DRACULA an International Perspective

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DRACULA An International Perspective

Edited by Marius-Mircea Crisan Palgrave Gothic

Series Editor Clive Bloom Middlesex University London, UK

“With Dracula now recognized as the literary classic it is, Dracula: An International Perspective assembles an entourage of this generation’s very best Dracula scholars to open new avenues of research in Stoker’s expansive Gothic environment. Editor Marius-Mircea Crișan insightfully ties together his colleagues’ wide-ranging discoveries of the vampire Count’s footprints in the lands of his unexpected origins and his travels.” —J. Gordon Melton, Distinguished Professor of American Religious History at Baylor University, USA This series of gothic books is the frst to treat the genre in its many inter- related, global and ‘extended’ cultural aspects to show how the taste for the medieval and the sublime gave rise to a perverse taste for terror and horror and how that taste became, not only international (with a huge fan base in places such as South Korea and Japan) but also the sensibility of the modern age, changing our attitudes to such diverse areas as the nature of the artist, the meaning of drug abuse and the concept of the self. The series is accessible but scholarly, with referencing kept to a mini- mum and theory contextualised where possible. All the books are reada- ble by an intelligent student or a knowledgeable general reader interested in the subject.

Editorial Advisory Board Dr Ian Conrich, University of South Australia Barry Forshaw, author/journalist, UK Professor Gregg Kucich, University of Notre Dame, USA Professor Gina Wisker, University of Brighton, UK Dr Catherine Wynne, University of Hull, UK Dr Alison Peirse, University of Yorkshire, UK Dr Sorcha Ní Fhlainn, Manchester Metropolitan University, UK Professor William Hughes, Bath Spa University, UK

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/14698 Marius-Mircea Crişan Editor Dracula

An International Perspective Editor Marius-Mircea Crişan West University of Timişoara Timişoara, Romania

Palgrave Gothic ISBN 978-3-319-63365-7 ISBN 978-3-319-63366-4 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-63366-4

Library of Congress Control Number: 2017947720

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2017 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifcally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microflms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specifc statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affliations.

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This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by Springer Nature The registered company is Springer International Publishing AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland Contents

“Welcome to My House! Enter Freely and of Your Own Free Will”: Dracula in International Contexts 1 Marius-Mircea Crişan

The Casework Relationship: Le Fanu, Stoker and the Rhetorical Contexts of Irish Gothic 21 William Hughes

The Discourse of Italy in Nineteenth Century Irish Gothic: Maturin’s Fatal Revenge, Le Fanu’s Exotic Tales, and The Castle of Savina 39 Donatella Abbate Badin

“Bloodthirsty and Remorseless Fangs”: Representation of East-Central Europe in Edgar Allan Poe’s Gothic Short Stories 53 Lucian-Vasile Szabo and Marius-Mircea Crişan

Spirited Away: Dream Work, the Outsider, and the Representation of Transylvania in the Pied Piper and Dracula Myth in Britain and Germany 69 Sam George

v vi Contents

Count Dracula’s Address and Lifetime Identity 95 Hans Corneel de Roos

Dracula and the Psychic World of the East End of London 119 Clive Bloom

Tourism and Travel in Bram Stoker’s Dracula 139 Duncan Light

Castle Hunedoara and the Dracula Myth: Connection or Speculation? 157 Marius-Mircea Crişan

Location and the Vampire: The Impact of Fictional Stories upon Associated Locations 179 Kristin L. Bone

In Search of Dracula’s Oracular History 195 John Edgar Browning

Vampiric Emotion and Identity in Dracula and Interview with the Vampire 213 Nancy Schumann

Gothic and Horror in Contemporary Cinema and Television: Aesthetic Experience and Emotional Impact 227 Magdalena Grabias

Papa Dracula: Vampires for Family Values? 243 Dorota Babilas

The Evolution of Gothic Spaces: Ruins, Forests, Urban Jungles 259 Carol Senf

Index 275 Contributors

Donatella Abbate Badin formerly of the University of Turin in Italy, where she taught for twenty years, is the author of numerous scholarly essays and books in the felds of nineteenth and twentieth century English and Irish studies, focusing especially on poetry, travel writing and the representations of Italy in English and Irish literatures. She has published extensively on G.M. Hopkins, Thomas Kinsella, Dickens, Thomas Moore, Sean O’Faolain, travel literature, the Irish Gothic and women writers with a particular attention on Lady Morgan and her travelogue Italy. Dorota Babilas, dr hab. works at the Institute of English Studies at the University of Warsaw, Poland. Her academic interests include Victorian, Gothic, and Film Studies. Author of i.a. a Ph.D. on the literary status of The Phantom of the Opera and a monographic book on the cultural after- life of Queen Victoria (Warsaw 2012). Clive Bloom is Emeritus Professor of English and American Studies at Middlesex University, Adjunct Professor at Notre Dame University USA, best-selling author and publisher. He was the historical consultant to the BBC on the G20 and the summer riots in Britain. Professor Bloom is an occasional feature writer for The Financial Times, The Times, The Guardian, The independent, The Irish Times, etc. His numerous books include Restless Revolutionaries, Rebels and Revolts, Bestsellers: Popular Fiction Since 1900, Terror Within: The Dream of a British Republic, Cult Fiction: Popular Reading and Pulp Theory; and Gothic Horror, all of which have enjoyed international recognition.

vii viii Contributors

Kristin L. Bone (Independent Researcher, USA) has a master’s degree in modern literary cultures and is a bestselling author of dark fantasy. Her works include the bestselling Black Rose Guard dark fantasy series. The Rise of the Temple Gods fantasy series. The academic paper, “Tragic Monsters and Heroic Villains: Anne Rice’s Contribution to the Rise of the Heroic Vampire” published in Concerning Evil and was editor of Leave the Lights On: Literary and Other Monsters. She recently presented papers at conferences for the Gothic Association of New Zealand and Australia, the American Literature Association and the Anne Rice Undead Conference. John Edgar Browning (Ph.D., SUNY-Buffalo) is Marion L. Brittain Postdoctoral Fellow at the Georgia Institute of Technology. He has contracted or published over 14 academic and popular trade books and over 65 shorter works on subjects that cluster around Dracula, vampires, zombies, horror, monstrosity, Bram Stoker, and the Gothic. In the past, he has also been invited to appear as an academic vampire scholar on National Geographic’s Taboo USA (2013–) and Discovery Channel’s William Shatne’s Weird or What? (2010–). Marius-Mircea Crişan (Ph.D. 2008 University of Turin) is Associate Professor at the West University of Timişoara. Author of two books on the Dracula myth (The Birth of the Dracula Myth: Bram Stoker’s Transylvania and The Impact of a Myth: Dracula and the Fictional Representation of the Romanian Space) and several studies, he has also published, edited and co-authored books on Didactics (Syntheses of Didactics of Romanian language and literature) and Imagology (co-author of An Imagological Dictionary of the Cities in Romania Represented in British Travel Literature), and organised international conferences on education and fantastic literature. For more information see http://www.themythoftransylvania.ro/home_en.htm. Hans Corneel de Roos is an independent researcher from Holland. He studied Political and Social Sciences in Amsterdam and Berlin, was Acting Editor of the offcial news bulletin of the Transylvanian Society of Dracula (2013–2016), initiated and organised the Fourth World Dracula Congress in Dublin, October 2016, and is the author of The Ultimate Dracula (2012) and Powers of Darkness (2017). He also is the initiator of a planned series of bi-annual international Dracula congress in Brasov, Romania. From 1986 till 2017, he lived and worked in Munich; from 2017 on, he will be based on Bantayan Island, Philippines. Contributors ix

Sam George is Senior Lecturer in Literature at the University of Hertfordshire, England, UK. She is the Convenor of the ‘Open Graves, Open Minds’ research centre and a frequent commentator in the international press. She has published widely on literature and science in journals and co-edited a special issue of Gothic Studies on vampires 15.2 (2013). Her books include Botany, Sexuality and Women’s Writing 1760–1830 (Manchester University Press, 2007); Representations of Vampires and the Undead from the Enlightenment to the Present Day (Manchester University Press, 2013); Company of Wolves: Werewolves, Wolves, and Wild Children – Narratives of Sociality and Animality (forth- coming 2017). Magdalena Grabias is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Cultural Studies at Maria Curie-Skłodowska University in Lublin, Poland. She specialises in flm studies, American studies, Gothic studies, literary translation and music journalism. Her academic publications include numerous articles in Polish and English propagating flm, music and theatre viewed from the perspective of philosophy, semiotics, anthropology and popular culture. Her book “Songs of Innocence and Experience: Romance in the Cinema of Frank Capra” was published in the UK in 2013. William Hughes is Professor of Medical Humanities and Gothic Literature at Bath Spa University. His publications include That Devil’s Trick: Hypnotism and the Victorian Popular Imagination (2015); The Historical Dictionary of Gothic Literature (2013); Dracula: A Reader’s Guide to Essential Criticism (2009); Beyond Dracula: Bram Stoker’s Fiction and its Cultural Context (2000) and student editions of Dracula (2007) and The Lady of the Shroud (2001). With Andrew Smith he has co-edited several collections including Ecogothic (2013); The Victorian Gothic (2012), Queering the Gothic (2009), and Empire and the Gothic (2003). He is immediate Past President of the International Gothic Association. Duncan Light is senior lecturer in tourism at Bournemouth University, UK. He has research interests in the politics of tourism and for more than a decade has been researching Romania’s response to “Dracula tourism” (in both communist and postcommunist contexts). He is author of The Dracula Dilemma: Tourism, Identity and the State in Romania (Ashgate 2012). x Contributors

Nancy Schumann (Books with Bite) is a German writer, based in London. She writes poetry, short stories and novels on a variety of topics in both English and German and her works have been published in both languages. Nancy’s particular interest, in fction and academically, are female vampires. Nancy completed a master’s degree in English Literature at the University of Leipzig, Germany. Her thesis on female vampires through the ages formed the basis to the publication Take A Bite, which traces female vampire characters from folklore and literature from Lilith to Bella Swan. Visit Nancy’s website on www.bookswithbite.in. Carol Senf Professor in the School of Literature, Media, and Communication at the Georgia Institute of Technology (USA), has wres- tled with the Gothic for forty-fve years. She has written four critical works on Bram Stoker, prepared two annotated editions of Stoker’s novels, and written numerous articles on Stoker. She also writes about the Brontes, Thomas Hardy, George Eliot, and popular culture. She is currently col- laborating with two colleagues on a research guide to the Gothic. Lucian-Vasile Szabo is Senior Lecturer at the Faculty of Philosophy and Communication Sciences, West University of Timişoara. In his research he touches subjects based on the involvement of mass-media in democ- ratization. He is the author of the books: Freedom and Communication in the Press World; Journalists, Heroes, Terrorists; Communication Pitfalls; Another Slavici; The Facts in the Case of E. A. Poe: Fantasy, Real Life, Science Fiction, Journalism; The Timişoara Syndrome 1989: Truth and Imaginary; The Slavici Complex; E. A. Poe: romanticism, modernism, post- modernism; The 1989 Revolution in the Timișoara Hospitals; Recourse in the Ioan Slavici’s File. List of Figures

Count Dracula’s Address and Lifetime Identity Fig. 1 Diagram of reconstruction of the meeting point in the Borgo Pass 103 Fig. 2 Map from the book by Charles Boner (1865) with mark-ups by Hans C. de Roos. Harker’s trip with the Count leads him from the Borgo Pass in south-east direction to the Kelemen Mountains 105 Fig. 3 Map from 1862, printed in Hermannstadt, showing Strascha/Straja and the routes leading to the caldera via Tulgheș and Bilbor. Map mark-ups by Hans C. de Roos 106 Fig. 4 Bram Stoker. Dracula: Notes & Outline, ca. 1890–ca. 1896, p. 33b (detail) 107 Fig. 5 Detail of p. 33b: Stoker wrote in pencil frst, and changed “Lat” to “Lon.” 108 Fig. 6 Map from the book by Charles Boner (1865) with mark-ups by Hans C. de Roos. “Between Strasha & Isvorul is 47° North Latitude, 25¾° East Longitude.” A straight line from Strasha (Strascha, Straja) through the coordinates given in Stoker’s notes leads to Mount Isvorul 109

xi “Welcome to My House! Enter Freely and of Your Own Free Will”: Dracula in International Contexts

Marius-Mircea Crişan

Dracula’s international library is one of the rooms that Jonathan Harker enjoys most in the Count’s Transylvanian castle. The undead aristocrat welcomes his guest among the “vast number of English books, whole shelves full of them,”1 and engages him in long discussions on a topic that today might be coined as “intercultural exchange.” If Dracula wants to learn about the English world, Harker listens to the Count’s discourse on Transylvanian history, asks questions, and jots down signif- cant information that will be shared with his readers later on. Dracula’s voice sounds full of passion when he speaks about his interest in reading: “‘These companions,’ and he laid his hand on some of the books, ‘have been good friends to me, and for some years past, ever since I had the idea of going to London, have given me many, many hours of pleasure.’”2 In the numerous interpretations of Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1897), literary criticism seems less aware that this phrase reveals one of the

M.-M. Crişan (*) West University of Timişoara, Timişoara, Romania e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

© The Author(s) 2017 1 M.-M. Crişan (ed.), Dracula, Palgrave Gothic, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-63366-4_1 2 M.-M. CRIŞAN key meanings of the novel, as well as a possible explanation for its international success: the best story may be constructed from several good stories, from different perspectives and various places in the world. Bram Stoker’s voice hides both behind the young solicitor’s curiosity and behind the systematic and assiduous search developed by the Count. For seven years, on daily works and holidays, the manager of the Lyceum Theatre searched tirelessly for details in the archives encountered on his way, from the British Library in London to the local library in Whitby. The international dimension of his research will shape the worldwide success of the story, because his undead is inspired by accounts of vampires from many different places such as Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Czechia, North and South America, etc.3 From his Transylvanian library, Dracula goes to conquer the world. Although he has supernatural powers and can control the forest and the sea, he longs for the power from books. He is able to transform himself into a wolf, a bat, a dog or into different signs of nature, but the real metamorphosis he wants to perform is a cultural transformation. A great interest in reading is also shown by the international Crew of Light,4 guided by the omniscient Van Helsing. Thus, the novel narrates a story about reading and writing: although they seem to be obstructed by the rapid fow of events, these activities are actually essential in the plot. They bind and unbind everything. The Crew of Light’s written confes- sions grow, one from another, and Dracula’s oral discourse is eluded, at the same time with his gradual involution from immortality to “fnal dis- solution…into dust.”5 As happens in great battles, history is written by the winners. The international dimension is one of the main characteristics of Bram Stoker’s Dracula. As the characters cross a vast area of Europe in their journeys from England to Transylvania and back, they men- tion a number of cities in different countries. The homeland of Dracula is a multicultural place. The Count has a mixed identity, and it is hard for the reader to decide whether he is a Szekler Count or a Wallachian voivode. He speaks several languages fuently and adapts easily to foreign contexts, as in England. In Transylvania, he is assisted by Gypsies and Slovaks, and this mythical region is described as a multiethnic area par excellence: inhabited by Romanians, Hungarians, Szeklers, Germans and several other minorities, it is depicted as “the whirlpool of European races.”6 This image has determined literary criticism to perceive Stoker’s Transylvania as a symbol of Europe.7 The Crew of Light also has a “WELCOME TO MY HOUSE! ENTER FREELY AND OF YOUR OWN FREE WILL” … 3 multinational structure, as the English main group is completed by the Dutch Van Helsing and the American Quincy Morris. Besides the main heroes, there are several episodic characters of different nationalities, Romanians, Hungarians, Czechs, Serbians, Russians, etc. The universal dimension of the story is emphasized by the idea that the whole life seems to be threatened by a “world of dark and dreadful things,”8 and the mission of the Crew of Light, who consider themselves “ministers of God’s own wish”9 is “to set the world free,”10 “as the old knights of the Cross.”11 But the Crew of Light’s victory may not last forever. Dracula’s warn- ing to his hunters is memorable: “My revenge is just begun! I spread it over centuries, and time is on my side!”12 Since 1897, the story of the vampire has been the subject of countless stage adaptations, literary and flm sequels made all over the world. There is a huge difference between the way in which Dracula speaks about himself and how the Crew of Light depicts him. These differences constitute the success of the story. The lack of Dracula’s perspective on the plot feeds the imagination of the readers. Without knowing who Dracula really is, the readers may imagine the vampire according to their own fears, obsessions or desires.13 And Dracula may be as evil as (im)possible. For more than a century, the vampire Count has embodied endless forms of evil (from sexual aggression or murder to war, political oppression, terrorism, the danger of blood borne illness).14 But the novel also leaves open doors for alternative interpretations: in the democratic world of the second part of the twentieth century, Dracula is fnally allowed to present his own perspective. For instance, Fred Saberhagen’s novel The Dracula Tape (1975) offers us Dracula’s version: all the crimes are committed by the members of the Crew of Light under Van Helsing’s supervision, and the actions against him are nothing else than brutal aggressions against a creature who is persecuted for being different. From such a view, a new genre is developed, based on the image of the sympathetic vampire. As Elizabeth Miller puts it, “Dracula has proliferated in every aspect of Western culture since its creation in 1897 to such an extent that his name is now synonymous with the ‘vampire’.”15 The evolution of the vampire is itself an international success. Although Bram Stoker’s Count Dracula is “an Occidental mask,” “an artifcial character,”16 as Sabina Ispas puts it, incompatible with Romanian tradition, the Romanian stri- goi may also be approached from a transnational perspective. According to Otilia Hedeşan, eighteenth century Habsburg accounts of vampiric 4 M.-M. CRIŞAN practices in the multiethnic area of the Banat (in the territory of modern Romania and Serbia) are part of an imperial strategy of “economic and cultural assimilation,” which was “unrest by, and mobilized” against the signs of a mysterious archaic civilization.17 The term vampire enters the German space from a Slavic idiom, from Serbian or old Polish, but its origins are Russian.18 However, the signs of the folkloric vampire may be found in several parts of Europe, such as Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia19 and Greece. According to Álvaro García Marín, “if we were to judge from the standpoint of a Western European of 1730 or 1820, Dracula, without any doubt, should have been a Greek,” as “at the beginning of the eighteenth century, when the Slavic vampire was still unknown to the West, the Greek vrykolakas has been recurring in theological treatises, travel accounts or books on occultism from the beginning of the sixteenth century.” 20 From a literary perspective, the story of the vampire is “one of transformations and interbreedings of genre.”21 If “the folkloric vampire of the eighteenth century, at the outer reach of Europe” was “an agricultural fgure,”22 with John Polidori’s The Vampire, the story of the aristocratic vampire, which will triumph with Count Dracula’s literary and cinematographic career, begins. The translations of Bram Stoker’s novel into most major languages of the world contributed considerably to the success of Dracula.23 Although the Icelandic edition in 1901 was considered the frst translation, Farkas Jenő shows that it was preceded by a Hungarian translation, which was published on 1 January 1898 in Budapesti Hírlap (in 79 parts), and, at the end of the same year, it was published as a volume translated (probably) by the novelist Rákosi Jenő.24 In fact, as Hans de Roos’s Powers of Darkness: The Lost Version of Dracula shows, the Icelandic translation was a new version of Dracula.25 Furthermore, De Roos has recently discovered that the Icelandic edition was inspired by an earlier Swedish version,26 a fact that emphasizes the early interest in Dracula within an international context. Dracula is a novel that stimulates the creativity of its readers. It was written by a man of the theatre who was aware of the techniques of catching the attention of the audience. This led to the stage success both in England and the USA. The Broadway success determined Universal Studio to make one of the most famous adaptations of the novel, Tod Browning’s Dracula in 1931. The success of this American production contributed considerably to the worldwide fame of the Dracula myth. Before this landmark of the American cinema, Dracula inspired a flm “WELCOME TO MY HOUSE! ENTER FREELY AND OF YOUR OWN FREE WILL” … 5 recorded in Germany, F.W. Murnau’s masterpiece Nosferatu (1922), and a Hungarian production made in 1921, Lajthay Károly’s flm Drakula halála (“The Death of Dracula”).27 The international cinematographic success of Dracula and his legacy is one of the themes discussed in the following pages. Written from an international perspective, this volume aims to track some of the most important moments in the development of the vampire myth, following the evolution of the Gothic character from the eighteenth century to today, and focusing on the imagological construction of the Gothic place. During the twentieth century the success of Stoker’s novel and its countless sequels consolidated one of the strongest literary clichés in world literature: Transylvania, the place of the vampires. When the British press received the novel enthusiastically in 1897, the impor- tance of Transylvania in Dracula was one of the main elements that drew the attention of the critics.28 In spite of the success of early cinematographic adaptations, literary criticism paid little systematic attention to Stoker’s novel in the frst half of the twentieth century.29 However, the second part of the twentieth century marked a gradual ascent of the vampire in the academic studies. The connection between the Dracula myth and Romanian history was one of the factors that wheted the appetite for debate in Dracula criticism. In 1956, Bacil F. Kirtley pointed to a correspondence, ignored up to then, between the vampire Dracula and the Romanian Voivode Dracula (whose sobriquet is Vlad Ţepeş—“the Impaler”), who ruled Wallachia in the ffteenth century.30 A similar thesis was developed by Grigore Nandriș.31 But the strongest arguments for the connection between the vampire and the voivode were developed in the success- ful book In Search of Dracula… published by the American professors Raymond McNally and Radu Florescu in 1972 (the frst edition). As Bram Stoker’s working notes for Dracula were examined by literary criticism later, much of the information in this volume is actually based on supposition and working hypotheses. McNally and Florescu suggested several connections between Count Dracula and Vlad Ţepeş and even argued that Stoker was aware of several events in the voivode’s reign, as described by the German medieval pamphlets that wrote about his cruelty and emphasized the use of impaling political enemies or crimi- nals. This historical association is deconstructed by Elizabeth Miller, who shows that, as the only source consulted by Stoker was William Wilkinson’s book An Account of Wallachia and Transylvania…, all the 6 M.-M. CRIŞAN information about Voivode Dracula was limited to that source,32 in which the voivode is depicted as an anti-Ottoman fghter who attacked the Turks by crossing the Danube, but was defeated after the Sultan’s counter-defence in Wallachia, and his brother took the throne.33 The hypothesis developed by McNally and Florescu had great success in the world of fction, however, and it also infuenced Dracula tourism considerably, increasing the interest of foreign tourists in places con- 34 nected to Vlad Ţepeş. Countless flms and literary sequels were inspired by this connection. According to John Gordon Melton, the success of McNally and Florescu’s book also determined a considerable increase of interest in the study of the vampire in the academic world.35 Besides the representation of history in Dracula, other aspects have drawn the attention of literary criticism, and the polyphony of the novel encouraged approaches from a number of perspectives. Since the 1970s, literary criticism has emphasized the modern dimension of Dracula, by focusing on the openness of the story. This new vision was expressed in works that emphasized the complexity of the relationships between Dracula and his hunters, such as Carol Senf’s essay “Dracula: The Unseen Face in the Mirror” (1979). Over more than three decades, the novel has become subject of academic critique from various angles, such as genetic criticism (Clive Leatherdale, Sir Cristopher Frayling, Elizabeth Miller, Robert Eighteen-Bisang), eroticism and taboo (Christopher Bentley, Gail B. Griffn, Phyllis Roth), homoeroticism (Christopher Craft, Talia Schaffer), gender (Elisabeth Bronfen, Sos Eltis), social reading (Franco Moretti), cultural discourse (Nina Auerbach, William Hughes), Gothic studies (Leonard Wolf, David Punter, Jerrold E. Hogle, Fred Botting, Clive Bloom, Chris Baldick, Matthew C. Brennan), race (Judith Halberstam), postcolonialism (Stephen Arata), anthropology (Gail Kligman, Otilia Hedeşan, Sabina Ispas), tourism (Duncan Light), imagology (Ken Gelder, David Glover, Vesna Goldsworthy, Carmen Andraş, Pia Brînzeu, Mathew Gibson, Marius-Mircea Crişan), Irish studies (Joseph Valente, Gregory Castle), philosophy and religion (Stephan Schaffrath, Thomas P. Walsh, Susannah Clements, Patrick R. O’Malley, Beth McDonald, Noël Montague Étienne Rarignac) and so on. It is not diffcult to observe that the vampire Count has fnally triumphed in the academic world too! As Catherine Wynne observes, “like the Count, the Gothic encom- passes and has manifested itself in many forms since The Castle of Otranto.”36 This volume, which includes essays by internationally “WELCOME TO MY HOUSE! ENTER FREELY AND OF YOUR OWN FREE WILL” … 7 recognized experts on the Gothic, analyses the role of Bram Stoker’s Dracula and its sequels in the evolution of the Gothic. Besides the transformation of the Gothic location from castles, cemeteries or churches to the contemporary urban centre, the volume explores the evolution of the Gothic character and of the media from the eighteenth century protagonist to the contemporary sympathetic vampires of teen Gothic. This volume of essays, which is structured on both diachronic and synchronic perspectives, follows a chronological approach, as it starts with Gothic infuences on Stoker’s Dracula, continues with new insights on the context of the novel, follows the development of the vampiric myth in the twentieth and twenty-frst centuries, and concludes with a synoptic study of the evolution of the Gothic space. The volume begins with a discussion of the Irish Gothic canon that focuses on the connections between Bram Stoker and his predecessors. Starting from the premise that identifying relationships between authors on the basis of genre and identity is problematic, William Hughes brings new insights to the study of the triadic nineteenth century canon of the Irish Gothic formed by Maturin, Le Fanu and Stoker. The Chapter “The Casework Relationship: Le Fanu, Stoker and the Rhetorical Contexts of Irish Gothic” draws attention to the hybrid nature of this genre, refer- ring to the English infuences (from literary and cultural factors) and pointing to German Sturm und Drang and other Continental infuences. Hughes postulates that the three writers share a rhetorical style that is infuenced by professional language, a feature characteristic to the Irish Gothic. Hughes illustrates his thesis by comparing the medical investiga- tion in Le Fanu’s In a Glass Darkly and Stoker’s Dracula. Before the transformation of Transylvania into a Gothic space par excellence, the Irish writers preferred to place their terrifying stories in less remote European regions, such as Italy or Austria. Donatella Abbate Badin analyses a subgenre of the Irish Gothic: romances set in Italy, focusing on Charles Maturin’s novel, The Fatal Revenge or the Family of Montorio (1807); an anonymous novelette, The Castle of Savina, or the Irishman in Italy. A Tale (ca.1807); and two short stories by Joseph Sheridan Le Fanu, “Spalatro: from the notes of Fra Giacomo” (1843) and “Borrhomeo the Astrologer: A Monkish Tale” (1862). Chapter “The Discourse of Italy in Nineteenth Century Irish Gothic: Maturin’s Fatal Revenge, Le Fanu’s exotic tales, and The Castle of Savina” analyses the reasons and the literary effects of Italy’s demonization in Irish Gothic, arguing that, far from offering concrete representations of a 8 M.-M. CRIŞAN nineteenth century Italian Other, these representations of Italy mirror Ireland’s image of itself and its anxieties. As most of these nineteenth century authors were Anglo-Irish and Protestant, their negative stereotypes of Italy are based on ideological narratives of excessive violence that refect the confict between the Anglo-Protestant ruling minority and the Catholic majority in Ireland. In the second part of the nineteenth century this “fctional colonisation” (or “narrative colonisation” in Vesna Goldsworthy’s words) extends towards the eastern border of Europe, particularly within the territory of the Austro-Hungarian Empire: in Styria with Le Fanu’s Carmilla and in Transylvania, with Stoker’s Dracula. The Habsburg Empire also serves as the Gothic background of some fantastic short stories by Edgar Allan Poe, a topic analysed in the following Chapter ““Bloodthirsty and Remorseless Fangs”: Representation of East-Central Europe in Edgar Allan Poe’s Gothic Short Stories” by Lucian Vasile Szabo and Marius-Mircea Crişan. Poe depicts the East-Central European space as an exotic remote region, inhabited by cruel aristocrats who live in isolated medieval castles, surrounded by mystery, unhappiness, and knightly rivalry. This is the case of Metzengerstein, the protagonist of a short story that features an imaginary Hungary whose similarities with Stoker’s Transylvania are here analysed. On the other hand, other works by Poe depict East-Central Europe as connected to several original inno- vations that will infuence global technological development. The international dimension of the Gothic space is also approached in Sam George’s Chapter “Spirited Away: Dream Work, the Outsider, and the Representation of Transylvania in the Pied Piper and Dracula Myth in Britain and Germany”, which examines the connections between Robert Browning’s Piper of Hamelin and Bram Stoker’s Count Dracula, both negative characters associated with Transylvania. George analyses the transformation of the German story, published by the “myth makers” Brothers Grimm, in an English context. Comparing Stoker’s Dracula with F.W. Murnau’s flm Nosferatu, which was infuenced both by Stoker’s novel and by Grimm’s story, this chapter examines the way in which the Dracula myth is “transported” to Germany and points to the image of the invading Other, which is central in all the narrations discussed. Although Bram Stoker “borrowed” the name of the Wallachian Voivode Dracula and refers to some historical facts related to his reign, his working notes for the novel show that he also was aware of other “WELCOME TO MY HOUSE! ENTER FREELY AND OF YOUR OWN FREE WILL” … 9 voivodes from the historical regions belonging to contemporary Romania.37 Hans de Roos’ contribution (Chapter “Count Dracula’s Address and Lifetime Identity”) approaches Count Dracula’s composite identity, proposing a new hypothesis regarding the refection of history in the novel. Based on an analysis of Stoker’s notes and some nineteenth century maps of Transylvania, this chapter also proposes a location for the vampiric castle imagined by the author of Dracula.38 There have, of course, been many attempts over the years to identify the location of Castle Dracula but de Roos’ is the most detailed yet. Clive Bloom analyses the similarities between the imagological con- structions of Transylvania and the East End of London, both spaces connected through stereotypes associated with the Dracula myth, and regarded as negative Others to Western identity. The Chapter “Dracula and the Psychic World of the East End of London” examines the representation of the East End in Asmundsson’s Icelandic version of Dracula “Powers of Darkness” (Makt Myrkranna 1901) and in Stoker’s original novel, stating that besides similarities and differences, the two versions of Dracula share a narrative perspective that is built on common misconcep- tions about the East End and Transylvania. Bringing new insights to the connection between the vampire Dracula and Jack the Ripper, the chapter suggests a political reading of the Dracula myth, pointing to occult and anarchic perspectives in the Icelandic version. Described as a natu- ral home to the vampire, the East End becomes, in Asmundsson’s version, a Gothic land. As in the case of Transylvania, a geographical space is replaced with a powerful mythical construct, imbued with stereotypes and opened to imaginative manipulation. The next three chapters examine the connection between the vampire’s story and real places associated with the myth, approaching some aspects related to Dracula tourism. Duncan Light’s contribution (Chapter “Tourism and Travel in Bram Stoker’s Dracula”) suggests a deeper reading of the touristic dimension in Stoker’s novel, and examines the theme of mobility in Dracula, identifying four types of tourism: busi- ness, medical, political and dark tourism. Marius-Mircea Crişan (Chapter “Castle Hunedoara and the Dracula Myth: Connection or Speculation?”) discusses the connections between Hunedoara Castle and the Dracula myth, a frequent association in the twenty-frst century press, and points to some recent cultural activities or flms (both fctional and documen- taries) inspired by this relationship. This essay analyses both the historical explanation of this association and the representation of Hunedoara 10 M.-M. CRIŞAN

Castle in Stoker’s sources, suggesting that the author of Dracula was aware of the role of this stronghold in the history of Transylvania. Kristin Bone’s Chapter “Location and the Vampire: The Impact of Fictional Stories upon Associated Locations” examines the impact of Gothic novels on real locations associated with the vampire myth, such as New Orleans, where several activities dedicated to the world of Anne Rice’s fction occur; Forks, which is visited by numerous fans of the Twilight series; and Whitby in the UK and Bran Castle in Romania, both connected to the Dracula myth. Bone analyses the link between the fctional universe and the real world connected to the “vampire’s place,” pointing both to the advantages and disadvantages of this cultural association. The following chapters approach the transformation of Bram Stoker’s vampire over more than one century of literary and flm sequels. John Edgar Browning examines the evolution of “Dracula’s narrative voice” from Stoker’s 1897 novel to today, tracing the main moments in the continuous transformation of the vampire, as well as the cultural factors that infuenced this development. In a synoptic analysis of the celluloid undead, this chapter (Chapter “In Search of Dracula’s Oracular History”) follows the milestones of Dracula’s changing identity, pointing to the most notable sequels, such as Drakula’s Death (1921), Nosferatu (1922), Dracula (1931), Horror of Dracula (1958), Dracula (1979), Nosferatu: Phantom der Nacht (1979) and Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1992). Nancy Schumann’s Chapter “Vampiric Emotion and Identity in Dracula and Interview with the Vampire” analyses the relationship between the vampire’s emotion, identity and gender as developed in Bram Stoker’s Dracula and in Anne Rice’s novels Interview with the Vampire and The Vampire Lestat, pointing to a transformation of the male vampire from the Count who never shows his emotions to Lestat, whose actions are dominated by strong feelings. Observing the impor- tance of the female characters in Stoker’s Dracula, Schumann analyses the development of the women connected to the vampire, who become sexually independent and then feared, and identifes similarities and differences with Anne Rice’s female vampires. The transformation of the monster into an attractive—even heroic— fgure is one of the new tendencies of the Gothic cinema, as observed by Magdalena Grabias, whose chapter analyses elements of continuity and innovation in horror cinema and TV productions. Pointing to the development of the celluloid vampire, Grabias analyses the infuence of “WELCOME TO MY HOUSE! ENTER FREELY AND OF YOUR OWN FREE WILL” … 11 the Gothic legacy on contemporary cinema and television and focuses on twenty-frst century horror productions such as Underworld, The Twilight Saga, Hemlock Grove and Victor Frankenstein. This Chapter “Gothic and Horror in Contemporary Cinema and Television: Aesthetic Experience and Emotional Impact” examines the way in which contemporary cinema and television combine traditional Gothic perspectives with modern imagery that refects today’s tendencies and concerns. Dorota Babilas approaches the theme of parenting in vampire flms from the 1970s (Son of Dracula, Dracula père et fls, El gran amor del Conde Drácula) to contemporary cinema. Babilas observes that, if in the 1990s the vampire family is problematized by the motif of the evil child (such as Claudia in Interview with the Vampire, 1994), in the twenty-frst century the child-centred family life plays a central role in flms which emphasize either the idea of vampiric motherhood (Vamps 2012) or fatherhood (Hotel Transylvania, 2012; Dracula Untold 2014). This Chapter, “Papa Dracula: Vampires for Family Values?”, explains the social context of this cultural shift in the construction of the vampire and discusses the infuence of this tendency in the evolution of the Gothic. Carol Senf’s coda analyses the evolution of the Gothic space since 1764 to the present day and examines the change of locations from ruined castles and abbeys in remote places, to modern urban centres that rely on technology. This switch from an exotic background to the universe of everyday life occurs at the same time that the action shifts away from a mythical past to a mundane present. In a synoptic perspective, which points to the milestones of the Gothic setting, from Horace Walpole, Ann Radcliffe and Mary Shelley to Stephen King, Anne Rice and Robert Kirkman, the Chapter “The Evolution of Gothic Spaces: Ruins, Forests, Urban Jungles” explains the key role played by Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1897) in the development of the Gothic space. One conclusion of this volume is that the on-going success of Dracula stems from the fact that the plurality of voices means that the Count can become whatever the reader wants him or her to be. Responding to his immortal fuid identity, readers shape him to respond to the desires and fears of each age: his narration is written continuously, and he never leaves the reader indifferent, winning either their hate or their love. Connected to his story, Transylvania remains the perfect space for this eternally changing Gothic fction, whetting the appetite for gen- erations of sensational and horrifc sequels… While for me, who grew up with the morning view of its mountains, the “Land Beyond the Forest” 12 M.-M. CRIŞAN will always mean the return to the world of childhood, where people like my grandparents were sure that at the end of the horizon lies the harmo- nious eternity refected in their folk songs or prayers. Addressed both to academic readers and general readers, Dracula: An International Perspective has an interdisciplinary approach, as the chapters focus on literature, tourism, and flm. The book offers a multifaceted perspective on the subject, combining analyses from authoritative voices with interpretations by a new generation of scholars, and arguing that the development of the Dracula myth is the result of complex international infuences and cultural interactions.

Notes 1. Bram Stoker, Dracula (London: Penguin Books, 1994), 30. 2. Stoker, Dracula, 31. 3. See Clive Leatherdale, The Origins of Dracula (London: William Kimber, 1987). 4. “The Crew of Light” is a syntagm coined by Christopher Craft for Dracula’s opponents in “‘Kiss Me With Those Red Lips’: Gender and Inversion in Bram Stoker’s Dracula,” in Dracula by Bram Stoker, ed. John Paul Riquelme (New York: Palgrave, 2002), 577–599, initially published in Representations 8 (Autumn, 1984), 107–133. 5. Stoker, Dracula, 447. As Carol Senf would say, their voices obscure Dracula’s voice, in the same way that Harker’s face in the shaving mirror obscures Dracula’s face. See Carol Senf, “Dracula: The Unseen Face in the Mirror,” in Dracula: The Vampire and the Critics, ed. Margaret L. Carter (Ann Arbor: UMI, 1988), 421–431. 6. Stoker, Dracula, 41. 7. See Eleni Coundouriotis, “Dracula and the Idea of Europe,” Connotations: A Journal for Critical Debate 9:2 (1999–2000): 143–159. See also Carol Senf, “A Response to ‘Dracula and the Idea of Europe’ by Eleni Coundouriotis”, Connotations 10.1 (2000/2001): 47–58. 8. Stoker, Dracula, 425. 9. Stoker, Dracula, 381. 10. Stoker, Dracula, 382. 11. Stoker, Dracula, 381. 12. Stoker, Dracula, 365. 13. As Clive Bloom puts it, “there was much subliminally subversive material in Dracula.” Clive Bloom, Gothic Histories: The Taste for Terror, 1764 to the Present (London, New York: Continuum, 2010), 169. “WELCOME TO MY HOUSE! ENTER FREELY AND OF YOUR OWN FREE WILL” … 13

14. See Peter Day, ed., Vampires: Myths and Metaphors of Enduring Evil (Amsterdam, New York: Rodopi, 2006), Niall Scott, ed., Monsters and the Monstrous: Myths and Metaphors of Enduring Evil (Amsterdam, New York: Rodopi, 2007), Marius-Mircea Crişan, “Vampire Narratives as Juggling with Romanian History: Dan Simmon’s Children of the Night and Elizabeth Kostova’s The Historian,” in Katarzyna Bronk and Simon Bacon, eds., Vampires and Human Memory in Popular Culture, (Oxford, Bern, Berlin etc.: Peter Lang, 2014), 59–84. 15. Elizabeth Miller, “Getting to Know the Undead: Bram Stoker, Vampires and Dracula,” in Peter Day, ed., Vampires: Myths and Metaphors of Enduring Evil (Amsterdam, New York: Rodopi, 2006), 3. 16. Sabina Ispas, “Dracula, o mască occidentală.” Anuarul Muzeului Etnografc al Moldovei, X. In honorem Prof. univ. dr. Ion H. Ciubotaru (Iaşi, 2010), 426. 17. Otilia Hedeşan, Strigoii (Cluj‐Napoca: Dacia XXI, 2011), 28. 18. Hede şan, Strigoii, 18–19. 19. See J. Gordon Melton and Alysa Hornick, The Vampire in Folklore, History, Literature, Film and Television: A Comprehensive Bibliography (Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland, 2015), 41. 20. Álvaro García Marín, “‘The Son of the Vampire’: Greek Gothic or Gothic Greece?” in Isabel Ermida, ed., Dracula and the Gothic in Literature, Pop Culture, and the Arts (Leiden, Boston: Brill. Rodopi, 2016) 21. 21. Sam George and Bill Hughes, eds., “Introduction,” Open Graves, Open Minds: Representations of Vampires and the Undead from the Enlightenment to the Present Day (Manchester and New York: Manchester University Press, 2013), 15. 22. Sir Cristopher Frayling, “Foreword” to Simon Bacon and Katarzyna Bronk (eds.) Undead Memory: Vampires and Human Memory in Popular Culture, Oxford, Bern, Berlin, Bruxelles, Frankfurt am Main, New York, Wien: Peter Lang, 2014, xi. 23. See William Hughes, Bram Stoker’s Dracula: A Reader’s Guide (London, New York: Continuum, 2009) 93–94. 24. Marius-Mircea Crişan, Impactul unui mit: Dracula şi reprezentarea fcţională a spaţiului românesc (Bucharest: Pro Universitaria, 2013), 259. 25. Bram Stoker and Valdimar Ásmundsson Powers of Darkness: The Lost Version of Dracula. trans. by Hans De Roos. New York: Overlook Duckworth, 2017. 26. Hans de Roos, “A being from another planet”: Science Fiction Elements in Early Serializations and Translations of Dracula”, Third Helion International Conference Borders and Openings in Speculative Fiction, organized by Helion Association and West University of Timişoara, Timisoara, 5–6 May, 2017. 14 M.-M. CRIŞAN

27. This Hugarian flm was discovered by Farkas Jenő. See Elizabeth Miller, Bram Stoker’s Dracula: A Documentary Volume, Volume 304 (Thomas Gale, 2005), 296–298. For more details about Farkas’s discovery, the plot of the flm, distribution etc. see Crişan, Impactul unui mit, 259–261. 28. Jane Stoddard, “Mr. Bram Stoker. A Chat with the author of Dracula” in Dictionary of Literary Biography, vol. 304 Elizabeth Miller, ed., Dictionary of Literary Biography, vol. 304—Bram Stoker’s Dracula: A Documentary Volume (Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005), 276. 29. The novel draws the sporadic attention of authors such as Dorothy Scarborough, The Supernatural in Modern English Fiction (1917), Montague Summers, The Vampire: His Kith and Kin (1928), H. P. Lovecraft Supernatural Horror in Literature (1939). See J.P. Riquelme “A Critical History of Dracula”, in Bram Stoker’s Dracula: A Documentary Volume, Dictionary of Literary Biography, Vol. 304, ed. Elizabeth Miller (Detroit: Thomson Gale, 2005), 357–375. 30. Bacil Kirtley, “Dracula the Monastic Chronicles and Slavic Folklore.” Dracula: The Vampire and the Critics. ed. Margaret L. Carter (Ann Arbor: UMI, 1988), 11–17. 31. Grigore Nandriş, “The Historical Dracula: The Theme of His Legend in the Western and in the Eastern Literatures of Europe.” Comparative Literature Studies (Urbana, IL) 3 (1966): 367–396. 32. Elizabeth Miller, Dracula: Sense and Nonsense, 2nd edition (Southend-on- Sea: Desert Island, 2006), 154–156. 33. William Wilkinson, An Account of the Principalities of Wallachia & Moldavia. Including Various Political Observations Relating to Them (London: Printed for Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme, and Brown, 1820), 19. 34. See Duncan Light, The Dracula Dilemma: Tourism, Identity and the State in Romania (Surrey, Burlington: Ashgate), 2012. 35. John Gordon Melton, “Dracula’s 21st Century Resurrection: Tracing the Vampire’s Permeation of the Popular Culture” paper presented in the Fourth World Dracula Congress, organized by Transylvanian Society of Dracula, Trinity College Dublin, 20–22 October 2016. 36. Catherine Wynne, “Introduction”, Bram Stoker and the Gothic: Formations to Transformations. (Houndmills, Basingstoke: 2016), 10. For the evolution of the Gothic in the recent period, see Dana Percec, ed., Reading the Fantastic Imagination: The Avatars of a Literary Genre (Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Publishing, 2014). 37. See Marius–Mircea Crişan, The Birth of the Dracula Myth: Bram Stoker’s Transylvania (Bucharest: Pro Universitaria, 2013), 94–107. See also Crişan, “Castle Hunedoara and the Dracula Myth: Connection or Speculation?” in this volume. “WELCOME TO MY HOUSE! ENTER FREELY AND OF YOUR OWN FREE WILL” … 15

38. If previous research pays attention to some real castles that inspired Bram Stoker—see Marius-Mircea Crişan, “The Models for Castle Dracula in Stoker’s Sources on Transylvania,” Journal of Dracula Studies, (nr. 10, 2008): 10–19—Hans de Roos examines the geographical position of Castle Dracula.

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