Identity Unearthed
Alexis Johnson *
B.A. Candidate, Department of Anthropology, California State University Stanislaus, 1 University Circle, Turlock, CA 95382
Received 18 April, 2018; accepted 15 May 2018
Abstract
Archaeologists are tasked with understanding the past through its material remains. This includes reconstructing the identities and life histories of the site’s occupants as, individual people and a collective group. This article addresses how archaeologists and anthropologists use cultural artifacts, burial locations, and identifying features on human remains to examine and assign identities. Three case studies help to elucidate the formation of individual and collective identities in the traditional archaeological sense. National identity will be explored with a modern case of Romania utilizing place myths and pseudoscientific data to push for a national identity. A case of a Viking burial in Iceland will illustrate how grave locations and context allows archeologist derive local identity. While the famous case of King Richard III allows for the explanation of individualization as obtained in an anthropological aspect. This paper is meant to highlight the complexity of identity studies and the need for archaeologists to be more involved in in the application and representation of their findings.
Keywords: Dracula, national identity, Romamia, Vlad Tepes, place myth
Introduction special rituals that take place, while a national identity is credited to all polities that are controlled by a single Anthropology is the study of human beings both ruling person or group. Lastly, an individual’s identity past and present to understand the evolution of our can be marked by their profession, ideology, daily existence through spatial orientation, culture, language, activities, the sort of health they are in, and a multitude and origin. Anthropologists require the use of of factors that differs from person to person. archaeology and cultural research to expand our A national identity is an image that is attributed to knowledge of groups of different customs and heritages. every inhabitant by people living outside of that group Archaeologists look at the spatial orientations of despite the regional variances. This outside perception buildings to understand group formations. Researchers could be facilitated by the national leaders through have found that the level of leadership established at any policies and international relations. A consequence of location has often been correlated in the orientation of an expansive identity is the lack of diversity and the groups’ buildings. Nomadic hunter and gatherers authenticity. Local identity tends to be related to goods tended to have housing that was not permanent, often and services that produce significant economic gains. consisting of a few post-and-thatch conical style houses. For instance, California is known for Silicon Valley, While we see those of more industrialized settlements, wine, nuts, and Hollywood yet none of these consisting of states and chiefdoms, with clear leadership, classifications grasp the full extent of individual identity. have permanent dwellings with patios, multiple terraces, In non-literate past cultures, individuality can be individual rooms, specialized rooms for different tasks, explored archaeologically with physical remains usually sometimes burial locations, and the tale tell sign of involving their grave goods and through determining system of leadership are the presence of monuments. how healthy the person was during life. Harris lines are Spatial building layouts can give a general idea of marks of growth arrest striated on bones, where the bone how many people could have been living there and what stops growing for a period of time, indicating activities were taking place. Local identity is based on malnutrition or extreme sickness stunting growth, what is attributed to the general area, such an example similar lines can be examined on teeth. What a person is would be pottery styles that reflect the areas which they buried with can discern religious affiliation, status, are from. An area could be known for producing a reputation, and a slew of other features. certain shaped bowl, a specific pigment of paint, or This is how archaeologists and biological quality of clay. A local identity can be linked to a anthropologists arrive at the different classifications of changing of ideology over time with origin myths and identity in past societies. To further expand on this point
* Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
I will focus on three case studies, each of which tackles place where Egil was buried before being removed and a different area of identity. For an idea of local identity buried at a new church built at Mosfell. In trying to find the “Axed Man of Iceland” will be examined, while for evidence of this reburial, the researchers turned to an individual assessment the notorious King Richard III another oral tradition, which suggested that a small will be an excellent assemblage of biological knoll behind a horse barn in the region was known as anthropology, lastly a relatively new concept of national “Church Knoll”. This is a shocking find because there identity and the culmination of modern nation building wasn’t evidence of any architecture detected below the will explore the myths, legends, and distortion of “Vlad surface when using modern technology such as a Tepes Draculea.” All are intended to address the magnetometer to look below the ground surface. The complications of identity and how its study can tend to researchers found the structure only after hearing the get away from anthropologists and used not for the oral tradition by chance and following through with the benefit of history or accuracy but rather for monetary search. After digging, the site was found to have and prestigious gains. Archaeologists should have more evidence of domestic activities, graves, and building control of their intellectual discoveries and how these structures proven to be the remnants of the Hrisbru are portrayed to the world; all anthropologists and church. Investigators found the remains of the Axed historians should work together to insure that groups Man and, as the following discussion details, through a and historic figures are depected accurately and not rigorous process of identification, the archaeologists exploited. Thus, this paper is addressing and outlining were able to make attributions of race, religion, sex, and both the difference and the problems faced when migration patterns to the interred individual to better attributing identity. understand such relationships in the area. Sagas were used to aid in the discovery of a Local identity homicide victim in Iceland dating back the age of Vikings, 800-1066 AD. The main feat was determining To obtain local identity anthropologists use where this person came from in order to attribute an multiple clues left behind in the soil from earlier identity and understand what lives were like at this civilizations to try and gain a deeper understanding. location. This can be done with the examination of the Major clues include: grave location, buried artifacts and grave layout and any grave goods. To begin our goods, as well as skeletal remains. Each of these are assessment we should identify if the victim is in fact a vital in accessing identity and all will be examined in Viking or some other descendant. In Iceland, the case of the “Axed Man” of Iceland, named for the Christianity was not adopted into law until 1000 A.D. means of his death, an axe blow to the head. However, Previous to this time, Iceland’s Vikings practiced before there are any remains to unearth there is first a paganism. The first settlers would have been practicing story—oral traditions, sagas, or supposed “eye witness paganism and slowly converting to Christianity as they statements” that archaeologists follow as potential leads settled into Iceland. Thus, we need to know if he is one in investigating a site. In most cases they already have of the first Vikings coming in or a part of the second an idea that there is something within the vicinity generation born in the area. The archaeologists because archaeologists conduct their work in areas with eventually came to assign his religious affiliation as enough evidence to suggest that ancient civilizations Christian and, because of this, he was determined not to lived in the area, or where they know battles are be a part of the first wave of Vikings, but rather a documented as having taken place. Such is the case with member of the first generation to be born there after Viking occupied Iceland. By knowing the historical settlement. In this area, pagan graves are recognized by occupation there is likely a chance of finding remains of extensive grave goods, including sacrificed animals, these groups. buried with them and these were not present in the Axed To identify structures archaeologists look for traces Man’s grave. The only grave goods were a bit of organic on the landscape, including mounds or small hills that material, likely leather, and a Viking age pin used like a may contain a building covered up over the years with broach to keep their cloaks back while fighting. In soil and debris. In other cases the mission is to find a addition, the remains were orientated with the feet specific burial such as the case with Tutankhamen or facing to the east, towards Jerusalem, which is common K’inich Yax K’uk’ Mo’ or any great ruler. When there in Christian burials. Furthermore, he was buried near the may be an indication of a grave location in written church’s chancel, which is an indication that, not only records, that is combined with oral histories and stories was he Christian, he was also viewed as being an to guide excavation. important pious person of high rank within the church In the case of the Axed Man, investigators were hierarchy. Taking into consideration all this evidence, looking for Egil Skallagrimsson, but produced another the role stories play in tracking down archaeological puzzle that will help us explore identity. The saga used sites, as well as the ways that grave orientation can be by the team of investigators states Hrisbru church is the used to aid in identification, is a vital source of
information. Recognizing the different grave layouts in spinal column is an individualizing trait (Appleby, the two groups helps to understand the local identities 2015). present in the area, and to which group the Axed Man There is speculation about whether or not these belongs. (Stodder, 2012) remains actually belong to King Richard III simply because it is so hard to make that determination when Individual identity dealing with a famous figure. Mitochondrial DNA, mtDNA, is similar to regular nuclear DNA but with Looking at how physical remains can contribute to fewer base pairs, and instead of having one half of the the identification of a person, we can turn to the famous genes inherited from both parents, it is only passed case of King Richard III. Many people already have through the maternal line. MtDNA is often used in the some knowledge of this case and it is a textbook study of non-contemporary remains because of two key example of identification through skeletal material. In factors that make mitochondrial DNA more beneficial September of 2012 a skeleton thought to be that of than nuclear DNA. Most important when handling Richard III was discovered below a parking lot in at the ancient remains is that it doesn’t degrade as easy as Church of the Greyfriars in Leicester, UK. Although nuclear DNA, human remains degrade over time and it there are skeptics that do not fully support the positive is more likely that mtDNA will persist. There are also identification, the process can still serve to demonstrate thousands of copies of the mtDNA, making it more the effective uses of biological anthropology and its likely to survive giving geneticists plenty of product to challenges when dealing with historical figures. work with, while nuclear DNA only has two copies per Resembling the case of the Axed Man, a saga, was used cell. It can also be used to trace family lineage through in linking King Richard to the site of excavation at the the mother’s line, requiring only one half of the genetic choir in the church of the Grey Friars. This information makeup for a successful identification. This has caused was provided in accounts of John Rous, an associate of disputes in dealing with the case of Richard III, because King Richard’s, while the pathology was compared to any child of his female ancestors would have the same literary accounts, one of the most famous being mtDNA as him. So, there could be many individuals that Shakespeare’s representation of Richard III. share the same mtDNA including any children from The evidence used to link one body to another is sisters, aunts, and grandmother, which is the main similar in historical cases as well as in the case of complaint of Michael Hicks, head of history at the missing persons. The estimation of sex, age, rare bone University of Winchester (Mason, 2014). However, this disorders, and ante mortem fractures or surgeries, are all is the very reason we are able to link the supposed used to distinguish one person from another. In special remains of the King to known descendants of his sister cases DNA can be used, and in dealing with subjects of Anne of York. By analyzing stable isotopes researchers the past we can use isotope analysis to determine diet can gain insight into the diets of individuals, in this case and migratory patterns of an individual or group, or we 25 percent of the diet consisted of seafood historically could us radiocarbon dating which dates bones to a indicative of high status, while radiocarbon dating gives specific era. The body assumed to be King Richard III an estimated time of death; AD 1456-1530 was estimated to be between 30 and 34 years old (Buckley,2013). Even though radio carbon analysis can consistent with the age at death of 32 years of age date a set of remains, it is not specific to a year but rather reported for the king. This was determined by the a range of years, “It will give you an era, but nothing standard practice of comparing measurements of cranial more. In this case, it covers a period of 80 years - sutures, the face of the pubic symphysis, auricular Michael Hicks” (Mason, 2014). In spite of these surfaces, and sternal rib ends to those of individuals of arguments it is important to remember that individual known age, but with the more precise analysis of a CT identity is a compilation of many factors. If we had a set scanner. These all have attributes that change with age; of remains that only had scoliosis but was buried in the for example, fusion rates, in which one part of the bone wrong time or place then it would be significant or if we fuses with another to become more solid, are different had an individual of the right age and from the correct depending on the part of the body. The other means of era but did not match the many literary accounts then a determining age is the balance between the formation of positive match could not be made. In this case we have bone and then the subsequent wearing down of bone. multiple lines of evidence pointing to these remains This is usually evident, for example, in the pubic being from the King. Although it is hard to conceive that symphysis where the two halves of the pelvis are there is a body 30 years of age, dating to the middle ages, connected in the front of the body. The adult man had a with severe scoliosis and a raised shoulder, found at the gracile build with severe scoliosis to the thoracic spine reported area where King Richard III was said to have and a raised right shoulder, which is conveyed in many been placed, and yet not be the body of the King, these reports of the King, this abnormal formation of the are the issues that arise in historic cases.
National identity in Romania was found at the back of the back of the church near the portico, a covered porch (Florescu 1973, 127). An ill- “In a country where ethnic tensions between fitting hypothesis suggests that the grave of the prince Hungarians and Romanians simmer, where the natives was removed in an act of vandalism to remove a grumble about their old enemies, the Turks, buying up ‘monster’ from such a pious position to one where businesses in Bucharest and where national myths have visitors could trample his remains and erase any trace of a way of becoming political reality, allowing vampires him. Below the tomb plate was a degraded casket to eclipse the real Vlad Dracula is one step toward shrouded in a purple cloth embroidered with gold that making history a means to an end” (John, 1995). was also deteriorated. There is mostly post cranial remains but there is too much damage to determine if The previous two case studies highlight the use of there is a skull present or not. In addition to not knowing stories and to continue on this theme archaeologists also much about Vlad’s reburial there is nothing reported on used legends to help find the remains of Vlad Draculea, the bones and the examination process, unlike the Prince of Wallachia (one of Romania’s principalities). careful excavation and documentation of the remains of Archaeologists were lead to a possible grave at the King Richard III. The only grave goods reported was a historical location of Snagov, Romania. In this case ring. This hardly supports any identification, and all study we have an identity with no physical proof interpretations are dependent on the various reputations displayed unlike in the other case studies. The short of Vlad that an investigator chooses to highlight. They report presented by the researchers has only brief could use the reputation of his being a blood thirsty descriptions of the grave findings that are not up to monster and state that the grave was removed along with anthropological standards for positive identification, so any trace of him for this reason, or they could reason it contributes very little to our discussion of that the grave was moved along with any identifying identification of this iconic figure and the supposed markers on his tomb plat to prevent looting; after all, inspiration for Bram Stoker’s Dracula. This lack of why would they go to the trouble of reburying a information can be attributed to the lack of an monster? excavation report due to the “state socialist era (1947- Vlad Tepes (the Impaler) Draculea was known for 1989) In any case, access to socialist-era archives is his reported means of torture of impaling people on notoriously difficult for non-Romanian researchers” spikes surrounding his principalities. The method would (Light, 2007). The control of Socialism had the country be used for a slow gruesome death meant for prisoners isolated from the rest of the world and strict control over Vlad felt were not deserving of a quick death as the what knowledge is allowed to be accessed. It has proven wooden stake worked its way up the rectum and through a challenge to procure any form of the excavation report the intestines. His bloodlust has been famed in legends in order to prove the claims of a positive identity or offer and myths despite the fact that they were most likely other areas for interpretation. Mei Trow author of Vlad hyped by his enemies or his own men to deter attacks. the Impaler states “the written record is very sparse, the Nevertheless, Bram Stoker’s Dracula has been credited archaeology, by comparison with great civilizations of as being based on the “Vampire Prince.” Although it can the ancient world, is sparse as well; we don’t know what be argued that it is a simple loose attribution. Either way, actually is out there.” Another area of legends to be the popular story based in Transylvania has tourists explored relates to how Vlad claimed his notoriety, flocking to Romania in search of vampires. The problem known for impaling both his foes and law breakers in is the competing dichotomy of identity forced onto the his own kingdom, earning him the name; Vlad the people of Romania and how they see themselves. In his Impaler. While the claims of warring suggest there writing of Dracula and the way in which he describes should be hundreds of examples, there is no accessible Transylvania, Stoker created a “place myth” that is archaeological documentation of evidence carried on today in other books and movies. A place substantiating this method of execution on physical myth can be seen in other areas such as Stonehenge with remains found in the region. myths of aliens, the supernatural, and religious George Florescu and Dinu Rosetti, excavated the pilgrimages taking place there. Another place myth grave of Vlad Draculea in the 1930s at the site of comes from “Area 51” known throughout the United Snagov. Snagov is said to have been transformed from States for harboring aliens. The two examples given are a slightly fortified monastery into a monastic island meant to better explain the reach of place myths, the fortress completed by Vlad himself. The locally held only difference with Stone Hinge and Area 51 to belief places the tomb of the prince at the foot of the Transylvania is that the place myth extends to cover the altar, “so that the priest and the monks could read the entire region and has crossed over to represent the entire Gospel and say prayers for the permanent repose of his country of Romania and its people. The place myth for troubled soul” (Florescu 1973,125). Upon excavating, Transylvania promotes the idea that the country is a this grave was found to be empty and the burial reported horrific, supernatural, backwards place. A reputation
such as this creates a primitive image that persists enthusiast coming from the West. “Romania’s position because of the popularity of the legends. has been to deny any association between Vlad Ţepeş The image is at odds with how Romanians see and Count Dracula, a stance that underpinned the themselves and their former ruler. “The association with country’s response to the growing popularity of Dracula vampires and the supernatural is at odds with the tourism in the 70s (Light, 751).” Throughout the 1960’s country’s sense of its cultural and political identity as a there was an increase in western tourists coming to modern, developed European state” (Light, 2007). Romania seeking the legend depicted in the cinemas, Travelers coming to their country only to solidify their hunting for vampires and an ancient castle that did not expectations of the land of vampires is an insult to their exist. In fact there was never any concept of vampirism actual history and to a nation desperately trying to prove in Romania folk stories and even Stoker’s Dracula was they belong as a part of Europe. Romanian people often unknown until 1990, long after its creation. The most see Vlad Tepes Draculea as being a “national hero and popular tourist attraction known to most westerners is a sort of ‘founding father’ to the Romanian people” the infamous Dracula’s castle, the Castle Bran. Its (Nicol, 2002). popularity, however, is highly criticized as it was not A brief background sketch may be needed to even lived in by the prince, rather it was sought for explain the idealization Vlad has among his people. His refuge in the 1450’s. A much better candidate for Vlad’s hatred for the Ottomans and the Boyars began in his castle is Castle Poenari bordering Wallachia and childhood while he and his young brother, Radu were Transylvania. Castle Bran is more closely representative kept prisoners and raised by the Turks in exchange for of Bram Stoker’s novel than the royal residence. his father’s freedom and as an assurance that his father The stance the Romanian government has taken stay out of the Turks’ war. Later Radu would pledge his varies between protecting their national heritage and loyalty to their captors, the Turks, over his own brother giving in to the tourists’ expectations. For the most part, Vlad. Meanwhile the Boyars removed his father from its efforts have been to underplay or to fully disassociate his voivode, principle commander of a military force, by the historical figure of Vlad Tepes Draculea from executing him and his oldest son Mircea. These Boyars vampirism and protect cultural heritage by promoting would later become the infamous five hundred bodies their vast landscapes, rural traditions, and spas for reportedly impaled by the prince. Turkish rule was visitors instead of emphasizing the Dracula myth. In fact, expanding, spreading Islam into any conquered land at after socialism, Romania was desperately seeking to be a rate alarming to Christians in the surrounding areas. seen as a part of Europe, but being isolated for so long Vlad and his father had pledged their allegiance to a and without the wealth of most major European nations league guaranteed to protect Christianity known as the the countries organizers sought a quick way to gain Order of the Dragon. In fact, Vlad’s name, “Draculea,” notoriety and present itself to the world as a place to be later to be known as “Dracula,” derives from the word sought after. The state tried to expand on the Dracula for dragon, “Dracul”. Vlad reaches out to Hungary and tourism already established, capitalizing on the Western to the Pope for aid in his rebellion against the Turks but myth to create a Dracula theme park. The plans were no one would commit to fight by his side. For this, Vlad ultimately canceled not only because it was in pore taste is regarded as a protector of Romania from invaders and with Romanian people but also because it impinged the protector of Christianity. He is thus a hero in the eyes upon protected historic forest and other historic of Romanians, although the accounts of his violent acts settlements already included on the UNESCO World are seen as being just by his people and heinous by Heritage list. It threatened everything the country had modern readers, they are not out-of- the ordinary for the hoped to accomplish resulting in its being perceived as 15th century. not fully European. Despite the government’s direct objection to the The national center for tourism is responsible for reputation of the nation being a supernatural, vampire- advertising to the rest of the world what major sites their stalked place, there is money to be made in tourism. The country has to offer. Most travelers do not do in-depth forms of tourism a country chooses to promote and the research about their vacation destinations beyond what audience they target perpetuates the country’s sense of is advertised to tourists. Both in the great early cultural and political identity. “Through such decisions civilizations of the Maya and our case study of Romania the state adopts the role of the definer and arbiter of modern citizens are having their history dictated by cultural meanings” (Light, 2007). In distancing itself tourists’ expectations not necessarily on historical fact. from the Soviet Union it was imperative that Romania Tourists’ experience can drastically shape the lives of establish national independence. There is a shift in focus those who need tourism to survive. Households in San of advertisements to tourists, in the beginning the Antonia Aguas Calientes transform their home from a country emphasized beach resorts near the Black Sea, modern living area with amenities such as a T.V. to the ski resorts of the Carpathians, or the cultural heritage resemble what is thought to be an “authentic” Mayan of Transylvania to fit the expectations of the Dracula home, traditions untouched by time (Little 2000).
Another way to alter perceptions of tourists are through tourism for survival then they will be more likely to maps such as those used by tourists when exploring change their identity and actions to meet tourists’ Mayan sites and those used to guide you through the expectations. Seeing the growth and development of Yucatan which rank sites based on their touristic appeal identities can elucidate not only the environment but even if archaeologically they are less significant than also the social interactions and possible degradation. others that are dismissed by the guidebooks. “It is thus Archaeologists can see minute clues that will facilitate the guidebooks, not Maya archaeologists, which an identification, beyond this there is little control of the predominantly set the touristic itinerary” (Ehrentraut findings. Identity is not one factor but constructed on 1996, 17). This is the same theme we see when looking multiple levels of reasoning that tourists do not always at Romanian tourism. The Ministries shift from see when they are in search of authenticity. To combat landscapes, cultural heritage, and the historically this archaeologists, anthropologists, and historians significant Black Sea to emphasize a myth that both; should be more involved in the outreach process as well lacks authenticity and defines the country as backwards as in the portrayal of identity. and primitive is a formation of National identity disconnected from the thriving modern world it truly is. References While attending an archaeological field school in Appleby, Rutty, Hainsworth, Woosnam-Savage, Morgan, Romania in Summer 2017, I spent two weeks in Brough, . . . Buckley. (2015). Perimortem trauma in King Richard III: A skeletal analysis. The Lancet, 385(9964), 253-259. 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Kohl, Mara Kozelsky, most of their inventory to traditional pottery and other and Nachman Ben-Yehuda, 127-59. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008. general items. Stodder, A., Palkovich, A., Larsen, C., & Ebrary, Inc. (2012). The bioarchaeology of individuals (Bioarchaeological interpretations Conclusion of the human past). Gainesville: University Press of Florida. Lallanilla, Marc. “The Real Dracula: Vlad the Impaler.” LiveScience, Purch, 13 Sept. 2017, www.livescience.com/40843- There are many ways to form identity using real-dracula-vlad-the-impaler.html. anthropology and archaeology as seen in the three case Buckley, R., Morris, M., Appebly, J., King, T., O'Sullivan, D., & studies. The problem of identity becomes harder when Foxhall, L. (2013). 'The king in the car park': New light on the dealing with historic cases such as King Richard III and death and burial of Richard III in the Grey Friars church, Leicester, in 1485. Antiquity, 87(336), 519-538. Vlad Tepes Draculea. There is also the problem when “The Real Dracula Vlad The Impaler.” YouTube, YouTube, 24 Mar. looking at national identity versus individual identity. 2015, www.youtube.com/watch?v=H2syoaGxfso. National identity presents a stereotype that does not correlate to individual identity, yet if a region relies on