewater situation?

4 - Reverse osmosis (RO) has been mentionedas an alternative that might be practical For Tidewater. Can you find out in your library whetherthe 1985-86 variation of this process has beenproven cost-effective?

5 - Write about one page describing theeconomic and political problems presented by the proposal for the Lake Gastonpipeline? OR Imagine you are running'for office inTidewater. Answer the following question in 150 words or less: The city of Virginia Beach has spent more than $600,000 in legal fees since 1982over the Lake Gaston pipeline, and it still is not out of court, muchless built or bringing us water. How do you propose to solveour water supply problem? OR Imagine you are running for office inSouthside. Answer the following question in 150 words or less: What is your position on the LakeGaston pipeline?

6 Southside has Lake Gaston, but it hasnot yet shared in the pattern of industrial growth. From your reading and knowledge of Virginia,can you identify other important factors?

7 - What does the Virginia Constitutionsay about the powers of the Commonwealth and its officials to deal withproblems of the environment? health and safety of citizens? economic development? disputes between jurisdictions? Can you identify any other Constitutionalissues?

8 - You are the Governor of Virginia.The winter was unusually dry, the spring rains were spotty, and weatherexperts predict a continued dry period in the next several months. Would you feel responsible to take any action? Why? Why not? Suppose the predictions of droughtwere for the next couple ofyears. Describe the alternativesyou would consider, who might oppose each alternative, and any political stepsyou might take to gain their cooperation.

9 - You are a member of a General Assembly subcommittee hearing reportson the various studies of Virginia'swaters. You feel that the state should set up a management system toassure local and regional cooperation and appropriate water supplies for allpeople, uses, and areas.

How would you answer the people whofear a mammoth bureaucracy would take away their control of their land and water?Does Virginia tend to have big bureaucracies? Were any safeguards built into theState Water Control Board proposals toassure local input?

How would you answer the people fromwater-rich areas who say thatany statewide management system wouldmean sharing their water, the basis of their land values, and their futureattraction to industry and jobs?

H 70 5 'j, 6 TEACHER INFORMATION

WATER EMERGENCY !!

GOAL: to demonstrate the number and complexity of problems, both economicand political, that must be dealt with in order to determine and implementa reasonable program for management of Virginia's waters.

NOTE # 1 TIMING This exercise may be done as an introductory activity to stimulate research and study of the roles and responsibilities ofstate, local, and selected national government officials.

OR....It could be scheduled in response toa real water emergency, in which case you will want to change the information in thismodel.

OR....The information in this section could be usedas the/a principle topic in the Model General Assembly (See'Section Eof the notebook, Resources for Teaching Virginia Government).

OR....It could be a culminating activity in the Virginiagovernment unit, to show the interrelationship and particularroles of officials. (Less time would be needed for research, though theassignments should be given out appropriately in advance.)

OR....It could be a review activity in the springto show the interrelationship of officials at the state leveland their interaction with local and federal officials.

NOTE # 2 This exercise may be done bya single class or several classes. If if is done simultaneously inmany social studies classes, you might want to structure ways to share information between classes,and.plan a schoolwide "conference" with mixed problemsolving buzzgroups and collection of "solutions" for forwarding to the appropriateVirginia officials.

NOTE # 3 Students might be told that they will be "usingtheir reports in class" or they may be told in advance thatthey will be acting as the officials in the onetothree day simulatedcrisis.

NOTE # 4 If your area is affected by a wateremergency, or if there is one in the news, alter the information providedto dramatize the current problem.

SUGGESTED TIMETABLE:

At least 4 weeks before EMERGENCY day:Teacher(s) should read over all information, directions and handouts, changeand fit the data and plan to the classes. Decide on the format and timing.

At least 3 weeks before EMERGENCY day: Assign students to research and study the positions of each of the indicatedofficials. Note: this time might be shortened to 2 weeks if the activity is scheduledlater in the year when students are familiar with the responsibilitiesand roles of the officials.

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5 n WATER EMERGENCY DAY

In some way-- announce in advance, unexpectedly on the board, over the P.A. system, or by a runner appearing in theclassroom -- the activity is set in motion. Example # 1 (a proclamation)- A STATE OF WATER EMERGENCY HASBEEN DECLARED FOR VIRGINIA. All home consumption will be reducedto 10 gallons of water perperson per day with fines and possible jailsentences for water wasters orusers of quantities in excess of 10 gallonsper person per day. All municipal water customers are asked to read theirwater meters today and record the numbers on a card that will be pickedup in the next couple of days by city and county employees. Emergency committees of officials willmeet at to determine additional steps thatmust be taken.

Example # 2- Copies of a news releaseare distributed to the class, describing the emergency and announcing the meetings of "officials"during the class. The release will indicatewhether the emergency is local (some interruption in service such as broken main, drained reservoir,or 1), regional (perhaps a river basin),or statewide. It might also be caused bY_Dollution of a major water source. in which case citizens would haveto use water from a truck which willappear at certain hours in their neighborhoods.

UPON ANNOUNCEMENT OF THE EMERGENCY, the class splits intogroups by level and function of government. Each group makes a hasty signindicating its identity: City Government, General Assembly, Governor's Office,Water Officials and meets to "handle" their share of the crisis. They obviously cannot operate unilaterally, so meetings would have to he set withother elements of government. The member of congress couldbe asked if the federal government will declare a state of emergency and make availableemergency grants and loans to assist public institutions, home, agricultural,and industrial users. Can the armed forces,reserves or the state branch of the National Guard provide the trucks to distribute water inareas that have no potable supply? Who would decide? Are there state emergency funds? How would they be sought and used?Are there localemergency funds? PROBLEMS ADDRESSED BY THE GROUPS SHOULD COVER THE PRESENTEDEMERGENCY AND SUGGEST COURSES OF ACTION TOPREVENT RECURRENCE.

MORE IDEAS: If you are using a limited-areacrisis in only one classroom, consider focusing as well on what students can do toconserve water as part of the local emergency. The runner might appear witha note addressed to a class officer or SCA officer in the room -- saying that there isa local water emergency and he/she has one hour to gatherideas from classmates before accompanying the principal to a meeting in city/county offices. "From what you know about our water resources, our local and state government,and the people, businesses and institutions in this area, what recommendationshave you that I can take to the meeting?" The class could then brainstormin one group or small groups about thepowers of each level of government, neighborhood and community organization, and the role ofyoung people. The student leader then could consolidate the suggestionson the board. A follow-up assignment could haveeach student contact theoffice of his/her assigned official to checkon the constitutional and administrative capabilities of each to prevent theoccurrance of predictable emergencies.

H 72 Water Emergency (cont'd) know where to find information in the Constitution. SPECIFIC QUESTIONS FOR THE STUDENT ASSIGNMENTS ARE SUGGESTED BELOW AND ON THE FOLLOWING PAGES. 1110 At least 2 weeks before EMERGENCY DAY, written student reports should be collected and graded. Be sure that students know the responsibilities, powers and checks on the official they will represent.

At least 1 week before EMERGENCY DAY, graded reports should be returned to the students for correction.

ASSIGNMENTS: (at least one student to each, depending on your planned format) The Governor of Virginia The Lieutenant Governor of Virginia The Attorney General of Virginia The Speaker of the House of Delegates The Majority and Minority Leaders in both House of Delegates and Senate Delegates & Senators from Tidewater, Southside, and other areas-- include areas that might be water exporters and those that will need water .Selected city and county officials Industrial and agricultural leaders Congressmen of major political parties Lobbyists representing citizen, neighborhood, and conservationgroups, as well as industries and groups that have been active inyour area on related issues. Others pertinent to your planned format.

FOR EACH OFFICIAL YOU WILL BE USING IN THIS ACTIVITY...Preparean instruction sheet that asks for information such as the following:

Role of in a WATER EMERGENCY !!

1 - Is there any wording in the U. S. or the Virginia Constitution (or in the charter of this city) indicating that this official hasany particular responsibility for assuring usable water for Virginians?

2 - Is there any wording in these documents that indicate that this official has any particular responsibility for preventingor assisting in emergencies? How might "emergency" be defined or understood? Would funds/personnel be available? How would they be mobilized?

3 - Can you find indications the.: this official or any of his predecessors has taken any particular responsibility for assuring usable water for Virginians OR for preventing or assisting in emergencies?

4 - Which other officials at which levels of governmentdoes this official work with on ordinary matters? emergency matters?

5 - Which other officials at which levels of government havesome "checks and balances" over this official?

6 - How would this official gather information onan emergency?

7 - If this official were responsible for action inan emergency situation, how might he/she gather public/organization/lobbyist support?

8 - In the event of a water emergency, would you like to BE this official? Why or why not?

H 73

t.,;1,1c7,r,c VIRGINIA WATER RESOURCES RESEARCH CENTER Established by federal law in 1965 and located at Virginia Tech, the Virginia Water Resources Research Center became a stateagency component of Tech in 1982. It seeks to assess the ecological, political, economic, institutional, legal, and social implications of water resources problems. The center has five functions: identifying/assessing water and landuse problems; conducting research; training young men and women for careers in water related fields; conducting workshops to promote conservation and groundwater protection; and providing information about waterresource problems and research in many different formats-- some of which are listed below.

The Center's latest publication Virginia's Watersincludes descriptions of each of the state's river basins, and would bea valuable addition to a class library on water-- and useful in the planning district studies of Section B of this notebook.

Water News is a monthly newsletter containingnews reports on local, state, regional, and national events and trends havingrepercussions for water resources, along with information about the Center projects and activities. Subscriptions are free to Virginia residents.

Speakers, slide shows, computergames, videocassette public service announcements, cartoon posters-- all are available for schools, civic, fraternal, social, and business organizations.

GROUNDWATER PROTECTION A Groundwater Primer far Virginians(1984) is an authoritative look atour subsurface resources, contamination, regulation,and what citizens can do to protect this vulnerable resource.

Facts About Virginia's Groundwater isa colorful foldout pamphlet with a large map and much basic information. Free/maximum order 25.

A Homeowner's Guide to SepticSystems contains useful information to help citizens locate and properly maintain residentialsewage systems.

A Homeowner's Guide to Domestic Wellscovers regulations governing the location and construction of wells in Virginia,ways to disinfect and condition well water, how to maintaina well and have the water tested. It also lists precautions for a buyer ofa home served by a private well.

WATER CONSERVATION Be Water Wise is a 48page activity bookletfor grades 6-12. Sections on water conservation, water in the environment,and water and wastewater treatment. An Instructor's Guide is also available.

Illustrated brochures alsoare available for the asking OR duplicate yourown copies from materials in this notebook.

Many of these publicationsare in your school library, and limited copies of them may be available for classroomuse at little or no cost. If you do not have them available to you, contact Virginia Water Resources Research Center VPI & SU 617 North Main Street, Blacksburg, VA 24060-3397

H 75

510 The Virginia Water Project. Inc. Over 200,000 rural Virginians must rely on water from contaminated wells, streams and cisternsfor their drinking water, or use unsanitary waste disposal methods which createa danger to their health -- and perhaps to the health of others.

Since 1969, the Virginia Water Project has helpedmore than 20,000 low-income Virginia residents to obtain safe drinking waterand sanitary waste disposal facilities -- in more than 140 projects in 112communities. VWP is a private, nonprofit corporation that uses state and federal fundsto provide small seed grants and technical assistance to communities andindividuals who meet the income criteria of the U. S. Department of Health andHuman Services. VWP also has organized a network of community actionagencies and local organizations that assist rural areas with funds,materials and services to solve their water and wastewater problems. In most instances, the communities and families contribute a portion of the projectcosts and/or labor.

VWP gives grants for connection fees andhook-on costs, and has a small reserve fund to aid families with such emergenciesas frozen lines and broken pumps. It also helps rural communities fundpreliminary engineering studies, test wells, soil tests, and other requirementsfor state and federal programs, then helps them fill out the applicationsand organize the community to take advantage of the programs. For brochures and a videotape, "A HelpingHand," contact Virginia Water Project, P.O. Box2868, Roanoke, VA 24001-2868.

The Clean Water Action ProjectThis national non-profit organizationwas founded in 1971 to work for strong pollutioncontrols and safe drinking water. It is a membership group that buildscoalitions with other citizen groups and organizations throughout the countrywith a stake in clean water (including health, labor, farm, church, fishing,environmental, civic, senior citizen, neighborhood, professional andbusiness groups).

The Project was instrumental in draftingand lobbying for the 1972 Clean Water Act, and in coordinating the efforts ofdifferent groups and organizations to protect our wetlands, encourage recyclingefforts, and mandate better testing procedures to more accurately determinechemical toxicity and be more effective in their own locales and insuch national campaigns as one of their current efforts: and continuingpressure to increase the expenditures for clean-up of toxic dumps by improving andstrengthening Superfund legislation.

Clean Water Action Project is also workingto safeguard the Chesapeake Bay, James River and drinking watersources against toxic hazards and pollution from municipal sewage treatment plantsand industrial and agriculturalsources. The Project is a full-time effort, includinglobbying, research and assisting citizen action to solve pollution problems. They keep up with clean-up technology, with Congress, and with thepolluters' lobbies, leaving Other groups (Natural Resources Defense Council and EnvironmentalDefense Fund) to litigate and pressuring the EPA forbetter enforcement. Membership is $6 per year, or $18 per year for a "subscribing" membership,which includes a monthly publication Clean Water Action News. Office: Clean Water Action Project, 11 S. 12th Street, #216, Richmond,VA 23219.

H 76 5i 1

OTHER NON-GOVERNMENT GROUPS

The Virginia Environmental Endowment isa non-profit, independent corporation organized for the purpose of improving the quality of the environment in Virginia. It provides grants and loans for selected projects that are not funded by government agencies, specially those related to water quality and the effects of water pollution on human health and environment in Virginia and in the Ohio River and Kanawha River Valleys. The Endowment came about as a result of a 1977 court order. When Judge Robert R. Merhige, Jr. fined Allied Chemical Corporation $13.2 million for polluting the James River withKepone, he offered to reduce the amount if they would developa way for the money to benefit the people of Virginia. Allied proposed that it contribute $8 million to start an environmental fund for Virginia, and Judge Merhigeagreed. In 1981, the Endowment benefitted from another unusual settlement,when it received $1 million from the FMC Corporationas a result of a guilty plea agreement in a federal felony prosecution. The Endowment is particularly interested in projects that actively involve citizens.,government and business.

The Piedmont Environmental Council and similar volunteergroups around the state have been very active and effective lobbyistson local and statewide issues that they feel threaten the quality of Virginia'swaters (i.e., local pollution c.nd treatment plants, the coal slurry pipelineand uranium mining).

The Sierra Club was founded by JohnMuir in 1892 because he wanted others to share his love of the earth and all of nature. He knew if people learned how to explore, enjoy and value the wildlandsthat are their heritage, they would also work together to preserve this legacy.The Sierra Club is the nation's largest and strongest group dedicated toconserving wilderness-- but it has enlarged its goal to protecting the environmentall around us, including air, water, natural resources of all kinds, scenicrivers, wildlife refuges, scenic shorelines, and green space aroundour cities. It is a strong and effective lobby to protect the environment for futuregenerations. Sierra Club is a membership organization with 53 chapters,a national magazine Sierra, and local newsletters, plus a list of publications availableat reasonable prices from their office at 530 Bush Street, San Francisco,California 94108.

The Education Department of The AmericanWater Works Association, the national association of the water supply equipment industry,has produced materials for elementary schools, some of which would be usefulin 12th grade government discussions on water supply and treatment. (Complete bibliography on Virginia water available on request.) An inexpensive booklet of cartoon format explains the supply and use of water allover the world, and ends with a page on conservation and student project suggestions. Copies of "The Story of Water Supply" are available from The AmericanWater Works Association, 6666 West Quincey Avenue, Denver, Colorado 80235.

The Environmental Defense Fund isa nationwide legal action organization of scientists, lawyers and economists workingto protect the public interest in environmental quality, energy consumption, publichealth and consumer welfare. It was organized to oppose the efforts ofbudget-cutters and others who wanted the federal government out of the business ofprotecting the environment.

H 77

512 A GLOSSARY OF WATERTERMS

Definitions taken from publications by the Leagueof Women Voters, Virginia Water Resources Research Center, AmericanWater Works Association, Sierra Club, and others listed in thesepages

Advanced treatment- processes used in addition to secondary treatment, to improve water quality Aeration - process of bubbling air througha liquid to increase oxygen levels Aquifer - layers of soil or rocks bearinggroundwater, which may be tapped by wells or which may drain as springs Best Management Practices (BMPs)- guidelines and less-polluting ways to manage farms and other businesses Cone of depression- an area from which the groundwater has been pumped, and which may have sinkholes, saltwater intrusionor other problems Depletion - surface or ground water withdrawnfaster than it can be replaced Discharge - material emitted fromone source - polluter or treatment facility Disinfectant - a substance or action usedto purify something by removing or inactivating infectious elements suchas disease germs. Chlorine is the most common disinfectant. Ozone and ultraviolet radiation treatmentare now considered by many experts to be safer for fishand human life. Drainage basin- the land area from which water drains into a particular river Orawdown - removal of water froma well, reservoir or other source Effluent - substance that flows out of a sewer, holding tank, industrialor agricultural source, may be treatedtdr not Eminent domain- right of a government to acquire private property for public use, even from an unwilling owner,upon payment of compensation to the owner; occasionally conferred upon private entitiesvested with a public interest, such as utilities Estuary - area of mixed fresh and:alt water, such as wherean inland water source meets an open salt water body suchas an ocean Eutrophication- condition when a body of water becomes overly rich in mineral and organic nutrients, producing excessive plant life (algae)which uses up oxygen and creates an environmenthostile to higher forms of marine life (fish, shellfish andseagrasses) Floodway - river bed and immediately adjacent lands needed tocarry high speed flood waters GPO - gallons per day, a standardmeasure of a liquid such as water Greywater - wastewater from kitchen,laundry, bath...some may be reused for selected purposes such as wateringplants Groundwater - water in porous rocks andsoils of the earth's crust;a large proportion of the total supply of freshwater Headwater - place where river originates Hydrological cycle- the movement of water from the atmosphere to earth and its return to the atmosphere throughcondensation, precipitation, evaporation and transpiration (lossof water to atmosphere through plants) Industrial user - any industry that introduces pollutants into publicsewer systems and whose wastesare treated in a publicly owned facility Injection well - well receiving wastes through injection (under pressure) Inter-basin transfer- physical transfer of water from one watershed to another; one river basin to another Kepone - a toxic pesticide thatwas spilled into the James River, resulting in a ban on fishing in 1975. After millions of dollars of clean-up,the residue is still a problem, particularlyin low-water periods. Lagoon - surface impoundment forstorage or disposal of industrialor sewage waste

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5 3 Land disposal method- advanced waste treatment that uses soil, air, plants and bacteria to remove pollutants fromwaste water. Four basic processes: pre-treatment to screen out large solids; chlorinationand vegetation in soil; spraying over cropland where vegetationand micro-organisms in the soil remove additional pollutants; andreclamation by wells or drain tiles. Leaching- water carries soluble matter to a new location- example: minerals washed out of soil Nonpoint source- any non-confined area from which pollutants are discharged into a body of water (i.e.,agricultural run-off, urban run-off, sediment from construction sites) Percolating - oozing or seeping throughpermeable material such as soil Point source - an identifiablesource such as a pipe, ditch, channel, tunnel, Porosity - a measure of the amount ofopen space in a material, particularly the water storage capacity ofa substance Precipitation- water received on earth directly from clouds as rain, hail, sleet or snow Recharge - replenishment ofan aquifer after water has been removed Primary treatment - first stage in waste water treatment: floatingor settleable solids are removed by screeningand sedimentation Recharge area - the land surface through which water seeps into the groundto recharge a particular aquifer Reservoir - a pond, lake, aquifer, basin, either natural or artificial,in which water is stored, regulatedor controlled Reverse osmosis - an advanced method of waste treatment that relieson a semi-permiable membrane to separate watersfrom pollutants. Recent variations in the pressure used and the membrane have resulted inmore optimism about the economics of thisprocess for desalination. Riparian Doctrine- landowners have a right to reasonable use of streams flowing through their land; use not to diminish either the qualityor quantity of water flowing downstream Runoff - that part of precipitation, not absorbed. by the ground, thatincreases the flow of surface streams Salt water intrusion- occurs when a fresh water aquifer is overpumped; salt water, heavier than fresh water,enters a fresh water aquifer Saturated zone - the area underground in which all availablespaces are filled with water Secondary treatment - second stage in waste water treatment: bacteriaconsume the organic parts of the wastes. Trickling filters or activated sludge process introduces the bacteria to thesewage. Superfund - Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation andLiability Act. A function of the EnvironmentalProtection Agency to identify and clean up toxic waste sites Surface water- water that is above ground Tertiary treatment- series of processes to remove almost all pollutants Toxic - substances which upon exposure, ingestion, inhalationor assimilation into any organism, maycause death, disease, cancer, genetic mutations, physiological deformations insuch organisms and their offspring Transpiration - process in which plant tissues give off watervapor to the atmosphere Trickling filter - a bed of rocks that supports bacterial growth usedto treat waste water- a secondary treatment process Water table - the level below which the ground is saturated withwater

H 80 FEEDBACK PLEASE SEND YOUR REACTIONS ONTHESE RESOURCES YOUR IDEAS FOR FUTUREMATERIALS YOUR REQUESTS FOR MOREINFORMATION

REACTIONS:

Do you feel more confident andbetter informed about state and local government,now that you NO SOME YESA LOT have this notebook available foryour use?

Do you think these materialsare versatile and easy to use?

Will hsaving these resources availablefor your use help you to give a fairer share of timeto state and local government in Virginia?

Will the charts and maps and activitiesin this notebook help you include more data-handling skills in your course?

Do you think the use of these materialsmight help you increase student interest and participation in your course?

Comments:

WHAT WOULD YOU LIKE TO SUGGEST FORFUTURE MATERIALS....YOUR IDEAS, PLEASE!

IS THERE MORE INFORMATION YOU WOULD FIND USEFUL ON ANY PARTICULAR VIRGINIA STATE OR LOCAL GOVERNMENT TOPIC? (Reminder: During the next 18 months, three more resource units will be added to this notebook- State & Local Taxes in Virginia, Studying Your Own Local Government, and a Case Study on Water Resources in Virginia.)

Send to: Teacher Resources Institute of Government Minor Hall University of Virginia Charlottesville, VA 22903