Hallucinations

Jan Dirk Blom ● Iris E.C. Sommer Editors

Hallucinations

Research and Practice Editors Jan Dirk Blom, M.D., Ph.D. Iris E.C. Sommer, M.D., Ph.D. Parnassia Bavo Group and University Medical Center Utrecht and University of Groningen Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience Kiwistraat 43 Heidelberglaan 100 2552 DH, The Hague 3584 CX, Utrecht The Netherlands The Netherlands [email protected] [email protected]

ISBN 978-1-4614-0958-8 e-ISBN 978-1-4614-0959-5 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4614-0959-5 Springer New York Dordrecht Heidelberg London

Library of Congress Control Number: 2011942898

© Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2012 All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if they are not identiﬁ ed as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.

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Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) Foreword

When the editors approached me to write a foreword for this book, I was naturally fl attered. They were generous enough to say that they had found some of my publi- cations on the topic nearly 20 years ago to have been a useful starting point for some of their own investigations (Nayani and David 1996).1 However, it wasn’t long before vanity got the better of me and I started to react against being cast far too prematurely as a grand old man. More importantly, I also started to worry that, while I have maintained an interest in the topic, I wasn’t confi dent that I had kept up with all of the latest developments. I should not have been so concerned. This volume is itself the perfect antidote. It reminds us of how diverse and engaging the topic of hallucinations continues to be as well as paying tribute to the truly ancient body of literature that has grown up around the effort to understand it. It is indeed humbling to realise that most seemingly new contributions to the study of hallucinations echo previous thinking. The scientifi c study of hallucinations is, however, relatively youthful Ð perhaps a mere 150 years old, beginning with Esquirol and others. The nineteenth and twenti- eth centuries were a ‘Golden Age’ as far as descriptive psychopathology goes, but of course the neuroscientifi c contribution to psychopathology is more recent, beginning with electroencephalography but now fuelled by functional magnetic resonance imaging. Indeed those of us in the 1990s who had the opportunity to use this ‘toy’ thought that hallucinations were an obvious target and that they would be explained once and for all. All we needed to do was show that the sensory processing areas of the brain ‘lit up’ in response to an hallucination in the same way as they did to an external stimulus and the riddle was solved. Such hubris! In fact this early work did lend support to the idea that hallucinations were indeed sensory phenomena to some extent (David et al. 1996) but, like most research, raised new questions about, for example, the relationships between hallucinations, mental imagery and perception; between the generation and reception of images; and, most challenging of all, the nature of belief and reality. In fact, the study of hallucinations was, for me, a salutary

1 This foreword is dedicated to the memory of Dr. Tony Nayani (1962Ð2009).

v vi Foreword lesson in the limits of neuroimaging and the need to draw on philosophy, the social sciences as well as biomedical science. This book exemplifi es this approach and is a tangible demonstration of the benefi ts of multidisciplinary discourse. At risk of labouring this point, here is an anecdote. I, like many others, was inspired by Oliver Sacks’ observations on musical hallucinations. A review of per- sonal cases and the literature led to a comprehensive review on the topic (Keshavan et al. 1992). It was clear that hallucinations of music and those of voices Ð a core symptom of schizophrenia Ð were entirely different. The link with hearing impair- ment and tinnitus in the former was almost universal as was the lack of associated psychopathology. At last, we had confi rmed a clear basis for diagnostic classifi cation. That was until my mentor Alwyn Lishman drew my attention to a case described of an old lady who heard the hymn The Old Rugged Cross emanating from her vagina. This led to a pause and consideration that the origin of such a hallucination probably went beyond the scope of the oto-naso-laryngologist. Another service that this volume provides is to put the spotlight on the variety and modalities of hallucinations. A comparison of these and identifi cation of simi- larities and differences is long overdue. Why is it that auditory verbal hallucinations (AVHs) are such an important part of psychotic disorders – pointing specifi cally to language systems and dialogic construction of the Self? Why on the other hand are visual hallucinations the hallmark of ‘organic’ disorders – pointing to perhaps release phenomena and more diffuse consequences of cerebral perturbation? And why do AVHs in schizophrenia usually respond well to antipsychotic medication while the apparently same phenomena are unresponsive in people with borderline personality disorder? This volume extends to all these modalities and distinctions and will provide much stimulus for integration. There are other recent developments which have broadened the context for hallucination research and to which Dutch scientists and commentators have made a distinct contribution. In particular, we now know that there are many people who experience hallucinations, of a sort that were once held to be entirely pathological, as part of their daily lives and that these are benign or even positively valued. This prompts the obvious question Ð what makes, for example, a hallucinated voice a scourge for one person, and a guardian angel for another? Asking voice hearers themselves is a good place to start. Finally, the editors and their well-chosen contributors demonstrate that these conundrums are not purely theoretical. There is now an array of treatment interven- tions from psychotherapies to brain stimulation which may be offered to those for whom hallucinations are less than positive, with the added value of informing theoretical advances by a process of reverse translation.

London, UK Anthony S. David Foreword vii

References

David, A., Woodruff, P.W.R., Howard, R., Mellers, J.D.C., Brammer, M., Bullmore, E., Wright, I., Andrew, C., Williams, S.C.R. (1996). Auditory hallucinations inhibit exogenous activation of auditory association cortex. NeuroReport , 7, 932Ð936. Keshavan, M.S., David, A.S., Steingard, S., Lishman, W.A. (1992). Musical hallucinations: A review. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology & Behavioral Neurology , 5, 211Ð223. Nayani, T.H., David, A.S. (1996). The auditory hallucination: A phenomenological survey. Psychological Medicine, 26, 177Ð189.

Contents

1 General Introduction ...... 1 Iris E.C. Sommer and Jan Dirk Blom

Part I Conceptual Issues

2 The Construction of Visual Reality ...... 7 Donald D. Hoffman 3 Consciousness, Memory, and Hallucinations ...... 17 Ralf-Peter Behrendt 4 A Network Model of Hallucinations ...... 33 Rutger Goekoop and Jasper Looijestijn 5 The Construction of Hallucination: History and Epistemology ...... 55 German E. Berrios and Ivana S. Marková

Part II Hallucinatory Phenomena

6 Visual Hallucinations ...... 75 Daniel Collerton, Rob Dudley, and Urs Peter Mosimann 7 Synaesthesias ...... 91 Devin Blair Terhune and Roi Cohen Kadosh 8 Auditory Verbal Hallucinations, First-Person Accounts ...... 105 Steven Scholtus and Christine Blanke 9 Auditory Verbal Hallucinations ...... 109 Kelly M.J. Diederen and Iris E.C. Sommer

ix x Contents

10 Auditory Verbal Hallucinations in Patients with Borderline Personality Disorder ...... 125 Christina W. Slotema and David G. Kingdon 11 Musical Hallucinations ...... 133 Oliver W. Sacks and Jan Dirk Blom 12 Olfactory and Gustatory Hallucinations ...... 143 Richard J. Stevenson and Robyn Langdon 13 Hallucinations of Bodily Sensation ...... 157 Jan Dirk Blom and Iris E.C. Sommer 14 Hallucinatory Pain: Central Pain ...... 171 Sergio Canavero 15 Autoscopic Phenomena: Clinical and Experimental Perspectives ...... 187 Anna Sforza and Olaf Blanke 16 Phantom Limb, Phantom Body, Phantom Self: A Phenomenology of “Body Hallucinations” ...... 203 Peter Brugger 17 Sensed Presences ...... 219 James Allan Cheyne 18 Djinns ...... 235 Jan Dirk Blom and Cor B.M. Hoffer

Part III Research

19 Structural Neuroimaging in Psychotic Patients with Auditory Verbal Hallucinations ...... 251 Paul Allen and Gemma Modinos 20 Functional Neuroimaging of Hallucinations ...... 267 André Aleman and Ans Vercammen 21 Neurophysiological Research: EEG and MEG ...... 283 Remko van Lutterveld and Judith M. Ford 22 Psychoactive Substances ...... 297 Vicka Corey, John H. Halpern, and Torsten Passie 23 Examining the Continuum Model of Auditory Hallucinations: A Review of Cognitive Mechanisms ...... 317 Johanna C. Badcock and Kenneth Hugdahl Contents xi

Part IV Treatment

24 Classical Somatic Treatments: Pharmacotherapy and ECT ...... 331 Iris E.C. Sommer and Jan Dirk Blom 25 Experimental Somatic Treatments: Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation in the Treatment of Auditory Verbal Hallucinations – A Meta-Analysis and Review ...... 349 Christina W. Slotema and Z. Jeff Daskalakis 26 Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy ...... 361 Mark van der Gaag 27 Groundwork for the Treatment of Voices: Introducing the Coping-With-Voices Protocol ...... 375 Willemijn A. van Gastel and Kirstin Daalman 28 The Hearing Voices Movement ...... 385 Sandra Escher and Marius Romme

Erratum...... E1

Bibliography of Books on Hallucinations ...... 395

Other Books by the Authors...... 401

Index ...... 403

Contributors

André Aleman , Ph.D. BCN Research School and University Medical Centre , Groningen , The Netherlands [email protected] Paul Allen , M.Sc., Ph.D. Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry , King’s College , London , UK [email protected] Johanna C. Badcock , Ph.D. School of Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences , University of Western Australia , Crawley, Australia Centre for Clinical Research in Neuropsychiatry , Graylands Hospital , Claremont , Australia [email protected] Ralf-Peter Behrendt , M.R.C.Psych. Elderly Mental Health Team , Princess Elizabeth Hospital , St Martin , Guernsey [email protected] German E. Berrios Robinson College , University of Cambridge , Cambridge , UK [email protected] Christine Blanke Voices Clinic, Psychiatry Division , University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht , The Netherlands [email protected] Olaf Blanke , M.D., Ph.D. Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience , Brain-Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland olaf.blanke@epﬂ .ch

xiii xiv Contributors

Jan Dirk Blom , M.D., Ph.D. Parnassia Bavo Academy, Parnassia Bavo Group and University of Groningen , Groningen, The Hague, The Netherlands [email protected] Peter Brugger , Ph.D. Department of Neurology , University Hospital Zurich , Zurich , Switzerland [email protected] Sergio Canavero , M.D., F.M.G.E.M.S. Turin Advanced Neuromodulation Group , Turin , Italy [email protected] James Allan Cheyne , Ph.D. Department of Psychology, University of Waterloo , Waterloo , ON , Canada [email protected] Daniel Collerton , M.A., M.Sc. Northumberland, Tyne and Wear NHS Foundation Trust , UK Newcastle University , Newcastle Upon Tyne , UK [email protected] Vicka Corey , Ph.D. Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA The Laboratory for Integrative Psychiatry, Division of Alcohol and Drug Abuse , McLean Hospital , Belmont , MA , USA [email protected] Kirstin Daalman , M.Sc. Psychiatry Division , Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht , The Netherlands [email protected] Z. Jeff Daskalakis , M.D., Ph.D., F.R.C.P. Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto , Toronto , ON , Canada Brain Stimulation and Research Program , Centre for Addiction and Mental Health , Toronto , ON , Canada Schizophrenia Program , Centre for Addiction and Mental Health , Toronto , ON , Canada [email protected] Kelly M.J. Diederen , M.Sc., Ph.D. Psychiatry Division , Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht , The Netherlands [email protected] Rob Dudley , B.A., Ph.D., D.Clin Psy., Cert CBT Institute of Neuroscience , Newcastle University , Newcastle Upon Tyne , UK Early Intervention in Psychosis Service , Northumberland Tyne and Wear NHS Foundation Trust , UK [email protected] Contributors xv

Sandra Escher , Ph.D. Association Living with Voices, Gravenvoeren, Belgium board member of Intervoice, editor of de ‘Klankspiegel’ Resonance magasine member of Intar (international network towards recovery) [email protected] Judith M. Ford , M.A., M.D., Ph.D. Brain Imaging and EEG Laboratory, VA Medical Center, Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco , San Francisco , CA , USA [email protected] Rutger Goekoop , M.D., Ph.D. Parnassia Bavo Group , The Hague , The Netherlands [email protected] John H. Halpern , M.D. Harvard Medical School , Boston , MA , USA The Laboratory for Integrative Psychiatry, Division of Alcohol and Drug Abuse , McLean Hospital , Belmont , MA , USA [email protected] Cor B. M. Hoffer , M.Sc., Ph.D. Parnassia Bavo Group , Rotterdam , The Netherlands [email protected] Donald D. Hoffman , Ph.D. Professor, Department of Cognitive Science, School of Social Sciences , Donald Bren School of Information and Computer Sciences, University of California, USA [email protected] Kenneth Hugdahl , Ph.D. Department of Biological and Medical Psychology , University of Bergen , Bergen , Norway Division of Psychiatry , Haukeland University Hospital , Bergen , Norway [email protected] Roi Cohen Kadosh , B.A., Ph.D. Department of Experimental Psychology , University of Oxford , Oxford , UK [email protected] David G. Kingdon , M.D., Ph.D., FRCPsych. Department of Psychiatry, University of Southampton , Southampton , UK [email protected] Robyn Langdon , Ph.D. ARC Centre of Excellence in Cognition and its Disorders, Macquarie Centre for Cognitive Science , Macquarie University , Sydney , Australia [email protected] Jasper Looijestijn , M.D. Parnassia Bavo Group , The Hague , The Netherlands [email protected] xvi Contributors

Ivana S. Marková Department of Psychiatry , University of Hull , Hull , UK [email protected] Gemma Modinos , Ph.D. Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry , King’s College , London , UK [email protected] Urs Peter Mosimann , M.D., Ph.D. Department of Old Age Psychiatry, University Hospital of Psychiatry , University of Bern , Bern , Switzerland [email protected] Torsten Passie , M.D., M.A. Department for Psychiatry, Social Psychiatry, and Psychotherapy , Hannover Medical School , Hannover , Germany [email protected] Marius Romme , M.D., Ph.D. Emeritus Prof. of Psychiatry, Maastricht University, Visiting Prof. Birmingham City University www.hearing-voices.com Oliver W. Sacks , M.D. Columbia University Medical Center , New York , NY , USA [email protected] Steven Scholtus , M.Sc. Voices Clinic, Psychiatry Division , University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht , The Netherlands [email protected] Anna Sforza , Ph.D. Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience , Brain-Mind Institute, Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne , Lausanne , Switzerland [email protected] Christina W. Slotema , M.D., Ph.D. Parnassia Bavo Group , The Hague , The Netherlands [email protected] Iris E. C. Sommer , M.D., Ph.D. Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Center Utrecht and Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience , Utrecht , The Netherlands [email protected] Richard J. Stevenson , D.Phil. Department of Psychology , Macquarie University , Sydney , Australia [email protected] Devin Blair Terhune , M.Sc., Ph.D. Department of Experimental Psychology , University of Oxford , Oxford , UK [email protected] Mark van der Gaag , Ph.D. University and EMGO Institute , Amsterdam , The Netherlands Psychosis Research , Parnassia Bavo Group , The Hague , The Netherlands [email protected] Contributors xvii

Willemijn A. van Gastel , M.Sc. Psychiatry Division , Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, University Medical Center Utrecht , Utrecht , The Netherlands [email protected] Remko van Lutterveld , M.Sc. Department of Psychiatry , University Medical Center, Utrecht, The Netherlands and Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience , Utrecht , The Netherlands [email protected] Ans Vercammen , Ph.D. Neuroscience Research Australia , Randwick, Sydney , Australia [email protected]