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Urhobo Culture and the Amnesty Program in Niger Delta, Nigeria: an Ethnographic Case Study John Oghenero Tobor Walden University

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Urhobo Culture and the Amnesty Program in Niger Delta, Nigeria: an Ethnographic Case Study John Oghenero Tobor Walden University Walden University ScholarWorks Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Collection 2014 Urhobo Culture and the Amnesty Program in Niger Delta, Nigeria: An Ethnographic Case Study John Oghenero Tobor Walden University Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/dissertations Part of the African Languages and Societies Commons, and the African Studies Commons This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies Collection at ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Walden Dissertations and Doctoral Studies by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Walden University College of Social and Behavioral Sciences This is to certify that the doctoral dissertation by John Tobor has been found to be complete and satisfactory in all respects, and that any and all revisions required by the review committee have been made. Review Committee Dr. William Benet, Committee Chairperson, Public Policy and Administration Faculty Dr. Morris Bidjerano, Committee Member, Public Policy and Administration Faculty Dr. Mai Moua, University Reviewer, Public Policy and Administration Faculty Chief Academic Officer Eric Riedel, Ph.D. Walden University 2014 Abstract Urhobo Culture and the Amnesty Program in Niger Delta, Nigeria: An Ethnographic Case Study by John O. Tobor Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Public Policy and Administration Walden University September 2014 Abstract Despite abundant oil resources, the residents of the Niger Delta endure extreme poverty, polluted environments, poor infrastructure, and high unemployment. In the early 1990s, these problems led to a violent uprising against oil exploration. In 2009 the government of Nigeria attempted to end the uprising by implementing an amnesty program for the militants that was designed to address the region’s problems. The amnesty program resulted in suspending the violence but so far has not resolved the region’s problems. If these problems are not addressed, the uprising may resume. Although the Urhobo people comprised the largest number of militants from the Western Niger Delta, there has been no research on whether there are aspects of the Urhobo culture that may be helpful for strengthening the amnesty program and preventing a return to violence by Urhobo ex- militants. Benet’s polarities of democracy model served as the theoretical framework for this ethnographic study. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and observations of 20 Urhobo ex-militants to learn what might prevent their return to violence. Content analysis was used to identify significant themes. Findings indicated that aspects of the Urhobo culture, such as communal obligations, respect for elders, and commitment to social justice and equality, may contribute to strengthening the amnesty program and preventing a return to violence. Recommendations include incorporating meaningful participation of Urhobo elders in the further development and implementation of the amnesty program. Implications for social change include informing policy makers of the importance the Urhobo culture may play in strengthening the amnesty program. Urhobo Culture and the Amnesty Program in Niger Delta, Nigeria: An Ethnographic Case Study By John O. Tobor Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Public Policy and Administration Walden University September 2014 Dedication This work is dedicated to the Almighty God for his grace in making my dream a reality. I would also like to dedicate this research work to the memory of my late parents Mr. John G. Tobor and Patience Gbenedio. They did everything they could to make sure that I get to this point in my life but could not be alive to share in this wonderful achievement. They instilled in me a love for education and learning. Their life lessons are a treasure and a source of inspiration. Acknowledgments I wish to acknowledge the Almighty God who made this possible. I sincerely thank my committee chair Dr. William Benet for all the help and guidance provided throughout the entire process of this journey. Special thanks to Dr. Morris Bidjerano my committee member and Dr. Mai Moua the university research reviewer for their contributions in making this work a quality product. Along this journey, there are those whose support and encouragement must be acknowledged. I wish to extend my gratitude to my wife Ikpenwosa Tobor and son Anthony Akpewheoghene Tobor. They both deserve a special recognition for putting up with me throughout the period of my study. Thank you for your understanding, patience, prayers and for accommodating all my shortcomings as a result of this work. Special thanks to my friends and colleagues Festus Odubo, Obatusin Oluwasegun, Peter Opone, and Eisa Shaheen Without their support, idea and information sharing, the road would have indeed been a more difficult one. Table of Contents List of Tables ..................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study ....................................................................................1 Background ....................................................................................................................7 Problem Statement .......................................................................................................10 Purpose of the Study ....................................................................................................10 Research Questions ......................................................................................................11 Central Research Question .................................................................................... 11 Sub Questions ....................................................................................................... 12 Conceptual/Theoretical Framework .............................................................................12 Research Design ...........................................................................................................16 Definitions of Key Terms ............................................................................................18 Assumptions .................................................................................................................21 Scope and Delimitations ..............................................................................................21 Limitations ...................................................................................................................22 Significance..................................................................................................................23 Implications for Social Change ....................................................................................24 Summary ......................................................................................................................26 Chapter 2: Literature Review .............................................................................................28 Introduction ..................................................................................................................28 Historical Background of the Niger-Delta Crisis .........................................................32 i Root Causes of the Niger Delta Crises ........................................................................37 Amnesty Initiative: Prospects and Challenges .............................................................42 The Concept of Corporate Social Responsibility.........................................................48 Implementation of the Amnesty Initiative from a Cultural Perspective ......................52 Implementation of the Amnesty Initiative with Community Participation Approach ..........................................................................................................54 Polarities of Democracy Model ...................................................................................58 Summary and Conclusion ............................................................................................62 Chapter 3: Research Method ..............................................................................................64 Introduction ..................................................................................................................64 Research Design and Rationale ...................................................................................65 Research Questions ......................................................................................................67 Central Research Question .................................................................................... 67 Sub Questions ....................................................................................................... 67 Justification of Qualitative Research ...........................................................................68 Justification of Ethnographic Case Study ....................................................................69 Challenges of Ethnographic
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