PROCEEDINGS First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop

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Organized by Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)

Sponsored by European Union (EU)—Oxen Traction Project/Ethiopia

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Mm t M mm cm® I Qwmi Tracte-im' Research Review and Strategy Workshop PROCEEDINGS First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop

3-5 December 1997 Debre Zeit, Ethiopia

Organized by Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO) International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)

Sponsored by European Union (EU)— Oxen Traction Project/Ethiopia ©1998

Published by Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization (EARO), and International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Sponsored by European Union (EU)— Oxen Traction Project/Ethiopia

Workshop Organizing Committee

Dr Alemu Gebre Wold, Holetta Research Center, EARO— Chairman Seyoum Bedeye, Holetta Research Center, EARO— Secretary Firew Kelemu, Melkasa Research Center, EARO— Member

Page layout Amare MoIIa

Correct Citation EARO (Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization) and ILRI (International Livestock Research Institute). 1998. Proceedings of the First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop, 3-5 December! 997, Debre Zeit Management Institute, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia. EARO and ILRI, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. CONTENTS

PREFACE

WELCOME ADDRESS

OPENING ADDRESS

PARTI. PLENARY SESSION

Role of draft oxen power in Ethiopian agriculture Alemu Gebre Wold

Status of oxen traction research in ILRI, Ethiopia: experiences and global prospective Osujiy P.O., Umuntta, N.N., Seblewengel, B. Talle and Asfaw Yimegnuhal

Nutrient requirement and feeding strategy for draft oxen Seyoum Bediye

Prevalent diseases of draft oxen and control measures Feseha Gebreab

Cattle breed improvement for sustainable draft power use in Ethiopian agriculture Azage Tegegne

Alternative application of oxen power for its optimal use AbiyeAstatke andMelese Temesgen

Alternative practices in crop production for small-scale farmers in case of animal power shortage Adugna Wakjira andAmare Gizaw

Need for integrated approach in animal power use in Ethiopia Feseha Gebreab PART II. TECHNICAL PAPERS 71

Use of oxen in the central zone of Ethiopia: experiences in eastern Shewa 73 Tilahun Mulatu and Mengistu Geza

Use of oxen in the central highlands of Ethiopia: experience in Western 79 Shewa Zone Fikre Abera

Uses of oxen in traditional farming systems of southern Ethiopia: experience in Adami Tutu, Sidama, Welayita and Areka 85 Abule Ebro

Farming systems research in draft animals in Ethiopia and its implication for future research 92 Hailu Beyene

Use of oxen in the traditional farming systems of northwest Ethiopia: experience in Amhara Region 98 Alemu Hattye, Asmare Yallew and Aklilu Agidie

Use of oxen traction in traditional farming system of Western Ethiopia: experience in Bako 105 Mulugeta Kebede

Use of oxen in the traditional farming system of Southwestern Ethiopia: experience in Jima 111 Berhanu Belay

Use of oxen in the traditional farming systems of Eastern Ethiopia: experience in the Eastern Harerge 118 Mohammed Yusuf Kurtu andEshetu Mulatu

Use of oxen in the highlands of Ethiopia: Experience at Holetta and Ginchi 131 Taye Bekure .

PART III. STRATEGIES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH IN 137 ANIMAL TRACTION

Group discussion 139

Observations and recommendations 142

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Preface

The first National Workshop on ’’Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy" was held during 3-5 December 1997 at the Ethiopian Management Institute (EMI), Debre Zeit. A total of 52 professionals from the Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization EARO), Ministry of Agriculture, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), Higher Learning Institutions, Ethiopian Science and Technology Commission (ESTC), Ministry of Economic Development and Cooperation (MEDAC), Regional Agricultural Bureaus, and UNDP attended the three day workshop. The workshop was opened by Dr. Mengistu Hulluka, Academic Vice President of the Alemaya University of Agriculture. The workshop was jointly organized by the EARO and ILRI, with the financial assistance obtained from the European Union (EU).

The purpose of the workshop was to review research and development efforts on oxen traction and identify future strategies in the utilization of oxen traction in Ethiopia. The workshop programme was composed of scientific paper presentations in plenary and technical sessions, field visits and group discussions. A total of 17 papers were presented and field visits were made to the Melkasa Research Center of EARO near Nazareth and ILRI's Research Station at Debre Zeit.

Oxen traction has been, since time immemorial, an integral part of the smallholder farming system in Ethiopia. According to some historical facts, the use of oxen for traction in the country dates back to 2750 B.C. Ethiopia was the first country in sub-Saharan Africa to develop the use oxen for traction purposes and currently owns about 50% of the total oxen population on the continent. It was also noted that livestock are used as source of power in many other developing countries, and plow about 52% of the total of 479 million hectares of arable land. Agricultural mechanization through the use of tractors and other farm machinery has been considered as a "quick fix" to many of the agricultural development schemes in developing countries. However, this approach has resulted in dismal failures due to high cost of machinery, oil and spare parts and the need for highly qualified technicians. Moreover, fragmented and small landholding and the potential negative impact of motorized technologies on the environment are limiting factors for such agricultural mechanization. As a result, the current trend in agricultural development in many developing countries is based on animal powered intensification with due consideration to the environment.

In Ethiopia, crop production is almost totally dependent upon animal power. In 1994/95, about 6 million, 0.9 million and 0.4 million hectares of land were cultivated employing approximately 9 million draft oxen for the production of cereal crops, pulses and oil crops, respectively. About 62% of the meat production comes from oxen slaughtered after completion of their services as traction animals and 90% of the milk produced is a by-products of the process of production of animals for traction purposes. Draft oxen also produce an estimated 60 million tones of manure per annum which is primarily used as fuel or fertilizer. It is also estimated that the power generated by these animals is equivalent to about 30% of the total electricity used annually in the country. Approximately 87% of the farm community is dependent on mixed crop-livestock production systems, and hence the role of draft oxen in providing farm power and other related utilities can not be overemphasized. 2 \PREFACE

In accordance with the agriculture-led industrialization policy of the Government of the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, efforts are being made to ensure self-sufficiency in food production and promote food security in the country. This can only be realized through the application of direct farm inputs such as improved seeds, fertilizers etc, proper and efficient production techniques and conducive policy environment The emphasis given to ensure the fulfillment of the animal power requirements of the smallholder farmer in the crop-livestock production system, however, is far below expectations. In this production system, about 34% of the farmers own one ox and another 29% have no oxen. Availability and access to draft oxen at the right time of the year influence cropland cultivation and agricultural productivity. In the highlands of Ethiopia, where the majority of the mixed crop-livestock production systems prevail, human population pressure has resulted in land fragmentation, pushing crop production into more fragile areas which result in land degradation and loss of productivity. Agricultural intensification to improve farm outputs, while protecting the environment, are major concerns of today. To ensure sustainable agricultural production systems in the country, a more integrated and efficient crop-livestock systems have to evolve. In this regard, a more efficient and sustainable animal power use should be developed and extended to the fanning communities at large. This, however, can only be achieved through protracted and concerted research and extension efforts by the concerned institutions.

During the workshop, research results related to oxen traction, feed resources and feeding strategies, animal breeding options to improve animal power, animal drawn implements, animal diseases and socio-economic aspects were presented and reviewed. The workshop participants appreciated the efforts being made in this regard, but also realized that there is a dire need for more integrated and focused approach to be able to impact on the farming communities. It was also noted that participatory and multi-disciplinary research programmes involving animal scientists, veterinarians, soil scientists, agricultural engineers, economists and others have to be developed in the future. An appropriate policy environment that enables promotion of smallholder agriculture intensification, incorporating animal production and power, should also be created. In order to facilitate research and development efforts in promoting animal power use in the country, the workshop participants established the Ethiopian Network for Animal Power (ENAP) under the auspices of the Ethiopian Society of Animal Production (ESAP). An eight-person steering committee was elected to lead ENAP.

Alemu Gebre Wold (PhD) Chairman, Workshop Organizing Committee Proceedings First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 3-4

Welcome Address

Alemu Gebre Wold Holetta Research Center, EARO, PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba

Dr. Mengistu Huluka, Vice President, Alemaya University of Agriculture Distinguished guests, Conference participants, Dear Colleagues,

n behalf of myself and the organizing committee, it gives me great pleasure to welcome you all to this First Workshop on Oxen Traction. The small scale farming sector has been the backbone of our country’s agricultural production from time in memorial, and animal traction especially that of oxen has been the main source of power. Currently in accordance with our government agriculture-led industrialization policy the small scale farmer should be self - sufficient and ensure the food security of the nation and be able to produce extra to finance the other sub sectorO of the economy. This can be realized through direct input (seed, fertilizer), supplemented with sufficient power input, proper production techniques and appropriate policies.

Generally farm production and rural transport require power. There are three power source options: human labor, animal power, and use of motors. These are not necessarily exclusive or competitive, human, animal and motorized power can exist in the same farm at the same time. The choice depends on local conditions. The most appropriate power types to use, depends on the work to be done and the relative desirability availability, affordability and technical efficiency of the options. If much work is to be done fast, human power alone is generally slow and tiring. Mechanization (using animal or motorized power) can increase the productivity of human labor. With the present trends of growing human populations, increasing urbanization and rising economic aspirations it is evident that agricultural production must increase to ensure food security and self-sufficiency. This calls for expansion in area of land to be cultivated or intensification of existing production systems. The technology packages to be developed must lend themselves to an increase of productivity, conserve the environment and be able to provide a more rewarding livelihood for smallholder farmers.

In recent years it has become clear that animal traction technology is proving highly persistent in smallholder farming systems throughout the world. Unfortunately for 2 to 3 generations, the assumption that animal traction was mainly of historic interest has negatively influenced policy makers, agricultural colleges, research centers. As a consequence animal traction technologies have been largely neglected. Animal traction has been omitted from most agricultural curricula and research centers do not have strong programs. As a result very few agricultural policy makers and researchers have had good education on animal traction. Unless we change our attitude and orientation, the situation is likely to continue for many years to come. 4 \ AIEMU GEBRE WOLD

In Ethiopia, though oxen could be used as an alternative power source, the implements which go with it and the old techniques of agricultural husbandry will not enable farmers to feed the ever increasing population and meet the new challenge of the agriculture-led industrialization. Better land preparation, crop establish­ ment tools and techniques and proper selection of power units (oxen), breed and management are needed more today than ever before.

Proper choice of draught animals, improved feed and control of animal diseases (trypanosomiasis) is the agenda, if we are to expand cultivation to the productive areas of the south west. Improved implements at an affordable price are required to meet the objectives of small-scale agricultural production. The sum of the which makes it logical to the gathering of this team of experts on oxen traction at this pertinent time logical.

At this workshop, all the concerned organizations, research, policy makers, higher learning institutes and regions have been invited, and we are expected to come up with viable recommendations and a strategy that will help us to set up programs which will make effective use of oxen traction for the development of the Ethiopian smallholder agriculture sector. It is, therefore, appropriate at this time to invite Dr. Mengistu Huluka, Vice President of Alemaya University of Agriculture, to officially open this First Workshop on Oxen Traction.

Thank you.

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Opening Address

Dr Mengistu Hulluka Academic Vice President, Alemaya University of Agriculture

Conference participants, Ladies and gentlemen}

H t is indeed a privilege and an honor to have the opportunity to deliver an opening remark on this oxen ■ traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop, the first of its kind in Ethiopia.

I I After several decades of engagement in agricultural research in Ethiopia, no one denies the fact that ■ Jess emphasis had been given to livestock research in general and animal traction in particular as compared to crop agriculture. However, the current trend of the mobilization of all efforts toward livestock development is more of an encouragement and hopefully such a venture will generate more research undertakings in future.

The diversity of the country's ecology has rendered it possible to support livestock production of all kinds and animal agriculture forms an integral part of the farming systems in almost all ecological zones of the country.

As one of the main component of agriculture in Ethiopia, there is no doubt that livestock play a major role in the national economy. Other than meeting the necessary food demand livestock and their products provide direct cash income, and serve as a living bank for many farmers, in addition to their contribution to agricultural intensification through the provision of power and manure. Official statistics often underestimate the contribution of livestock especially their multipurpose contribution to food and agricultural production as many important non-food outputs, which are difficult to quantify in monetary terms, are excluded from the calculation.

At farm level, draft animal ownership patterns have remarkable impact on food production and food security. There are positive correlations between draft animal ownership and cereal production. In many developing countries ownership is skewed; many small and marginal farmers own no or inadequate number of draft animals. Crop production of these farmers suffers due to late planting, poor quality tillage, use of low value crops needing less tillage and an inability to cultivate all available land. These problems are normally aggravated after natural calamities such as flood or drought due to the death or poor health of animals and increased draft animal prices.

These days, agricultural development, just as the industrial development has become increasingly dependent on the use of petroleum and coal. Agricultural mechanization has spread rapidly throughout the world due to the fact that engines are more efficient than animals. The advantages of agricultural mechanization in the developed countries convinced Third World countries to pursue mechanization as a "quick-fix” to most ills of food production. Unfortunately in many of these countries such a sign of technological development has turned out to be an economic "nightmare", since the purchase of various machines, spare parts and oil 6 \ MENGISTU HULLUKA

supplies required foreign currency. The shortage of hard currencies, coupled, in some cases, with lack of skilled manpower, and the requirement of regular maintenance of machines, have discouraging effects in most instances. In recent years, the escalating cost of oil and its by-products concurrent with world wide economic recession and product depression has accentuated the problems on the use of agricultural mechanization. These problems can be, at least partially, surmounted by greater and more efficient use of draft animals as has been demonstrated in India.

The use of draft animals for farming and transportation has been practiced since ancient times and remains to be economical to farmers in developing countries like ours. While scientific advances in nutrition, breeding, physiology and veterinary medicine have made great strides in increasing farm animal productivity, the same cannot be said about the improvement of work capacity in draft animals. Due to the limited scientific data on energetic efficiency of muscular work and unavailability of work capacity indices for draft animals, no progress toward improving their work performance has been made.

Various factors have contributed to the absence of breakthroughs in the improvement of the work capacity of draft animals. The major factor responsible for this is the level of research attention this area was attaining over past decade. Despite its significant role in the farming system, animal traction research did not attain the attention it deserves until very recently. Under Ethiopian condition, very limited efforts have been exerted in this area and it appears that most of the challenges were left to the farmers themselves. Basically improvement of work capacity requires consolidated effort from quite divergent fields of agricultural sciences (animal production, agricultural engineering, agronomy, soil sciences and farming systems). Under situations where animal traction research is not organized in a team approach it is almost impossible to attain any breakthrough.

Animal traction research is currently receiving considerable attention in many countries in Africa and Asia from governments, international and bilateral aid agencies, national and international research centers and universities redirecting their agricultural policies towards greater focus on small scale farmers and their needs. Major reasons for the increased interest in animal traction have been the high cost of imported machinery, the foreign exchange burden of fossil fuel and the disappointing experience in repair and maintenance of machineries.

The direction of national policies relating to the use of animal traction in developing countries is poorly defined and this has severely hampered research planning. Research efforts in animal traction under local condition were not supported by strategy document and most of the activities had a piece meal nature. It is therefore imperative that this workshop focuses on critically reviewing what has been done so far and identify future approach by taking farmers circumstances into account. In your deliberations in the coming three days you are expected to come up with a clear workshop synthesis report and recommendations to streamline animal traction research, particularly for oxen traction. Finally, I wish you success and declare the first national oxen traction research review and strategy workshop officially open.

Thank you.

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Role of Draft Oxen Power in Ethiopian Agriculture

Alemu Gebre Wold Holetta Research Center, EARO, PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

thiopia has a diverse topography and climatic conditions. It is predominantly an agricultural country, with 85% of its population employed in traditional agriculture. Cattle breeds came into Ethiopia between 2750 - 2500 B.C. Records suggests that as early as 2000 B.C., domestic cattle were used for land cultivation. Ethiopia is considered the home of some of the most important cattle breeds in eastern and southern Africa. Cattle are the dominant livestock species in all farming systems. In the smallholder mixed farming system, crop livestock integration varies greatly. In the highlands of Ethiopia it is highly integrated. EIn Ethiopian agriculture, cattle have multiple functions. They play a critical role in the agricultural intensification processes by providing draft power and manure for crop production. They are raised to supply food (milk and meat) and provide a flexible financial reserve in years of crop failure. Due to the rugged terrain and small farm size oxen have been and will remain the main source of draft power in the reconstruction and development of Ethiopian agriculture. However, with the present trend in population growth trends sustainability of the system is crucial. As a pair of oxen is needed to cultivate the back up stock required to maintain these oxen is neither efficient nor cheap. This may lead to crop-livestock competition rather than integration. This paper considers the feature of cattle in the different farming systems of the country. The focus is on the role that draft oxen power plays in Ethiopian agriculture and the integration of crop-]ivestock in the highlands.

Introduction

Ethiopia is predominantly an agricultural country with production. In the highland farming systems, both small 85% of its population engaged in agriculture. The farm size and rugged terrain preclude, or severely limits, majority of the human population and 75% of the cattle the use of agricultural machinery. are found in the highlands. Out of more than 60 million In spite of its huge potential for agricultural ha of cultivable land, not more than 10 million ha has development, Ethiopia has been faced with chronic been put to production at any one time. The major crops shortages of food and cash crops. Ethiopia has not been produced are cereals (tef, maize, sorghum, barley, able to achieve food self-sufficiency to feed the ever- wheat), legumes ( bean, chickpea and field peas), oil increasing human population and to obtain sufficient seeds, root crops and permanent crops (coffee, citrus, foreign exchange to purchase agricultural and industrial banana) and fiber crops. Ethiopia’s livestock population inputs to increase production. Major causes for low is the largest in Africa: cattle 29 million, sheep 22 productivity are use of traditional implements, low million, goats 16 million and equines 5 million (FAO, yielding varieties, poor agricultural practices, shortage of 1995). draft animal and acute feed shortage. To solve the draft In the Ethiopian highlands, smallholder mixed power need, research organizations are urged to develop farming is the dominant mode of production. Crop and technological packages for the high potential zone that livestock subsystems are complementary to each other enable the exploitation of crop-livestock interactions. and highly integrated. Over 90% of the farmers in the This paper attempts to highlight the value of draft highlands use animal traction in food crop production. animals in Ethiopian agriculture. Oxen are the preferred draft power source for food crop 10 V ALEMU GEBRE WOLD

Origin and classification of Ethiopian cattle breeds

Ethiopia is considered the home of some of the most TABLE 1. Classification of the Indigenous cattle of important cattle breeds in eastern and southern Africa. Ethiopia The indigenous breeds as described by Payne (1970), Class Breed or Population originated from the migration of Hematic longhorn from Egypt along the Nile valley between 2750-2500 BC and Humpless the humped Zebu from India between 2000 and 1788 Brachyceros Sheko (Mitzan, Goda) B.C. through the Horn of Africa (Payne 1970). Inter Hametic Longhom Kuri (Kouri) breeding between the Hametic longhorn and zebu re­ Shorthorn sulted in a third breed, the Sanga, which spread to south­ ern Africa. A second invasion of zebu cattle is believed Zebu Arsi to have led to the displacement of Sanga and Sanga/zebu Barka (Begait) Borana (Boran) types. Arab (Adeni, Berbera, Bahari) Ethiopian cattle breeds are generally named after the Shorthorn Zebu (Harer) area where they occur, they arc not characterized and Highland Zebu (Bale) little is known of their relationships. Amongst these Black Zebu (Jem-Jem) Small Zebu (Jijjiga) identifiable types there has been uncontrolled inter­ mating, which has resulted in dilution of breed character­ Sanga Danakil (Adal, Raya, Keriyu, Afar) istics. Hence, a large proportion of the cattle population Raya Azebo (Galia-Azebo) is non-descript. Abigar (Nilotic) Intermediate To date, little effort has been made to comprehen­ Horro sively describe the indigenous cattle breeds of Ethiopia. Sanga/zebu Fogera (Wagera) Alberro and Haile Mariam (1982a, 1982b) classified Arado Ethiopian cattle breeds into four broad categories: the Jiddu humpless Hametic longhom and shorthorn, the zebu, the Fellata (Red Bororo) sanga and the intermediate Sanga/zebu (Table 1). All of Other these cattle types/breeds were described as having con­ siderable adaptability to harsh climates, poor nutrition Source: Alberro and Haile-mariam (1962a) and diseases endemic to their habitat.

Cattle population, distribution and productivity

Ethiopia’s cattle population is the largest in Africa milk and power (Table 3). In the semi-arid and highland (Table 2). The distribution of cattle varies among differ­ zones the human population and cattle concentration are ent agroecological zones. About 46% are found in the positively correlated with major agricultural farming highlands, their major outputs are power, meat, milk and system (Table 3 and 5b). About 45%, 30%, 18% and manure. Whereas, 30% are found in arid and semi arid 5.5% of the cattle population are found in Oromia, zones where they are the basis of the economy by pro­ Amhara, SEPAR and Tigrai regions, respectively (Table viding milk, meat and power. The rest are found in sub- 4). The productivity of cattle breeds of Ethiopia is very humid and humid zones, the major outputs being meat, low (Table 2).

Role of Cattle in Ethiopian Agriculture

Cattle, with their large numbers and diversity of products, any other livestock species, undoubtedly contribute more to the national economy than

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP ROLE OF DRAFT OXEN POWER \ 11

Cattle as source of income Cattle as direct food suppliers

At farm level, the importance of livestock as income source An adequate quantity of balanced and nutritious food is a and other actual sources of income may vary across ecolog­ primary indicator of quality of life, human welfare and ical zones and production systems, which in turn deter­ development. Animals products contain quality protein, mines the species raised, and the products and services minerals, vitamins and micronutrients. Animal proteins generated. Cash can be generated from sales of livestock contains essential amino acids that are deficient in cereals. products regularly or sporadically (live animal, meat , Furthermore, animal proteins are more digestible and hides) or from services (draft, transport).In the highland metabolized more efficiently than plant proteins (Winrock, smallholder crop-Livestock systems, livestock account for 1992). In Ethiopia, cattle provide about 230,000 tons of 34-87 percent of total cash income (Gryseels, 19.88). Live­ meat and 738,000 tons of milk annualy (FAO, 1995) (Table stock gives increased economic stability to farm house­ 2). With the present productivity level and population holds, serving as a cash buffer (small stock), a capital growth the per caput milk and meat production is declining. reserve (large animals) and as a hedge against inflation. In The demand for meat and milk will be influenced by popu­ the highland crop-livestock production systems, livestock lation growth, urbanization and income growth. For sub- reduces the risk through diversification of production and Saharan countries to feed the growing population, food income sources and thus there is a much wider basis to deal production has to increase at 4% annually (Winrock, 1992). with seasonal crop failure and natural calamities. Livestock represent significant assets which can be realized any time.

TABLE 2. Estimate of Ethiopia’s livestock population and productivity

Livestock type Population ('000} Productivity Cattle 29,825 Milk production Sheep 21,700 Yield (kg/animal) 209 Goat 16,700 Total milk production ('000 ml) 738 Equine 8,580 Camel 1,000 Beef production Carcass w t (kg/animal) 105 Total beef production (‘000 mt) 230 62%

Mutton and lamb Carcass wt.( kg/animal) 10 Total production (‘000 mt) 78 21%

Goaf moat production carcass wt. (kg/animal) 9 Total production ('000 mt) 62 17% Source: FAO Year book, 1995

TA B LE 3. Human and cattle distribution in the major agricultural systems of Ethiopia

% % human Crop-livestock Major agricultural cattle Major Zone population integration systems population livestock output Arid 5 Pure livestock Pastoral 14 Milk and meat Semi arid 44 Livestock-crop Cereals/sorghum 16 Mitk, power Millet/livestock Sub humid 5 Crop-livestock Cereals/maize 16 Meat, milk, power Sorghum/livestock Peri-urban milk Humid 2 Crop-livestock Forest/permanent 8 manure, meat crop-roots Power, meat Highland 46 Weil integrated Cereals (tef/wheat) 46 milk, manure crop-livestock livestock Source: Janke, 1982.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 12 \ ALEMU GEBRE WOLD

TABLE 4. Livestock population distribution by region (‘000)

Reaion Cattle Sheep Goat Equine Camels Oromia 13383.51 4722.18 3020.43 1879.32 14.09 (45%) Amhara 8936.18 3825.56 3700.11 1397.63 5.60 (30%) SEPAR 5430.51 1954.11 998.40 382.79 0.00 (18.2) Tigrai 1627.71 8431.39 1450.67 232.07 14.09 (5.5) Afar 214.50 114.66 230.85 18.03 84.62 Benshangu! 110.30 37.03 104.05 10.59 0.00 Dire Dawa 61.42 37.57 79.88 9.74 11.90 Addis Abeba 24.98 4.30 5.62 5.47 0.00 Harari 19.40 3.62 18.26 2.69 0.00 Gambela 16.50 5.43 3.36 0.00 0.00 Total 29825.02 11545.85 9611.63 3938.32 248.18

Source: CSA, 1994/95

TA B LE 5a. Estimate of area under different land use systems

Type of land use ‘000 ha % Temporary crops 7152.00 75.47 Permanent crops 539.83 5.70 Grazing land 646.24 6.82 Fallow land 705.83 7.45 Wood land 24.68 0.26 Others 408.02 4.30 Total 9476.60 100.00

Source: CSA 1994/95

TA B LE 5b. Estimate of area under different land use systems by region In private holdings (‘OOOha)

Region Crop land Grazing land Wood land All (and Oromia 3448.10 847.33 198.73 4494.21 Amhara 2690.45 241.27 101.07 3032.78 SEPAR 931.05 220.76 96.02 1274.83 Tigray 508.14 37.43 31.79 577.38 Benshangul 61.78 2.56 2.32 66.66 Afar 17.07 0.70 1.07 18.83 A.A 10.58 0.97 0.52 12.08 D.D 10.17 0.37 0.43 10.99 Harari 7.29 0.27 0.20 7.76 Gambella 7.14 0.41 0.56 8.11 Total 7691.77 1352.07 432.71 9503.63

Source: CSA (1994/95)

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP ROLE OF DRAFT OXEN POWER \ 13

Cattle as suppliers of inputs and services for development of sustainable agriculture. Integration of crop production livestock and crops allows for efficient nutrient recycling through the use of crop residues and by-products as animal feeds and animal manure as crop fertilizer. Cattle dung Draft power contains 8 kg of nitrogen, 4 kg of phosphate and 16 kg of The use of domestic animals to provide tractive power for potash per tone of dry matter (Ange, 1994). Further more, cultivation began around 2750 B.C. Work for which manure retains organic matter in the soil, helping to animals are used includes soil preparation, (ploughing, maintain its structure as well as its water and drainage hoeing, harrowing) crop husbandry, (seeding) crop capacities. processing (threshing) and on- and off-farm transport of In a country like Ethiopia, manure is the primary source agricultural products. The most preferred species used for of plant nutrients for traditional rainfed crops. Generally, tractive power are cattle, equine and camels, the later ones chemical fertilizers are expensive and farmers cannot afford are mainly used for transportation. However, the intensity to buy them, making manure an alternative source. In of use varies according to the farming system (tables 3 ,5b). general, only a small fraction of crop land receives Ethiopia has the largest draft oxen population in Sub- adequate manure. Manure availability depends on the Saharan Africa. There are about 7-8 million oxen livestock, manuring time, feed supply and alternate use of cultivating about 7-10 million hectare of crops land manure. In Ethiopia very little has been done to encourage annually (Table 5b). At farm level, draft animal ownership farmers to use manure as fertilizer. has several implications for food production and security. There is a positive correlation between availability of draft Dung forfuel and beating animals and cereal production (Gryseels 1988; Omiti, Cattle are the major producer of dung. In recent years in 1995). Many small and marginal farmers own no or one ox rural and urban centers more and more dung is being used only (Gryseels 1988; Asamenew 1991). Crop production of as fuel for cooking, heating and reducing expenditure on these farmers suffers due to late planting, poor quality fossil fuels. This phenomenon is prompted by scarcity of tillage , use of low value crops needing less tillage and fuel wood and the high price of fossil fuel. The collection inability to cultivate all available land. Recurrent drought, and drying of dung for cooking generate income for poor health and increased prices have greatly aggravated women. Women already use dung as plaster and as a availability of draft animals (Jabbar, 1995). building materials. In every household the allocation of dung, either as fertilizer, as fuels or building material is Manure determined by considering their trade-off. Nutrient recycling is an essential part of any strategy for the

Constraints to increased animat production and productivity with emphasis on draft cattle

■ Feed shortage In the highlands there is an acute feed shortage. Draft oxen are too weak to pull the maresha ■ Policy The country has no policy for draft animal during the land preparation season. mechanization. Unfair competition between crop and livestock have stifled production. ■ Animal health Diseases sharply reduce productivity of draft oxen in all agricultural zones. ■ Institutional constraints: Research research organizations are not generating » Inadequate knowledge o f the fanning systems There sufficient new technology packages in the area of is inadequate understanding of the dynamics of crop- animal traction. livestock farming systems, which have a great Extension services there is a lack of technology variation in cropping pattern, market opportunities, packages and services are poorly organized (health livestock alternatives, labor, technology and inputs. services)

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 14 \ ALEMU GEBRE WOLD

Inadequate education and training systems: * University level education curricula um in animal * Primary and secondary education does not provide sciences do not address draft animal production and students with relevant knowledge and skills. management.

• Junior college training does not prepare for the • Post-graduate education is not preparing research changing roles in agriculture. workers for development oriented agricultural research in the country.

Priorities for research and development in the use of draft animals

The opportunities for research and development to Diverse and efficient resource use overcome existing constraints on draft animal use are numerous and the contribution of animals, especially that Reduced risk of cattle, can be greatly enhanced. In order to achieve this, however, a re-orientation of program focus and direction Better use of farm labour for higher productivity and using multi-disciplinary agroecological approaches is increased income necessary. Such programs have the potential to demonstrate sustainable production systems, increase productivity and Efficient use of biological and chemical energy environmental protection in mixed crop-livestock farming systems. Development of sustainable systems that use recycling of nutrient resources Why focus on mixed crop livestock farming system Increased economic output Development of stable farm households The relevance and potential importance of mixed farming (Mohammed Saleem, 1995). is associated with the complementarity of crop and animal sub-systems, leading to increased productivity and food self-sufficiency. The advantages of integrated systems are:

Draft oxen research and development focus

In the semi-arid highland zones there is a need to intensify • Adaptation and testing of low-cost implements to and diversify the use of draft animals. The overall objective improve farm operation and to enhance soil/water is to provide low-cost technology that enhances both the management. profitability and sustainability of agricultural production. The priority research and development activities that • Assessment of working efficiency at low feeding levels concentrate initially on technology development in the two and the testing of strategic supplementary feeding of major zones (highland and semi-arid) are: draft animals.

• Integration of crop-livestock production systems • Development of efficient triple purpose (draft, milk through improved use of manure. and meat) animal production enterprises.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW ANO STRATEGY WORKSHOP ROLE OF DRAFT OXEN POWER \ 15

REFERENCES

Alberro, M. and Haile Mariam, S. 1982a. The indigenous cattle breeds of Ethiopia. Part I. World Animal Review. 41:2-10. Alberro, M. and Haile Mariam, S. 1982b. The indigenous cattle breeds of Ethiopia. Part II. World Animal Review. 42:27-34. Ange, AJL 1994. Integrated plant nutrition ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya. Management in cropping and Farming systems - A challenge for small fanners in developing countries. Food and Agriculture Organization Rome. Italy Asamenew G. 1991. A study of the farming system of some Ethiopian highland vertisol areas. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Central Statistical Authority (CSA) 1995.1994/95, Agricultural sample survey, livestock, poultry and beehive population. Statistical Bulletin No. 13. CSA. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. FAO. 1995. FAO Yearbook, Vol. 49. FAO, Rome. Gryseels G. 1988. The pole of livestock in the generation of smallholder farm income in two veitisols areas of the central Ethiopian highland. In. Jutzi Sc. Haque I, Mclntire and Stares, JES (eds.) Management of veitisols in sub-Saharan Africa- ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Janke, H.E. 1982. Livestock Production Systems and Livestock Development in Tropical Africa. Kider, Winssen shaftler venlag. Vank, Kiel, Genunmy. Mobammed - Saleem, SA. 1995. Mixed farming systems in Sub-Saharan Africa. In: R.Trevor Wilson, Simeon Ehai and Simon Mack, (eds) Livestock deveplopment strategies for low income countries. ILRI, Nairobi, Kenya. Omiti J. 1995. Economic analysis of crop-livestock integration; the case of the Ethiopian highlands. PhD disser. Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of New England, Armidales Australia. Payne, W J.A . 1970. The cattle production in the tropics Vol. I. Chapter 1 The origin of tropical and sub tropical breeds. Long man London. Sansoncy, R., Jabbar, 1VLA, Ehui. S. and Fitzugh H. 1995. The contribution of livestock to food and sustainable development. In: Wilson. Ehui and Mack (eds). Livestock Development Strategies for low income countries ILRI, Nairobe, Kenya. Winrock. 1992. An assessement of animal agriculture in Sub-Saharan Africa. Winrock International. Morrilton, U.S.A.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy W orkshop PUBUSHED BY EARO AND ILRI P. 1 6 -2 5

Status of Oxen Traction Research in ILRI, Ethiopia Experiences and Global Prospective

Osuji, P.O., Umunna, N.N., Seblewengel, B. Talle andAsfaw Yimegmihal international Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

raft oxen have been used extensively by smallholders in many crop-livestock mixed production systems. In these systems, crop production is totally dependent on oxen power. Other livestock have also been used for draft purposes depending on locality and circumstances. However, improved efficiency of utilization of animal power is yet to be achieved necessitating more research on the effective utilization of animal power in small-scale agriculture. DStudies by ILCA/ILRI on draft oxen have provided substantial information on draft power requirements, work output and effect of work and nutritional stress on animal performance and on the causes of fatigue. Additionally, strategies for the utilization of available feed resources for the dual purpose use of oxen for drought and beef have been evaluated. Nutrients needed by work oxen to optimize growth compensatory responses after a period of work have also been investigated. This paper reports work carried out at the ILRI Debre Zeit Research Station on the effect of supplementation, body condition and work levels on the feed intake, live weight gain, carcass characteristics and physiological changes of zebu draft animals. Specifically, the effects of work on rectal temperature, respiration rate, skin temperature and the effects of work and level of supplementation on blood metabolites are presented.

Introduction

D ra ft animals have been an integral part of traditional oxen, during the preceding dry season, is usually recom­ agricultural systems for thousands of years (Lawrence mended. However, various research reports have not and Pearson, 1989). There are about one billion draft been consistent and supplementation during the dry animals benefiting approximately two billion people in season has not proven unequivocally that improving the the world. Nearly fifty percent of the cultivated land of diet of draft animals prior to the working season enables the world depends on draft animals (Ramaswamy, 1985). the animals to perform work more efficiently and that Draft animals will continue to play an important role, this improves their work output (Dicko and Sangare, particularly in intensive agricultural systems of the 1984; International Livestock Center for Africa (ILCA), tropics (Ffloukes and Bamualim, 1989), In many devel­ 1988; Bartholomew et al., 1993). In addition, supple­ oping countries financial pressures on individual farmers mentary feeding may not be economical, since draft are such that draft animals are the only viable power oxen w’ork for only 50-70 days per year (ILCA, 1986), source (O'Neill et at., 1989). The largest proportion of One strategy to solve such a problem is to diversify the draft animal population in sub-Saharan Africa, (about 50 use of oxen by treating them as work/meat animals % of the total draft animals), is found in Ethiopia (An­ (Osuji and Capper, 1992). Insufficient emphasis has been derson, 1985, Zewdu e ta i, 1988), where the indigenous given to innovative research to improve the working zebu is the predominant draft animal. efficiency, nutrition, and the overall productivity of draft Feed resources for these animals during the long dry animals (Goe, 1983; Bodet, 1987; Fall et al., 1997a). season are limited both in quality and quantity (Owen, Animal work output is the combination of draft, 1985) leading to loss of weight in draft oxen in most of speed and duration of work. Therefore, for best output, sub-Saharan Africa (Mukasa-Mugerwa, 1983; Sollere/ animals should be able to develop maximum possible a/., 1986; Goe, 1987). Supplementary feeding of draft draft at maximum possible speed for the longest possible OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH IN ILRI, ETHIOPIA \ 17

duration without the animals being strained excessively be the condition that limits the animal from achieving its (Maurya, 1987). During work, the muscles contract genetic potential for work (Martin and Teleni, 1989). resulting in increased muscular activity which results in Understanding the physiological responses of animals rapid increases in heat production, placing the tempera­ on different diets during work and the extent of these ture - regulating mechanisms under stress. Thus, several responses in relation to changes in body weight and changes in physiological parameters occur as the animal condition and blood metabolite levels will contribute to attempts to maintain a homeostatic condition. Work the design of appropriate feeding and management therefore, affects the cardiovascular, pulmonary and strategies for working animals. Therefore, research, thermoregulatory systems of the animal. To maintain particularly at ILRI, aimed at improving the understand­ satisfactory work performance, the animal must coordi' ing of the application of draft animal management and nate these systems in a manner which is compatible with power to determine if fall in performance or fatigue homeostasis. In-coordination of these systems is symp­ could be managed through better understanding of the tomatic of fatigue. The onset of fatigue is considered to physiological changes in work animals.

Focus of traction research at ILRI

ILRI draft animal research has focused on the following: ing and after work influence compensatory growth?

■ Oxen for draft and Meat In a series of experiments undertaken at the ILRI ■ Cow Traction- the use of the crossbred cow for both Debre Zeit Research Station the importance of various milk and work causes of fatigue in working oxen subjected to varying ■ Effects of feed and work on physiological responses work intensities were evaluated and management options of draft animals for decreasing fatigue and improving work output as­ sessed, as the effect of work on the ability of oxen to fuel ILRI traction research set out to answer a number of work activity is not clearly understood. The effect of questions: supplementation and differential work stress on feed intake, body weight changes and carcass characteristics s Does the body condition of the animal before work of zebu oxen were examined. In addition, nutrient re­ affect its ability to work? quirements of draft oxen for optimum compensatory ■ What are the effects of differential work stress on the growth during the post-work recovery period was also physiological responses of the animal? investigated. This presentation summarizes research b Does exercise before and after work modify the results derived from these traction experiments under­ capacity of the animal to work and its physiological taken at the Debre Zeit Research Station. ILRI’s contri­ responses? bution to cow traction (Zerbini et al., 1993; 1995) re­ a Does the feeding management of draft animals dur~ search is not reported here.

Effect of work stress on feed intake, live weight gain andcarcass characteristics

The effects of feeding (supplementation) and work levels assigned to three work levels (Table l). The oxen were on feed intake, body weight gain and carcass characteris­ fed for 145 days before being subjected to work. Work tics of draft oxen were tested. Animals were grouped comprised of walking 610 m with a 44.7-m elevation and into three feeding levels and, within each feeding group, walking 300 m with a drop of 9.2 m and back (Fig 1).

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 20 \ OSUJI E T AL.

Kg 3 5 0

0.75 0.75 0.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 4.75 4.75 4.75 l mhlmhlmh Feeding and work level

FIGURE 2. Effect of different work and feeding levels on cacass weights of Zebu oxen

responses of NEFA, B-HBA and lactate were more

related to energy expenditure during working hours. INS, idle non-supplemented; WNS, work/non supplemented; Within 1 h of start of work glucose level increased by WS, work/supplemented 19.1,21.4 and 17.7 % in WS, WNS and Idle/non-supple- work hour, NEFA levels increased by 76.5 (WS oxen) mented (INS) oxen, respectively. Levels of circulating and 103.6% (WNS). Moreover, concentrations of NEFA NEFA increased sharply in walking oxen. Within first did not decrease after the work task for WNS oxen. TABLE 3. Effects of work on physiological response The pattern of changes in fi-HBA concentrations of oxen; Significant contrasts during work mirrored that of glucosc during the same period. The level of 6-HBA was higher for WNS than Plasma glucose INS oxen after 3 h work. Generally, B-HBA levels were yvs vs w n s Prework and 3 h into work INS vs WNS Only at 1 h into recovery higher towards the end of exercise and immediately after Serum nefa work ended. This agrees with the conclusion that plasma INS vs WS Only at 1 h into work concentrations of NEFA and 6-HBA have been found to INS vs WNS Only 1 h and 5h ino work increase in exercised cows (Matthewman, 1990). and 1 h into recovery WS vs WNS Only at 1h into recovery On the other hand, plasma lactate concentration was Plasma S-hydroxybutrate not affected by work, as lactate concentration did not INS vs WS Only 1 h into recovery differ among treatments. These results emphasize the INS vs WNS Only at 3 h into work important role played by both NEFA and glucose to­ Plasma lactate INS vs WNS Only at 1 h into work gether, in maintaining energy homeostasis in oxen during exercise. Glucose and free fatty acids are impor­ tant energy substrates during work. This is especially

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH IN ILRI, ETHIOPIA \ 21

essential for unsupplemented (thin) animals which season, fat animals could work using their fat reserves utilized less NEFA during work. The greater utilization with minimum additional nutrient inputs. of NEFA by fat animals suggests that in a short working

Work and thermoregulation

Rectal temperature increased by 4 % from 37.8 °C to from 78.9 g/nr/h just before work started to 232.0 g/nr/h 39.3 C,C) after 5 h of work in supplemented oxen and by during the 5 h of work. Pulse rate (heart beat) was also 6.1 % in unsupplemented oxen (Fig. 3). Skin temperature affected by work. Working animals had higher (p<0.001) rose by 3.3 °C (from 33.7" C to 37,0 C) after 5 h of heart beats than non working animals. Pulse rate also walking and fell to 33.8 °C, 4 h after exercise ended for increased as work progressed increasing from 44.5 " 1.6 the WS oxen, and rose by 4.3°C for WNS group. In at 0 h to 61.6 " 2.8 and 66.4 " 2.9 after 2.5 and 5 h of working and supplemented animals sweating rates rose work respectively.

Pulling distance, walking speed and energy expenditure

All animals within all work groups performed uniform oxen throughout the work hour. The walking speed work at uniform speed while they were fed at the same decreased from 3.1 to 2.8 km/h and from 3.2 to 2.8 km/h level. The distance covered per day was the same for all for WS and WNS, respectively. Estimates of energy animals within the different groups (17.2 ± 2.1 km/d). expenditure (Lawrence, 1985) for walking were about Higher speed was observed at the beginning of work the same for both WS and WNS oxen (2.63 vs 2.5 J/m (0.70 ± 0.02 m/s) which decreased to 0.64 ± 0.02 m/s per kg). The WS oxen however, expended more after 2.5 h, and was maintained at this speed up to 5 h. (pcO.OOl) energy per day for walking than the WNS However, the WNS oxen walked faster than the WS oxen (11.9 vs 9.9 MJ/d, SE = 0 .157).

Effect of work on:-

1. Speed (8.6-10.3%)

2. Pulse Rate 38.4% (2.5 hr) 49.2%(5h)

3. Rectal Temperature

4% WS 6% WNS

4. Skin Temperature 3.3%

142% (lhr) S. Sweating Rate (Evaporative Cooling) WS 194% (3hr) t 125% (Shr) 170% (lhr) 192% (3 hr) 149 % (5 hr)

FIGURE 3. Work and thermoregulation

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 22 \ OSUJI ET AL.

Effect of work stress on amount and composition of compensatory gains

Further investigation on the effect of work and nutri­ TABLE 4. Work and feeding levels of zebu oxen during work and recovery periods tional stress on subsequent recovery following cessation of work was tested on zebu oxen. About 30 oxen with a mean body weight of 276 (SE dt 14.3) kg were assigned Feeding level to 6 treatments (Table 4). Animals worked for 61 days Work level Work period Recovery period followed by 84 days of recovery. Animals on treatments 1 and 2 were not assigned to work. Work comprised Idle Ad lib Ad lib pulling of a sledge equivalent to 27.3 (SE ± 1.6) kg on to which a weight equivalent to 10% of the live weight of Idle 0.8 x maintenance Adlib the animal was placed for 5 h/d six days per week. Work Ad lib 0.7 x ad lib During the recovery period animals on treatments 1 and 2 were fed ad lib and animals on treatments 3 ,4 ,5 Work Ad lib 0.8 x ad lib and 6 were fed at 0.7,0.8,0.9 and 1 times ad lib, respec­ Work Ad lib 0.9 x ad lib tively. Feed intake, average daily gain (ADG), dry matter (DMD) and organic matter digestibilities (OMD) were Work Ad lib 1 x ad lib estimated for all animals during the working and recov­ ery periods. Rectal temperature, pulse rates and respira­ tion rate were also recorded during the working period.

Effects of nutritional and work stress on feed intake and body weight changes

During the work phase, all animals, except those as­ nutrient requirements for work would have necessitated signed to treatment one, lost weight (Table 5). Animals increased intakes (Weston, 1982). Animals subjected to on treatment 1 gained (313.8 g/d), while those working work consequently lost live weight with an average loss and nutritionally restricted groups lost live weight at a of 146.3 g/d (Table 6). Not surprisingly, working groups similar rate (111.7 g/d). Work reduced (p<0.001) DM had higher DM and OM intakes than the nutritionally and OM intakes (Table 5). Animals fed ad lib and as­ restricted groups (6.2 vs 3.9 kg DM/d). This indicated signed to work had lower (p<0.001) DM intake than the that work reduces the efficiency of energy utilization due control group (6.2 vs 7.5 kg DM/d). Extra energy is to the greater heat load generated by muscular activity required by draft oxen for working and pulling loads on (ARC, 1980; Blaxter 1989). flat surfaces (Lawrence, 1985), even though the extra

TA B LE 5. Effect of work and feeding levels on dry matter intake (kg/d), average daily gain (g/d) and dry matter digestibility during the work period (g/kg)

Treatment Contrasts

1 2 3 4 5 6 SED T1 vs T2 T1 vs T3-T6 Ts vs T3-T6

DM I* 7.5 3.9 5.8 6.1 6.3 6.5 0.27 *** +++ ***

ADG 313 -96 -178 -133 -43 -105 72.1 NS

DMD 640 670 660 630 640 640 10 NS **

NS = P > 0.05; *= P < C.05; **»IP< 0.01; ***=P<0001 fDMl, dry matter Intake; ADG, average daily gain, DMD, dry matter digestibility

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH IN ILRI, ETHIOPIA \ 23

Effects of nutritional and work stress on feed intake and body weight change during the recovery period

Feeding level and work had a significant (pcO.OOl) creased for a prolonged period. Higher body weight gain effect on compensatory growth (Table 6). Energy restric­ by the restricted group during the compensatory period tion induced faster (p<0.001) growth than in the control may be due to the fact that the restricted animals were group (566.8 vs 280.8 g/d). Both nutritionally and work invariably lighter and had a lower maintenance require­ stressed animals showed higher body weight gain than ment during the period of re-alimentation. Thus, at the control group during the recovery period. Thus, similar intakes, more energy will be available for growth animals stressed by either nutrition or work had similar (Wright and Russel, 1991). Cattle on restricted feeding body weight gain during the recovery period. At the had more efficient feed conversion than those on ad lib same levels of feed intake, continuous and restricted feeding (Anderson, 1975). There was no difference feeding caused two differing rates of live weight gains, between nutritionally restricted groups and working during the re-alimentation period. Animals within the groups in ADG and DMD at the recovery phase at the continuous feeding group showed similar weight gains same level of feeding (Table 6). However, DM! and to those groups assigned to work but receiving 0.7 times OMI were higher by L 16 kg DM/d and 1.07 kg OM/d ad lib during the recovery phase (280.8 vs 275.7 g/d). for the work groups, respectively. Work had no effect on However, the dry matter intake of continuously fed DM and OM digestibility. As expected, restricted feed­ animals was higher (pcO.OOl) than for those on treat­ ing resulted in higher digestibility than did ad lib feed­ ment 3 (7.1 vs 4.9 kg DM/d). This lower live weight gain ing. At lower intakes better digestibility of feed is due to by the control group is in agreement with ARC (1980) the longer feed retention in the rumen of restricted which showed a decreased efficiency of utilization of animals (Blaxter, 1962). energy in ruminants when the level of feeding is in­

TAB LE 6. Effect of work and feeding levels on dry matter intake (DMI) kg/d, average daily gain (ADG) g/d and dry

T reatment Contrasts 1 2 3 4 5 6 SED T1 vs T2 T2 vs T6 DMI 7.1 6.2 4.9 5.9 6.7 7.4 0.37 NS

ADG 280 566 275 443 529 558 68.5 *** NS DMD 640 680 650 650 640 670 20 * NS NS = P > 0.05; * = P < 0.05; **=*P <0.01; *** = P < 0.001 Conclusions and recommendations

The results from the work at the ILRI Debre Zeit Re­ the work period has an effect on carcass composition and search Station showed that, during the work period, dry that fat deposited during fattening was subsequently matter intake declined, whereas body weight loss in­ mobilized to fuel work activity during the work period. creased significantly as the work level increased. The In general, the above results indicate that little supple­ slaughter data indicated that there was a general trend mentation of draft oxen prior to and during the work towards a decrease in empty body weight,.slaughter period is a better choice and the use of fattened animals weight and fat weight of carcass with increasing level of for draft purposes may not be economical since body work, implying that work has a negative impact on meat weight loss is much higher in fat than in thin animals. yield, feed utilization and body weight gain. These The nutrients required to optimize compensatory studies thus show that the type of feed consumed prior to growth following an intermediate level of work and to

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 24 \ OSUJI ET AL.

achieve a moderate live weight gain with high quality by ad lib feeding during the re-alimentation period. It is feed during the recovery phase is about 0.9 times of ad thus advisable to fatten working animals after last work­ lib feeding. This feeding level could reduce the quantity ing season to take advantage of compensatory growth. of feed needed by at least 1 kg/day as work depressed Further studies to develop new technologies for an intake by 20% of ad lib feeding. These results should effective utilization of animal power and to attain inform smallholders in developing feeding strategies for sustainablity is important. Since using draft oxen for a the fattening of oxen in crop-livestock production sys­ short period per year is not economical, intensive re­ tems. Compensatory growth improves feed utilization, search on management and physiology of local and suggesting that it is economical to feed animals below crossbred cows as draft and milk animals should be maintenance and only feed them ad lib in preparation for conducted. There is a need to investigate the optimal market or slaughter. The similar energy deficit caused by combination of body condition> work level and feeding work or nutritional stress can easily be compensated for of draft animals during work and the recovery period.

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Mackenzie. 1983. Catabolism of branched - chain amino acids by ruminant muscle. Proceedings of die Nutrition Society of Australia, 92A. Teleni, E., E.F. Annison and D.B. Lindsay. 1986. Metabolism of valine and the exchange of amino acids across the hind limb muscles of fed and starved sheep. Australian Journal of Biological Science 39: 379-393. Teleni, E. and J.P. Hogan. 1989. Nutrition of Draught Animals. In: Hoffmann, D., Jan Nari and Petheram. R J. (eds.). Draught Animals in Rural Development: Proceedings of an International Research Symposium, Cipanas, Indonesia, 3-7 July 1989. ACIAR Proceedings No. 27, 118-133. Upadhyay, R.C. 1989. Performance Limiting Factors in Draught Animals : Can they be manipulated to improve output? In: Hoffmann, D., Jan Nari and Petheram, R.J.(eds.) Draught Animals in Rural Development: Proceedings of an international research Symposium, Cipanas, Indonesia, 3-7 July 1989. ACIAR Proceedings No. 27: 166-175. Weston, R.H. 1982. Animal factors affecting feed intake. In: Nutritional limits to Animal Production from Pastures. J.B. Hacker (ed.) CAB. Famham Royal: UK. PP. 183-198. Winugrolio, M., E. Juwarini and E. Teleni. 1989. The effect of work on live weight losses in buffaloes of different body conditions. DAP Project Bulletin 8:9. Wright I.A. and Russel, A J.F . 1991. Changes in the body composition of beef cattle during compensatory growth. Anima! Production. Boston Society of Animal Production 52(1):105-113. Zerbini, E., Takele Gemeda, R. Franceschini, J. Sherington and Alemu GAVold. 1993. Reproductive performance of FI crossbred dairy cows. Effect of work and diet supplementation. Animal Production 57: 361-369. Zerbini, E., Takelle Gemeda, Alemu GAVold, S. Nokoe, and Dereje Demissie, 1995. Effect of draught work on performance and metabolism of crossbred cows. 2. Effect of work on roughage intake, digestion, digesta kinetics and plasma metabolites. Animal Science 60: 369-378. Zewdu Kebede, Sintayehu G/Mariatn and I.P. Schildkamp. 1988. Towards a uniform grading system for commercial cattle. IAR Proceedings. Second National Livestock Improvements Conference (NLIC) held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. 24-26 February 1988. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First N ational Oxen Tra ctio n Research Review and Strategy W orkshop Published by EARO and ilri P. 26-37

Nutrient Requirement and Feeding Strategy for Draft Oxen

Seyoum Bediye Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization, PO Box 2003 Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

xen traction is the main source of power in Ethiopian agriculture and it has remarkable effect on agricultural production. Despite its significant role in the farming systems, oxen traction research has not attained the attention it deserves and draft oxen nutrition has been the least researched area even on a global scale. Nutrition-work interactions have not been adequately investigated and nutrient requirements are not yet precisely described. In this paper nutrient requirements (energy, protein, minerals, etc) of draft oxen and the influences of work on voluntary food intake, rumen fermentation, digestion and efficiencyO of energy utilization are reviewed. Nutritional characteristics of local feed resources are described and strategies to improve nutrition of draft oxen are discussed.

Introduction

Ethiopia is a country whose national economy and developing countries like that of ours can be rationalized export earnings are based mainly on agriculture. The not only from crop production point of view but also contribution of agriculture to the country's GDP and from the following biological and socio-economic rea­ export earnings is estimated to be 48% and 90% respec­ sons; tively and this sector forms the basis of life for 85% of the population in the country. Animal agriculture forms ■ In livestock production system, draft animals have an integral part of agriculture in almost all ecological high biological efficiency due to their capacity to zones of the country. Official statistics underestimate the utilize low quality feeds. Fibrous feeds that contain contribution of livestock, especially their multipurpose inadequate nutrients for growth and milk production contributions, to food and agricultural production. of ruminants in specialized production systems sup­ One of the functions of livestock which is often port an increasing ruminant population in developing overlooked is provision of power and manure which are countries. essential and critical to agricultural intensification. Cattle provide the power for cultivation and transport in many * Work may serve as a means of increasing the effi­ tropical countries and they are a major element of agri­ ciency of utilization of fibrous feeds. Feed intake is culture. Under local conditions crop production is almost often reported to be increased by work and the ex­ dependent on draft animal power. There is positive penditure of energy improves the residual balance of correlation between draft animal availability and crop nutrients narrowing the energy/protein ratio of nutri­ production. Smallholder farmers having shortage of ents available for synthesis and milk production. draft animat power usually fail to optimize crop produc­ tion due to late planting, poor quality tillage, use of low ■ High cost and unavailability of foreign currency in value crops for less tillage requirement and inability to purchase of fossil oil, machinery and spare parts cultivate all available land. Despite its significant role in the fanning system, the ■ Small land holdings do not lend themselves for contribution of draft animal power is often overlooked mechanization using machineries in developing countries. The role of animal traction in Agricultural mechanization based on motorized NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND FEEDING STRATEGY \ 27

power was taken as a panacea in the past so many years. ergy to the muscle. Sources of energy are feed nutrients However, recent trends, because of the above rationale, (VFA, glucose, lipid, protein) absorbed from the diges­ suggest that draft animals are economical to farmers in tive tract or from the small temporary stores (phospho- developing countries. Animal traction research is cur­ creatine, glycogen and the larger fat depsitst) of the rently receiving considerable attention in many countries body. Unlike other ruminants limited attempts have been in Asia and Africa. The focal point in the new initiatives made to understand the principles involved in nutrition in these regions is redirecting agricultural policies to­ of draft animals and nutrition-work interactions. This wards greater focus on small-scale farmers and their paper reviews nutrient requirement of draft oxen, the needs. influences of work on voluntary food intake, rumen One of the areas in animal production which is clo­ fermentation, digestion and efficiency of energy utiliza­ sely linked with draft capacity and work output of tion. Nutritional characteristics of local feed resources animals is nutrition. In biological terms, the capacity of are described and strategies to improve nutrition of draft animals to do work is determined by the supply of en- oxen are also discussed. Nutrient requiren snts of draft oxen

Nutrient requirements of ruminants for various body estimated for various work performances (Hall and functions (maintenance, growth, lactation and reproduc­ Brody, 1934; Brody, 1945; Raberio et al., 1977, King, tion) have been relatively well researched. However, 1983; Lawrence, 1985). Subsequently the values ob­ partitioning of nutrients in draft animals are less under­ tained were used in factorial estimates of NE expendi­ stood. Reviews on draft animal nutrition have been tures of animals. The NE used for work includes energy carried out by some authors in the 1980's (Mathers, required for walking, carrying loads, pulling loads and 1984; Pearson, 1986; Lawrence, 1985, 1987) and in the energy required for walking uphill. It has been estimated 1990’s (Matthewman and Dijkman, 1993). The present (FAO, 1972; Goe and Me Dowell, 1983) that the energy review updates contemporary knowledge of draft animat expenditures of draft animals is 2.7 times maintenance nutrition and discusses the implications for feeding requirement. However, values between 1.3 and 1.8 time strategy of draft animal particularly that of oxen. maintenance were suggested as better reflection of the real energy expenditure (Lawrence, 1985; Pearson, Energy requirements 1988). These estimates are also closer to the energy requirements of working animals (Table 2) under tropi­ The energy requirement of draft animals depends on the cal conditions (Kearl, 1982). tasks they perform (Table 1 ) and values have been

TA B LE 1. Average estimates of energy expenditure for various activities in draft ruminants

Activity Unit Commonly used value Source

Energy cost of moving Joule per kg live weight 2.0 ARC 11980, Ribeiro et al. 1977 body weight horizontally per m travelled

Energy cost of carrying Joule per kg applied load 2.6 Lawerence and Stibbards 1990 loads horizontally per m travelled

Efficiency of pulling loads Work done/energy used 0.3 Lawerence and Stibbards 1990

Efftciency of raising Work done raising 0.35 ARC 1980 body weight against gravity body weight/energy used

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 28 1 SEYOUM BEOEYE

TABLE 2. Energy Requirement of draft oxen for moderate and heavy work as multiples of maintenance requirement

Live weight Maintenance* Energy requirement* Multiples of maintenance (kg) requirement (ME, Mcal/day) (ME, Mcal/day) (ME, Mcal/day) Moderate Heavy Moderate Heavy

300 8.5 11.1 14.1 1.31 1.65 350 9.5 12.9 16.3 1.36 1.71 400 10.6 14.4 18.2 1.36 1.72 450 11.5 15.8 20.2 1.37 1.75 500 12.5 17.3 22.1 1.38 1.77

Mean 1.35 1.72

* Keart, 1982

Protein requirements precursors (Preston and Leng, 1987). The differential changes in nutrient requirements when ruminants work Additional protein requirements for draft animals are imply that the ration of required dietary protein-energy likely to be small (Pearson, 1986) because of small will change accordingly with an increased demand for requirements for muscle growth and development during energy relative to protein. work. The limited available information so far suggest Protein requirements of working cattle are given in that work has no significant influence on protein require­ Table 3. Protein requirements, expressed as multiples of ments (Lawrence, 1985), and the extra requirements can maintenance requirement for different weight ranges, be covered by the intake of food needed to supply the suggest that a fairly constant value of 1.2 and 1.3 for increased energy needs. moderate and heavy work loads, respectively are ade­ In working animals which are not gaining weight, quate. This is closer to the estimate of Webster and absorbed amino acids are metabolized largely in the Wilson (1980). liver to give rise to acetate, ketone bodies or glucose

TABLE 3. Protein requirement of draft oxen for moderate and heavy work as multiples of maintenance requirement

Live weight Maintenance* Energy requirement* Multiples of maintenance (kg) requirement (CP, g/day) (CP, g/day) (CP, g/day) Moderate Heavy Moderate Heavy

300 385 460 483 1.19 1.25 350 432 515 553 1.10 1.28 400 478 573 600 1.20 1.25 450 628 623 678 1.18 1.28 500 567 678 729 1.20 1.29

Mean 1.19 1.27

* Kearl, 1982

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND FEEDING STRATEGY \ 29

Minerals, vitamins and water requirements crease in blood magnesium and phosphorus was reported in working buffalo and such a decrease was indicated to There is no information on the increase in requirements be associated with increases in energy metabolism for minerals, vitamins and water due to work in draft during work. animals. In one instance (Agrawal et al., 1982) a de­

Effect of work on voluntary food intake, rumen fermentation and digestion

Effect of work on voluntary food intake animals while others have reported positive responses due to work. More studies are, therefore, required to Data on the effect of work per se on voluntary food identify factors or determinants contributing to variations intake of working animals are quite variable (Table 4), in voluntary intake of draft animals. Quality of the diet and work-nutrition interaction in draft animals are less and the time available for feeding may contribute signifi­ well understood. Some authors have reported no in­ cantly to the variability. creases in the intake of poor quality roughage in working

TA B LE 4. Effect of work on voluntary food intake of draft oxen

Country Diet Response Source

Costa Rica Poor quality hay ad libitum day Decrease Lawrence, 1985 plus 11 g concentrate /W° 757

Costa Rica Poor quality hay ad fib Increase Lawrence, 1985 plus 12 g concentrate/W075 /day

India Not stated Decrease Sreekumar and Thomas, 1989

Nepal Rice straw + concentrate Decrease Pearson et al.,1988

Australia Rhodes grass hay ad lib plus Increase Bakrie et al., 1989 urea plus mineral

Effect of work on rumen fermentation and have beneficial effect on digestive function while higher digestion levels of work may have detrimental effects. A review of studies on the effect of exercise on digestibility in horses and cattle by Schneider and Flatt Like the effect of work on voluntary food intake, the (1975) concluded moderate work or exercise does not effect of work on digestive functions is not well under­ greatly influence digestibility. Using the horse as experi­ stood and reported findings are inconsistent. Many mental animals Orton et al (1983) came to a conclusive authors have suggested that exercise may act as a physi­ evidence that feed intake was increased and that diges­ cal stimulus to the movement of digestion and may cause tive function was more efficient in exercised horses than a mixing of rumen and gut contents which may aid non-exercised horses. passage through the tract. Relatively light work may

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTfON RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 30 \ SEYOUM BEDEYE

Results from series of experiments executed to study maintenance diet, 13 percentage increment in digestibil­ nutrition of working buffalos in Indonesia suggest a ity was manifested by increase in metabolizability of the reduced rate of passage of digesta or increased retention feed energy (Ffloukes et al., 1987). In a related study time in working than in penned animals (Ffoulkes et al., (Bamualim and Fflouks, 1988) it was found that at a 1987; Bamualim et al., 1987; Bamualin and Ffoulkes, lower plane of nutrition (1.2 maintenance) the energy of 1988). This is similar to the Findings of Orton et al., the live weight gain forfeited by working buffaloes was (1983) in which exercised horses had longer retention less than half that of animals doing the same work at the time of liquid digesta than non-exercised horses. highest feeding level. This infers that there was a high In working animals, rumen stability cannot be main­ increase in the efficiency of utilization of energy at the tained due to interruptions and reduced frequency of lower feeding level due to work. This was because at the feeding. If animals are fed once a day the nutrient supply higher feeding level, the extra energy intake from the to the microbes is likely to become exhausted hence basal diet was not in the form of preferred substrates, causing lysis of microbes and slower rumen fermenta­ thereby giving rise to inefficient metabolic pathways and tion. Kibet and Hansen (1985) demonstrated that DMD additional heat production. In this case, the efficiency of of roughage suspended in the rumen of steers was not metabolizable energy would have increased from 0.65 to affected by work. The available results on the effects of 0.78 or 20%. The growth rate of exercised horses on low work on rumen fermentation and digestion are thus protein diet was similar to growth rate of non-exercised inconclusive and more research is needed to elucidate animals on a high protein diets indicating that a better this aspect. balance of protein and energy nutrients was apparently achieved due to expenditure of energy in exercise (Pres­ ton and Leng, 1987). Effects of work on feed efficiency values (k) The factorial approach to calculating energy require­ ments of draft animals assumes that the efficiency of Although there is argument that the efficiency of utiliza­ energy utilization (k) for productive processes such as tion of ME for work is a component of maintenance lactation is not affected by work. However, in the lactat- energy (muscular activity and hence work is performed ing female, both work and milk secretion have competi­ independent of feed given where as productivity is a tive requirements for long chain fatty acids and glucose consequence of feed given), draft work capacity can but little is known, at this stage, about partitioning of also be a function of productivity which may in some nutrients for either function particularly in respect to circumstances exert influence on feed efficiency in the changes in efficiency values (k). digestive tract. In working buffalos fed a level of 1.5

Nutritional characteristics of local feed resources

Native pasture/hay Composition and nutritive value of native hay col­ lected from various agro-ecological zones of Ethiopia In many parts of the country, grazing cattle experience (Seyoum and Zinash, 1989) indicate that native hay is a distinct seasonality in quantity and quality of natural characterized by low CP, high NDF and low IVOMD pastures. Clipping studies on native pasture in the central (Table 5). One of the critical factors constraining animals highlands of Ethiopia indicated that grazing cattle kept on tropical feeds is the failure to support optimum rumen solely on native pasture diet can fulfill their protein ammonia concentration for the microbes. The calculated requirements for only few months of the year. For most ratio of N: digestible organic matter is 1.9%, which is of the year, CP supply from grazing pasture is below below the optimum ratio required to support the mini­ 50% of the maintenance requirement (Zinash et al., mum 50 ml/1 rumen ammonia concentration (Satter and 1995), and considerable live weight losses of cattle are Sly ter, 1974). encountered especially during the dry season (IAR, 1976).

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND FEEDING STRATEGY \ 31

TA B LE 5. Chemical composition and nutritive values of native grass hay (on % DM basis; n = 10)

Parameter Mean Range

Crude protein (CP) 5.7 4.60—8,0 Ether extract (EE) 1.0 0.50-1.4 Neutral detergent fiber(NDF) 76.4 71.1-80.9 In-vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) 50.2 45.0-54.5 Nitrogen to IVOMD ratio in % (NiIVOMD) 1.8 1.6-2.4 g CP/kg IVOMD 111 102-147 Metabolizable energy (ME) (MJ/kg) 7.5 6.8-8.2

Source: Seyoum and Zinash (1989).

Crop residues residues have NDF of greater than the level (55%) usually suggested to limit voluntary intake. Crop resi­ Local crop residues are characterized by low CP and EE, dues are also characterized by low digestibility which but high cell wall and cell wall constituents (Table 6). rarely exceeds 50% and is mostly in the range of 40- Crude protein content of crop residues ranges from 2.0 50%. The calculated metabolizable energy thus ranges to 7.9 % with a mean of 4.8%. Cereal crop residues have from 6.0 MJ/kg to 7.5 MJ/kg DM. In terms of the ratio of relatively lower CP (4.0%) content than residues of N to digestible organic matter, local crop residues have legume crops(6.0%). The mean CP content of crop a mean of 1.7% which is lower than the minimum (2%) residues is lower than the threshold required to put an required to support the minimum rumen ammonia concentration animal in a positive nitrogen (N) balance. All crop

TA B LE 6. Chemical composition and nutritive values of some crop residues (on % DM basis; n = 63) Parameter Mean Range Crude protein (CP) 4.8 2.0-7.9 Ether extratct (EE) 1.4 0.4-2.3 Netural detergent fiber (NDF) 74.2 54.9-93.0 In-vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) 48.3 43.0-53.0 Nitrogen to IVOMD ratio in % N:IVOMD 1.6 0.7-2.4 g CP/kg DOM 99.0 36-149 Metabolizable energy (ME) (MJ/kg) 7.2 6.4-8.0

Source: Seyoum and Zinash (1989)

Cultivated forages Trifolium to 26 % in Vicia, with a mean of 19%. Litera­ ture values of CP contents of tropical forage legumes The potential of cultivated forages has been mainly (herbaceous and shrub) range from 6 to 17% (Skerman, evaluated based on adaptation and yield potential. Only 1977). Most of the herbaceous legumes have CP content few studies have been geared towards assessing nutritive of >15%, a level which is usually required to support values of cultivated forages. lactation and growth (Norton, 1982), which suggests the adequacy of herbaceous legumes to supplement basal Herbaceous legumes diets of predominantly low quality pastures and crop residues. In addition to higher CP contents, herbaceous In terms of chemical constituents, herbaceous legumes are primarily characterized by high N content and com­ legumes have higher contents of some minerals like Ca, S and possibly P than grasses (Whitman, 1980). Beyene pared to grasses they have high percentages of soluble et al., (1977) have also reported higher Co and Cu con­ dry matter, lignin and low hemicellulose contents( Smith tents in alfalfa samples grown in the highlands of Ethio­ et al., 1972). Contents of CP in herbaceous legumes pia compared to their counterparts in conventional NRC under local condition (Table 7) varies from 15% in tables.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 32 \ SEYOUM BEDEYE

TABLE 7. Chemical composition and nutritive values of herbaceous legumes (on % DM basis, n = 18)

Parameter Mean Range

Crude protein (CP) 19.3 15.7-25.9 Neutral detergent fiber (NDF) 45.7 35.7-57.5 /n-vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) 67.1 53.2-73.2 Nitrogen to IVOMD ratio in % (N:IVOMD) 4.6 3.5-5.8 g CP/kg DOM 289.0 220-365 A-index 1.7 1.1-2.6 B-index 1.1 0,6-1.7 Metabolizable energy (ME) (MJ/kg) 10.1 8-11

Source: Seyoum (1995) A-index = Nutrient release synchrony index of soluble fraction B-index = Nutrient release synchrony index of insoluble but degradable fraction

Digestibility of herbaceous legumes varies consider­ ceous legumes (Seyoum, 1995). Reported mean nutrient ably depending on the genetic make up, environment and release synchrony indices for rapidly degrading fraction crop management. Herbaceous legumes under local and slowly degrading fraction were 1.7 and 1.1, respec­ condition were reported to have 1VOMD value ranging tively indicating 70% excess N release in the early from 53 to 73% (Seyoum, 1995). Tanniferous legumes, phase. like Desmodium, have low digestibility as opposed to non-tanniferous ones like Vicia. The calculated mean Browse species ratio of dietary N to digestible organic matter was 4.6%, Like other leguminous feeds, browse species are also which is above the critical level to required to support characterized by high N content and low fiber composi­ optimum rumen fermentation. tion. Study on nutritional characteristics of 18 samples of Ruminal degradability characteristics of herbaceous browse belonging to 5 genera (Table 8) indicated a legumes also varies considerably depending on species, divergent range in composition and nutritive values. cultivar, accession, stage of maturity and management These variations could be attributed to the plant genetic practices. Most herbaceous legumes are readily suscepti­ make-up, age of the plant, part of the plant, harvest ble to ruminal degradation with faster rate of degradation interval and location. of the insoluble but degradable fraction. The mean Reported ruminen degradability parameters of N for parameter estimates of 18 species belonging to 10 genera some browse species grown under local condition varied of herbaceous legumes were reported to be 50,3% for from 20 to 25% in soluble fraction, from 28 to 70% in soluble fraction, 42,3 % for insoluble but degradable insoluble; but slowly degradable fraction and from fraction with fractional rate of degradation of 0,0720/h 0.0238 to 0.0910/h in fractional rate of degradation (Seyoum, 1995). Among herbaceous legumes proven to (Seyoum, 1995). With the exception of Chamaecytisus grow well under local condition, Desmodium intortum palmensis and Leucena leucocephala which can be used has a potential to be used as a source of escape N while as sources of escape N, the other browse species can be the other legumes can only be used as sources of rumen used as sources of rumen degradable N. degradable N. Mean value of calculated protein-energy interrela­ When gross nutrient content in terms of protein- tionships of browse species has a mean of 404 g/kg energy interrelationships are taken in account, herba­ DOM (Seyoum, 1995), suggesting CP content is twice ceous legumes have higher CP (mean of 289 CP/kg the optimum ratio required for efficient rumen fermenta­ DOM) than energy, suggesting a need for readily fer­ tion. The nutrient release synchrony indices of rapidly mentable energy source for efficient utilization of CP. degrading and slowly degrading fraction of some browse Calculated nutrient release synchrony indices of herba­ species were 1.31 and 1.41, respectively. This indicates ceous legumes also indicated asynchrony in N and OM excess protein or deficiency of energy at all stages of release, especially in the early phase for most of herba­ fermentation.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND FEEDING STRATEGY \ 33

TABLE 8. Chemical composition and nutritive value of browse species (on % DM basis, n=* 18)

Parameter Mean Range

Crude protein (CP) 21.0 18.0 - 24.3 Netural detergent fiber (NDF) 39.4 31.4 - 64.4 In-vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) 53.4 38.4 - 71.0 Nitrogen to IVOMD ratio in % (N:1V0MD) 4.6 4.1 - 7.1 g CP/kg DOM 404.0 253.0 -490.0 A index 1.3 0.9 - 2.1 B index 1.4 0.3 - 1.7 Metabolizable energy (ME)(MJ/kg) 8.0 5.8 - 9.7

Source: Seyoum (1995) A index = Nutrient reiease synchrony index of soluble fraction B index = Nutrient release synchrony index of insoluble but degradable fraction

AgrO-indUStrial by-products of 10.0%, NDF content of 41% and IVOMD of 67% (Table 9). Because of processing effects, oilseed cakes Chemical composition and nutritive value of agro-indus- exhibit higher contents oi N bound to fiber; acid deter- trial by-products varies widely depending on crop spe- 8ent f^ er nitrogen (ADF-N) depending on the technol- cies and method of processing (Solomon, 1992; Seyoum, °§y °f extraction. Oilseed cakes have higher concentra- 1995). The compositional data of locally available ^on °f K and Mg, but lower Ca and Na contents oilseed cakes show mean CP content of 35%, EE content (Solomon, 1992).

TA B LE 9. Chemical composition and nutritive values of oilseed cakes (on % DM basis, n = 10)

Parameter Mean Range

Crude protein (CP) 35.0 26.8 - 57.2 Ether extract (EE) 10.1 5.5 - 14.6 Netural detergent fiber (NDF) 40.9 17.0 - 65.1 In vitro organic matter digestibility (IVOMD) 67.0 58.0 - 88.0 Nitrogen to IVOMD ratio in % N:IVOMD 8.3 5.6 - 10.6 g CP/kg DOM 522.0 354.0 - 647.0 A index 2.6 1.3 ~ 3.4 B index 2.2 1.4 - 3.6 Metabolizable energy (ME) (MJ/kg) 10.1 8.7 - 13.2

Source: Seyoum (1995) A-index = Nutrient release synchrony index of soluble fraction B-index = Nutrient release synchrony index of insoluble but degradable fraction

Rumen degradability parameters of N of local oilseed oilseed cakes had a mean of 552 g CP/kg DOM indicat­ cakes were reported to vary from 27 to 71% for soluble ing the need for energy source for efficient utilization of fraction, 20 to 77% for insoluble but degradable fraction CP. The respective nutrient release synchrony indices for and 0.0498/h for fractional rate of degradation (Seyoum, rapidly and slowly degrading fraction were 2.6 and 2.4, 1995). In terms of protein-energy interrelationships, respectively (Seyoum, 1995).

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 34 \ SEYOUM 0EDEYE

Feeding strategy of draft oxen

The nutritional characteristics of the major feed traditional practice. In other systems, farmers have only resources commonly fed to draft oxen call for supple­ recently began to collect and store crop residues, rather mentation to support efficient rumen fermentation. The than to be grazed communially by village livestock. economics of supplementation especially during the dry To improve intake of some crop residues, generous season depends mainly on the productivity expected feeding (150% of expected intake) can be followed for from the animals. According to Pearson (1996), where draft oxen (Pearson, 1996). Millet stover leaves have CP work periods are short (20-30 days), return from supple­ content of 70-110 g/kg whereas whole plant stover mentation may also be small, since animals will have including stem contains 40 g/kg only (Powell, 1985). ample time to make up any losses during the rest of the Similar differences in quality of among leaf blades and year. However, if work is performed over longer periods, stem of sorghum were noted in terms of neutral detergent then supplementation can be beneficial. The aim of fiber digestibility (Reed et al„ 1988). supplementation should be to maintain live weight of Improvement of draft oxen nutrition also calls for the the animal over the year regardless of dramatic seasonal exploitation of varietal differences in cereal straw qual­ fluctuation. In situations where animals are to be sold for ity. Limited information is available thus far to suggest meat after work, supplementary feeding is worthy even that there are marked varietal differences in quality of when the animals are worked for short periods. The aim cereal straws. There are varieties which combine high of supplementation in this case is to increase the animals grain yield and straw quality and emphasis should be live weight over the year. given to look into aspects of straw quality in selecting During the working season, depending on availability varieties. In some countries, cereal varieties are evalu­ of feed resources, supplementation of draft oxen is a ated in potential utility index rather than a harvest index. common practice. Timing of feed supplementation on The potential utility index takes into account both grain working days is also important in developing feeding yield and digestible straw yield. strategy of draft oxen. Supplementary feeding is usually Other strategies to improve the diet of draft oxen are given at least 2 hours before work to ensure a ready strategic supplementation with locally available feed supply of energy yielding substrates while supplementa­ resources or treatment of the basal feeds with urea or tion after work minimizes intra-rumen heat production alkali. The aim of treatment or supplementation is basi­ while working. cally to optimize voluntary intake and fermentative One of the easiest ways of improving the diet of digestion. The benefits of these options are well re­ draft oxen is the conservation of feed resources. Abun­ searched and widely reported, but their adoption by dant crop residues and bush hays should be conserved farmers often depend on the outputs of the animal (Table for periods when grazing is of poor quality and in short 10). It is more difficult for farmers to accept modifica­ supply. Native hay should be prepared to ensure optimal tion in their feeding systems when animals are only used quality. In many intensively farmed systems (like the in crop production and returns from meat are not immediate. highlands of Ethiopia) conservation of crop residues is a

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS ANO FEEDING STRATEGY \ 35

TABLE 10. The status of projects launched to improve nutritional status of draft animals

Country Animat Feeding system Performance

Zimbabwe Oxen - Maize stover (6kg/head/day) - No significant difference in live (high potential) ' Mofasses-urea block weight gain, work performances, etc. - No adoption

Niger Oxen - urea treated roughage - Greater capacity for work - Less time in fattening - Fewer supplementation - high market price - high adoption

Bangladesh draft cows Molasses urea block - Increased feed intake Ad libitum straw - increased live weight gain Grazing 2-3 hours of dams and calves - Higher calve birth weight - Reduced calving interval - Increased daily milk yield and lactation length - High adoption

Indonesia Oxen Introduction of forage crops - Considerable inputs required and tree fodder before benefits were apparent - Low adoption

Source: Pearson, 1996

REFERENCES

Adugna Kebede, Takele Gemeda and Muluken Tilahun. 1993. Draught capacity and physiological responses of F{ crossbred and local oxen: 1. Draught characteristics. Proceedings of the third National livestock improvement Conference, 24-26 May 1989, Addis Abeba, NLIC Proceedings No3. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Agricultural Research Council. 1980, The Nutrient Requirement of Ruminant Livestock. Famham Royal: Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux. UK. Agarwal, S.P., N. Singh, V.K Agarwal and P.K. Dwaraknath. 1982. Effects of exercise on serum electrolytes and their relationship in entire, castrated and vasectomized male buffaloes. Indian Veterinary Journal 59:181-184. Bakrie, B., R.M. Murray and J.P. Hogan. 1988. The effect of work on intake and rumen fluid volatile fatty acid and NH concentrations of steers fed Rhodes grass hay . DAP Project Bulletin 7: 9-13. Bamualim, A., D. Ffoulkes and LC. Fletcher. 1987. Preliminary observation on the effect of work on intake„digestibility. growth and ovarian activity of swamp buffalo cows. DAP Project Bulletin, No 3: 6-10. Bamualim, A. and D. Ffoulkes. 1988. Effect of work and level of feed intake on nutritional parameters and body weight change in swamp buffalo cows. DAP Project Bulletin No 7:2-8. Beyene Chichaibelu, C.E. Coppock and R.E. McDowell. 1977. Laboratory evaluation and estimation of nutritive value of some Ethiopian feedstuffs and formula feeds. AAASA 4(2):9-24. Brody, S. 1945. Bioenergetics and growth. New York: Reinhold (Reprinted in 1964, Haffner, New York). Bamualim, A. and I.C. Ffoulkes. 1988. Effect of work and level of feed intake on nutritional parameters and body weight change of swamp buffalo cows. DAP Project Bulletin, 7 2-8. FAO, 1972. Manual on the employment of Draught animals in Agriculture. FAO, Rome. Ffoulks, D., A. Bamualim and T.Panggabean. 1987. Utilization of fibrous feeds by working buffalos. In: (R.M. Dioxin ed.) ruminant Feeding systems Utilizing Fibrous Agricultural residues-1986.PP. 161-169, Canberra, IDP.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 36 \ SEYOUM BEDEYE

Goe, M.R. and R.E. McDowell. 1980. Animal Traction : Guidelines to Utilization. Cornell international Agriculture Memo. Ithaca, Cornell University Hall, W.C. and S. Brody.1934. The energy cost of horizontal walking in cattle and horses of various ages and body weights. University of Missouri Agricultural experiment Station. Research Bulletin 208. IAR. 1976. Results of experiments in animal production (1966/67 to 1975). Animal Production Research Report Nol, Addis Abeba. Kearl, L.C. 1982. Nutrient requirement of ruminant Livestock in Developing Countries. Utah State University, Utah, King, J.M. 1983. Livestock water Needs in Pastoral Africa in Relation to Climate and Forage. ILCA Research Report 7. Addis Abeba. Ethiopia. International Livestock Center for Africa. Kibet, P.K. and KJV1. Hanson. 1985. Effect of walking while grazing on rumen digestion. East Africa Agriculture and Forestry Journal. 51: 30-35. Lawrence, P.R. 1985. A review of the nutrient requirement of draught oxen. 59-63. In Copeland, J.W. (ed) Draught Animal Power for production. Australian Center for International Agricultural, Research, Canberra, Australia. Lawrence, P.R.19S7. Nutrient requirements of working ruminant. In An introduction to working animals (Ed J.L. Falvey) Melbourne, Australia: MPW Australia. Lawrence, P.R. and R J. Stibbards. 1990. The energy costs of walking, carrying loads and pulling loads of flat surfaces by Brahman cattle and swamp buffalo. Animal production 50:29-39. Mathers, J.C. 1984. Nutrition of draught animals. In: animal Agriculture in Africa and Asia. FAO expert Consultation on Appropriate use of Animal Energy in Agriculture in Africa and Asia, 15-19 Nov,1982. Animal Production and health paper 42: 60-66. FAO: Rome. Matthewman, R.W. and J.T. Dijkman. 1993. The nutrition of ruminant draught animals. J.Agric. Sci.(Camb.) 121: 297-306. Nicholson, M.J. 1989. Depression of body dry-matter and water intake in Boran cattle owing to physiological, volumetric and temporal limitations. Animal Production 49:29-34. Norton, B.W.1982. Differences between species in forage quality.In. J.B.Hacker (ed). Proceedings of international symposium held at St-Lucia, Queensland, Australia 24-28 September 1981. Nutritional limits to Animal Production from pastures. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureax, UK.PP.89-110. Orton, R.K., I.D. Huma and R.A.Leng. 1983a. The effect of exercise on digestive function in horse. In Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition in Australia 1983. pl5 A (D.Farrell and Pran Vohra, Editors). Armidalle, Australia.-.University of New England Publishing Unit. Orton, R.K., I.D. Huma and R.A. Leng. 1983b. Inert ruthenium-phenanthroline as particulate digesta marker in horses. In Recent Advances in Animal Nutrition in Australia 1983. pl6 A (D.FarreJl and Pran Vohra, Editors). Armidalle, Austra- ]ja:.University of New England Publishing Unit. Pearson, R.A. 1988. Research on Draught animals in Nepal: Research on the nutrition and physiology of draught animals. Report on EEC Research Project-EED TSD A265-UK. Edinburgh: Center for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University of Edinburgh. Pearson, R.A., R.Archibald and I. Campbell. 1988. Nutrition experiments with draught cattle. Draught Animal News 9:4-6, Centre for Tropical Veterinary Medicine, University Of Edinburgh, UK. Pearson, R.A. 1986. Feeding and Management of draught animals: A review. Indian Journal of Animal Production and Management 2:48-69. Pearson, R.A. 1996. Feeding strategies for cattle and buffalo used for work. World Animal Review 87: 45-55. Preston, T.R. And R.A. Leng.1987. Matching Ruminant Production Systems with Available resources in the Tropics and Subtropics. Armidale, Australia: Preamb Books. Powell, J.M. 1985. Yields of sorghum and millet stover consumption by livestock in the sub-humid zone of Nigeria. J.Tropical Agriculture, 62: 77-81. Robeirto, J.M. DE C.R., J.M. Brockway and AJ.F. Webster. 1977. A note on the energy cost of walking in cattle. Animal Production 25: 107-110. Schneider, B.H and W.P. Flatt 1975. Evaluation of Feeds Through Digestibility Experiments. Athens USA. The University of Georgia Press. Seyoum Bediye and Zinash Sileshi.1989. The compostion of Ethiopian feedstuffs, IAR Research Report No.6. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Seyoum Bediye. 1995. Evaluation of herbaceous legumes, browse species and oilseed cakes using chemical analysis, in-vitro digestibility and nylon bag technique, MSc Thesis, School of Graduate studies, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Alemaya. Skennan, P. J. 1977. Tropical forage legumes. FAO Plant Production and protection series No 2 FAO Rome.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND FEEDING STRATEGY * 37

Smith, L.W., HJK-Goering and C,H,Gordon.l972. Relationships of forage composition with rates of cell wall digestion and indigestibility of cell walls. J. Dairy Sci. 55:1140-1147. Solomon Mogus.1992. The effect of processing methods of oilseed cakes in Ethiopia on their nutritive value: In vitro N degradability and N Metabolism in growing sheep fed a basal diet of maize stover. PhD diss. Takele Gemeda, Alemu GXWold, Adugna Kebede and Muluken Tilahun, 1991. Draught capacity and physiological responses of F, crossbred and local oxen:2. Physiological responses under different loading conditions. Proceedings of the third National livestock improvement conference, 24-26 May 1989, Addis Abeba, NLIC Proceedings No 3. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Thomas, O.K. and R.A. Pearson. 1986. Effects of ambient temperature and heat cooling on energy expenditure, food intake and heat tolerance of Brahman and Brahman* Friesian cattle working on treadmills. Animal production 43:83-90. Van Soest, PJ.1965. Symposium of factors influencing the voluntary intake in relation to chemical composition and digestibility. J. Anim Sci. Vol. 24 Webster, C.C, and P.N. Wilson.1980. Agriculture in the tropics. 2nd edition. London: Longmans. Whiteman, P.C. 1980. Tropical Pastures Science. New York. Oxford University Press. Zerbini, E. and Getachew Asamenew. 1992. Potential of cow Traction in the Ethiopian Highlands Farming System. Proceedings of the Fourth National Livestock Improvement Conference, 13-15 May, 1991, NLIC Proceedings No 4, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Zinash Sileshi, Seyoum Bediye, Lulseged G/Hiwet and Tadesse T/Tsadik. 1995. Effect of stage of harvest on yield and quality of natural pasture in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Proceedings of the third National Livestock Improvement Conference of The Ethiopian Society of Animal Production, pp.316-322.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First National O xe n Traction Research Review and Strategy W orkshop PUBUSHED BY EARO AND ILRI P. 3 3 -4 2

Prevalent Diseases of Draft Oxen and Control Measures

Feseha Gebreab Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, PO Box 34, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

n the crop-livestock production system of Ethiopia, draft oxen have a vital and crucial role in making farming practices more efficient and productive. One of the major limiting constraints impeding full exploitation, exceeded only by nutrition, are diseases. They are causes of death, losses in meat and milk production and work out put as well as costs of implementing control measures. In the spectrum of the ill-health panorama feature diseases such as rinderpest, contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), anthrax, blackleg, foot and mouth Idisease, fasciolosis, gut and pulmonary helminthosis, ticks, tick borne diseases and trypanosomosis. For the smallholder possession of a pair of oxen means preparation of land, sowing and threshing on time as well as generation of additional income from lease arrangements. Therefore the impact of death or sickness of a draft oxen on the livelihood of individual farmers as well as on the agricultural development efforts in general can be severe. For the institutions of health care delivery system, a focussed programme and attention to the care of individual draft oxen at the level of the smallholder is suggested. For this, strengthening and harmonization of the functions of veterinary services is recommended. The point of departure for such tasks is the undertaking of epidemiological surveys to determine the prevalence, incidence and economic importance of diseases.

Introduction

There has been no livestock census in Ethiopia for the because secondary and tertiary sector should expand last two decades. The current population estimate is sufficiently to absorb the population released from about 28 million cattle, some 23 million sheep 17 million agriculture. Therefore, for those farms where mechaniza­ goats and about 7 million equines. This resource pro­ tion would not be profitable draft animal power is the vides the bulk of the draft power for cultivation and best alternative. The relevance of this form of power transport, meat and milk and is also a major source of becomes much more vivid and utterly important in the cash and store of wealth for the rural mass. management of the Vertisol areas of the country. It has In the crop-livestock production system, cattle are been shown that drainage of Veitisols using ox-drawn essential to forming activities as they provide draft beds and furrows results in large gains in crop produc­ power which is crucially needed* The need for a farmer tion. A work by ILRI (1985) has demonstrated increases to keep a pair of oxen or minimally one ox for pairing due to drainage alone ranging from 26 percent to 155 arrangements with other farmers is the reason why large percent for a variety of crops. animal numbers kept in this system. In institutions where For optimum gain and efficiency in the use of work­ the required number of animals cannot be kept farmers ing oxen estimated to be in the range of 6-8 million, the buy oxen from neighbouring surplus areas. provision of sufficient and high quality feed particularly For many years to come draft oxen will continue to during the 5 month dry season which precedes the rainy provide the major power in the crop-livestock production season is necessary for improving body condition and scenario of Ethiopia for the obvious and simple reason draft power output. Bringing infectious and parasitic that the average cultivated area is very small and their diseases under control is also a task that is second to number is very high. An increase in farm size can only none. Disease spectrum and impact in draft oxen popula­ take place slowly, and perhaps over several generations tion of Ethiopia is the particular theme of this paper. PREVALENT DISEASES AND CONTROL MEASURES \ 39

Full and precise knowledge of diseases of draft-oxen to the needs of high priority cattle populations anci is essential to make the most effective use of the increas- particular communities, ingly scarce resources and to tailor control programmes

Major constraints in livestock productivity

Generally speaking livestock productivity in Ethiopia is productivity figures recorded for cattle in the country lower than the African. The primary constraint is feed indicate that mortality is high, animal herd off-take is deficit in terms of both quantity and quality. This is estimated at 8 percent and live weight gain is low. at compounded by the widespread occurrence and inci­ about 20 kg per annum. Cows do not reach maturity until dence of diseases and parasites. Some of the crude 4 years of age and calve every second year (FAO, 1993).

Major animal diseases and their impact on draft oxen

In general terms diseases affect cattle in three main draft oxen are equally at risk from the epidemic diseases ways: that ravage the country. The following is a summary of the most economically important diseases affecting draft Direct mortality: It is estimated to be in the order of 8 oxen. percent of the national cattle herd (FAO, 1993). Alto­ gether, direct economic loss from animal diseases is Rinderpest estimated at between ETB 1.5 and 2.5 billion. Compared It is the most dreaded cattle plaque. Prior to the JP 15 to the estimated value of livestock production in Ethiopia campaign, it was estimated that stock-owners were (a total of ETB 5.1 billion including ETB 1.4 billion for losing 20-25% of their cattle. Despite the successive draft power) the loss represents from 30 to 50% of the efforts of the JP 15 campaign in the 1970's and the on­ total production value (FAO, 1993). going Pan African Rinderpest Campaign (PARC), persis­ tent endemic foci are still reported to exist in the low­ Losses in live weight: It is caused by the chronic debili­ lands of the Afar region, to the west of Lake Tana, south tating effect of a number of diseases on cattle . western tip extending into southern Sudan and south­ eastern tip of Ethiopia bordering Kenya (FAO, Reduced fertility: This may be related, more impor­ 1995). tantly, to nutritional stress. Nevertheless, diseases and In the Afar region and sanitary cordon area of Tigray particularly parasitism have also an aggravating role. sporadic outbreaks of rinderpest were of common occur­ rence up to 1994 (BONART, 1997). In the months of Site and priority cattle population specific studies al September to December of 1995 a big outbreak erupted the woreda, zonal, regional or country level are neces­ in parts of Tigray adjoining the Afar region and spread sary to obtain complete epidemiological data on diseases to the central zone. In the episode a total of 978 heads of and details of the circumstances in which they occur. cattle were affected of which 380 died tantamount to a Regrettably, such database are non-existent for the vast fatality rate of 38.9% (Bonart, 1997) majority of places and species or animal populations. In the country, after almost half a century of veterinary Contagious Bovine pleuro pneumonia services, most of the infectious and parasitic diseases are (CBPP) still widespread. This is mainly attributed to the exis­ It is a common and highly contagious disease of cattle. tence of favorable ecosystems facilitating unhampered The number of reported cases is on the upsurge interactions between disease causing agents and hosts as particularly in lowland pastoral areas. In 1996 alone well as the persistence of an extremely weak disease eight clinical cases were observed in Adigudom of prevention and control delivery system. By and large,

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 40 \ FESEHA GEBREAB

Tigray. Furthermore according to the data of the It is an economically damaging disease in that it entails veterinary service of the region a total of 15 outbreaks severe loss of condition with occasional mortality. It also have been recorded in the recent past years. The number ruins and contributes to the downgrading of hides. of animals affected were reported to be 183 out of which Recent surveys have indicated that it is on the upsurge. 90 died (BONART, 1997). The cost of treatment is also prohibitive.

Foot and mouth disease Ueartwater It is a non-fatal and economically damaging disease of It is a fatal disease of cattle. It is due to infection with the cattle since it reduces the productivity of animals rickettsia, Cowdria rumincttum, which is transmitted by including the working capacity of ploughing oxen. Of certain ixodid ticks of the genus Amblyomma. The the seven immunologically distinct types of viral disease is therefore, limited to the geographical limits of serotypes, A,0,C and SAT2 have been encountered in the distribution of this tick. It is the most widely the country. Because of the infection induced general distributed cattle tick in Ethiopia. Heavy infestations weakness and pathological lesions animals develop in were recorded in western Wollega, western Shoa and in the mouth and the feet, serious problems of ingesting the shire lowlands of Tigray. Abundance is much lower feed and movement occurs impeding their use for work. in the rift valley and none are found in the arid south­ eastern areas. Observations and reports attest much more Lumpy skin disease and severe incidence of the disease in the indigenous This is a disease of viral origin of cattle that is on the rise Boran cattle as well as in crossbred and exotic animals. in the country in both geographic and population Other indigenous zebu cattle are relatively resistant. dimensions. The death rate associated is considerable depending on the strain while indirect economic losses Tick species and tick borne diseases are high. There are sixty recognized tick species in the country (Feseha, 1997). Apart from sucking blood of their hosts Anthrax, blackleg andpasteurellosis they are vectors of economically damaging diseases such These diseases are commonly encountered in all regions. as anaplasmosis, babesiosis, theileriosis, cowdriosis and Blackleg in cattle is usually restricted to animals between streptothricosis. Reports from professionald and 2 months and 3 years old. Eventhough annual observations suggest that the latter two diseases are vaccinations are administered for each of the diseases in increasingly becoming serious health constraints. all the regions, outbreaks of considerable magnitude are still being encountered. It is attributed to inadequate Endoparasites coverage of stock inoculation as a consequence of Included in the ranks of these fatal, debilitating and shortages of vaccines. widespread pathogenic agents are: nematodes such as Haemonchus, D.viviparus, T.vitulorum, trematodes Tuberculosis and bmcelloses spearheaded by Fasciola and Schistosoma and protozoan Bovine TB is an insidious disease seldom becoming parasites such as Trypanosoma. Helminth parasites cause apparent until it has reached an advanced stage. Cows mortality. Other aspects of loss greater than that suffered having brucellosis may abort, are often slow breeders from mortality are reduction in animal productivity (loss and can become sterile. They generally loose 20 percent in meat and milk yield as well as in work output), of their milk producing ability. Infected herds can have reproductive disorders resulting in abortion, lower 40 percent fewer calves than normal. Clinical and conception rate and infertility, costs of drugs used in serological evidences of the occurrence of the disease in medication, etc. In gastrointestinal nematodiosis of the cattle population of the Ethiopian highlands are at young cattle available evidence convincingly suggest hand, eventhough difficulties exist regarding prevalence that decreased appetite and poor growth rate arc and impact estimates. consistent features (Gebbs, 1987). The latter is mainly due to slackening of both nitrogen and energy Dermatophilosis metabolism. The disease is endemic in the cattle population. Exotic, In more specific terms, it appears to be a lowering of crossbred and indigenous animals are equally affected. the efficiency in which apparently digested and

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP PREVALENT DISEASES AND CONTROL MEASURES \ 41

metabolizable energies are used for fat and protein production losses in terms of poor weight gain, stunted synthesis. A clear evidence from one study has also growth, poor milk production, reproductive failure and indicated that even relatively small burdens of F. death. hepatica ( < \ 00 flukes) are capable of reducing body fat, protein and energy deposition, and the efficiency Nutritional diseases with which metabolizable energy is used for growth. It is beyond doubt that working oxen suffer from a (Dargie, 1987). number of nutritional diseases as the bulk of their feed which comes from grazing areas is quantitatively Trypanosomosis insufficient and qualitatively poor. The same goes to It is caused by infection with trypanosomes. It is an crop residues. The only lick provided to farm animals is important livestock disease in the tse tse and non-tse tse common salt, while supplementation with other mineral fly belts of the country. In the former it constrains licks is unknown- Diseases due to trace element agricultural development on 130-200,000 km2 of fertile deficiencies have not been studied and documented: with land in the western and south-western parts of the the exception of copper deficiency which is common in country by primarily impeding the introduction of the rift valley areas. working oxens into the area. It also causes livestock

Perspectives for the control of diseases

Draft oxen are used for work for a period of two to three ■ Strengthen the delivery of veterinary services at months a year. For the rest of the time, they normally the small holder level. stay with the resident herd on free range communal grazing lands. Under this type of management there is a ■ Need for the organization and harmonization of much higher risk of infection. This has also to be the veterinary service and its health care delivery examined in light of the state of the general animal programme to focus on: health situation prevailing and the existing depleted but immune adult population of draft oxen. Draft work can . Systematic and regular vaccination prgramme also act as a stress factor reducing resistance to both against the major infectious diseases. infectious and parasitic diseases. As for the latter it is known that endoparasitic diseases are problems of . Strategic and tactical deworming programmes for younger stock, but diseases can occur in adults when helminthosis. numtion is poor and or when they are under production and/or work stress (Ravindra et al., 1990). . Strategic and tactical treatment against ectoparasites and haemoparasites.

Control measures . Treatment of incidental diseases that arise during the course of work. The following should form the basis for control measures: . Treatment should be based through support by laboratory methods. ® Departure from the traditional herd based preventive medicine approach to the attention and . Having in place sufficient amount of care of the individual draft oxen. This requires the pharmaceutical supplies and other sources. launching of health monitoring programme for each and every oxen.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 42 I FESEHA GEBREAB

Research needs for the control of diseases of draft oxen

Epidemiological surveys to determine the prevalence, Studies on grazing systems for the development of incidence and economic importance of known strategic control of helminthosis. diseases. Studies on the traditional medical practices as it Analysis of available disease control stralegies from relates to draft oxen. the economic and effectiveness point of view. Studies on diseases and animal health disorders in Studies on the extent and role of mineral deficiency relation to stress factors such as work and nutrition. problems in draft oxen.

REFERENCES

Bureau of Agriculture and Natural Resources of Tigray (BONART)* 1977. Livestock Development Action Programme (draft document). Feseha Gebreab. 1997. Ticks and Tick bome Diseases of Domestic Animals in Ethiopia (book under preparation). FAOAVorld Bank. 1993. Livestock Sector Development Project. 24/93 CP ETH 45 SR. FAO. 1995. Strategy for International Animal Health. World Animal Review 84/85; 25-31. Gibbs, G.H. 1987. The effects of gastro-intestinal nematodes on digestion and energy metabolism in calves. In: William H.D. Leaning and Jorge Guerero (eds.). The economic impact of parasitism in cattle, Proceedings of the MSD AGVET symposium, August 19,1987 Montreal, Quebec, Canada. ILCA. 1985. Increasing African Food Production. ILCA's highland programme propose new approach. ILCA Newsletter vol. 4. No.3. Dargie, J.D. 1987. Trematode infections in sheep and cattle: Effects on productivity and metabolism. In: William H.D. Leaning and Jorge Guerero (eds). The economic impact of parasitism in cattle, In: Proceedings of the MSD AGVET symposium, August 19,1987 montreal, Quebec* Canada. Ravindra, S., Massaquoi, R,C. and Wiles, S. 1990. Research for the control of draft animal diseases in west Africa: Needs, experiences and methods. In: P.R.Lawrence K.Lawrence, J.T. DJikman and P.H. Starkey (eds.). Research for development of Animal Traction in west Africa. Proceedings of the Fourth Workshoup on the West African Animal Traction Network. Kairo, Nigeria, 9-13 July 1990.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First N ational O xen Traction Research Review a n d Strategy W orkshop Published by EARO a n d ILRI P. 43-52

Cattle Breed Improvement for Sustainable Draft Power Use in Ethiopian Agriculture

Azage Tegegne International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), PO Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

thiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa with approximately 30 million cattle, of which 9 to 10 million oxen are used for draft purposes. About 85% of the estimated 55 million human population lives in rural areas, with agriculture as the primary occupation. About 90% of these rural communities use draft animals for various purposes. Among farmers who use draft animal power, about 29% have a pair, 8% three or more, 34% have one and 29% have no oxen. Access to draft power at specific time of the year can therefore be a key factor influencing the crop agriculture. The Ethiopian highlands represent 40% of theE total land mass of 1,098.000 km2 and is inhabited by about 90% the human population. The main purpose of keeping cattle in the highlands is for draft power, and it is estimated to account for about 60% of the cattle product by value. In crop production, draft oxen are estimated to contribute to more than 26% of the total labour requirements. About 66% of the country’s 14 million crop land is cultivated with the use of animal power. The average land size in the highlands is about 2.5 hectares and land preparation and subsequent cultivation is done primarily with a pair of oxen drawing the maresha. It is estimated that herds of 8 to 10 cattle have to be kept by individual farmers at any one time to ensure availability of a pair of working oxen during land cultivation. The major feed resources that support livestock in the highlands include about 23 million hectares of grazing land and crop residues. Zebu oxen are the main animals used for tillage and threshing. In some areas where oxen are in short supply, horses, mules and donkeys are either hitched with the same species or in mixed pairs. Sometimes oxen are paired with equine or barren cows for ploughing. Oxen work for about 2 months per year, although the work potential of draft cattle can be 8 to 10 months as is estimated in India. The non-use of oxen for transport and other task during the long non-cultivation period is one of the reasons for the low utilization of oxen in Ethiopia. In the last three decades to 1991, food production per head fell steadily, mainly as a result of civil war, soil exhaustion, erosion and over-population in the marginal highland agrarian areas. This created dependence on food imports ranging from 100,000 tons in 1980 to 1 million tons in 1994. Total food production rose from barely 7 million tons in 1993/94 to an estimated 8.7 million tons in 1995/96 as a result of favourable weather and intervention. However, the growing scale of the structural food deficit indicates that the country needs to produce an extra 320.000 tons of food per year simply to keep pace with population growth. Almost all the food production is dependent on mainly draft oxen which plough a total land area of about 7 million ha, generating a total power output of 250,566,840 kwh per year. The draft power generated for ploughing per year would be equivalent to about 27% of the total amount of electricity sold in the country. Availability of oxen and their work efficiency could have substantial impact of food production. In this paper, the use and requirements of animal power is assessed, the options to fulfil animal power requirements are examined and possible areas that need improvement are suggested and discussed. introduction

Ethiopian agricultural production primarily dependant on tasks in the rural communities. Indigenous zebu oxen are the use of animal power for various farm operations and the major source of power for land preparation, cultiva- marketing activities. Animals such as cattle, donkeys, tion, threshing, etc. in most crop'-livestock production mules, horses, camels are employed to undertake various systems. However, limitations in oxen ownership, inade~ 44 \ AZAGE TEGEGNE

quate body condition to accomplished desired work is a very common scene in rural areas and has been output at the right time of the year and poor farming widely adopted by smallholder farmers. However, there practices have substantially affected the productivity of has been very little organized research programme and smallholder subsistence farmers. effort, if any, to improve animal traction so far. The Ethiopia has diverse agro-ecological zones and owns objectives of this paper is to deal with the possibility and a large and diverse livestock resource. The indigenous potential role of cattle breed improvement for sustainable animals are well adapted to diseases, climatic and nutri­ draft animal power use in Ethiopia. In order to signify tional stresses and basically have low input orientation. the importance of draft animal power use, a global Animal traction is age old technology in the country and perspective is also presented. The global perspective

Comparative figures on the use and contribution of 2/3 of land and are main power for rural transport. Cattle livestock as a source of power in developing and devel­ and buffalo constitute about 90% of the draft animals. In oped countries are presented in Table 1. Currently the Pakistan, 7 million zebu cattle, 0.5 million buffaloes, 0.5 number of animals used for draft purposes globally is million horses, 2 million donkeys and 0.8 million camels estimated at 400 million. About 52% of the cultivated constitute the domestic animal population. Oxen are area in developing countries (excluding China) is fanned primarily used for tillage. In Nepal, 2 million oxen and using only draft animals. About 80% of the worlds 0.5 million buffaloes are used for power in farm opera­ farmers use hand tools, while 15% use draft animals and tions, supporting about 64% of the farmers. In Sri Lanka, only 5% rely on machine powered equipment. The large 1.3 million cattle and 0.5 million buffalo are used for number of draft animals used globally provide power draft, and about 1/2 of the total working buffaloes arc and numerous other economic outputs make an essential female. In Africa, about 15 million draft animals are contribution to millions of subsistence farmers and used to cultivate about 10 million hectares of land sown pastoralist and are crucial to survival in vast regions of to annual crops. In Morocco, about 1 million oxen, low agricultural potential and harsh environments. The donkeys, mules, camels and horses are used for work. In global animal power could generate as much as 140 x West Africa, a total of 1 million cattle and 0.8 million 109 kwh, with 90% of this total coming from animals in donkeys and horses are used as draft animals. In China, developing countries. This amount of energy is equiva­ out of 95.3 million large animals, 56.1 million are cattle; lent to 239 x 106 barrels of diesel fuel. The annual eco­ 19 million buffaloes, and 53% of the large animals are nomic contribution of animals, therefore, is enormous; at used for farm purposes. About 57% of the total land is US$ 16 per barrel of oil, it would amount to US$ 3,824 worked by animal and man power. About 12 million million (Chirgwin, 1996). yaks are also used as pack animals. In the Philippines, The number and relative contribution of animal there are 4 million draft animals, of which approximately power in different developing countries is quite substan­ 3 million are buffaloes. In Brazil, out of a total of 7 tial (Chantalakhana, 1985), In India, 80 million work million draft animals 1/3 are oxen and the rest are equ­ animals contribute about 36% to the national energy ine. Similarly, in Mexico, out of the 4.2 million draft inputs into agriculture. These animals plow more than animals 2.8 million are oxen.

TABLE 1. Livestock as a source of power in developing and developed countries

Developed Developing Source of countries countries power Ha (mill) Percent Ha (mill) Percent

Tractors 528.0 82 .0 105.4 22.0 Hand labour 45.1 7.0 125.0 26.0 Animal Power 71.0 11.0 249.0 52.0

Source: R. Sansoucy, 1997

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP BREED IMPROVEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DRAFT POWER \ 45

The Ethiopian scenario

Role of oxen traction Access to draft power at specific time of the year can be a key factor influencing the planting operation and other Ethiopia has the largest livestock population in Africa cultivation operations. Moreover, oxen work for about 2 with approximately 30 million cattle, of which 9 to 10 months per year, although the work potential of draft million oxen are used for draft purposes on about 7 cattle can be 8 to 10 months as is estimated in India. The million hectares of land. About 85% of the estimated 52 non-use of oxen for transport and other task during the million human population iive in rural areas, with agri­ long non-cultivation period is one of the reasons for the culture as the primary occupation. About 90% of these low utilization of oxen in Ethiopia. rural communities use draft animals for various pur­ poses. The Ethiopian highlands represent 40% of the Animal power requirements total land mass and . The human population in the high­ lands is about 90% of the total population and have 22- Estimated total land area under major crops and produc­ 23 million hectares of grazing land. The main purpose of tion for smallholder farmers in 1994/95 is presented in keeping cattle in the highlands is for draft power, and it Table 2. A total of about 7 million hectares of land are is estimated to account for about 60% of the cattle prod­ cropped with a total production of 70 million quintals of uct by value. cereals, pulses and other crops, mainly oil crops. Similar Draft oxen are estimated to contribute to more than values are also presented by Region in Table 3. It is also 26% of the total labour requirements for crop agriculture. estimated that about 75% of the total land in the country About 66% of the country's 14 million crop land is is under temporary crops (Table 4). Production systems cultivated with the use of animal power. The average vary in the country, with about 19.6% of the farmers land size in the highlands is about 2.5 hectares and land engaged in exclusive crop production, about 2% live­ preparation and subsequent cultivation is done primarily stock producers and a majority of about 78% involved in with a pair of oxen drawing the wooden plough, the crop-livestock mixed production systems (Table 5). maresha. It is estimated that herds of 8 to 10 cattle have These tables are valuable in planning and for our pur­ to be kept by individual farmers at any one time to pose they also provide an indication of the estimated ensure availability of a pair of working oxen during land annual animal power requirements for the whole country cultivation. Zebu oxen are the main animals used for and by Region. Table 6 shows total number and percent­ tillage and threshing. In some areas where oxen are in age of farmers by the size of land holdings. Land hold­ short supply, horses, mules and donkeys are either ings for about 69% of smallholder farmers range be­ hitched with the same species or in mixed pairs. Some­ tween 0.5 and 5 hectares, indicating that this group of times oxen are paired with equine or barren cows for farmers will require animal power for farm operations. ploughing. Among farmers who use draft animal power, This group of farmers use about 4.7 million hectares of about 29% have a pair, 8% three or more, 34% have one land for the production of various crops. and 29% have no oxen (Gryseels and Anderson, 1983).

TA B LE 2. Estimated area under major crops production for private peasant holdings in Ethiopia in 1994/95

Area Production Crops (’000 ha) Percent COOO q) Percent

Cereals 5,749.0 82.6 61,542.0 87.4

Pulses 878.5 12.6 7,723.5 10.9

Other crops (oil) 335.7 4.8 1,152.5 1.6

Total 6,960.2 100.0 70,417.9 100.0

Source: CSA, 1994/95

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 46 \ AZAGE TEGEGNE

TABLE 3. Estimated area and production of major crops by regions for private peasant holdings in 1994/95

Region Area Production C000 ha) C000 q)

Tigray 506.0 3,035.3 Afar 16.6 146.6 Amhara 2,608.3 23,846.1 Oromia 3,138.3 35,436.5 Benshangul 60.4 641.3 SEPA 599.2 6.919.3 Gambela 6.2 78.8 Harari 5.3 60.8 Addis Ababa 10.3 119.2 Dire Dawa 9.5 134.0

Total 6,960.2 70,417.9

Sou/ve: CSA, 1994/95

TABLE 4. Land use for different production in Ethiopia in 1994/95

Land use Area ('000 ha) Percent

Land under temporary crops 7,152.0 75.5 Land under permanent crops 539.8 5.7 Fallow 705.8 7.5 Grazing land 646.2 6.8 Wood land 24.7 0.3 Other uses 408.0 4.3

Total 9,476.6 100.0

Source: CSA, 1996

Cattle holdings

Information on the estimated number of cattle holders, holdings, ranging from 3.4 heads among farmers with number of cattle and average number of cattle holdings land holdings from 0.1 to 0.5 hectares to 7.2 heads by land holdings in smallholder farms in Ethiopia for the among those who own 2 to 5 hectares. This may be 1995/96 is presented in Table 7. It is interesting to note directly related to corresponding increases in animal that about 5% of holders are landless and own approxi­ power requirements with increases in landholding. It is mately 5% of the total cattle population. About 29.9 also interesting to note that about 10% more cattle are million heads of cattle (91%) are owned by about 6.3 owned by female holders (Table 8), indicating the impor­ million (91%) smallholders with farm land sizes ranging tant role that women play in the production and manage­ from 0.1 to 5 hectares. The average number of cattle ment of draft animals in. Ethiopia. holdings shows an increasing trend with increasing land

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP BREED IMPROVEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DRAFT POWER \ 47

TABLE 5. Number and type of holdings for private peasant holdings in Ethiopia In 1S94/35

Type Number (000) Percent

Crop only 1.733.2 19.6 Livestock only 189 7 2.1 Crop and livestock 6.935.1 78.3

Source. CSA, 1996

TABLE 6, Total crop area and percent of holdings by size of holdings in Ethiopia in 1930/91

Holding group (ha) Crop area ('000 ha) Percent

<0.10 9.8 4.7 0.10-0.50 320.4 23.9 051-1.00 827.7 25.1 1 01-2.00 1.716.0 26.9 2.01-5.00 2.159.0 172 5.01-10.00 402.1 1.8 10.01 + 18.6 0.1

Source: CSA. 1995

TABLE 7. Number of cattte holders, number of cattle and average number of cattle holdings by land holdings in private peasant holdings in Ethiopia in 1995/96

Holding Number of Number of Average no. group (ha) holders (’000) cattle C000) cattle/holder

No land 336.6 1.527.2 4.5 <0.10 194.7 643.9 3.3 0.10-0.50 1,810,5 6.101.0 3.4 0.51-1.0 1.773.6 6.944.7 3.9 1.01-2.00 1,774.8 8,813.5 4.9 2.01-5.00 976.8 7.019.8 7.2 5.01-10.00 59.5 676.9 11.4 10.01 + 13.7 - -

Total 6.930.1 31.755.8 4.6

Source. CSA, 1996

Power production from oxen for both oxen and cows is similar, estimated at about 11 kw/ha (Table 8j. The total land area ploughed in Ethio­ The average power production of a pair of oxen and a pia is about 6,960,190 ha. The total amount of animal pair of crossbred cows is about 0.6 and 0.7 lav. In order power generated to plough this area would be to complete preparation of a hectare of land (three 76.562.090 kw. Since the power production of both passes ) a pair of oxen and a pair of cows require 60 and groups of animals is about 36 kwh/ha. the total amount 45 hours, respectively. The power production of both of animal power produced to plough total land area for groups of animals would therefore be equal, i.e. 36 crop production per year would therefore be about kwh/ha. The draft power generated per hectare of land 250.566,840 kwh.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 48\AZAGE TEGEGNE

TA B LE 8. Number and percentage of cattle holdings by sex of owner in the private peasant holdings in Ethiopia in 1995/96

Sex of Number (*000) Percent owner

Male 14,434.6 45.5 Female 17,321.2 55.5 Total 31,755.8 100,0

Source: CSA, 1996

TABLE 8. Working capacity, energy expenditure of a pair of oxen and a pair of crossbred cows in Holetta, Ethiopia

Activity Oxen Cows

Ave. no. days working 42.0 18.0 Working hours/ha 30.5 24.6 Draft power (kw/ha) 11.0 11.3 Energy expenditure (MJ/ha) 146.0 153.0 Food expenditure (MJ ME/ha) 225.0 235.0

Source: Adapted with modification from Mengistu Alemayehu, 1997

A quick comparison of the total amount of animal try; which is worth about 49.2 million Birr. This value, power required for crop production per year with that of however is considering the draft power generated only; electricity generation capacity and production could give and power generated from other contributions of oxen, us an overview of the importance of the draft animal such as threshing, transport, etc is not included. In addi­ power in the country. For example, the total amount of tion, the contributions of other species of work animals, installed electricity generating capacity and electricity such as donkeys, mules, camels, etc are not considered. production in 1989/90 in Ethiopia was 403,457 kw and Given the heavy dependence of crop production on 1.118.017.000 kwh, respectively (CSA, 1993). The total animal power, it will actually be difficult to tag monetary amount of electricity sold during this period was value to oxen traction in a country like Ethiopia. More­ 916.417.000 kwh; which was worth 182,301,000 Birr. over, the actual value of oxen when sold as meat animals Simple comparison shows that the draft power generated after completion of their services will make them valu­ from oxen per year would be equivalent to about 27% of able assets to the many smallholder fanners in the country. the total amount of electricity sold annually in the coun­

Options to improve draft power use

Availability of oxen ers is ownership of a pair of oxen. The Ethiopian saying "a farmer without a pair of oxen does not qualify to be As already indicated, among farmers who use draft considered a man" has a significant social and economic animal power in Ethiopia, about 29% have a pair, 8% implications. Ensuring that 34% of the farmers get one three or more, 34% have one and 29% have no oxen more ox and empowering 29% more with a pair of oxen (Gryseels. and Anderson, 1983). Access to draft power is a primary national responsibility to increase crop at specific time of the year can be empower smallholder production and ensure food security. This wilL have a farmers during the land preparation and cultivation substantial bearing on availability of more feed resources operations, as in other developing countries (Vercoe et and on the environment in relation to carrying capacity, al., 1985). The primary concern of most Ethiopian farm­ availability of grazing land and land degradation.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 8REED IMPROVEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DRAFT POWER \ 49

In some areas of the country, the potential use of specific selection criteria for draft animals. For farmers animal power has been restricted due to problems of with no draft animals, it will be considered a luxury to diseases. The tsetse fly and protozoan hemoparasite they even think about selection. However, the following transmit has infested about 13 million hectares of poten­ points as outlined by Upadhyay (1990) could be consid­ tially arable land, making animal production difficult or ered in choosing/selecting animals for traction purposes impossible. The potential agricultural production from based on body conformation and other related traits. such a large area of land can not be underestimated. Considering an average cereal pi'oduction of 10 quintals Head and neck: The head should be well balanced, the per hectare (Table 2), potentially about 130 million neck should be long and lean. A thick muscular neck is quintals of cereal crop production is lost per annum. This good for heavy draft work while a thin and slender neck estimate, of course, does not take direct outputs from is good for speed. The head and neck should be promi­ animal production per se into consideration. The ques­ nent, refined and in proportion to the size of the body, tion then is how can we avail additional animals for draft depending on the breed. Powerful jaws and wide nostrils purpose use to farmers who do not have animals and to are indicative of chewing and breathing capacity. areas where disease threat and risk is high ? The desired increase could be achieved through: Forequarter: The length of the stride and power of forward propulsion are primarily dependant upon the ■ purchasing and availing excess young male animals architecture of the forequarter. It also serves as a base of from pastoral and agro-pastoral areas support and work as a shock absorbing mechanism during motion and work. The shoulder must be long, ■ increasing net reproductive rate of animals already sloping and muscular to allow free forward motion of the available in the highlands limbs for maximum length of strides. The forelegs should be straight, long, well muscled and perpendicular ■ decreasing mortality and morbidity through control when viewed from all directions. The knee must be of diseases and parasites and capable of bearing weight and support the body. The knee should be straight from both front and side views; ■ identification and selection of indigenous cattle thick, wide and squarely placed on the leg. No matter breeds that are tolerant/resistant to trypanosomiasis. how fine the conformation of the animals is, if the hoof will not support it the animal is worth less. The hoofs Improve work output should have proportionate claws and they should be clean and free from cracks. The size of hoofs should be Selection proportionate and angle should be same as the angle of There is no official documentation on breed improve­ pastern. When viewed from the front, the legs should be straight, the hoof should be flat on the ground and should ment for draft purposes in Ethiopia. Since cattle are the major species of animals used for draft purposes, all point directly ahead. The legs should be square under the breeds of cattle are used for draft power. There is no comers in parallel planes. A line dropped from the point specialized breeding by farmers for draft power. How­ of the shoulder should bisect the forearm, knee, pastern ever, there seems to be a tendency to select larger fra­ and hoof equally. When viewed from the side, the fore­ med, vigorous and relatively docile animals for draft arm and knee should be in straight line with the shoulder, the pastern and the slop of the hoof. power purposes. Unfortunately, animals selected for draft power are castrated at a relatively early age and Hindquarter: In addition to support, the hind quarter their potential contribution to genetic improvement is provides the force for propulsion. Therefore any defect curtailed. As a result, smaller animals remain intact and in structure reflect speed, power, endurance and ulti­ continue to breed resulting in the production of smaller mately working ability. The hind legs should be long, and less powerful animals for draft purposes in subse­ with well developed muscle through the thigh and stifle quent generations. There is no institution which has joint. The hock joint is the hardest working joint in the taken the responsibility of co-ordinating national effort body of the animal. It is the pivot of action that propels to improve animal power use in Ethiopia. There is no the ox forward with the contraction of the powerful hind

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW ANO STRATEGY WORKSHOP 50 \ AZAGE TEGEGNE

quarter muscles. The hocks should be clean, well de­ per-working periods of the year. Seasonality in the fined, strong, wide and not rough, puffy or fleshy. quality and quantity of feed resources influences body When viewed from the rear, the hocks should be set condition of animals. Allocation of available feed re­ relatively close together under the body. If the points of sources to the different classes of animals on a year hocks turn inward, the condition is commonly known as round basis to satisfy household requirements needs cow hocked, if this condition is associated with base careful planning and feed budgeting. In most instances, wide, it is likely to interfere with the motion of the oxen are in a relatively poor body condition around the animal, in motion, hocks of good draft animaJ should end of the long dry season; and this is the time when move in parallel planes with the fetlock and pastem with they are required to undertake the hard work of primarily no deviation from a straight line. tillage. Since work output is directly related to body The set of hind legs when viewed from the side weight and energy reserves, animal work performance is should be such that a line dropped from the point of the often low. A study at ILRI Debre Zeit station has demon­ buttocks touches the rear border of the hock joint and strated that animals in high body condition during the remain behind hoof. When hind legs are viewed from the start of the work season perform lower than animals in rear, a line dropped from the point of the buttock should medium body condition (P.O. Osuji, personal communi­ fall upon the centre of the hock, pastem and hoof. cation). For farmers to get the best work performance out of their oxen, appropriate feeding strategies have to be Leg defects: defects of the leg may take many forms. developed and implemented. The legs may be base wide or base-narrow, they may be toe-in or toe-out, bow legged, knock-kneed, pigeon toed Training or a combination of these conditions. These types of Training of animals for traction purposes is an important conformational defects can be observed from the front, component in the production system. Farmers apply rear and side of the animal. When the animal is in mo­ different techniques to train animals for work; and these tion, these defects are usually manifested during flight of techniques are generally similar across the country with the legs, which not only places undue strain on various slight variations from place to place. Animal tempera­ parts of limbs but also disturb the motion. ment/ disposition is an important factor which affects working ability and hence work performance. Mental B ody: The body should be long, proportionate with well capacity of oxen to respond to oral command such as sprung ribs. The withers of good working animals should turn to right or left, stop, start are important consider­ be prominent and muscular. Animals with heavy, thick ation which affect the farmer and the efficiency of work. withers move poorly. High slopping withers are usually Skill of farmers in managing oxen in land preparation associated with long, sloping shoulders which are lighter and cultivation is also an important component which and move freely. affects animal performance. For example, driving ani­ mals at a moderate and consistent speed may prolong the Strategic feeding onset of fatigue. In general, considerations have to be One of the problems with oxen management is associ­ given to the animal, the farm implement and the fanner ated with feeding strategies for the working, resting and to be able to increase efficiency of use of animal power.

Do we need breed improvement for animal power?

Given the current situation in the use of oxen traction in traction, it will be unrealistic to consider breed improve­ the country and the production systems, genetic im­ ment. The focus of our research in the attempt to im­ provement of animals for a specific production trait may prove animal power utilization in Ethiopia should, in the be a difficult task to accomplish in the short run. The short run, be geared towards satisfying the power re­ rugged terrain under which oxen are worked, the desir­ quirements of the farmers at the right time of the year able adaptive traits the indigenous animals have and the and enhancing the management of oxen and efficiency age old attachment farmers have to the use oxen for ofwork output.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP BREED IMPROVEMENT FOR SUSTAINABLE DRAFT POWER \ 51

IOEAI BASE-Wioe eASE-NAePOvv KHOCK- KteE O

IDEAL STA N DS-WIO€ STANOS-CIOSE COW-MOCKED

FIGURE 1. Conformation defects in front and rear legs

FIGURE 2. Conformation defects in front and rear legs (side view)

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 54 \ ABIYE AND MELESE

vation is still practiced. But in general cultivation is except Eragrostis tefis also made by the same traditional carried out by a pair ofoxen pulling the traditional implement. implement the ’maresha'. A serious disadvantage of the 'maresha is that it is a The 'maresha' consists of a metal point or tine, fasten cultivating implement rather than a plow. This means to a wooden arm, to the pole which is fasten to a wooden that the soil is not inverted and is of very little use in neck yoke. At each side of the metal point are two turning stubble and weeds. Weeding is the major activity wooden wings which push the soil aside. The traditional in the agricultural calendar making it one of the most implement is light; ranging from 17-26 kg with the yoke serious bottlenecks for agricultural production. (Goe, 1987) and makes it possible to be transported The other problem using the 'maresha' occurs during together to and from the field over different terrain by seed covering. The depth of seed coverage varies from one person. Except for the metal tine, which the farmer seeds not covered at all to the maximum depth which the has to buy from the blacksmith, the rest is home made. 'maresha' tine penetrates. This might be one of the It is versatile and can be used on all soil types. reasons why farmers tend to double or sometimes triple Depending on the crop and soil types, two to five the seed rates recommended by research institutes, as cultivations are required by the ’maresha’ before a field germination rates will be low otherwise. is ready for planting. The seed covering of ail crops,

Research on tillage equipment for the replacement of maresha

Attempts by the Italians in 1940 to introduce a steel research section of the Chilallo Agricultural mouldboard plow at the smallholder level were Development Unit (CADU; name later changed to Arsi unsuccessful because of its weight, required complicated Rural Development Unit, ARDU) in the part of the adjustments and a higher power requirements than that country to develop tillage implements and carts. Later of the 'maresha' specially on soils with higher clay investigations were carried out to include threshers and contents (Goe and Astatke, 1989). In the 1950's, FAO water-lifting devices. Several trials were conducted to reportedly developed a plow but no large scale evaluate both locally manufactured and imported plows production and use occurred. and toolbars from the USA, India and countries from Between 1955 and 1965 a substantial amount of Europe (CADU, 1969, 1970, 1971). The studies testing of implements using oxen, horses and mules were demonstrated that the use of the mouldboard plows and tried at the then Alemaya College of Agriculture in harrows could reduce cultivation time by up to half of eastern Ethiopia and at the Jimma Agricultural Technical that required for the 'maresha', but yield were not School in southern Ethiopia. Implements tested included significantly increased. steel mouldboard plows, a single-disc plow, spike tooth The development of a suitable mouldboard plow as and disc harrows and several different types of planters a replacement for the ’maresha’ continued to be difficult and cultivators (Canaday, 1959). Most of the work was up through 1980, with the major obstacles being cost, carried out at experiment station level, rather than on- weight and difficulties getting repairs made at the artisan farm. Reports tend to stress that the improved level. Past attempts to modify the 'maresha' have implements were suitable for accomplishing required included the development of the 'Jimma plow' where tasks but do not point out that lack of knowledge on the wooden soles and share were substituted with fiat iron part of the farmer, lack of parts and weak animals caused strips and a vertical knife. For the 'Vita plow’ the the technology to be unacceptable (Canaday, 1959). complete arid head of the ’maresha' was replaced with There seems to have been little recognition of the fact the metal mouldboard assembly, while a modified that problems regarding adoption of the technology by version of the Vita plow 'ARDU plow' was produced farmers were largely due to equipment being later (Teclemariam Berhane, 1979). inappropriate for the power source, complicated in On-farm trails demonstrated that the 'Jimma plow' design and operation, difficult to repair and too costly. provided better tillage than the ’maresha’ on sandier soils A major effort was initiated in 1968 by the implement but showed little advantage when used on fallow plots or

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP ALTERNATIVE APPLICATION OF OXEN POWER \ 55

those soils having high clay contents. Tests with the 'Vita major bottle-necks. Moreover, the implement package by plow* prototype indicated that design changes in the its own did not have a significant impact on grain yield mouldboard assembly and the angle of the handle were increases. necessary to improve its tillage performance. Even In 1985, through financial and technical assistance though these modifications were incorporated into the rendered by the Food and Agriculture Organization of 'ARDU plow' it was rejected by both farmers and the United Nations Development Program, the extension workers. Agricultural Implements Research and Improvement In 1976, the Agricultural Engineering Department of Center (AIRIC) was established to coordinate research the Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) began to on animal drawn implements at a national level. The develop and test farm tools and equipment appropriate center has undertaken basic research on draught animal for the agricultural conditions in Ethiopia. One study power. A series of experiments were conducted on the evaluated an implement package consisting of work out put of indigenous oxen at Holetta and mouldboard plow, spike tooth harrow, imported toolbar Melkassa. The test results indicated that Ethiopian oxen and hand operated planter for better crop production can sustain a pull of 15-20% of their body weight (Table (Teclemariam Berhane, 1979). With this implement the 1) unlike reports of 10% elsewhere in the world (Pathak, 2.5 ha normally cultivated by a pair of oxen could be 1989). Such findings were the basis for developing increased to 6-8 ha but weeding and harvesting were several types of animal drawn implements.

TABLE 1. Average speed power and work out put of Ethiopian oxen at three levels of pull

Pull (% of body Average Average weight Speed power output Work output Location Harness (m/s) (KW) (M/J day) Holetta Pair 10 0.70 0.44 7.99 15 0.56 0.53 9.38 20 0.35 0.45 7.98

Melkassa Pair 10 0.57 0.42 7.53 15 0.44 0.43 7.71 20 0.29 0.37 6.86 Single 10 0.52 0.17 3.09 (Neck- 15 0.43 0.19 3.37 Yoke) 20 0.31 0.20 3.61 Single 10 0.5 3 0.17 3.12 V~yoke 15 0.45 0.23 4.17 20 0.33 0.22 3.99 Source: Pathack 1989

After collecting and testing seven different types of being popularized among farmers in different locations. mouldboard plows AIRIC came up with 'Nazareth plow' Other implements developed at AIRIC include semi­ that performed best, required least draught force and automatic row planters that can handle several types of weighed the least. Recently, the moldboard plow was crops, a winged plow that can control weeds. While modified in such a way that it is attached to ’Erf and conserving soil moisture, an animal drawn weeder, ’Erf 'Mofer', the handle and beam of the Maresha, and ’Mofer’ attached groundnut/potato lifter. These respectively. Thus, the weight of the metallic part was implements have been demonstrated on farmers fields reduced from 12 kg to 5 kg, the bolts and nuts were and the results indicate that oxen power can be more replaced by a rope, giving a drastic reduction in weight utilized because manual operations are replaced by oxen and cost with added simplicity. Currently, the plow is traction.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 56 \ ABIYE AND MELESE

The International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA) reduction agrees with figures obtained from similar trails now ILRI has been conducting research on tillage reported by CADU (CADU, 1970). In another study, use implements in relation to their power requirements, of a mouldboard plow or spring tine cultivator for initial cultivation, weeding times and crop yields on different tillage, followed by secondary tillage and using zig-zag soil types. Details of this work can be found in the harrow for seed covering did not significantly result in reports of Abiye Astatke and Matthews (1984). Principal better weed control than the traditional system which findings showed that the use of steel mouldboard plow employs the 'maresha' from three to five operations. can reduce cultivation time by at least half than that There were significant yield differences between any of required for the 'maresha' cultivation. This level of the plots prepared by the three implement systems. Research on land shaping equipment

The International Crops Research Institute for Semi-Arid drawn scoop. The 'maresha' is first used to break-up the Tropics (ICRISAT) developed systems of broadbed and soil surface where the pond is to be excavated. The furrow (BBF) cultivation method using wheeled tool- loosened material is removed with the scoop to dumping carrier (Bansal and Srivastava, 1981; ICRISAT, 1983). site at one end of the pond. The ’maresha’ is then used Although experimental results were encouraging (Ryan again to break-up the subsoil which is in turn removed and von Oppen, 1983) farmer adoption was minimal by the scoop. This pattern of tillage and scooping (Starkey, 1988). In Ethiopia, ILCA (now ILRI) continues until the pond is completed. The total amount collaboration with national and international institutions of time spent for scooping depends on the size of the started developing low cost land-shaping implement excavation to be made, the condition of the animals, the based on the 'maresha' in 1986 after briefly evaluating friability and moisture content of the soil. At Debre the wheeled tool-carrier. Abiye Astatke and Ferew Berhan, approximately 10 hours of tillage was required Kelemu (1993) described the development of the of the to move 100 m3 of soil (Abiye et al., 1986). The average broadbed maker (BBM) for the formation of BBFs. By draught power developed by a pair of local zebu oxen 1995, more than 10,000 BBMs have been sold to pulling a full scoop was 0.92 kW, which falls within the individual farmers, non governmental organizations and upper range of power needed for the first pass with the the Ministry of Agriculture ( Abiye Astatke and ’maresha’ (Abiye, 1984). Subsequently, the Ethiopian Mohamed Saleem, 1996). Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) modified the scoop to ILCA (now ILRI), in cooperation with several reduce power requirements. The new models are about national organizations, has been investigating the use of 15% smaller than the first prototype and have two metal animal drawn scoops for excavating new ponds or skids on the bottom to reduce friction. The scoops are desilting old ones. The aim has been mainly to robust and if the wooden handles break they can easily supplement dry season water supplies for humans and be repaired by the farmers themselves. livestock. The water could also be use for supplementary irrigation as well as fish farming. Use of carts and sledges The basic scoop design employed in the initial trials was similar to the traditional Dutch ’mouldbaert' and the Tasks performed by animals are traditionally limited to British eighteen century 'levelling box' (Brandford, tillage, threshing, packing and human transport. It was 1976). These European implements had been designed not until 1936-1941, during the Italian occupation, that to be drawn by large animals, and so ILCA developed a the use of horses, mules and donkeys for carting became smaller version with a capacity of 0.15 m3 that could be established within and around the larger cities and towns pulled by a pair of Ethiopian zebu oxen. Initial testing of and in coffee growing areas (Vitali and Bartozolozzi, the technology began in 1983, with the excavation of a 1939). Carts brought into Ethiopia by the Italians were 7000 m3 pond at ILCA's research station in Debre constructed by the artisans using local materials and Berhan, 120 km northeast of Addis Ababa (Abiye imported components such as axles, wheels and bearing. Astatke, 1984), During the 30 years following independence, the use of Pond construction requires the use of simple animal drawn wheeled transport changed very little implements: the traditional a rid 'maresha* and the animal within the country (Huffnagel, 1961) as a result of

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP ALTERNATIVE APPLfCAHON OF OXEN POWER I 57

expensive imported components. other devices that provide relatively continuous delivery In 1969 CADU began developing prototypes of two of irrigation water have been employed in North Africa wheeled carts for single horse or donkey and paired and Asia for centuries. Such systems make use of oxen. The axles were forged in the country while the available materials and local energy sources and can be iron-rimmed wooden wheels with metal bushings were made and maintained by local artisians. Among the well imported. The prototype carts were loaned by the proven designs are the "Persian wheel'' and the Egyptian extension personnel to interested individuals in Arsi "sakia". The Persian wheel comprises a continuous loop province for testing and evaluation, and also to of containers that scoop into the water, rise up, and determine farmer demand (CADU, 1969). Some empty out the water just after reaching the top of the fabrications of ox carts using iron wheels and axle wheel. For raising water from shallow wells into assemblies from discarded vehicles was also earned out irrigation ditches the sakia is more efficients because by CADU, but these offered limited possibilities due to unlike many other irrigation devices, the water is not lack of old equipment and spare parts (Kline et al, 1969). "over lifted”. ARDU presently manufactures steel wheeled carts Animal power has been used to drive adaptions of that could be pulled by horses, donkeys and oxen based commercially available pumps. Using a commercial on the design similar to that introduced by CADU. Most pump and a multipurpose gear two small oxen were able of these carts are found within Arsi province, although to pump 2nr per hour through a head of i 6 m in Sierra there is limited use else where in the country. Strong Leone (Koroma and Boie,1988). Prototype examples of extension support and credit facilities made farmers in using animal powered water raising systems are many Arsi Province generally more receptive to the use of but successful introduction to farmers are few. In carts than in other parts of the country. In recent years, Ethiopia, tests of different makes of water lifting devices there has been an increase in demand for donkey and ox have been conducted by Agricultural Implements carts where roads have been constructed and local Research and Improvement Centre (AIRIC) at Melkassa artisans have been trained to make repairs. Centre, but has not been adopted by farmers so far. Although the use of carts is not widespread, two wheel pneumatic-tired carriages (called garees), usually pulled by a single horse, are heavily relied upon to Animal powered gears transport people and goods within and in the outskirts of many urban areas. Heavy duty two wheel carts For centuries, animal power has been usefully employed fabricated from wheel and axle assemblies of discarded in various ways of crop processing. Some cereals can be vehicles are also used on a small scale. In and around threshed without any special equipment., merely by towns in southern Shoa Province, within the vicinity of trampling of animals as done in most parts of Ethiopia. Lake Ziway, firewood and water drums are commonly But, basic threshing can be more efficient with the use of transported on locally constructed wooden carts with animal-pulled threshers which have similar appearance small casted spooked wheels and pulled by one donkey. to rotary paddlers or disk harrows and are found in Occasionally, paired oxen are employed to pull these several north African countries (Starkey et al., 1989). carts on dirt roads in the same area. The Agricultural Simple traditional mills requiring slow speed but high Mechanization Research Center has developed an ox cart torque can be turned by animals. In northeast Africa, which is now being popularised to farmers. camels are employed to turn uncomplicated mills based Sledges have been employed in Arsi Province and on large wooden pestle and mortar designed to press oil some pockets of the country for nearly 50 years to seeds such as sesame. Animal powered sugarcane transport crops from fields to threshing areas (Kaline et crushers, which also require only low speeds and high al., 1969). They are locally constructed from wood and torque are widely used in parts of Asia and are are pulled by a team of oxen. commercially available in India. In the Ethiopian context, very little testings or work has been done on Water-raising equipment animal powered gears and post harvest operations at research station level let alone the usage of these type of Traditional designs of animal-powered water wheels and operations by farmers.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 58 \ ABIYE AND MELESE

Use of single animal for traction

Although figures are not available for Ethiopia, work in Research on the use of a single local ox for other areas for Africa suggests that anything from 8 to 16 cultivation with the modified 'maresha' started in 1983 at heads of breeding and young stock arc needed to ILCA (ILRI) and was intended to benefit a large number maintain a pair of ploughing oxen in the field of smallholder farmers who own a single ox. Because of (FAO/CEEMAT, 1972). Even if the lower figure is the improvement in operational efficiency, the accepted, it is obvious that the system has serious technology allowed it was possible to reduce the oxen drawbacks in today's situation of rapidly increasing number and provided an opportunity to keep only more human food requirements. Encroachment of crop productive animals and in good condition. A decade farming into grazing areas and the increasing number of after this research work was completed, by the end of animals for draught purposes and their followers on 1996 in Tigray Region more than 1000 farmers have restricted area results in overgrazing and soil erosion. started using single ox for cultivation and seed covering.

Future role of animal traction

The Ethiopian agricultural lands are fast degrading under users. Well planned on-station studies must be followed- the combined effects of continuous cropping and up by extensive on-farm verification trials to properly overgrazing. If sustainable agricultural production is to evaluate new technologies. Policies that promote be maintained in the country, a more efficient and agricultural intensification while protecting the productive use of animal power should be developed and environment should be implemented to achieve the full extended to the farming community at large. technological benefits. As this review points out, a substantial amount of research on various aspects of animal power have been With the appropriate research and development, the carried out over the past years. There is an urgent need prospect of making traditional agriculture responsive to to draw together the results of these research, the changing situations to increase productivity should recognising past mistakes, and reorient future work so be possible. The role and potential of animal traction in that the full potential of animal traction can be realised. the intensification of agricultural production of this Farmers must be included from the onset in evaluating country seems to be enormous. draught animal technologies since they are the ultimate

REFERENCES

Abiye Astatke, Bunning, S. and Anderson, F.M. 1986. Building ponds in the Ethiopian highlands : A manual. International Livestock Centre for Africa (ILCA), Addis Ababa,Ethiopia. Abiye Astatke. 1984. The use of animal power in water conservation works. M.Sc. Dissertation. Cranfield Institute of Technology. Silsoe College, Bedford, UK. Abiye Astatke and Ferew Kelemu. 1993. Modifying the traditional plough - maresha - for better management of Vertisols. Chapter in Tekalign Mamo, Abiye Astatke, K L' Srivastava and Asgelil Dibabe (eds). 1993. Improved management of Vertisols for sustainable crop - livestock production in the Ethiopian Highlands: synthesis report 1986-92. Technical Committee of the Joint Vertisol Project, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Abiye Astatke, Airaksinen, H. and Mohamed Saleem, M.A. 1991. Supplementary irrigation for sequential cropping in the Ethiopian Highland Vertisols using broadbed and furrow land management system. Agric. Water Manage., Vol. 20:173-184. Abiye Astatke and Matthews, M.D.P. 1984. Cultivation research in the Highlands Programme of ILCA. ILCA, Addis Ababa. Abiye Astatke and Mohamed Saleem, M.A. 1996. Draught animal power for land use intensification in the Ethiopian Highlands. World Animal Review, Vol.86 (1): 3 -11. ARDU. 1980. Progress Report No. 5. Agricultural Engineering Section. ARDU Publication No. 14. Arsi Rural Development Unit

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP ALTERNATIVE APPLICATION OF OXEN POWER \ 59

and Ministry of Agriculture and Settlement, Addis Ababa. Bansal, R.K. and Srivastava, KX. 1981. Improved animal-drawn implements for farming in the semi-arid tropics. Agricultural Mechanisation in Asia, Africa and Latin America, Spring 1981:33-38. Branford, P.W. 1976. Old farm tools and machinery. David and Charles, devon, UK. CADU. 1969. Progress Report No. 1. Implement Research Section. Publication No. 32. Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. CADU. 1971. Progress Report No. 3. Implement Research Section. Publication No. 79. Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. CADU. 1970. Progress Report No.2. Implement Research Section. Publication No. 52. Chilalo Agricultural Development Unit, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, Canaday, E (ed). 1959.The agriculture of Ethiopia. Vol. 6. Imperial Ethiopian College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, Jimma Agricultural School. U.S.A. Operations Missions to Ethiopia-Point 4.Ethiopia - U.S. Cooperative Agricultural Program. Annual Report. Goe, M.R. 1987. Animal traction on smallholder farms in the Ethiopian Highlands. Ph.D. Dissertation. Department of Animal Science, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, USA. Goe, M.R. and Abiye Astatke. 1989. Development of draught animal power systems in Ethiopia. Paper presented at the Second ACIAR International Workshop on Draught Animal Power, 3-6 July 1989, Bogor, Indonesia. Gryseels, G., Abiye Astatke, Anderson, F.M. and Getachew Asamenew. 1984. The use of single ox for crop cultivation in Ethiopia. ILCA Bulletin 18:20-25, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Huffnagel, H.P. 1961. Agricuture in Ethiopia, FAO, Rome. ICRISAT. 1983. The animal - drawn wheel toolcanier. Revised edition. Information Bulletin No.8, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India. Kflline, C.K., Green, D.A.G., Donahue, R.L. and Stout, B.A. 1969. Agricultural mechanization in equatorial Africa. Institute of International Agricultural Research Report No.6. Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan. Koroma, J. and Boie, W. 1988. Demonstration of animal-power gear at Rolako Ox Plow Centre. In: P. Starkey and F. Ndiame (eds.), Animal power in fanning systems. Prceedings of workshop held 19 -26 Sept 1986, Freetown, Sierra Leone. GTZ, Eschbom, Germany. McCann, J. 1987. The social impact of draught in Ethiopia: Oxen, households and some implications for rehabilitation. In: Glantz, M.H (ed.). Draught and hunger in Africa: denying famine a future. Cambridge University Press, U.K. Pathak, B.S. 1989. Draught performance of indigeneous and cross-bred oxen, Eth/82/004, Field Document 3, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Rayn, J.L. and von Oppen, M. 1983. Assessment of impact of deep Vertisol technology options. Economics Programme Progress Report 59, International Crops Research Institute for the Semi - Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Patancheru, India. Starkey, P.H. 1988. Perfected yet rejected: animal-drawn wheeled toolcarriers. Vieweg, Brauschwieg/Wiesbaden for GTZ, Eschbom, Federal Republic of Germany. Starkey, P.H., Abiye Astatke and Goe, M.R. 1989. Alternative application of animal power. Paper presented at the Second ACIAR International Workshop on draught animal power held 3-7 July 1989, Balai Penelitian Temak, Ciawi, Bogor, Indonesia. Teclemariam Berbane. 1979, Study on the of ox-drawn equipment for the production of cowpea, maize, cotton and groundnut under irrigation in the middle Awash valley* Melka Werer. Institute of Agricultural Research, Agricultural Engineering Bulletin No.l. Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Vitali, G. and Bartolozzi, E. 1939. Strumenti agricoli indegeni dell'Africa Orientale Italiana. Relazioni e Monografie Agrario- Coloniali. No. 52. Regrio Istituto Agronomico per l’Africa Italiana. World Bank, 1993. World Bank News. Volume XII, No. 17. Washington D.C., USA.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First N ational Oxen tra c tio n Research Review and Strategy W orkshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 60 -69

Alternative Practices in Crop Production for Small-Scale Farmers in Case of Animal Power Shortage

Adugna Wakjira andAmare Gizaw Holetta Research Center, EARO, P0 Box 2003, Addis Ababa

ABSTRACT

n this review, attempts are made to discuss various alternative practices that have been underway for years in Ethiopia to alleviate the shortages of draft power in the process of crop production, more specifically in relation to tillage practices. Farmers strategies to cope with oxen shortages and potential cultural practices such as zero and reduced tillage systems are reviewed and recommendations are made for future research and development Iendeavors. Introduction

Agriculture, which is the mainstay of Ethiopian econ­ planting, employing about 350 oxen-pair hours. Use of omy, accounts for about 50% of the GDP, provides paired oxen for ploughing has been, therefore, an inte­ livelihood for over 80% of the population and contrib­ gral part of the Ethiopian crop-livestock production utes about 60% to the country's export (Sarah and system in which over 90% of the farmers in the high­ Amare, 1996). Four-fifths of the Ethiopian population lands are involved (Getachew et al., 1993). In short, the that arc engaged in agriculture as small-scale farmers are farming system in Ethiopia is heavily dependent on currently responsible for about 96% of the total agricul­ animal traction and technologies that are based on these tural products (Mengistu, 1997). power sources are believed to be appropriate for improv­ The traditional system of agriculture in Ethiopia is ing the productivity of the small-scale farmers. largely dependent on animals for cultivation, planting On the other hand, about 50% of the smallholders in and threshing. About 90% of the crop production is the highlands of Ethiopia possess either only one or no carried out by using draft power in the high and middle oxen, and the traditional arrangements are often consid­ altitudes of Ethiopia. Oxen are generally favored for ered inconvenient and inefficient (Getachew et al., 1993) these purposes though bulls, horses and cows are also to plant the crops at the optimum time. Moreover, the used whenever shortage of oxen are encountered first author of this paper has learned that shortage of (Getachew et al., 1993). oxen was one of the major problems faced by farmers Studies carried out by the International Livestock who were not involved in the on-going nation-wide Center for Africa, ILCA (now International Livestock extension program. Ownership of oxen was one of the Research Institute, ILRI) have shown that 1050 animal criteria to acquire credit and thus ox-less farmers could hours per farm is used for crop activities around Debre not make use of the opportunity of the extension pro­ Ziet and Debre Berhan areas (Gryseels and Anderson gram. Therefore, in this paper efforts are made to review 1983). According to these authors, most of this power and analyze the relevant evidences on the shortage of was supplied by oxen and about 60-70% of the total draft power and their consequences, and suggests possi­ animal power input was for seed-bed preparation and ble options for future endeavors of crop production. ALTERNATIVE PRACTICES IN CASE OF ANIMAL POWER SHORTAGE t 61

TABLE 1. Effect of tillage on soil and plant nutrient loss

Tillage Soil loss Runoff Nitrogen Phosphorus (t/ha) (mm) (kg/ha) (kg/ha)

Conventional 27.33 467 53.7 19.8 Zero tillage 0.75 259 10.4 1.9

Source: Stobble 1989

TABLE 2. Percentage of ox ownership in five peasant associations of Miesso and Chiro districts

Ox ownership Miesso Chiro Gorbo Arkoncha Madicho Ijafara Kuni-Segaria

None 52 67 51 55 53 Single 41 30 32 33 47 Pair 7 3 17 12 0 Total 100 100 100 100 100

Source: Adugna et al., 1996

TABLE 3. Prioritized constraints to agricultural production in the lowlands (Miesso) and highlands (Chiro) of western Harerge

Lowlands Highlands

Drought Declining Soil fertility Stalk borer Stalk borer Animal feeds Animal feeds Lack of oxen Lack of oxen Crop storage Crop storage Declining soil fertility Drought

Source: Adugna et at., 1996 Literature review

Overview of draft power and its effects on day. It has been estimated that 90-150 hours per hectare crop production is required for land preparation and two to five passes are necessary for planting (Gryseels and Anderson 1983). These authors also emphasized that livestock and Mengistu (1997) indicated that about six million draft their products contribute about 35% of the agricultural oxen are available in Ethiopia and on average a pair of output and supply the power to cultivate nearly all the oxen work for about 350-400 hours per year. Gryseels eight million hectares of land which is cropped annually and Anderson (1983) also reported that oxen weighing in Ethiopia. from 250-350 kg can work for four to nine hours per However, when the current climatic disturbances are

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 62 1 ADUGNA AND AMARE

added to the already existing feed shortages and uneven tions, and thus has an adverse effect on the total income ownership of oxen (Getachew et al., 1993), there is of the family (Table 4). shortage of draft oxen in many parts of Ethiopia (tables Abiye and Ferew (1993) indicated that farmers who 2 and 3). Moreover, the most commonly encountered own a pair of oxen produce 62-82% more than the ox- problem by farmers in Ethiopia at the beginning of the less fanners in the highlands of Ethiopia. Getachew et al. cropping season is the wearied oxen that have already (1993) have also noted that farmers with adequate num­ lost body weight due to the shortage of feed during the bers of draft oxen were able to plough, plant and control dry season (Mengistu, 1997). According to this author, weeds better and more timely than those who had no using such animals for traction is not only inefficient but oxen. This has resulted in increased crop yields on the also risks injuiy and impairment of future performance. farms of ox-owners as opposed to the ox-less farmers. Adugna et al. (1996) have found that the majority of Since adequate draft power helps to cultivate more area fanners in western Hararghe are faced with the difficul­ within short period of time, there is a positive association ties of land preparation as the result shortages of oxen between the number of oxen available and area culti­ (Table 2) and this has led to delayed planting, increasing vated (tables 4 and 5). their vulnerability to the effects of drought. The major The availability of oxen power was also observed to causes for the shortages of oxen in western Hararghe affect the cropping patterns in the highlands of Ethiopia. were low income, low fodder production and sale of Farmers with more oxen allot more of their land to crops oxen during severe drought years to purchase basic of high value like cereals as cereals require more cultiva­ requirements for the family. tion and timely seed-bed preparation than other crops Legesse et al. (1992) have found that shortage of (Getachew et al., 1993). In contrast, farmers that have draft power is the third major problem limiting crop and shortage of oxen allocate more land to pulses and oil­ animal production in the maize-tef based system of seeds since these crops perform relatively better under western Ethiopia. They uncovered that 65% of the farm­ rough seed-beds and with low inputs. Hence, the impor­ ers in the Bako area, 45% in the Adet area and 37% in tant effect of animal traction on crop production has to the Nazret area have less than two oxen, limiting maize be seen in relation to cultivated area, cropping patterns, production. Shortage of draft power is noted to limit the labour availability and improved yields. area that can be cultivated and timeliness of farm opera­

TABLE 4. Effect of oxen ownership on area cultivated and cash income

No. of Area cultivated Cash income/year oxen (ha) (Birr)

0 1.18 130 1 1.20 183 2 or more 1.70 302

Source: Legesse et al., 1992

TABLE 5. Effect of oxen ownership on area cultivated and cropping pattern at Debre Zeit, 1990

Oxen Crop area/ Area to Area to ownership farm (ha) cereals (%) pulses (%)

0 1.2 54 46 1 1.9 44 56 2 2.7 67 33 >3 3.6 92 8

Source: Getachew et al., 1993

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP ALTERNATIVE PRACTICES IN CASE OF ANIMAL POWER SHORTAGE \ 63

TA B LE 6. Number of pJougbings for some major crops in different zone in Ethiopia

Zone/ Plowing Crop Area frequenecies* Source

Maize Bako 3 Legesse etal. 1992 Tef Bako 3-4 Legesse etal. 1992 Wheat Sendafa 3-4 Hailu and Chilot 1992 Tef Sendafa 5-6 Hailu and Chilot 1992 Faba bean Sendafa 1-2 Hailu and Chilot 1992 Tef Nazret 3 Tilahunetal. 1992 Sorghum Nazret 3 Tilahun et al. 1992 Maize Nazret 3 Tilahun et al. 1992 Barley Nazret 3 Tilahun et al. 1992 3 Tilahun et al. 1992 Wheat Kulumsa 4-5 Chilot et al. 1992 Barley Kulumsa 4-5 Chilot et al. 1992 Tef Kulumsa 4-5 Chilot et al. 1992 Faba bean Kulumsa 2 Chilot et al. 1992 Field pea Kulumsa 2 Chilot et al. 1992 Wheat Holetta 2-4 Hailu et at. 1992 Wheat Slnana 3-4 Haifu et al. 1992

•Plowing frequencies include the last passes to cover broadcasted seeds

TABLE 7. Practical comparison of soil preparation and weed control methods on maize production under different tillage systems

No. of working Maximum no. Tillage days to produce of ha under Expected systems 1 ha of maize cultivation yield (tha*1)

Hand-hoe 100-120 1-2 1-2 AT* + HW 50-60 4-6 3-4 AT + H 25-30 8-12 4-5 NT + H 15-20 up to 20 5-6

*AT = animal traction; HW = hand weeding; H - herbicides and NT * no tillage Source: Soza et al., 1994

TA B LE 8. Effect of tillage and soil type on grain yield (kg ha'1) of food barley at Holetta, 1982-1985

Tillage system Red soil Black soil Mean

Zero tillage 1492 1515 1504 Minimum tillage 1535 1724 1630 Conventional 1655 1338 1497 Mean 1561 1526

Source: Adamu et al., 1996

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 64 \ ADUGNA AND AMARE

Coping strategies of farmers to shortages of of the remaining were share-cropped in 1994 (Sarah and draft power Amare, 1996).

As the result of accumulated experiences over genera­ Yegeleba shiyachi is a practice where an ox-less farmer tions, Ethiopian farmers have developed their own borrows a pair of oxen to cultivate his land and pays coping strategies to the shortage of animal power for back the owner in terms of straw yield (Getachew et al., traction. These strategies are based on the use of existing 1993). As farm size shrinks in most areas and shortage resources in a sustainable way. They utilized the inter- of animal feed becomes critical, joint feeding of oxen household differences of endowments and capacities was devised by the farmers as one of the coping mecha­ which act as a shock absorber at the community level. In nisms, especially in northern and eastern parts of Ethio­ pia (Adugna et al., 1996). short, these strategies are mainly carried out through collective sustenance of mutual self-help and by sharing Training bulls in some areas like Tikur Inchini district arrangements (getachew et al., 1993; Adugna et al., 1996). Thus, these coping mechanisms need to be (west Shewa), farmers without oxen train the bulls of the revitalized and one has to learn from such experiences in ox-owners and use those bulls for two consecutive cropping seasons to till their land for the services of order to make integrated developments, by promoting training the bulls. Such arrangements are often done the practical initiatives of the farmers. Such lessons are among the close neighbors or relatives, mainly to assist also important in designing future policies for the devel­ farmers without oxen. opment of crop-livestock production systems in the country. In the farming system of Bako area, for example, Debo or Guz& is an arrangement where relatives and friends who own oxen assist in cultivation of the land of 35% of the ox-less farmers were reported to use different the ox-less farmer for free, except the lunch services strategies to manage land preparation and planting. (Getachew et al., 1993; Adugna et al., 1996). About 40% used the oxen of other farmers in exchange for labour, 30% hired at an average of 88 Birr per ox per Chifilik this is a traditional ploughing practice in which cropping season, while 26% borrowed from their rela­ fallow fields are cultivated when the soil is moist enough tives (Legesse et al., 1992). to be tilled, and when oxen are still strong because of In general, farmers who own less than two oxen adequate feed supplies and when farmers are not too overcome the shortage of draft power by adapting the busy. Farmers around Holetta practice chifilik from late following major innovative arrangements. August to October and keep it over the dry season until May when they plough the land once for planting barley, M ekenajo is a system in which two farmers that own only one ox, pair their oxen to use them on tandem basis. wheat or tef from June onwards. Farmers believe that In Bako area, for instance, 70% of the single ox-owners they get more grain yield and many other advantages out of this traditional practice besides overcoming the short­ were reported to use this system (Legesse et al., 1992). age of draft power. Minda is a form of renting one or two oxen in ex­ change of grain, cash or human labour and this is known Using other animals instead o f oxen Shortage of oxen in Inawari (northern Shewa) has, for example, led to the as inyi in Harerge. In Kulumsa area, farmers without use of horses either single or paired with oxen for land oxen work for three days on the ox owner's field and preparation (Hailu and Chilot, 1992). These authors also plough two days for themselves (Chilot et al., 1992), noted the gradual shift of farmers from use of oxen to while this ratio was two to one in west Hararghe (Adugna et al., 1996). horses as a result of limited grazing area and the high cost for the replacement of oxen. Land renting or share-cropping the land is rented for cash or grain and the price is negotiated in accordance Using human labour (the hoe culture) Legesse et al., (1992) indicated that hoe is the major tool for preparing with the demand and supply at a given locality. For land in areas such as the Sidamo and Welaita highlands example, in Tiyo district of Arsi zone, 8% of all the of southern Ethiopia. In areas where ox-less farmers with cropped fields were rented for Birr 352 per ha> while 4% smaller fragments and sloppy land holdings are increas-

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP ALTERNATIVE PRACTICES IN CASE OF ANIMAL POWER SHORTAGE \ 65

ing, the situation is forcing farmers to use hand tools that clods that require subsequent tillage operations and/or are required by the cropping system. extended weathering to establish an adequate soil struc­ ture for crop establishment (Morrison et al., 1990). Such Growing crops that are suitable for zero or reduced problems are common with hand tools, in the digging- tillage In the Kulumsa area, ploughing frequency varies hoe culture. On the other hand, there is a difficulty to based on the availability and strength of draft power start primary tillage with animal power during the dry crops grown, onset of rain and the nature of the soil spell. Moreover, weeds cause substantial yield losses to Chilot et al. (1992). Most farmers in this area and other different crops. One of the means to reduce the threat of parts of Ethiopia, plough only once for field pea and weeds is to start land preparation early so that flush of niger seed after broadcasting the seed, while commonly weeds can be destroyed in subsequent operations. Never­ twice for faba bean and linseed. Moreover, many horti­ theless, such continuous cultivations result in land deteri­ cultural crops like citrus and enset do not require much oration and a decline in crop production. To minimize draft power. Therefore, growing crops that are fit to zero soil loss due to erosion and save the time and energy or reduced tillage systems have been some of the strate­ spent in operations, there are some cultural practices gies used by farmers. (Table 1) which are also used as alternatives for the shortage of draft power as discussed here under. Status of alternative tillage practices No-till or zero tillage In the crop dominated agricultural system of Ethiopia, the major cultivated food crops include cereals, pulses, This is a system of seed-bed preparation whereby seeds oil crops and to a much lesser extent the tuber crops are placed or drilled into the untilled soil and herbicides (Amare and Nigussie, 1996). In most cases, these crops are applied to control weeds. That means zero tillage are produced by using the local implement, maresha, requires pre-planting herbicides to control growth of which is drawn by a pair of oxen, though other animals weeds that may occur before planting. This practice are also used (Hailu and Chilot, 1992). In addition to increases surface organic matter, reduces soil erosion this, hoeing implements are often used and this hoe (Table 1), minimizes tillage and time costs, while herbi­ culture is commonly found in the extreme highlands cide and other variable costs increase (Johnson, 1994). where oxen cannot ascend the steep slopes. Specifically, Such tillage practices are not new in many parts of hand hoe is the main instrument in the enset cultivating Ethiopia (Getachew, 1987) with the exception of the use areas of southern Ethiopia, even though the plough is of chemical herbicides. also practiced (NFIA, 1993). Elsewhere in Africa particularly in Ghana, farmers A review of Getachew (1987) indicated that tillage practice no-tillage as a traditional method in association systems varied with the type of crop, soil type and agro­ with shifting cultivation (Soza et al., 1994). Similar ecology of the area. In other words, the frequency of practices exist in western and southern parts of Ethiopia. ploughing depends on the requirements of each crop, Soza and his coworkers (1994) have shown that using onset of rainfall, the strength of the draft animals and the no-tillage with herbicides brought additional benefits to history of the field (NFIA, 1993). In most cases, land farmers via an 18.4% increase in maize yield, increased preparation commences at the onset of the rainy season planted areas and reduced labour requirements (Table 7). mainly in March or April though the practice of chifdik In West Bengal of India, however, an experiment on commonly starts at the end of the big rainy season in zero tillage of oil crops has resulted in reduced crop September in the central highlands. Fields are ploughed growth, yield and water use efficiency when compared more frequently for cereal crops production (Table 6) as with conventional tillage (Mandal et al., 1994). Never­ compared to that of either oil crops or pulses. This is theless, this study showed that hardy crops such as because cereal crops such as tef require more refined safflower and linseed, which are endowed with a deep seed-beds. Moreover, repeated tillage operation is neces­ root system, can successfully be grown without intensive sary since the maresha does not invert the soil and is of land preparation on weed-free fields. This is in agree­ very little use in turning stubble and weeds. ment with what the Ethiopian farmers have been practic­ Primary tillage at high water content produces large ing since antiquity.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 66 \ ADUGNA AND AMARE

TA B LE 9. Effect of tillage methods on grain yield (kg ha1) of food barley at Holetta, 1979-1983

Tillage Tractor-drawn Oxen-drawn treatment Red soil Black soil Mean Red soil Black soil Mean

Tillage 1 1502 1004 1253 1537 1192 1365 Tillage 2 1522 1323 1423 1749 1164 1457 Tillage 3 1266 1231 1249 1780 1178 1479 Tillage 4 1427 1218 1323 1419 1232 1326

Mean 1429 1194 1621 1192

Source: Adamu et al., 1996

TABLE 10. Effect of tillage systems on grain and straw yields (kg ha*'') of tef

Treatments Grain yield Straw yield

0 P* + H + HW 2257 a 5729 ab 1 P + H + HW 2129 a 5719 ab 2 P + H + HW 1813 a 4993 b 3 P + H + HW 1934 a 5289 b 4 P + H + HW 1800 a 4798 b 5 P + H + HW 2278 a 7167 a

Mean 2035 5616 CV (%) 19.4 14.1

P = zero plowing; H = herbicides and HW - hand weeding Source: Zerihun, 1993

A review by Zerihun (1993) indicated that few exper­ Holetta had inconsistent results. Hailu et al. (1991) iments have generally been done on zero or minimum reported a 32% more yield of bread wheat on zero-tillage ullage in Ethiopia, and even results of those studies were than the conventional on red soil in contrast to no signifi­ not conclusive as most of them were based on experi­ cant difference on black soil. Another study conducted ments confined to only one season. A study conducted at Holetta (Adamu et al., 1996) to compare zero, mini­ from 1981 to 1983 at Awassa showed that maize yield mum and conventional tillage systems with tractor drawn under no-tillage was substantially higher as compared to implements on barley has shown a yield advantage of conventional tillage system though it required more 133 kg ha'1 for minimum tillage over the conventional fertilizer (Getachew, 1987). However, the data generated one (Table 8). In general, as can seen from the above were very limited and the size of plots were too small to results, tillage systems are specific to local conditions make conclusive assessments in terms of cost and soil and thus have to be considered in line with local soils, conservation benefits. crops, climate, equipment and labour situations in order In contrast, a study conducted to compare no-tillage to be sound and practical. to conventional from 1981 to 1986 at Bako showed that conventional tillage gave higher maize yield over the Reduced tillage zero tillage plots (Zerihun, 1993). A review by the same This is a system of seed-bed preparation whereby the author has shown that a one- year study at Alemaya on number or frequency of field ploughings is lesser than maize, wheat and tef and a similar trial at Mekele on conventional tillage (Getachew, 1987). The advantages barley resulted in a significant yield difference for maize of reduced tillage include saving energy and time, re­ but not for the other crops in response to different tillage duced soil erosion and improved soil physical conditions" frequencies. Similarly, tillage experiments conducted at and reduced cost of production.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP ALTERNATIVE PRACTICES fN CASE OF ANIMAL POWER SHORTAGE \ 67

According to a review by Zerihun (1993), suitability drawn maresha gave top yield after mid-May (Table 9). and adoption of reduced tillage depends on favorable, soil Likewise, the result of assessing the feasibility of types, pest control techniques and planting equipments. reduced tillage for lef cultivation has shown that tef can Coarse textured and friable soils such as alfisols, ultisols be grown under minimum tillage, provided effective and oxisols are considered suitable to minimum or no- weed control measures are earned out (Seyfu, 1993; tillage. Similarly, crop yield under reduced tillage is Zerihun, 1993). As shown in Table 10. grain yield was influenced by the level of weeding, and hence the devel­ not significantly affected by the tillage systems but five opment of herbicides like paraquat and glyphosate have ploughings produced a significantly higher straw yield. led to the widespread use of minimum tillage. But, zero tillage along with the application of herbicides At Holetta one to four tillage frequencies of using and hand weeding gave 70% marginal rate of return tractors and oxen were compared under different plough­ (Zerihun, 1993). This may enable farmers to reduce the ing dates on red and black soils for barley (Adamu et al., repeated ploughings that demand more draught power 1996). In tractor-drawn tillage operations, twice plough- and could help to plant at the optimum time. ing by mouldboard in mid-March on both soils gave the highest yield whereas two to three ploughing by oxen- Summary and conclusion

Animal traction plays a significant role in the process of mented, inconsistent and not verified on larger plots. crop production in Ethiopia, especially under the small­ Moreover, statistical tools employed in data analyses holders conditions. The shortages of draft power and were not adequately shown in most of the studies. Thus, their effects on crop production, and the coping strate­ there is a strong need to determine their reliability, gies of farmers are also presented. These coping mecha­ efficiency and feasibility based on the specific require­ nisms are still relevant and close insights are required in ments of various crops, soils, agro-ecologies, draft power order to make them more efficient and productive. and other resources in comparing zero and/or minimum Improving the availability of feeds and facilitating farm tillage with the conventional one. Furthermore, agro­ credits for the purchase of oxen are the other potential nomic practices such crop residue management, crop­ solutions for these draft power related problems. ping sequence, fertilizer application and pest control In Ethiopia, past research results on zero and mini­ methods should be well considered in future studies. mum tillage were not conclusive as they were frag­

REFERENCES

Abiye Astatke and Ferew Kelemu. 1993. Modifying the traditional plough—maresha—for better management of vertisols. In: Tekalign Mamo, Abiye Astatke, K.L. Srivastava and Asgelil Dibabe (eds.). Improved management of vertisols for sustainable crop-livestock production in the Ethiopian highlands: synthesis report 1986-92. Technical Committee of the Joint Vertisol Project, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, pp. 85-102. Adamu Molla, Amsai Tarekegn, Amanual, G., Yeshanew, A. and Zewdu, Y. 1996. In: Hailu Gegre and Joop van Leur (eds). Barley Research in Ethiopia: Past Work and Future Prospects. Proceedings of the First Barley Research Workshop, 16-19 Oct. 1993, IAR/ ICARDA. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Adugna Wakjira, Chemeda, F,, Charles, A.S., Nilo, P. and Barneby, P. 1996. Supporting Agricultural Innovations in western Hararghe: The role of fanners, research and extension. ICRA Working document series #52, Ethiopia-1996, Wageningen, the Netherlands. Ainare Gizaw and Nigussie Alemayehu. 1996. An alternative improved seed production scheme for small-scale farmers in Ethiopia. Paper presented on 'Follow-up seminars on seed technology. 1—12, Dec. 1996. ICARDA, Aleppo, Syria. Getachew Asamenew, E. Zerbini and A. Tedla. 1993, Crop-livestock interactions and implication for animal traction research in the Ethiopian highlands. In: Proceedings of the 4th National Livestock Improvement Conference, 13-15 Nov. 1991 IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, p. 29-36. Chilot Yirga, Hailu Beyene, Lemma Zewdie and D.G., Tanner. 1992. Farming systems of the Kulumssa area. In: Research with

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 68 \ ADUGNA AND AMARE

farmers: lessons from Ethiopia. S. Franzel and H. Van Houten (eds.) C.A.B International for IAR, Ethiopia. Redwod press Ltd, Melkisham, UK. pp. 145-157. Gryseels, G. and F.M. Anderson. 1983. Research on farm livestock productivity in Ethiopian highlands: initial results, 1977-1980. ILCA Research Report No.4, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Getachew Alem. 1987. A review of minimum ullage research in Ethiopia. In : Proceedings of the first Ethiopian Weed Scicnce Workshop, 14-15 May, 1987, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, p. 57-74. Hailu Beyene and Chilot Yirga. 1992. Vertisol farming system of North Shewa. In: Research with farmers: lessons from Ethiopia. S. Franzel and H. Van Houten (eds.) C.A.B International for IAR, Ethiopia. Redwod press Ltd, Melkisham, UK. pp. 79-96. Hailu Beyene, S. Franzel and VV. Mwangi. 1992. Constraints to increasing wheat production in the smallholder sector. In: Research with fanners: lessons from Ethiopia. S. Franzel and H. Van Houten (eds.) C.A.B International for IAR, Redwod press Ltd, Melkisham, UK. pp. 201-211. Hailu G/Mariam, D.G. Tanner and Mengistu Hulluka, (eds.) 1991. Wheat Research in Ethiopia: A historical perspective. Addis Ababa: IAR/CIMMYT. Johnson, R.R. 1994. Influence of no-till on soybean cultural practices. J. Pro. Agric. 7:43-49. Legesse, D., W. Mwangi and S. Franzel. 1992. Socio-economic constraints to increasing maize production. In: Research with farmers: lessons from Ethiopia. S. Franzel and H. Van Houten (eds.) C.A.B International for IAR, Ethiopia. Redwod Press Ltd., Melkaham, UK p. 191-200. Legesse,D., Gemechu, G., Tesfaye, K. and Gelahun, D. 1992. The fanning system of Bako area. In: Research with fanners: lessons from Ethiopia S. Franzel and H. Van Houten (eds.) C.A.B International for IAR, Ethiopia. Redwod Press Ltd., Melkaham, UK. pp. 43-60. Mandal, B.K., A. Saha, M.C. Dhara and S.R, Bhuita. 1994. Effects of zero and conventional tillage on winter oilseed crops in West Bengal. Soils and Tillage Res. 29:49-59. Mengistu Alemayehu. 1997. Draught performance of FI crossbred dairy cows and local oxen under smallholder farm management conditions. M.Sc. Thesis. School of Graduate studies, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Alemaya, Ethiopia. Morrison, J. E., Gerik, T J., Chichester, F.W., Marton, J.R. and J.M., Clorller. 1990. A no-tillage farming system for clay soils. J. Pro. Agric. 3: 219-229. NFIA (National Fertilizer Industry Agency). 1993. Background Information for the Development of a National Fertilizer Policy and Strategy in Ethiopia. August, 1993, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Sarah, G. and Amare Teklu. 1996. Land tenure and farming practices: The case of Tiyo Wereda, Arsi, Ethiopia. In: sustainable Intensification of Agriculture in Ethiopia. Proceedings of the Second Conference of the Agricultural Economics Society of Ethiopia, 3-4 Oct. 1996, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, p. 74-97. Seyfu Ketama. 1993. Tef (Eragrostis tef): breeding, genetic resources, agronomy, utilization and role in Ethiopian agriculture IAR, Addis Ababa, pp. 34-35. Smith, M.A. and Charter, P.R. 1993. No-till systems for com fallowing hay or pasture. J. Pro. Agric. 6:46-52. Soza, R.F.,K.O. Adu-Tutu, K., Boa-Amponsem, E.K. Lampoh and W. Haag. 1994. Soil conservation through no-tillage in Ghana. A paper presented at the annual meetings of the American Society of Agronomy. Nov. 13-18, 1994. Seatlle, Washington, USA. Stobbe, E.H. 1990. Conservation tillage. In: Sixth Regional Wheat Workshop for Eastern, Central and Southern Africa. Tanner, D.G., M. van Ginkel, and W. Mwangi, (eds,)- Mexico, D.F: CIMMYT. pp. 120-132. Tilahun Mulatu, Teshome Regassa and Aleligne Kefyalew. 1992. Fanning systems of the Nazret area. In: Research with fanners: lessons from Ethiopia. S. Franzel and H. Van Houten (eds,) C.A.B International for IAR, Ethiopia. Redwod Press Ltd., Melkaham, UK. pp. 111-125. Zerihun Tadelc. 1993. The effect of minimized tillage and modified weed management on tef production. M.Sc. Thesis. School of Graduate studies, Alemaya University of Agriculture, Alemaya, Ethiopia.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First N ational O xen Traction Research Review a n d Strategy W orkshop Published by EARO a n d ILRI P. 69-70

Need for Integrated Approach In Animal Power Use in Ethiopia

Feseha Gebreab Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Addis Ababa University, P0 Box 34 Debre Zeit, Ethiopia

Introduction

ivestock are a key component in the small ■ the undertaking of research on the underlying con­ holder farming exercise in Ethiopia. They straints to the use and promotion of animal power provide critical inputs such as manure and and animal based mechanization draft power. Most farmers use oxen for till­ age to grow their staple crops. Horses and ■ diffusion of approved and validated technologies mules are used for human and material transport and donkeysL as pack animals. In arid and semi arid parts of Its realization is expected to mitigate the prevailing: the country camels provide much of the needed draft services. a lack of focus and integrated approach in formulating Although Ethiopia has had generations of experience research programs, in the use of draft power, animal based mechanization in the form of wheeled transport was introduced only half ■ possible duplication of research undertakings in the a century ago, during the Italian occupation. face of limited financial and infrastructural resources. In pursuit of increased food production the way forward is to focus on technologies that raise productiv­ More importantly like all other sister networks in the ity per unit of input, including labor. The high cost of continent ENAT will provide a forum for the exchange imported machinery, spare parts and costs of operation of information thorough: prohibit their use. Their profitable use in the highly fragmented tiny plot based farms of highland Ethiopia is s publication of a newsletter more than doubtful. On the other hand draft animal power is potentially an appropriate technology. It is ■ hosting of workshops relatively inexpensive, not too complicated and can help to increase productivity. The successful development ® publishing of proceedings and diffusion of animal traction technology is however constrained by technical, economic and infrastructural a building of a research directory limitations. Experiences from various regions in the continent have shown that the pooling of information 0 publication in referred and non-referred journals. and human expertise through a network of resource persons and pertinent institutions has had a driving and The forum will provide an enabling environment for: boosting effect on research and development activities. It is therefore timely and necessary to revitalize the ■ defining national priorities in animal traction technol­ Ethiopian network for animal traction that was formerly ogy research and development. established in 1993. The general objective of ENAT will be to strengthen the capabilities of NARS to promote and ■ defining common themes and strategies for the devel­ sustain the use of animal power and animal based mech­ opment and implementation of relevant technologies. anization through: 70 \ FESEHA GEBREAB

creating and bringing together a critical mass of improve the general awareness in the importance of NARS scientists to undertake research and develop­ animal power and animal based mechanization in ment in AT. Ethiopian agriculture.

Organizational framework

The network is responsible organizationally for the ■ The coordinator’s office is subordinated to EARO. following functions: Responsibilities of EARO: ■ Approves the networks annual work programme which includes initiation and development of project ■ It must embrace the network as one of its implement­ proposals, review of proposals monitoring and evalu­ ing bodies. ation of research progress. ■ Solicit fund on behalf on ENAT to facilitate research, ■ The network will be guided by a steering committee development and other activities. which will be presided by a coordinator.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP PARTJ1 TECHNICAL PAPERS Proceedings First National O xen Traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 73-78

Use of Oxen in the Central Zone of Ethiopia Experiences in Eastern Shewa

Tilahun Mulatu and Mengistu Geza Melkassa Research Center, EARO, PO Box 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

ore than 95% of the households in East Shewa partly or totally depend on crop Production to support their livelihood. About 75% are involved in mixed farming of livestock and crop husbandry. Livestock complements crop production by supplying draft power and manure. Oxen are the main source of draft power in the zone. Maresha is the most commonly used oxen drawn implement. There are both implement and oxen related constraints. The major issues that need to be addressed Mare shortages of draft power, feed and water, livestock diseases and access to improved implements. In this paper, available resources, constraints with respect to oxen traction, previous efforts and achievements and implications for future research are discussed.

Introduction

Draft animals are integral parts of agricultural produc­ and implications for future oxen traction research as tion in almost all parts Ethiopia. Draft animals will applied to Eastern Shewa. still continue to be the main source of power for the farmers of many regions where the use of tractors is Physical environment and characterstics of not feasible. In addition to the initial investments East Shewa Zone needed to buy tractors, the operational cost; fuel and maintenance costs and the skills required are high. Part of Eastern Shewa lies in the mid-Rift valley of Ninety-five percent of the cultivated area (6 million Ethiopia. The region is characterized by high tempera­ hectares) is cultivated by individual farmer with five ture during March to June with a peak in May, reach­ million oxen. Despite the great role played by draft ing 30-32°C in some areas. The semi arid areas of oxen in agricultural production they are still neglected. Eastern Shewa, covering greater portion of the zone, There are no strong research programs in the country receive annual rainfall below 800 mm. The topogra­ catering for upgrading draft animals through breeding phy is mainly flat with some small hills (Haiiue et al., or nutrition. Animal health services are also poor. 1990). There are various technical, economic issues con­ Cereals, pulses, oil seeds and other crops are grown cerning the use of draft oxen that need consideration. in the zone. Maize tef and sorghum are the major In Eastern Shewa in particular, feed shortage, water crops grown. Few farmers also grow horticultural inavailability and livestock diseases are the major crops. Crop production is dominant over the livestock constraints. In order to effectively utilize the power of enterprise although they are complementary to each draft oxen, efficient harnesses and implements should other. About 75% of the households (Table 1) are be developed and those already developed should be involved in mixed farming of livestock and crop available to the farmers in the zone. Credit and subsi­ husbandry (CSA, 1995). dies should be available for the purchase of working The cattle population in this zone is over one animals and implements. This paper highlights the million. However, the feed quantity from the current available resources, implements, oxen and implement grazing land is not as high as other parts of Shewa, related constraints, previous efforts and achievements attributed to the small amount of annual rainfall. 74 \ TtLAHUN AND MENGISTU

TA B LE 1. Land utilization in Shewa Centeral Ethiopia

North Shewa South West East Shewa Shewa Shewa Total area under land use (1000 ha) 235.16 342.17 599.34 675.34 Area under temporary crops (1C00 ha) 208.96 238.19 460.58 406.95 percentage 88.86 69.61 76.85 60.28 Grazing land (1000 ha) 9.33 55.48 42.71 131.87 percentage 3.97 16.21 7.13 19.53 Cattle population (in 1000) 396.86 1326.51 2241.97 2149.99 Type of holding Crop only Number of house holds (in 1000) 21.83 27.35 58.68 66.98 Percentage 23.64 13.04 11.44 14.15

Livestock only Number of house holds (in 1000) 1.22 3.05 5.45 6.48 Percentage 1.32 1.47 1.06 1.40

Crop and Livestock Number of house holds (in 1000) 69.32 179.33 448.68 388.61 Percentage 75.05 85.49 87.50 84.10

Source: CSA. 1995

Draft animal power from 4-5 hrs. The annual utilization of oxen in the region and in the country in general is about 160 hrs or The main sources of draft power in Eastern Shewa are less compared to annual use of 500 hrs or more in oxen and donkeys. There are about 306,100 draft oxen many Asia Countries (Pathak, 1988). The oxen used in and 88,170 donkeys in this zone (CSA, 1993). The the region are are small framed, indigenous breeds oxen are used for plowing and donkeys for commonly weighing 275 to 300 kg. Their working transportation both as pack and with carts especially in speed seldom exceeds 0.6m/s as opposed to the Meki'Ziway areas. Donkeys are mainly used to fetch normal working speed of 0.7 to 1.1 m/s commonly water, to transport goods to and from the market and reported for draft oxen. The low speed apparently harvested materials to threshing fields and home permits a pair of Ethiopian oxen to produce a large (Alelign et al, 1994). draft force of about 100 kgf needed to pull Maresha The daily work hours for oxen in the region varies (Pathak, 1988).

TA B LE 2. Livestock Population In the centeral Shewa

East Shewa Oromia North Shewa West Shewa

Cattle population (1000 heads) 1068.67 903.49 1898.35 Milking cows aged 2 and over 2 years 311.00 242.47 540.76 Draught cattle aged 2 and over 2 years 306.10 295.87 629.30 Beef cattle aged 2 and over 2 years 6.75 7.94 9.58 Other purposes aged 2 and over 2 years 121.67 123.33 213.49 Asses 88.17 45.17 48.40

Source; CSA, 1993

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN JN CENTRAL ZONE, EASTERN ETHIOPIA \ 75

Tillage implements and practices controlling oxen can be used in operations like row planting and interculture that requires accurate As in other parts of Ethiopia, maresha is the most guiding. Another advantage of this implement is it can commonly used oxen drawn implement in the zone. It be controlled by a single person. is used for primary tillage, secondary tillage, seed The tillage practices vary depending on the covering, ridge forming and thinning (Shilshalo) existing conditions of the farming system. The purposes. This implement is used for all these condition of the seed bed prepared also varies upon operations not because it is efficient in all operations the crop type grown, power source, equipment used, but it is the only equipment readily obtainable and can planting time, soil type and climate. Land preparation be repaired, adjusted and assembled by the farmers is more intensive for tef than for other crops, like themselves. It requires relatively low cost, low skill of maize and sorghum. In areas where only hand tools operation, assembly and adjustment. It weighs less are used, the farmers are unable to prepare a fine seed than 15kg; hence easier to be transported to and from bed. In early sown crops, the number of plowing home by the farmer himself. It makes oxen control operations is minimum although oxen power is used. easier and guiding as one of the oxen can be trained to In moisture stress areas they construct moisture basin walk along a furrow made in the previous pass while (tied ridges) in order to conserve moisture. plowing the second pass. This traditional practice of

Constraints in oxen traction

Shortage of draft animal power on crop production since the oxen becomc too weak to undertake the first plowing operation when rain Generally there is a shortage of draft power in East commences. Water availability is another constraint Shewa. In the Nazareth area, farmers own 1.6 oxen on especially during the dry season. Some farmers arc average and 40% of the farmers do not own oxen. transhumance that is seasonal migration of livestock to Only 60% of the farmers own oxen: 20% own one ox, distant place in search of feed during the wet season 34% two and 6% three. Farmers with single ox share when the area is occupied by crops. their oxen "Mekenajo" to plow their fields. Farmers without oxen borrow or exchange their labor for use of oxen. About 32% of the farmers in the Meki area and Livestock diseases 10% in the Zi way zone own no ox. Like Nazareth area none-oxen owners, either hire oxen or borrow them or Diseases and drought arc serious problems to livestock exchange their labor for use of oxen. The average rent production in the zone. The major diseases on is 60 birr/ox/year or 200 - 300 kg grain/year/pair of livestock are anthrax (Aba Senga), black leg (Aba oxen. Gorba) and rinder pest (Desta). However, drought is more serious cause of death compared to diseases.

Shortage of feed and water Implement related constraints One of the major problem in the zone is shortage of dry season feed. In the wet season most animals graze The draft requirement of maresha is vejy high, ranging on hilly areas and border of crop fields. Farmers in the from 80 to 120kgf and the unit draft exceeds 0.5 dry area migrate seasonally to areas where grass and kgf/enr. This is because the blunt wooden boards are water are available. Farmers supplement their animal not suited to the task they perform, namely, widen the feed with crop by product including tef straw, maize furrow and turn the soil. Because of the V-shaped and sorghum stalks, wheat, haricot bean and barley furrows unplowed land is left between adjacent straw. Shortage of feed in the dry season has an effect furrows requiring cross plowing. At least two

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 76 I T1LAHUN AND MENGISTU

ploughings are required to loosen the soil effectively adequate oxen control techniques to guide oxen for and weed control is only partial. About 25 hrs are operations like row planting and interculture that need needed to plow a hectare of land with "Maresha”. The accurate guiding of oxen. use of oxen is limited to very few agricultural This and other technical and socio-economic operations like tillage, clod breaking seed covering, limitations, like implement identification, limited threshing and weeding (shilshalo). Fanners in most purchasing power of farmers and problems of cases do not use their oxen for operations like sowing, manufacturing, marketing and promotion limit the fertilizer placement, interculture and transport. The extensive use of oxen. oxen are trained to pull ‘'Maresha” only. There are no

Previous efforts and achievements to alleviate constraints

Draft oxen topography, climate, size of agricultural holding, characteristics of draft animal power, economic status One of the constraints especially in Eastern Shewa of the peasant farmer, his work habits and felt needs (because of climate and grazing land) is feed shortage. did not receive adequate consideration. The oxen used are of light weight and are not suitable Maresha besides having a low field capacity (area for high draft tasks. Research and development that can be cultivated) it is not effective in uprooting efforets for the improvement of draft oxen in the weeds, pulverizing the soil. Based on this fact, region were of limited scope. Nutritional plowing the land with a turning plow, that exposes the characteristics of major feeds and feed requirements of weed root to the sun and with a better quality of work draft oxen under different work loads still need and efficiency, was found to be a better alternative and investigation in order to improve the feeding oxen drawn mould board plow developed at AIRIC management and there by improve the draft capacity was introduced to parts of Eastern Shewa. of oxen. The rainfall distribution in parts of Eastern Shewa is not uniform. At times dry spell is observed in the middle of the growing season. Tie-ridging is Implements recommended, however it is a backbreaking exercise when done by hand. Hence, oxen drawn Maresha attached to Ridge Tier developed at AIRIC was Efforts have been made to improve the tools and introduced. Realizing the shortage of draught animal implements used by farmers. Design, development and power on peasant farms and the possibility of using introduction of improved implements have received single ox for low draught tasks, ILCA modified the attention in Ethiopia since the inception of the first local ard (Marsha) for use with single ox. Finally it agricultural and technical school at Jimma Technical was concluded that single ox technology has to be School. During the last 20 years, MOA, IAR, ILCA used on lighter soils or on moist and workable and regional projects like ARDU and many non vertisols. governmental organization have been involved in A different version of maresha modified for single improved implement related programs. Many different ox was developed at AIRIC that has solved these types of agricultural implements and machinery are problems and on station tests showed that the reported to have been developed or imported for implement is quite promising to be used for low draft promotion in the country. The extent of acceptance of tasks. V-shaped yoke was also developed at AIRIC for these implements by the farmers and the resulting single ox and was found suitable. Oxen drawn impact in crop production was not as expected. implements introduced to this region include row Different factors that affect the adoption of oxen planting equipment and carts. drawn implements, like regional variation in soil,

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN CENTRAL ZONE, EASTERN ETHIOPIA \ 77

Implications for future research

Approaches to oxen traction technology Draft oxen development Oxen be come too weak to undertake the first plowing Implements researchers must work closely with (the hardest work) at the beginning of the rainy season farmers and manufacturers for increased acceptance of because of shortage of feed in the dry season. The their efforts. The popularization effort must be combined effect of may enhance the susceptibility to efficient enough to leach and convince users about the diseases. It is necessary to determine, the feeding advantages of the new or improved implement over requirements and develop feeding packages for work the already existing one. Experiences from other oxen. Apart from improving the feeding management, countries involved in animal traction technology a strategy for treatment and vaccination must be development tell that an alternative approach that evolved. To alleviate the dry season water shortage, attempts to minimize the control of professionals and alternate sources of water should also be identified other external agents and maximize the control of through construction of ponds and digging wells. manufacturers and end users is critical for successful technology development. Animal traction technology is not special case but is just one of the technical areas Implement needs of interest to small scale farmers. The argument in participatory approach is that users need to be For post first plowing and even for first plowings, as involved at all stages of technology development. the soil in most parts of Eastern Shewa is light and Conventional approaches have relied too much on easier to work, an implement with a wider working researchers and technical specialists in identifying width than Maresha and yet capable of eradicating constraints, and possible solutions and then attempting weed can be beneficial to the farmer. Oxen drawn to transfer these to rural farmers. The basic technical efficient weeding tools for all line sown crops are options already exist, we need to look more closely at essential. Under semi-arid condition like most parts of and give more weight to issues surrounding, widely Eastern Shewa, furrow planting of crops and ridge known technologies and techniques to be adapted and tying are reported to give better stand and yield. Such realized by farmers. It is important to note that instead equipment are already available and should be well of fully depending on station trials, to select popularized and be available to the farmers in the implements and come up with a single prototype for a region. Farmers should also be able to use their oxen given task, it is advisable to consider a number of for transportation purposes depending on the terrain. promising prototypes meeting the requirements and Research on oxen drawn carts should address this involve farmers in the selection process. The broad need. Shortage of draft oxen is one of the constraints range of implement options would give farmers in the region. Research a should also address chance to select among many implements, based on alternative options like use of a single ox for low draft their selection criteria and would minimize the risk of tasks and use of donkeys for plowing especially on single equipment chosen or developed by the lighter soils. researcher being rejected by the farmer.

REFERENCES

Pathak, B.S. 1988. Survey of Agricultural Implements and crop Production Techniques. Food and Agricultural organization of the United Nations. Nazareth, Ethiopia. Centeral Statistics Authority 1995. Agricultural Sample Survey (1990/1991). Report on Land Utilization (private Holdings, May 1995). Statistical Bulletin 131.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 78 \ TILAHUN AND MENG1STU

Centeral Statistics Authority. 1993. Agricultural Sample Survey (1991/1992). Report on livestock poultry and behive population, Addis Ababa June 1993. Statistical Bulletin 131. AUelign Kefyalew, Senait Regassa and Tilahun MulaL1994. Adami Tulu Mixed Farming Zone Diagnostic Survey. Research Report No. 25. Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Hailu Beyene,Asfaw Negassi, Legesse Dadi and Tilahun Mulatu. 1990. Crop Production and Agricultural Implements in the Bako, Holleta and Nazaret area. Research report No. 11. IAR Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy W orkshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 79-84

Use of Oxen in the Central Highlands of Ethiopia Experience in Western Shewa Zone

Fikre Abera Ambo College of Agriculture, P.O.Box 19, Ambo, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

paper briefs the geographical location, the (and use pattern, and the climatic conditions of the Western H Shewa zone. The farming system and the role that draft oxen play in the farming community is extensively discussed. The management systems such as the feeds and feeding, health care and breeding H conditions prevailing in the area has also been dealt. The prevailing constraints regarding oxen \ managements, opportunities to alleviate the problem and the priorities for future research are indicated.

Introduction

The Western Shewa zone is the region laying in the of 1650 meters above sea level up to 3000 meters above centre of Ethiopia covering the periphery of the capita) sea level. The low land areas are found in the western (excluding Addis Ababa ) and extending to about 250 woreda of Bako and in the northern part of the zone km west of the capital. Geographically, the region is around Ginde Beret (Fig. 1). The soil types in the region located between 37°N 01 ’-38 N45'E longitude and are Lithosols, Vertisol, Nitosols & Luvisol (FAO, 1986). 8°N16-9°N56'N latitude (Fig. 1). Because of high altitude, the region enjoys diverse The Western shewa zone covers an area of climatic conditions. The western part is in the tropical 2,131,694.2 hectares of land of which 48.3% of the land wet humid zone. The rest are in the high land area with is regularly cropped with temporary crops and 3.0% cool temperate climatic condition. Average annual rain permanent crops. Grazing land accounts for 25.03% fall ranges from 949.5 -1270.9 mm. There are seven while woodland accounting only 7.5%. There is a small rainy months from March to September, and the small but significant (5.8%) area of land left as fallow. Dwell­ rains occur from March to May. The big rains in this ing areas accounting 10.7% (WSZBOA, 1989). region are from June to September. High concentration The topography of the land is generally characterized as of rain fall occurs in July and very high concentration in high altitude area. Altitude ranges from extreme low area August (Gemechu, 1977).

Description of the farming system

Mixed crop livestock farming forms the basis of the major ones. Among the oil crops Noug (Guizotia region's economy. Majority of the samll holder farms abyssinca) and Linseeds are grown. Besides the above arte enged in crop livestock farming. The major crops some horticultural crops (potatoes, tomatoes, onion and grown in the area are cereals, pulse and oil crops. The few others) are grown on small scale basis for home prominent cereal crops are teff, wheat, barley, corn and consumption and as source of cash crops (WSZBOA, sorghum. Pulse crops such as horse beans, peas, chick 1997). peas and to some extent lentils and fenugreek are the 80 \ FIKRE ABERA

icr--

REGION 3

SHEWA

EJERrf WELMERa J Holola sr.- / ^(finfjnne ..-^Qbatol • \ A LEM GEN>

ETHlOP>* SOUTH

8*“

SCALE 1:1,500,000

37 35-

FIGURE 1. West Shewa Administrative Region LEGEND (boundries are not authoritative) — • ■ _ Regional boundary — > • _ Zonal boundary __ . . - ___ Wereda (Aanaa) boundary

S Zonal capital

• Wereda capital

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN POWER IN CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, WESTERN SHEWA \ 81

TABLE 1. Livetock polulation of Western Shewa of the region. Attempt has been made to obtain the estimated number of draft oxen specifically found in Cattle 2,150,000 Sheep 713,300 Western Shewa region. Although it is not complete, the Goats 250,000 Western Shewa Zone Bureau of Agriculture Horses 143,100 (WSZBOA, 1997) reported that there are 239,003 draft Mules 7,000 oxen in 10 woredas (districts). Work is under way to Donkeys 85,900 Chikens 790,400 quantify the total number of draft oxen in all the woredas. Source: CSA, 1991 Small holding subsistence farming is typical feature of the western shewa zone. Despite this, the area is The North Western Shewa region of Oromiya is recognized as one of the surplus grain producing area of estimated to have a large share of the livestock the country. Livestock production is complementary to population (Table). Of the 3,955,470 draft cattle existing crop production. in the Oromiya region, 979,640 draft cattle are found in the north and western Shewa region accounting for 24%

Role of draft oxen in the farming system

Draft oxen are the vital component of the mixed farming barn etc. Draft oxen grazing on the farm crop residues system of the western shewa zone. Oxen have sevral and on grass, when crops are not grown, return partially functions, in the remote areas oxen are the bank in which the nutrients to the soil in the form of manure. the farmer stores his wealth. Oxen provide'power to This of course provides a small income for the farm plough land and to thresh harvested crops. Oxen are the family to cover some minor expenses. Besides this, credit payers in time of shortage of cash on hand as in because of the rapid and indiscriminate deforestation in the case of fertilizer credit and tax and oxen are meat and the area, fire wood is scarce. Farm families are hide sources. increasingly using some crop residues as fuel. Dung In this region the small holder acquire an ox or a pair produced by oxen would be baked with or without crop of oxern in several ways. By home raising male calf, residues and sun dried to be used as family energy purchasing young male calf from market or directly source. purchasing mature ox from the market. In some cases, In some cases oxen are rented to ox less farmers farmes sell theier old ox and buy young ones. which will be paid in cash or sometimes in kind. Ox less There is a logical argument as to why the husband farmers pay a significant portion of their harvest of and the wife differ in interest. The usually arguments cereal crops. Those farmers owning an ox get together that husbands forward are that bull calves would be and share oxen for ploughing and threshing. Oxen also grown to provide power to plough land and male calves plough and thresh for oxless neighbours, relatives and fetch higher price at the market than female calf of the friend's farm land and harvested crops and in return the same age. But the wife prefers to have female calf farm family obtains free hands for certain farm activities because the wife needs milk for the children particularly such as weeding, harvesting, hoeing, etc. when she is away to do some farm work such as It is sometimes common in the western shewa zone weeding, hoeing, fuel wood or water fetching etc. that when a farmer finishes ploughing his farm land to Besides this the wife churns the little surplus milk and sell his oxen to cover certain expenses. Farmers sell oxen produces butter which will be used as cosmetic or sold to after ploughing and buy another before the next cover some minor household expenses. ploughing season commences. This practice in addition The oxen acquired in whichever ways will be herded to covering some expense provides some cash for the and managed by the family. The wife and children family. provide labour for herding, feed preparation, cleaning

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 82 \ FIKRE ABERA

Management of oxen and constraint in draft capacity

It is obvious that the life of an ox starts from calf hood. reach ploughing age. At the moment bull calves reach Apparently, the management system followed at this ploughing age at about 3-4 years of age. Average mature stage has a tremendous impact on survivance of the weight of male animals is continually decreasing and animal and on the various economic parameters expected seeing small sized bulls of about 250kg and sometimes from the animals. less are quite becoming common. Many farm families in the western showa zone pay This problem has implications on farm power. Low little or virtually no care for young calves. Young calves survival rate is associated with inadequate number of are rarely fed a handful of green grass as supplementary replacement stock. Second, investigation carried by feed in addition to the meagre quantity of suckled milk some researchers have shown that oxen pulling capacity from its mother. After three or four months of age, of an animal is mainly dependent upon its weight. calves are left to graze alone or sometimes with the herd Starkey (1989) cited by Getachew (1990) reported that on bane communal grazing lands or on fields around the a 300 kg Ethiopian Zebu is capable of pulling 20% of its houses. This practice affects the calves in two ways. body weight and a 372-465 kg Zebu x Boran breed is First, calves will be underfed as aconsequense loss. capable of pulling up to 24% of its body weight for These arethere are indications that calf mortality is very longer hours. The lighter the weight the lower the high. The problem is severe particularly during the dry traction output. The trend now in many areas of the zone season. Second, calves will take longer time to grow and is that the body weights of oxen are on decling direction.

Feeds and feeding management

The major feed resources for oxen in the western shewa ■ Oxen are unable to plough for the whole day and zone are communal grazing lands, crop residues and farmers are forced to plough two or three days which where land resources such as fallow lands and farm they use to finish in a day. boundaries are available such areas are often reserved to be used inclusively by oxen. ■ There are also indications that farmers are changing Due to increased crop cultivation communal grazing their ploughing (seed bed preparation) patterns. That lands are shrinking and are increasingly transformed to is, because of the inability of the oxen, farmers that farmlands. Because of the increased livestock population used to plough three times to prepare seed bed are pressure, feed quantity per animal has declined greatly. now ploughing once or twice which results in high Crop residues mainly Teff straw which once upon a weed infestation of the feed. time used by most farmers for oxen feeding are being sold for construction purposes in the urban areas and as It is rather worth mentioning that there are two important source of fuel for the farm family. Farmers are being cattle market in the zone. The Guder and the Ginichi tempted with this demand and sell the straw to cover cattle markets are important cattle markets even at minor expenses ignoring their oxen. Supplemental national level. They are the principal cattle markets concentrate feeding is virtually unknown in the zone. supplying oxen for draft and beef for Addis Ababa. The poor quality and inadequate quantity roughage Nowadays in many parts of the western shewa zone, it is feed impose great stress on the animal. The hard clay soil rare to see large framed and good conditioned ploughing which requires a great traction power to plough the land oxen on the farm plot of the farmer. What can be further aggravate the stress resulting in one of the observed on the farmer's Field are small to medium following consequences: framed emaciated oxen. The problem is of course complicated.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN POWER IN CENTRAL HIGHLANDS, WESTERN SHEWA \ 83

Health care

Poor veterinary service is a national problem to which Agriculture veterinary service office has identified the there is no exception to the western shewa zone. Quite disease in the 13 districts (woreda) out of the 23 very many diseases and parasites prevail in the area. woredas. In most of the West and South woredas the Great threats to oxen come from internal parasites, disease have been identified to prevail. Nowadays the Trypanosomiasis and some external parasites such as disease is becoming apparent at high altitude areas. The ticks. With regard to internal parasites Bahru and cause for the wide spread of Trypanosomiasis can be Ephrem (1979) reported very high occupance of bovine explained by the absence of policies pertaining to cattle fasciolosis along the roads extending from Holeta to movement and drug utilization. Despite the great Fincha and in Wolliso area ranging in incidence from endeavour made by the zonal veterinary office, the loss 48-65%. of draft oxen is substantial. In regrad to Trypanosomiasis, The zonal bureau of

Opportunities to alleviate constraints

The major constraints of draft oxen management as Assessment of the causes of calf mortality, improvement related to their draft capacity have been described to a interms of body size of draft oxen on community based certain extent. The problems are diverse, complicated breeding service programmes, improved oxen feeding and interlinked with social, cultural and economical and health care are major areas that need greater aspects of the farmer. In the short run, these problems consideration to alleviate problems in the longrun. have a strong impact on the oxen population and beef The need for improving the body condition of oxen may production. The over all consequence would be on the not be apparent at the moment. However, it is something strategy of food self sufficiency and capacity at zonal that needs particular attention in the longrun. Otherwise and at national level. It appears that there is a great farmers are likely to end up with a ram sized ox interms opportunity to alleviate the current existing problems. of body size.

Proposed areas of research in oxen traction

The nutritional rcqiuremnt of draft oxen for differnt residues and methods of feeding crop residues shoud periods of the year and working conditioo (at work be investigated and not at work) should be assesed and approporaite fcedinf strategy be developed ■ Breater consisderation shoud be given to reduce caklf moratilitty in the area. The palatability, diegstibility, nutrirtive value of crop

REFERENCES

Bahru and Ephrem. 1979. A preliminary survey of Bovine Fasciolosis in Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Agricultural Sciences. Vol. 1. Central Statistical Authority (CSA). 1992. Statistical Abstract. CSA, Addis Ababa. Central statistical Authority (ESA). 1996. Agricultural sample survey: report on livestock, poultry and bechieves population. Statistical Buiietin No 152.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 84 \ F1KRE A8ERA

Gemech D. 1977. Aspects of Climate and water Budget in Ethiopia. A Technical Monograph. Addis Ababa lUniversity Press, Addis Ababa. FAO. 1986. Ethiopian Fund in Trust Highlands Reclamation Study, Ethiopia. Vol 1 Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome. Starkey P.A. 1989. Harnessing and Implements of Animal Traction. Friedt. Vieweg & John. Brunschweig. ! Viesbaden. In: Getachew. 1990 Design of low Draught Animal Drown Blade For Mechanical protection works for soil conservation in Ethiopia. MSc Thesis, Silso College. Western Shewa Zone Bureau of Agriculture (WSZBOA). 1989. Livestock Health team statistics. WSZBOA, Ambo.

fIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy W orkshop PUBUSHED BY E A R O AND ILRI P. 85-91

Uses of Oxen in Traditional Farming Systems of Southern Ethiopia Experience in Adami Tutu, Sidama, Wetayita andAreka

Abule Ebro Adami Tulu Research Center, PO Box 35, Zeway, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

and is relatively abundant in Adami Tulu (mean= 3.3 ha/household) whereas, the Sidama, Weliyata and Areka areas (generally the Southern) are characterized by a high population density. The outcome of draft power has been unsatisfactory because of feed shortage, environmental constraints and un-improved implements. To cope with the problem, farmers around Adami Tulu either hire in or borrow oxen, lease their land, sell their wage on a daily basis, plough on the farm of the rich on the basis of getting an oxen Lday, agree on share cropping system and in some places use donkeys. Farmers in Sidama, Weliyata and Areka mainly use hoe or hand tools for land preparation. They use two systems of sharing an ox. The "Gathua" is usually made between two farmers each owning an ox whereas, the "Kota" meaning "common" in English is a common utilization of a given piece of land and sharing the harvest. The research effort to tackle the problems of draft oxen in these areas is almost negligible. Therefore, a strong multi-disciplinary research should be carried out.

Introduction

Draft animals have been an integral part of the traditional agricultural production in Ethiopia, less than 1/3 of the agricultural systems for over a thousand years. They farmers own two or more oxen. About a third of the provide most of the power on farms, transport, milk, farmers own one ox and the rest do not own any oxen meat and security to millions of rural families in (Pathak, 1989). For approximately 50% of the farmers, developing countries (Ffoulkes and Bamualim, 1989). a major constraint to increasing crop production is While the number of agricultural tractors increases inadequate availability of draft power (Gryseels et al., annually, animal power is still of major importance in 1989). Moreover, both over-grazing and insufficient feed large areas of the tropics (Abiye, 1987). The largest draft resources contribute to the problem. animal population, about 50% of the total draft animals In Adami Tulu, Sidama and Weliyata areas, draft in Sub-Saharan Africa is found in Ethiopia. Out of the oxen based farming has been unsatisfactory because of total cattle output, draft power accounts for about 60% the unimproved implements and inadequately fed oxen. (MOA, 1984). About six million draft oxen are reported It is therefore, appropriate to make a general assessment to be found in Ethiopia, primarily in the highlands of the status, limitations and potential of oxen traction in (Stroud, 1993). these areas. Although oxen are the main source of draft power for

Description of the farming system

Weather condition mm. The rainfall is bimodal with the long rains from June to September and the short rain from mid-February The Adami Tulu area has an erratic and unreliable to mid April. Analysis of the three lowest rainfall years rainfall. The mean annual rainfall ranges from 735-782 out of ten indicated that July-August is the only reliable 86 \ ABULE EBRO

period for crop production in the three locations (Meki, Agriculture (MOA), the total area of Adami-Tulu Jido- Ziway and Adami-Tulu). The average annual maximum Kombolcha is estimated to be 75223 ha. Of this, 36,661 and minimum temperatures are 25-27.3 and 12-16° c ha (48.7%) is under crop production and 17,113 ha respectively. In Sidama and Weliyata areas, generally it (22.7%) is used as a grazing land. The remaining land is rains from March to October. The "belg" rain extends meant for different purposes (Zeway MOA, 1997 unpub­ from March to June and the Meher rain from July to lished). The Sidama and Weliyata areas are characterized September. The mean annual rainfall for the period 1972 by a high population density thus making land a scarce to 1986 around Weliyata was 1048 mm while in the resource. For example, in a study conducted by Abagodu Sidama area the mean annual rainfall ranges from 1000 (1988) in "Weinadega" area of Sidama mixed farming mm in "Kola" to 1200 mm in "Weinadega" areas. In both zone, about 52% of the farmers have less than 0.5 ha and areas, 85 % of the rainfall falls between March and only 18 % more than 1 ha (Table 1). A similar study by October. Degu et al. (1991) in North Omo (Areka area) indicated the total farm size/household to be 0.73 ha. Of this 0.48, Areas under cultivation and pasture 0.1 ,0.0 and 0.15 ha are allocated for crop production, grazing, fallow and areas left for other activities respec­ According to a report by Ziway Wereda Ministry of tively.

TABLE 1. Size of land holding per household for Kola and weinadega areas of Sidama

KOLA WEINADEGA Size Averagehousehold % responding Average (ha) % responding land size land size

<0.5 42 0.46 52 0.38 0.5-1.0 28 0.83 30 0.84 >1.0 30 2.82 18 1.76 Mean 100 1.2 100 0.78

Raya (1988)

Major crops Livestock resources

Crop production is a recent experience for farmers The land around Adami Tulu is suitable for livestock around Adami Tulu. About sixty years ago, crop produc­ production. There are about 254694, 11384, 133902, tion was not as such practiced for all crops,instead of 12505 and 49966 cattle, sheep, goats, equine and poultry livestock production was the dominant farming system respectively in Adami Tulu-Jido Kombolcha (East Shoa in the area. The major crops grown include maize, teff Zone MOA, 1997 unpublished). Goats are selected for and haricot beans and the minor crops wheat, barely and breeding next to cattle followed by donkeys. Donkeys sorghum. Among the crops produced maize is the most (the Isusuz of farmers) constitute around 90% of the important crop in terms of the proportion of farmers equine population in the region and about 70% of semi- growing it, in area coverage and the number of people arid smallholder keep equine. A recent survey by (95%) using it for home consumption (Nigatu and Abule, Abubeker et al. (1997, unpublished) revealed that the 1994 unpublished; Kefyalew ct al., 1994; SEDA, 1997). average household ownership of cattle, goat and donkey Teff and haricot bean are predominately produced for to be highest in Adami Tulu (Table 2). Livestock cash earnings. Although variable, depending on the agro- complements crop production by supplying draft power ecological zones of Sidama, Weliyata and Areka areas, and manure. Moreover, a number of cattle are given as the major crops grown include coffee, enset, maize, tef, marriage gifts to young married couples as part of field pea and haricot beans. Coffee, maize and tef are cultural obligations. They are also considered as important cash crops. Household consumption is domi­ indicators of wealth and prestige. nated by enset, maize, sweet potato and haricot bean.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN JN SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA \ 87

TABLE 2. Livestock owned per household by Wereda in the Mid Rift VaJJey of Ethiopia (n = 201)

Variable Alem Tena Mojo Adamitulu Meki Siraro Arsi Negele Shashemene

Cattle 6.60 10.10 22.20 6.53 16.8 87.27 8.40 Goat 1.73 2.80 8.03 2.20 4.89 3.00 2.20 Sheep 2.22 1.30 1.90 0.65 0.57 1.26 1.40 Donkey 1.30 1.00 1.96 0.52 1.40 0.86 0.50 Mule 0.03 0.03 0.00 0.00 0.03 0.00 0.00 Horse 0.03 0.09 0.07 0.00 0.29 0.00 0.10 Chicken 4.33 3.41 3.48 4.37 3.35 3.67 2.50

Source: Abubeker et al. (1997, unpublished)

The feed resources available to livestock are mainly Demography of draft oxen from grazing land and crop residues. Farmers have no confidence to rely fully on crop production due to the In Adami Tulu livestock population of all species was unreliable rainfall conditions of the area, and they always found to be high during the period of Emperor Haile try to keep up their livestock number that gives them Selassie mainly due to the abundance of grazing land in security at times of crop failure. quality and quantity. During the period of Derg, a Contrary to the case in Adami Tulu, the number of dramatic fall in livestock population was observed due to livestock owned/household around Weliyata and Sidama the land reform and the expansion of cultivated land at is small because of small farm size and the lack of feed. the expense of reduced grazing land (SEDA 1997). A In a survey conducted by Getahun et al. (1991) in the recent survey indicated the oxen ownership/interviewed mixed farming zone of North Omo (Areka area) farmers household to be 2.97, 2.68, 3.07, 1.22, 3.11, 1.67, and on the average owned 0.16, 0.65, 0.25, 0.48* 1.06,0.15, 1.60 for Mojo, Alem Tena, Adami Tulu, Meki, Siraro, 0.25,0.10,1.01, bulls, cows, oxen, calvcs, cattle shared, Arsi-Negate, and Shashmene respectively. The mean goats, sheep, donkeys and chickens respectively. In value was 2.42 (Abubeker et al., 1997, unpublished). In general, farmers owned less than a bull, a cow and an ox. a study by SEDA (1997) in Adami Tulu the most As a result, cattle sharing is an important means of vulnerable groups of the community had no ox, and very gaining access to cattle in this area. In the Sidama mixed few owned an ox for each. According to a report by farming zone, farmers keep more cows than oxen. Most Wereda MOA, there are about 53,394 oxen around farmers in "Weinadega" areas of Sidama zone do not use Adami Tulu. This is about 12.73 % of the draft oxen in oxen for ploughing. The cropping system does not East Shoa Zone (419,231). require much land preparation. As a result, most fanners In a report by Weliyata MOA (1987), 64% (36,345), sell their male calves immediately after weaning (Raya, 31%(18158) and 3% (2246) farmers have no oxen, one 1988). Around Weliyata and Areka areas, however, ox and two oxen respectively. In a study by Abagodu farmers keep both male and female calves. Male calves (1988) about 53% of the respondents from "Kola" and are kept because they maintain draft animals in farming. 81% of those from "Weinadega” areas of Sidama zone In addition to feeding different kinds of stovers and mentioned to have no oxen. Fourteen percent from kola straws, farmers feed their animals roots, leaves, and 12 % from weinadega had one ox only while 33% vegetative parts of tuber crops and enset sheath to their from Kola and 7% from "Weinadega" owend 2 or more animals. In Weliyata and Areka areas, oxen receive oxen. In their method of land preparation, they mainly special treatment in feeding while in the Sidama area used hoe or hand toots (tables 3 and 4 ). most farmers give priority to milking cows (Raya, 1988; Gatahun and Alelign, 1990).

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 88 V ABULE EBRO

Management of draft oxen

Role of draft oxen in the farming system table 4. Methods of land plowing, Areka

As in the other parts of the country, oxen are used for Method Mean (% farmersresponding) pulling the local ard ("maresha") for cultivation and thinning of some crops and threshing by trampling the Owning oxen 10 harvested crop. They are also, used to transport harvests, Sharing oxen 27 tree branches and crop residues by pulling oxen drawn Hiring oxen 6 carts (particularity around Adami Tulu). Borrowing ox 59 Hand tools 86 TABLE 3. Method of land preparation (Sidama Using Other 29 mixed farming zone) Source: Getahun et al. (1991)

Selection of work oxen Method Kola Weinadega (% respondents) Oxen at Adamitullu and Weliyta are first put to vvrrk at 4-5 years of age and they continue ploughing until 9 Hoe 42 79 years of age (Degu and Workayehu 1990; Kefyalew et Own oxen 33 5 Mekenajo (pairing) 12 12 al. 1994). During selection farmers in Adami Tulu use Borrowed 10 3 the following criteria. The animal should be a strong active healthy bull. It shoulf be slim with a good height Source: Raya (1988) and length. Brown or "Megala" colored oxen are believed to be lazy.

TABLE 5. Oxen Feeding Calendar In Weliyata Area

Feed Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Grazing pasture land 0 0 0 X XXX X X X X 0 Green grass mowed 0 0 0 X X XX X XXX X Maize dry stalk X XX 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Maize stripped leaves and thinned green stalks 0 0 0 0 0 XXX 0 0 0 Q Maize concentrate 0 X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Enset sheaths X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tef straw X XX 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Thinned tef with weeds 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 XX 0 Sweet potato leaves X X X 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 • 0 Sweet potato tuber 0 0 0 0 0 0 XX X 0 0 0

Source: Degu and Worfcayehu (1990) x = Oxen are fed; 0 = not fed

Housing the year during the night in the farm er's own house. The animal dung is frequently cleared and the manure In Adami Tulu oxen, cows and donkeys stay in the applied on the homestead crop fields or piled for further "kraal"; goats and sheep in the "gurano" and calves in the application (Getahun and Alelign, 1990). house. In Weliyata, all animals are housed throughout

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA \ 89

Health status Farmers strategy in coping with problems of oxen power The common diseases known by the local farmers around Adami Tulu are Anthrax (Aba senga), locally Land is relatively abundant around Adami Tutu (3.3 called "China", Blackleg ("Aba gorba"), Rinder pest ha/household (Kefyalew et al., 1994). The main ("Desta") and Streptoihricosis (Kcfyalew et al., 1994; limitation to expansion of farm size is oxen shortage. In SEDA. 1997). In addition to those mentioned, order to cope up with the problem, the farmers with out trypanosomiasis (’’Gendi"), foot and mouth disease and oxen lease their land to rich farmers on annual basis or internal parasites are common problems in the Southern sell their labor on a daily basis. In some cases, they areas (Raya, 1988; Getahun et al., 1991) plough on the farm of the rich farmer on the basis of getting one-oxen day draft power for 3-4 oxen -day days Implements of labor spent on the land of the rich. In share cropping, the oxen owner provides seed, participate equally in The implements used are plough (mareshsa) the tip, weeding where as the non-oxen owner provides land and yoke (wooden) and wheeled carls. Farmers usually could performs all activities. They also either hire in oxen or not tell the advantages of the implements. However, the borrow from their relatives and neighbors. Every two following point were suggested by the farmers around farmers who own an ox each in most cases bring their Adami Tulu as disadvantages of the implement (plough). oxen together and plough their land on a share of days It is not durable-especially part of the plough iron which agreed upon between the two. Donkeys are also is fixed at the tip of the main plough (handle). It is blunt substituting oxen in ploughing and threshing in places so it does not penetrate deep or bends easily on hard where there is shortage of oxen. soils and does not cut grasses and roots too. Tills very Farmers have two systems of sharing ox to facilitate narrow furrows because of its smaller size. The "diggers" land preparation in the Southern areas. The "gathua" are made of wooden material and are not sharp enough arrangement is usually made between two farmers, each to cut roots and grasses. It does not do well on very wet owning one ox. The two oxen are paired for plowing, soils. When the surface of the yoke is rough it causes rotating between the two farms on alternative days. wound on the shoulder. The wood pan is expensive and Under this arrangement both farmers get their land not available in the surrounding areas. In Sidama, plowed, but each retains all of the output from his own Weliyata and Areka areas, farmers use hand tools for fields. The term Kota means ’’common" in English and land preparation particularity in areas adjacent to applies to common care and utilization of a given piece homesteads. In areas where the hoe is the sole method of of land by two farmers. Both the land plowing and the land preparation particularity in the Weinadega areas of resulting harvest are shared evenly between two Sidama, it is very tedious. The quality of the seed bed is cooperating farmers (Degu and Workayehu, 1990). usually poor and exacerbating weed problems.

Constraints in draft capacity

■ Feed shortage (quality and quantity). supplement the crop residues. The efficiency of ■ Environmental constraints such as heat stress and veterinary services given to the farmers by MOA should diseases. be improved. Improved methods of using equines in ■ Unimproved implements. ploughing and threshing should also be given due consideration possibly by training, improving Opportunities in alleviating constraints implements, adequate nutritional and veterinary inputs around Adami Tulu. The farmers need to be strongly advised on the proper The opportunities in alleviating constraints in the conservation of available feed resources. Introduction of Southern areas (Sidama, Weliyata and Areka areas) also forage shrubs as a hedge and alley cropping could include introduction of single-ox-drawn implements and

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 90 \ ABULE EBRO

provision of credit for purchase of oxen. Relay cropping level of the farmers should be considered thoroughly or intercropping of food and forage crops and detailed in the future studies. extension service on the use of oxen (Sidama) for traction are some of the possibilities of interventions. ■ The relation between work, environmental stress and ill health requires further elucidation. Past research effort at Adami Tuiu ■ Determining the nutritional requirements of draft The research focus at Adami Tulu is on the use of oxen and donkeys. donkeys for tillage. The result indicated that a pair of donkey can pull any agricultural implement which needs ■ Detailed studies of nutritional and physiological draft force of about 500-600 N (Bekele et alM 1997). responses of oxen and donkeys to work. Moreover, preliminary observation using pair of donkey, pair of oxen and single ox combined with a donkey in ■ Investigation into the use of indigenous herbal light soil using light Maresha indicated the capacity medicine and local remedies for draft oxen and (ha/day) to be 0.155, 0.326 and 0.178 respectively (Ebro donkeys. et al., 1997 unpubl.). ■ Development of implements suitable for oxen and Research implications and needs donkeys (Adami Tulu). ■ Conducting trials on tillage techniques like minimum ■ The power source (animal used), the implements and or zero tillage (Sidama and Weliyata areas). the soil as well as the economic and technological

Conclusion

Although crop production is a recent experience at mentioned areas. Therefore, multi-disciplinary research Adami Tulu, currently the production system is a mixed should be carried out considering the animal used, the crop livestock farming. Hence, the contribution of draft implement and the soil type. Economic and oxen to crop production is significant. In Sidama, technological levels of the farmers should also be Weliyata and Areka, the problem is much aggravated by considered. In the southern zones, research centers the high population pressure leading to the absence of should have a livestock component which will look for land for grazing. The research effort to tackle the better alternatives. problem of draft oxen is almost negligible in the

REFERENCES

Raya Abagodu. 1988. Sidama mixed farming zone diagnostic survey Report. Research Report No.3/88. IAR, Addis Ababa Ethiopia. Abiye Astatke. 1987. Animal traction research in Ethiopia. In: IAR proceedings. The status of livestock pasture and forage research and development in Ethiopia. Proceedings of the workshop held in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, 8-10 January 1985. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Bekele, Z,, Geza, M., Sisay, A, Ebro, A. and Teshome, B. 1997. Power and work output of donkeys in Rift Valley of Ethiopia. Paper presented at the International conference on donkey management and utilization, 5-9 May, 1997, Debre Zeit Ethiopia. Getahun Degu, Mwangi, W., Tenaw Workayehu, and Grisley, B. 1991. Areka Area Mixe Fanning Zone, Northern Omo Region. Research Report No. 15. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Getahun Degu, and Tenaw Workayehu. 1990. Initial results of informal survey, Areka Area Mixed Fanning Zone. Weliyata Awaraja, Sidamo Region. Working paper No. 11. Addis Ababa Ethiopa.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN SOUTHERN ETHIOPIA \ 91

Ffoulkes, D, and Bamualin, A. 1989. Improving the nutritional level of draught animals using available feeds. In: Hoffmann, D.. Jan vari, and Petherman, R.J. (ed). Draught animals in rural development: Proceedings of an international research symposium, Cipanas, Indonesia, 3-7 July 1989. ACIAR Proceedings No. 27: 134-145. Gryseels, G., F.M. Anderson, Getachew Asamenew, Abebe Misgina, Abiye Astatke and Woldeab Woldemariam. 1989. on farm research to improve smallholder livestock productivity in the Ethiopian highlands. Quaternary J. Int. agric. 28:314. Alelign Kefyalew, Senayit Regassa and Tilahun Mulatu. 1994. Adami Tuiu Mixed Farming Zone Diagnostic survey. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Ministry of Agriculture (MOA). 1984. Livestock subsector review of Ethiopia. Australian Agriculture Consulting and management Comp. Ltd. Australia. Pathak, B.S. 1989. Draught performance of indigenous and cross-bred oxen. IAR, Nazerth, Ethiopia. Stroud, A. 1993. The use of animal draught. In: Dryland farming in Africa. Rowland. J.R.J. (ed). McMilan press Mpp.205-212. Sclam Environmental Development Association. 1997. Participatory Rural Appraisal of gerbi Giligie and Dodicha PAs. Adami Tullu district. East Shoa zone, Oromia region. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Weliyata MOA, 1987. Annual Report. MOA, Weliyata.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy W orkshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 92-97

Farming Systems Research in Draft Animals in Ethiopia and its Implication for Future Research

Hailu Beyene Holetta Research Center, PO Box 2003 Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

griculture is the backbone of Ethiopian economy. However, the agricultural productivity does not match with increasing population growth. The agricultural productivity increased negatively at the rate of 1 % during the 1970s and 2% during the 1980s while population growth rate is more than 2% for the same period. In order to improve the productivity of agriculture, improving the present draft power capacity is the most important of all other constraints since we have to prepare the land first in order to grow A crops. The three sources of draft power for small holder farmers for land preparation are oxen, horses and hoes. In rare cases, cows are also used whenever there is severe oxen shortage. Draft power is essential for crop production and the amount of crop produced per household greatly depends on the number of draft animals owned and the condition of oxen during the dry season. Shortage of draft power limits the area to be cultivated and the timeliness of the operation. As a result shortage of draft power has an unfavorable effect on the family food supply, and the country’s food self sufficiency at large, since most of the food production comes from small holder producers. Thus the availability of draft power is a major factor affecting food production and income distribution in Ethiopia. This calls for the use of other draft animals tike horses and donkeys for land preparation and planting. The other researchable area is introduction of forage crops in the farming system to alleviate the feed shortage.

Introduction

Agriculture is the backbone of Ethiopian economy. been also verifying some of the available technologies However, the agricultural productivity does not match for their feasibility, profitability and farmer's acceptance with increasing population growth. The agricultural (Mulugetta et al. 1992). Draft power shortage was one of productivity happened in negative per capita growth rate the constraints identified by farmers during the surveys. of \% during the 1970s and 2% daring the 1980s (Asfaw The aim of this paper is, therefore, to share some of the et al. 1997) while population growth rate is more than finding of our surveys related to draft power. 2% for the indicated period. In order to improve the There are three sources of draft power in different productivity of agriculture, improving the present draft farming systems for land preparation for small holder power capacity is the most important of all other con­ farmers, i.e., oxen, horses and hoes. In rare cases, cows straints. are also used whenever there is severe oxen shortage The Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR) has been (Aleligne et al. 1992). conducting farming systems research (FSR) mainly Draft power is essential for crop production and the through its Department of Agricultural Economics amount of crop produced per household largely depends (DAE) since 1984. FSR is an approach to research to on the number of draft animals owned. Shortage of draft understand and identify the natural and socio-economic power limits the area to be cultivated and the timeliness circumstances of farmers and look for potential solutions of the operation. As a result shortage of draft power has to alleviate these constraints. The DAE has been con­ an unfavorable effect on the family food supply, and the ducting surveys to understand and identify farmers country’s food self sufficiency at large, since most of the problems in different farming systems zones. DAE has food production comes from small holder producers. FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH IN DRAFT ANIMALS I 93

Draft power and agricultural production

The agricultural production predominately depends on Sidama cattle as a source of draft power. Most of the animal Farmers in this region practice both oxen and hoe culti­ power needed for crop production is supplied by oxen. vation. In this area land preparation starts immediately Of the total animal power about 60 to 70% is needed for after harvest when the soil is still moist to reduce power land preparation and planting. The average animal power requirement for both draft and labor (Raya, 1988). needed for crop production is about 1000 hr/farm/year Reduction of power requirement is important since the (Gryseels et al. 1984) work capacity of oxen is lower at the time of land prepa­ ration because of dry season feed shortage. The soil is also dry and hard to work before the rain starts. Farmers Traditional cultivation practices in this area shift from ox to hoe cultivation due to the death of oxen from diseases or sale of oxen after crop Three cultivation systems exist in Ethiopia. In most crop failure during drought period. Forty five percent of production areas a pair of oxen are used to till the land farmers mentioned decline in livestock number due to using locally-made cultivation tool, the maresha (Tilahun diseases and sales during crop failure. et al. 1992). Hoe cultivation and horses are also used to plough the land in different farming systems (Beyene Debre Tabor 1995; Alemayehu and Franzel 1987). There are two sources of draft power for small holder Sources of draft power and practices in different farmers in the highlands, oxen and horses. In the mid farming systems altitude zone, oxen are solely used for draft except a few Among the operations that require draft power land farmers use cows because of oxen shortage (Aleligne et preparation is the most important of all. Land preparation al., 1992). In the highlands about half of the farmers own should start early to expose the soil to the sun to kill soil only one ox and thus join with another ox owner or they borne diseases, to give enough lime for the composition pair it with a horse to make a plow team. Besides, some of crop residues left in the field and to make the follow­ farmers work two days on other farmers fields to receive ing plowings easy. one ox for one day. Pairing an ox with a horse is prac­ The type of seed bed to be prepared depends on the ticed because at least 43% of farmers own one horse. soil type, the requirement of the crop, on set of rainfall, The horses are used for draft purposes only in the wet strength of draft animals and history of the field. De­ season because they can not work during the hot weather pending on the soil type and the crop grown, the land is and draw the local plow unless the soil is moist. Horses cultivated up to six times before planting. The sources of are also used for transportation in the dry season. draft power and cultivation practices arc summarized as follows: Inewari, Aleltu-Sendafa In Inewari oxen and horse are used as draft animals Bako either in pair or in combination of a horse and an ox. Oxen are the only draft power source. 15% of sample However, the use of a pair of horses or a combination of farmers do not own oxen and 66% have only one ox a horse and an ox requires an additional person to guide (Legese et al. 1987). the pair during plowing (Hailu and Chilot 1992). The use of horses is becoming important because of survival on Asendabo-Sekoru low quality feed, use for transportation, cheaper than Land preparation is fully by oxen. Only 27% of farmers oxen and horses work twice as fast as oxen on flat plots. have two oxen (Kasahun et al. 1992).

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 94 \ HAILU BEYENE

Constraints of crop production

A major constraint to crop cultivation is the unequal shortage in different farming system. Farmers with only distribution of oxen per household. Around 29% of one ox face two problems, i.e., plant late and fail to Ethiopian farmers have no oxen, 34% one, 29% two and cultivate their fields. 8% three or more (MOA, 1980). The majority of farmers There is always feed scarcity whenever there is no in Manna and Gomma weredas do not own oxen. Sur­ short rain in the season. As a result oxen are not strong prisingly there are cases where two to three households to plow the dry soil due to feed shortage (Aleligne et al. own one ox in common (Kasahun et al. 1988). Since 1994). To minimize this problem preparing the land oxen are traditionally paired for work, the above figure immediately after harvest is advantageous and also indicated that more than 60% of the farmers have to rent improves the fertility of the soil by decomposing the or borrow one or two animals for cultivation. Table 1 crop residues. summarizes the percentage of farmers who faces oxen

Strategies to overcome oxen shortage

A farmer who has less than two oxen has numerous rent another farmer's ox at an annual cost of 200 kg of strategies to overcome oxen shortage problem. The grain or 15% of total farm production. In Debre Tabor common practice for farmers having one ox is a - area a pair of oxen is rented for 10-15 kg of grain per mekenajo (an agreement with another farmer who has day or is exchanged for 33%-50% of crop harvest. A one ox, whereby the two oxen are used alternatively on farmer can also use an ox of another farmer in return for each farmer's fields). The disadvantage of this practice is one day’s field labor. If a farmer has no oxen, the usual that the plowing season is short and the draft power practice is to exchange two days of human labor for capacity of the oxen is low to allow both farmers to every day use of a pair of oxen (Chilot et al. 1992). finish plowing at the correct time. Some times oxen are rented on a cash basis, usually 10 Another practice widely used is m inda where the Birr/day for a pair, and 15 Birr/day if a handler is farmer rent one or two oxen in exchange for grain or included. Farmers also hire out their land if they do not human labor. Around Debre Zeit, farmers with one ox get oxen in any one of the above mentioned agreements.

TABLE 1. Percentage of fanners who face draft power shortage for land preparation

Percent of farmers owning

Location No ox One ox Source

Bako, 1987 13 66 Legesse et al. 1987

Asendabo-Sekoru, 1989 36 37 Kasahun et al. 1992

Adami Tulu, 1994 16 16 Aleligne et al. 1994

Debre Tabor, 1992 09 36 Aleligne et al. 1994

Kulumsa, 1989 13 NA Chilot eat al. 1992

BahirDar, 1989 15 20 Aleligne et al. 1994

Adet, 1988 13 45 Aleligne 1988

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP FARMING SYSTEMS RESEARCH IN DRAFT ANIMALS \ 95

Ox ownership and crop cultivation

The number of oxen owned by a farmer strongly influences the area cultivated and the cropping pattern. The cropping pattern is most strongly influenced if the draft power inputs for land preparation vary substantially among crops. This favors the selection of crops with lower power requirements, pulses instead of cereals, by farmers with less than two oxen. The study by ILCA showed that there is approximately linear relationship between the number of oxen owned and the area cultivated (Gryseels et al. 1984). The differences in cropping pattern reflect the need for more intensive land preparation for cereals than for pulses, and therefore higher labor and draft power (Table 2). This implies that farmers with less than two oxen will plant less land and also will have lower income compared to farmers who have more than two oxen (Table 3). Thus the availability of draft power is a major factor affecting food production and income distribution in Ethiopia.

TABLE 2. Impact of ox ownership on area cultivated and cropping pattern

Average area % of % under No. of oxen owned cultivated (ha) cereal area pulses None 1.2 54 46 One 1.9 44 55 Two 2.7 67 33 Three or more 3.6 92 86

Source: Gryseels et a!. 1984

TABLE 3. Effect of ox ownership on area cultivated and cash income

No. of oxen Average area Cash income owned cultivated (ha) (Birr/year)

None 1.18 130 One 1.20 183 Two or more 1.70 302

Source: Legesse et al. 1987

Future areas of research

Draft power is essential for crop production in most at different times. As a result the number of farmers mixed farming system zones of the country. Oxen are the having less than two oxen is increasing from time to time sole sources of draft power in most crop production due to high cost of oxen to replace the losses. This calls areas. The amount of crop produced depends mostly on for the use of other draft animals like horses and donkeys the number of oxen owned and the condition of oxen for land preparation and planting. The other researchable during the dry season feed shortage period. The number area is introduction of forage crops in the farming system of oxen is significantly reduced due to drought occurred to alleviate the dry season feed shortage. Due to

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 96 \ HAILU BEYENE

increasing population growth pasture lands are converted be difficult, if not impossible, to sustain the existing to crop land. The number of Livestock is also increasing livestock number with the available grazing area and as the grazing land decreases at an increasing rate. It will crop residue.

Implication of oxen shortage for crop production

According to the Central Statistics Authority (CSA) However, the available oxen pair is only 4 250 840 (8 estimates, the total cultivated area for 1994/95 crop 501 680/2) which is much lower (almost 64% for the season is 6 960 190 ha (CSA 1995). The number of draft second case) than required. Besides, if we consider cattle aged two years and above is 8 501 680. On the fanner's working days in a month it will take more time Nitosols, oxen take on average 6-8 days to plow a to accomplish land preparation and planting. This hectare of land and 4 days/ha for planting. On Vertisols, implies that timely land preparation and planting are not oxen take more time, about 10-12 days/ha. For the possible with the existing available oxen power and the estimated area the minimum oxen power required for number of working days of farmers in different farming land preparation and planting will be 6 960 190 X 10 = systems. This calls for feasible and acceptable alternative 69 601 900 oxen days. If 6 oxen days equals one pair, draft power sources and introduction of forage crops to then 11 600 316 oxen pairs are required. If 10 oxen days alleviate the feed shortage problem which affect the draft equals one pair, then 6 960 190 oxen pairs are required power supply. to accomplish land preparation and planting on time.

REFERENCES

Aleligne Kefyalew. 1988. Adet mixed farming zone diagnostic survey report, Gojam Region. Research Report No. 4/88, IAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Aleligne Kefyalew and Regassa Ensermu. 1989. Initial results of informal survey: Bahir Dar mixed fanning zone. Working paper No. 5. IAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Aleligne Kefyalew, Senair regassa and Tilahun Mulaltu. 1994. Adami Tulu Mixed Farming Zone Diagnostic Survey. Research Report No. 25. Institute of Agricultural Research, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Aleligne Kefyalew, Tilahun Geleto and Regassa Ensermu. 1992. Initial results of an informal survey of the Debre Tabor mixed farming zone. Working paper No. 12. IAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Alemayehu Mamo and Franzel, Steven. 1987. Initial results of informal survey: Sinana mixed farming systems zone. Working Paper No. 1/87. IAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Asfaw Negassa, K. Gunjal, W. Mwangi and Beyene Seboka. 1997. Factors affecting the adoption of maize production technologies in Bako area, Ethiopia. Ethiop. J. Agric, Econ. l(2):52-73. Beyene Tadesse. 1995. Informal Survey of Yeju Fanning Systems. Working Paper No. 13. IAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Central Statistics Authority (CSA). 1995. Agricultural sample survey (1994/95): Report on livestock, poultry and beehives population for private peasant holding. Statistical Bulletin 132. CSA, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Chilot Virga, Hailu Beyene, Lemma Zewdie and D. G. Tanner. 1989. Farming systems of the Kulumsa area. pp. 145-157. In: Steven, Franzel and Helen van Houten (eds.). Research with farmers: Lessons from Ethiopia. C.A.B International for IAR Wallingford, UK. Gryseels, G., Abiye Astatke, Anderson, F. M. and Getachew Assamenew. 1984. The use of single oxen for crop cultivation in Ethiopia. ILCA Bulletin No. 18. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia, ILCA. Hailu Beyene and Chilot Yirga. 1992. Vertisol farming systems of North Shewa. pp. 79-96. In: Steven, Franzel and Helen van Houten (eds.). Research with farmers: Lessons from Ethiopia. C.A.B International for IAR Wallingford, UK.

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Kasahun Seyoum, Hailu Tafesse and S. Franzel. 1992. Prospects for improving coffee-based farming systems, pp. 173-190. In: Steven, Franzel and Helen van Houten (eds.). Research with fanners: Lessons from Ethiopia, C.A.B International for IAR Wallingford, UK. Kasahun Seyoum, S. Franzel and Tesfaye Kumsa. 1988. Initial results of informal survey: Coffee producing areas of Manna and Gomma woredas, Kefa region. Working Paper No. 4. IAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Legesse Dadi, Gemechu Gedeno, Tesfaye Kumsa and Getahun Degu. 1987. The fanning system of the Bako area. pp. 43-59. In: Steven, Franzel and Helen van Houten (eds.). Research with farmers: Lessons ftom Ethiopia. C.A.B International for IAR Wallingford, UK. Mulugetta Mekuria, S. Franzel and Hailu Beyene. 1992. Farming systems research in Ethiopia: evolution, development and organization, pp. 28-40. In: Steven, Franzel and Helen van Houten (eds.). Research with fanners: Lessons from Ethiopia. C.A.B International for IAR Wallingford, UK. Privisional Govenment of Socialist Ethiopia. 1980. Distribution of land and farm inputs among the fanners of Ethiopia, with special reference to the distributio of traction power. Ministry of Agriculturre, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Raya Abagodu. 1988. Sidama mixed farming zone diagnostic survey report, Sidama region, Research Report No. 3/88. IAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Tilahun Mulatu, Teshome Regassa Aleligne Kefyalew. 1992. Fanning systems of the Nazret area. pp. 111-125. In: Steven, Franzel and Helen van Houten (eds.). Research with farmers: Lessons from Ethiopia. C. A.B International for IAR Wallingford, UK.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First National Oxen Tractio n Research Review and Strategy W orkshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 98-104

Use of Oxen in the Traditional Farming Systems of North­ west Ethiopia Experience In Amhara Region

Alemu Hailyey Asmare Yalleiv andAklilu Agidie Adet Research Center, PO Box 8 Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

n the Northwest Ethiopia of Ethiopia, the smaUhodeis raise cattle primirly for the supply of oxen power for crop production. Dairy> food, cash source, manure, fuel and security are secondary. Cattle and equine provide smallholder farmers with vital power for crop cultivation and transportation. Mechanization is not feasible under small-scale farmers condition in the rural area of the sub-region. Oxen are the principal draft animals used for tillage and threshing. Horses and mules are also important source of traction power in the high land part of IGojam and Gonder in addition to transportation. Results of diagnostic survey in the region suggest that oxen power shortage is a critical problem for crop production in the region. Only 51% of farmers own > 2 oxen. Even the available oxen are too poor to supply the necessary agricultural power. Farmers use different strategies to alleviate the problem. These are 'MekenajoV 'kinaji' (51.1%), Oxen hiring/ renting (10.3%), share cropping (10.3%), exchange labor for ox/oxen (9.8%) and neighbors cooperation (8.8%). Constraints attributing to low draft capacity of oxen include dry season feed shortage, diseases and parasites, and poor extension service. For the betterment of this sector research have to focus on the alternative source of draft power, crop-forage integration and improvement of the quality of natural pasture and traditional farm tools.

Introduction

An agricultural research paying no attention to the small considered and any intervention should act on the system holders resource poor fanners has little of applicability. not on element. Technologies which do not fit fanners circumstance and In Amhara region, agricultural activities are sedentary meet priority needs would not be expected to be adopted. in nature. And 97% of the population engaged in agricul­ So, farmers economic, natural, social, cultural, etc, ture (UNECA,1996a). The traditional farming practice, circumstances and priority production constraints have small land holding, high soil erosion etc., led the agricul­ to be first well understood in the development.of appro­ ture to be below or near subsistence level. According to priate technologies. UNECA survey, in 1995 cropping season, 76.5% of the Ethiopia, since the 1970s, has adopted farming sys­ farm family did not have enough food that can last them tem research (FSR) approach in the improvement of the until the next harvest. livelihood of small scale farmers and brought a signifi­ In general, the agriculture is mixed type. It encom­ cant change. FSR is multi-disciplinary in nature and passes both crop and livestock production. These enter­ assist the different division to cater research based on prise are complementary one to the other. The crop farmers priority problems. It emphasizes the understand­ sector supplies feed for livestock while the latter pro­ ing of system acostraints. Elements in the system are vides draft power and manure. They are inseparable. One interrelated and one can not disaggregate the compo­ can not think the existence of crop with out livestock. nents . The current extension program over emphasizes Hence, equal emphasis should be given for sustainable the crop sector compared to livestock production. But for development. sustainable development system constraints should be Animal traction is an appropriate, affordable and USE OF OXEN IN NORTHWEST ETHIOPIA, AMHARA REGION \ 99

sustainable technology, requiring few external inputs feasible under small scale farmers condition. Hence, (ILIA, 1993). Draft animals are the main source of crop much focus has to be given to strengthen use of animal production. Hence, through integration of the two sectors traction by farmers. Even, introducing animal-drawn it is possible to intensify agriculture (mainly through carts in the rural people will undoubtedly bring many area expansion) and by then raise the living standard of social and economic benefits. the rular poor people. Mechanization doesn't seem

Role of livestock in the farming system

Estimates suggest that 40% of the country's national herd keys, and 2.55 hens (Table 1). The average livestock 40% are found in the Amhara Region. The region posses holding of a farm household, particularly of cattle, is 7.8 million cattle, 4.8 million sheep, 3.5 million goats, higher in Agew Awi, North Gonder, East and West 1.4 million equine, 1.3 million camel and 7.0 million Gojam in order of importance. This is mainly due to poultry (UNECA, 1996a). On the average, a farm family large available grazing lands in the western part of the in the region owns 1.5 ox, 1.11 cow, 0.38 bulls, 0.49 region. heifers, 0.65 calves, 1.26 goats, 1.44 seeps, 0.56 don­

TAB LE 1. Average livestock holding of farm family by administrative zones in northwest Ethiopia

East West . North South Agew Amhar Gojam Gojam Gonder Gonder Awi regior

Cattle 4.90 4.20 5.50 4.4 6.80 4.13 Ox 2.00 1.92 1.69 1.36 2.05 1.50 Cow 1.36 1.06 1.61 1.12 2.10 1.11 Bull 0.52 0.31 0.62 0.46 0.71 0.38 Heifer 0.68 0.47 0.63 0.62 1.03 0.49 Calf 0.87 0.48 0.98 0.72 1.14 0.65 Goat 1.04 0.45 1.63 1.10 1.35 1.26 Sheep 1.91 1.09 0.87 1.18 1.00 1.44 Equine 0.94 0.60 0.90 0.70 0.93 0.68 Donkey 0.68 0.30 0.70 0.51 0.62 0.56 Horse 0.36 0.24 0.16 0.14 0.29 0.15 Mule 0.03 0.05 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.04 Chicken 1.85 2.10 3.81 3.21 4.67 2.55 Bee hive 0.45 0.28 0.57 0.38 1.15 0.36

Source: UNECA survey

Livestock enterprise plays major role in the farming threshing white other livestock categories, bulls, cows system. It provides draft power, food for the farm family, and donkeys are used at time of oxen labor shortage. cash source, and manure to fertilize crop fields and for (Table 2). Donkeys, horses and mules are pack animals fuel and insurance. It is the sole source of power for used for transportation and in some localities for draft tillage, transportation, compaction /'Tiktako' and thresh­ power sources. ing. Oxen are the principal draft animals for tillage and

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVtEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 100 I ALEMU ET AL.

TA B LE 2. The role of livestock in the farming system of Motta and Enbessie expressed as percentage of respondents

Type of Motta (n=60) Enebssie (n=71) livestock LP* T C TH LP T C TH

Ox 80 1.7 0.0 95.0 91.5 0.0 15.5 94.4 Cow 5.0 0.0 0.0 11.7 2.8 0.0 22.5 14.1 Heifer 8.3 0.0 88.3 15.0 0.0 0.0 36.6 4.2 Bull 11.7 10.0 78.3 36.7 5.6 5,6 38.0 14.1 Sheep -- 5.0 — — — 25.4 — Donkey 6.7 95,0 28.8 0.0 1.4 90.1 40.8 2.8 Horse 0.0 86.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 14.1 0.0 0.0 Mule 5.0 86.7 5.0 0.0 0.0 1.4 8.5 0.0

*LP, land preparation ; C, compacting f\iktako T, transportation (wood, straw and goods) TH, threshing Source: Farming system survey result

In Wegera, Dab at, Debark, Lai-Gaint, Enebssie and Amhara region possess at least an ox (Table 3). In some Motta area, Some times bulls and oxen serve in hauling areas like Bahir Dar Zuria, Mecha, Finote Selam and logs for fuel and construction purpose. All class of Fogera area dairy is an important enterprise and the livestock, especially heifer, bulls, donkeys, and sheep proportion of cow to ox even exceed unity (Aleligne et use for compaction /Tiktako'. Mainly oxen, bulls, cows al, 1988, 1992 and 1993 and Asmare Yallew et al un and heifers use for threshing. published data). The possible explanation for this could The main objective of raising livestock is to supply be availability of sufficient grazing land (because most oxen power to crop production. Dairy enterprise is of the land is vertisol and fallow in the main season) and secondary. This is true because only few farmers possess nearness to big towns. cows and calves where as, 80% of farm household in

TABLE 3. Oxen ownership of a farm household by administration zone

No. of East Gojam West Gojam North Gonder South Gonder Agew Awi Region oxen HHS % HHS % HHS % HHS % HHS % HHS %

Ox less 27 9.2 22 13.1 39 14.1 33 20.1 30 21.4 397 19.9 1 71 24.3 31 18.5 79 28.6 56 34.1 14 10.0 584 29.1 2 139 47.6 89 53 116 42.0 61 37.2 51 36.4 799 40.0 >3 55 119 26 15.5 42 15.2 14 8.5 45 32.1 220 11.0 o o Total 292 100 168 276 100 164 100 140 100 200 100

Source: UNECA survey *HHS, Household head

Role of oxen as traction power

In the region, an ox is the ultimate source of traction time of shortage. Oxen are used whole season starting power. It is the principal draft animals used for tillage from September to August (land preparation, cultivation, and threshing. Eighty percent of Mota and 91.5% of threshing and planting). Un like horses, oxen are used to Enebssie farmers use ox for land preparation (table 2). plow stony, sloppy, virgin lands and soil with higher Some times other livestock’s supplement oxen power at moisture content.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW ANO STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN NORTHWEST ETHIOPIA, AMHARA REGION \ 101

Oxen, beside draft power use, have prestigious value and June when the soil becomes lose and not too moist. in the rural area of the region. Farmers who own a pair Farmers who could not acquire oxen in such locality or more oxen are rich. Off course, the price of ox is very keep horses because horses are relatively cheaper than high compared to other livestock categories. But it ox. Horses are said to be more efficient and even farmers fluctuates from season to season. It reaches peak at time who own oxen prefer to use them at peak periods. In of land preparation (December to May) and fall below general, in such localities, horses are used for traction immediately after planting (August to November). Oxen power in wet season and transportation in dry season. In usually receive special treatment in feeding, watering many towns of Amhara region, horse/ mule drawn cart and sheltering. Farmers’ kraal oxen in side their house. is an important source of income and employment for If in case an ox dies, the neighboring farmers will share many rural farm households. the beef and in return pay grain or oxen labor. It is called An average working time of oxen per a day is 7 to 8 locally ertiban, i.e., assisting ones whose ox is died. In hours (Aleligne et al, 1992). But the length of working Bichena area, an ox (beef) is exchanged for 20-25 'dirb’ hour per day depend on the season and siol type. (336-420 kg) grain. Where as, a cow is shared for 15 Farmers plow 5 to 7 hours per a day at time of land 'dirb' (180 kg) grain (Alemu Hailye et al un pub. data). preparation (September to May). And this takes 6 to 8 However, the trend of oxen number is declining from days to plow a hectare of land. Where as, oxen are time to time due to scarcity of feed, cash shortage (sale worked 9 hours per a day at time of planting and take 4 livestock), animal disease and theft, respectively day to cover a hectare. (Aleligne, 1988). In the Verticil farming system, frequency of land Horses and mules are also important source of preparation is low compared to Nitosol area. This is traction power in the high land part of Gojam and attributed to hardness of the soil and problems of flies. Gonder. Farmers in Agew Midir, Debere Tabor, Lai- Here, oxen are allowed to work 4 to 6 hours a day in Gaint, Wogera, Dabat and Debark partly use horses for June to July and takes 6 to 9 days to plow a hectare of traction purpose. In Lai-Gaint woreda, 70% of farmers land. Where as, at time of planting (September to use only oxen, 5% use only horses and 25% use both October), oxen are worked 8 to 9 hours per a day and oxen and horses for tillage practices (MOA local office takes 10 to 12 day to cover a hectare (Aleligne et al, un pub. data, 1995). 1992). The reason for this is high moisture content of the In Wegera, Dabat and Debark 'Gima' (red-brown soil) soil. farming system, farmers use horses and mules in May

Oxen power shortage

Oxen are the ultimate source of power * for crop power supply). But, it was estimated that about 94,763 production. But only 51% of Amhara farmers own 2 or oxen pair days were required during 1995 cropping more oxen (Table 3). This implies, 49% of the farmers season (Table 4). This shows that a deficit of 6,440 (7%) employ other means to obtain oxen power. Farmers oxen pair days or 110 oxen pairs. reported that even the existing oxen are too weak to Oxen shortage is a critical constraint in the region. supply the necessary agricultural power. In Bahir Dar The extent of the problem varies from area to area. Fifty mixed farming zone, 67 % of farmers responded oxen four percent of South Gonder, 33.5% of East Gojam and are some times or always weak to supply the necessary 32.7% of North Gonder farmers face oxen shortage agricultural power (Aleligne et al, 1992). About 90% of problem (Table 5). Farming system diagnostic survey Yilmana Denssa farmers reported that oxen are always showed that 58% of Bichena area, 50% of Yilmana or some times too weak to complete plowing timely Denssa, 50% ofFarta, nearly 75% of Lai-Gaint, farmers (Aleligne et al, 1992). faces oxen shortage problem (Aleligne, 1988, and According to UNECA survey, the maximum Aleligne and Regesa, 1992). In such localities, farmers available oxen power in the surveyed areas was about have developed their strategy to alleviate the problem. 88.323 oxen pairs day (1497 oxen pairs X 59 days of

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 102 \ ALEMU ET AL.

TABLE 4. Oxen power requirements and proportions in the surveyed areas (ox's pair days)

Crop type Average oxen Total annua! Oxen day’s: (days per hectare) cultivated land Requirement %

Cereals 134 3005 85408 90.1 Tef 34 1194 40596 42.8 Barley 24 507 12168 12.8 Wheat 25 403 1007 10.7 Matze 27 315 8505 9.0 Sorghum 24 586 14064 14.8

Pulse 20 336 6720 7.1

Oil crops 17 155 2635 2.8

Total 171 3496 94,763 100

Source: UNECA survey

TA B LE 5. Farmers strategy to alleviate oxen shortage problem by administrative zone in Amhara region

East Gojam West Gojam North Gonder South Gonder AgewAwi Region Strategies HHS % HHS % HHS % HHS % HHS % HHS %

Using hoe 4 4 4 7.4 na na 2 2.4 -- 31 3.3 Renting oxen 4 4 26 48.1 na na 8 9.8 4 10.5 97 10.3 Mekenajo 62 62 5 9.3 na na 53 64.6 10 26.3 482 51.1 Cooperation 2 2 5 9.3 na na 4 4.9 2 5.3 83 8.8 (neighbors and relatives) Exchange labor 4 4 5 9.3 na na 9 11 5 13.2 92 9.8 for ox/oxen Share crop 21 21 3 5.6 na na 3 3.7 2 5-3 97 10.3 Others 3 3 6 11.1 na na 3 3.7 15 39.5 61 6.8

Total 100 100 54 100 na na 82 100 38 100 943 100

Source: UNECA survey

Strategies to alleviate oxen shortage problem

Farmers use different strategies to alleviate oxen power Fanners in Bahir Dar farming zone who own 1.778 oxen shortage. The most common means are mekenajo/kinaji cultivated < 1 ha of tef or finger millet where as farmers (51.1%), Oxen hiring/ renting (10.3%), share cropping own 2.21 oxen cultivated ^ 1 ha of tef or finger millet (10.3%), exchange labor for ox/oxen (9.8%) and (Aleligne and Regessa, 1992). neighbors cooperation (8.8%) (Table 5). The other means are using hoe, plant pulse or oil crops instead of Mekenajolcouplinq with other tef and finger millet, plow fewer times, hire tractors, plant latter than the optimal time and some fail to Mekenajo is the most widely used means to alleviate cultivate. There was a strong association among tef and oxen shortage problem. Fifty one percent of farmers in finger millet area cultivated and oxen owner ship. Amhara region practiced Mekenajo in 1995. In South

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN NORTHWEST ETHIOPIA, AMHARA REGION \ 103

Gonder (64.6%) and East Gojam 62% farmers practice for a day. In Dabat, farmers exchange 3 human labor for mekenajo to solve oxen shortage problem. Farmers with a pair of ox for a day. According to UNECA survey, one ox owner and/ or weak oxen owner couple with the 13.2 of Agew Midir and 11 % of South Gonder farmers other farmer's and plow turn by turn. Farmers following practice exchange labor for ox/oxen (Table 5). this strategy are usually neighbors and return the ox every evening and are not responsible to provide feed. Share cropping

Oxen renting/hiring Widow, aged, off-farm engaged and ill health farmers commonly give their land for share cropping. These Farmers who face oxen shortage rent in or hire ox/oxen group of farmers are usually poor in resource from other farmers. The agreement is commonly based endowment. Twenty one percent of East Gojam farmers on pure grain. Cash payment is rare and practiced in practiced share cropping in 1995 (table 5). Share of the town. The system is locally called 'kirkar' in Debre produce depends on land scarcity in the locality, fertility Tabor and 'kurti' in most part of Gojam. Ox/Oxen renting status of the field and contribution of landowner. In most is widely practiced in West Gojam as reported by 48.1 % part of the region, yield is shared equal together with of farmers. fertilizer cost. The sU-aw is given to the oxen owner. The payment varies from locality to locality and duration of agreement. An ox can be rented for a day, for a month, for three month or for a season (land Tractor hiring preparation to threshing). In Bahir Dar mixed farming zone, an ox is rented a month for 100 kg grain and 1/4 of Some farmers in Burie and Finote Seam of Kola Deg. the total produce for a season (Aleligne and. Regassa, Damon area hire tractor from Brie mechanization for 1992). In Deber Tabor, a pair of ox is hired June- land preparation and threshing. Farmers in these september for 7 to 10 pots of grain (210-300 kg), for a localities form a group based on adjacent fields and hire day 10-15 kg grain and for a season 33-50% of the total tractor on hectare bases. During plowing, bigger clods produce. Farmers in Bichena area hire a pair of ox from are formed and make difficult to crush. Such fields are June to September for 15-25 'dirb' (250-400 kg) of grain not appropriate for tef and finger millet planting. (Alemu Hailye et al unpub.data). Because, these crops require tin seed bed preparation The grain can be field pea, faba bean, wheat or tef compared to others. Commonly, tractor plowed fields are depending on the produce. The most important thing used for planting of barley, maize and noug. here is that the grain should have high market demand Farmers also hire combiner to thresh finger millet. and be the first grade of the produce. The farmers who Finger millet is difficult to thresh using traditional way. rent ox/oxen are totally in charge of the ox/oxen safety. The combiner crushed the straw in to fine pieces and He is responsible for the provision of feed, shelter and improves the quality of feed. It bccomes more palatable herding. Commonly, ox is hired than oxen in most part for livestock. of the region. Agew Midir and West Gojam, particular in the Western area, farmers own relatively higher arable land and grow maize, noug and finger millet. So, they fallow Exchange labor for ox/oxen their farms when oxen shortage problem is faced. Thirty nine percent of Agew A.i. farmers practice this strategy These category of farmers are very keen to have their (Table 5). fn Bahr Dar mixed farming zone, farmers own oxen. grow noug and linseed instead of tef and finger millet A significant number of farmers exchange human labor when they face the problem. However, farmers in for ox/oxen. Depending on the locality, it is exchanged Yilmana Densa give priority to grow pulse instead of 1-2 human labor for an ox. They have to work 2-4 days noug and linseed (Aleligne, 1988). for the oxen owner farmers in order to get a pair of ox

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 104 \ ALEMU ET AL,

Feed management

Contrary to the large livestock population, a minimal During preferential grazing, oxen are given special proportion of agricultural land is reserved for grazing. treatment and allowed to graze the best pasture. In the Feeds are scarce in the rural are especifically dry season morning and after work in the evening oxen are provided feed shortage (February to June) is the most pressing the best grass and tef straw. The other class of animals problem. Farmers strategies to alleviate the problem are receive secondary attention is lactating cows. feed each animals category separately io avoid Nearly all of the grazing land is communally owned competition, preferential grazing, reserving grazing land, and usually do not express their potential due to flood collection of straw and hay for dry season, feeding and low solar radiation (end of June to end of August) livestock slash weed and leaves, and moving livestock to and moisture stress (February to May). Farmers in Lai- low land areas. Gaint woreda reserve grazing land for oxen only.

Future area of research

■ Research on the alternative sources of draft power improvement of traditional farm implements. like introduction of multi-purpose cows. ■ Strengthening extension services on livestock ■ Research on crop-forage integration system and feeding, mating system and marketing. improvement the quality of available natural pasture. Due to high arable land scarcity, farmers are willing ■ Veterinary service should be adequate and located to grow forage crops together with the crop. near to farmer’s residence.

■ Research on modification of the size of BBM and

REFERENCES

Aleligne Kefeyalew. 1988. Diagnostic Survey Report: Adet Mixed Farming Zone, Gojam Region. Research report No 4/88.IAR, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Aleligne Kefyalew and Regassa Ensermu.1992. Bahr Dar Mixed Zone: Diagnostic Survey Report.Research Report No 18.IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Aleligne Kefeyalew, Tilahun Geletu and Regassa Enscrmu. 1992. Initial Results of an Informal Survey of the Debre Tabor Mixed Farming Zone. Working Paper No 12. IAR, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Networking for Low External-Input and Sustainable Agriculture. 1993. Liking With farmers. ILEIA Readings in Sustainable Agriculture. London. UK. Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation Program. 1996a. Household Level Socio-economic Survey of the Amhara Region. United Nation Economic Commission for Africa. Volume L Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Sustainable Agriculture and Environmental Rehabilitation Program.1996. Statistical Master-Book on Sectorial Conditions and Activities in the Amhara Regional State. Joint production of the Amhara regional council and the Economic Commission for Africa. Volume. H. July 1996. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First N ational O xen Traction Research Review a n d Strategy W orkshop Published by EARO an d ILRI P. 105-110

Use of Oxen Traction in Traditional Farming System of Western Ethiopia Experience in Bako

Mulugeta Kebede Bako Agricultural Research Center, PO Box 03, Bako, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

The contribution of oxen to crop production in the farming system of western Ethiopia is reviewed. Land is tilled using a pair of oxen. Oxen are also used for weeding and threshing. Most farmers in the region do not have enough oxen. A survey conducted in the Bako area of western Ethiopia indicated that more than 65% of the farmers own less than two oxen. Farmers with two or more oxen, one ox and no ox made 35%, 30% and 35% respectively. The indigenous cattle types of western Ethiopia and their geographical location are presented. Oxen management employed by small scale farmers and constraints on oxen traction are indicated. The major constraints are feed, diseases, short supply of draft oxen, shortage of credit to purchase oxen and lack of improved farm implements, proposed solution to alleviate the constraints of traction is given.

Introduction

The western region of Ethiopia include West Welega, predominantly Hyperhenia associated with Savanna. East Welega, Jima, and Ilubabor from Oromiya regional Nearly 16% of the region is estimated to be under rain stale; Benishangul-Gumuz regional state and Gambela fed subsistence crop cultivation with 12% annual and regional state. Due to its variation in elevation, the 3.6% perennial crop coverage (Tesfaye, 1991). The region has varied temperature conditions. In this region major crops of the region are maize, sorghum, teff, the temperature ranges from 20°c to 3(? c. During the wheat, barely, finger millet, noug, faba bean and coffee. coldest season it varies between 10(lc and 25°c (Legesse The major food crops and the area coverage are given in et al. 1987, Tesfaye, 1991; Office of the National Table 1. Livestock are the major component of the Committee for Central Planning, 1986). There is almost farming system. Livestock are kept for draft, milk, meat year round rainfall. The annual rainfall varies between and manure and represent the main capital asset of 800 and 2800 mm. The soil of Ilubabor, Kefa and South farmers. Tesfaye (1991) reported that cattle, poultry, western Welega is predominantly Nitosol. This soil is sheep and goats; and equine account for 51.5%, 30.6%, clay, porous and well drained. It has good potential for 14.5% and 3.4% of the total livestock population in the agriculture, and it is easily workable. The other type of region respectively. Farmers keep cattle for power soil is Vertisol, found on the alluvial slopes and plains requirements, milk production, meat and manure in order that border the Sudan line (The National Committee for of importance. Farmers rely almost entirely on oxen for Central Planning, 1986). The grass cover is their farm power requirements.

Cattle types and population

The cattle population of the region is estimated to be 4.5 farming is practised. Almost all the cattle in the region million. This accounts for about 14% of the country's are of zebu type. The cattle types that have been cattle population. Most of the cattle population are identified are Horro, Sheko and Abigar (Tesfaye, 1991). concentrated on the highlands of Welega where mixed 106 \ MULUGETA KEBEDE

TA B LE 1. Estimates of area under major crops in 1989/90 main season ('000 ha)

Cereals Welega lubabor Benishangul-Gumuz Gambela

Tef 81.09 88.19 0.66 0.30 Barely 8.62 8.61 0.10 0.10 Wheat 2.08 9.70 0.01 0.05 Maize 89.27 101.22 24.50 5.13 Sorghum 27.58 53.71 3.65 2.89 Millet 21.86 4.20 3.08 _ Oats 0.08 0.07 — —

Source; Central statistical Authority, 1989/90

Description of cattle types and their and Hailcmariam (1982) described the Sheko as small­ geographical location sized and either without or with very small humps. They have small Jersey-like horns and many are polled. The Horro performance of the breed for meat, milk and draft is not studied except some field observations by Albero and The Horro type of catlle belongs to the intermediate Haile-Mariam (1982). sanga-zebu type. The Horro cattle are widely spread in Welega their origin state, Illubabor and part of Western Abigar Shewa. They are uniform in colour and body conforma­ tion. The hump is small to medium size cervico- tho­ This is a variety of the nilotic cattle found along the racic. The legs are straight and slender. The Horro is White Nile in the Sudan and in the adjacent lowlands of very docile. The performance of this breed except draft South West Ethiopia where it is mainly bred by the Nuer tribe in the Akobo area in Gambela. Abigar is tall and was studied at Bako Research centre. heavy built breed weighing up to 550 kg with small Sheko (Mitzan or Goda) cervico-thoracic humps. It has excellent conformation with an almost straight back and rump. The cattle have These short-homed hump less cattle are found in sub- a docile temperament. district of sheko, adjacent to the sudanese bordeT. Albero

Use of oxen traction in the farming system of Western Ethiopia

Oxen traction is widely used for crop production. Oxen TAB LE 2. Means of acquiring oxen far provide small holder farms with power for ploughing, maize production in the Bako area weeding and threshing. Except cattle other livestock species such as equine are not used for draft purposes. Means Percent The estimated number of male cattle kept for draft purposes is given in Table 2. Wenfel 45 Debo 26 Farmers use a pair of oxen, traditional plough and Mekenajo 23 yokes for ploughing. The working age for male cattle is Hire oxen 20 four years. This indicates that cattle of the region are Borrow oxen 12 slow maturing. This is attributed to genetics, poor nutri­ Labor exchange for oxen 9

tion and diseases. Asfaw et al. 1994

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN TRACTION tN WESTERN ETHIOPIA, BAKO \ 107

Farmers strategy in coping with probiems of oxen power

Farmers who have no oxen prepare their lands in differ­ work their fields equally (Asfaw et al. 1994). In the long ent ways (Tesfaye, 1991). They either do the job manu­ run, the development of improved animal traction tech­ ally with the hoe, rent oxen or exchange labour for the niques such as single ox-plough should be pursued use of oxen. Acquiring oxen for various operations for (Asfaw ct al, 1994). Farmers with enogough oxen start maize production in Bako area is given in Table 3 Adop­ land preparation early, on the onset of rain and plant tion study carried out in the Bako area showed that their crops early. Frequency of ploughing has an effect farmers do not have enough oxen for major agricultural on the yield of some crops. In a work at Bako research operation. Farmers use "Wenfel" and "Debo" to acquire centre to evaluate the effect of frequency of ploughing oxen during seasons of peak agricultural activities. One on the grain yield of teff, 3-4 times ploughing gave the of the major constraints limiting maize production in highest yield compared to other frequencies (personal Bako area is shortage of oxen (Asfaw, 1994). communication). Wenfel is the exchange of labour without any manda­ tory form of payment, whereas "Debo" is a means of TABLE 3. Estimated number of male cattle kept for draft purpose, 1996 estimates acquiring labour in kind i.e by provision of food and local drinks. "Wenfel" and "Debo" are also used to acquire oxen. The advantage of "Debo" over "Wenfel" is Region Number that it helps farmers to finish farm operations on time Benishangul-Gumuz 3,960 and enable those farmers without oxen to get their land Gambela 190 ploughed and planted (Asfaw, 1994). Other ways that Welega (East/West) 526,640 farmers use to alleviate shortage of oxen include ex­ Ilubabor and Jima Not reported change labour for oxen, borrowing oxen from relatives, hiring oxen and Mekenajo. "Mekenajo" is a system where two farmers with an ox, pair their animals and Source: Central Statistical Authority, 1996

Oxen management

Feeding feed for livestock come from natural pasture whose productivity is seasonal, crop residues also contribute as Timely cultivation and planting depends on the condition source of feed. Because of population growth and the of the animal, well fed ox work more time and cover expansion of crop production, livestock are marginalized large area. As observed on-farm, the condition of oxen to unproductive areas. Alemu (1982), as cited by Tesfaye at the beginning of ploughing and at the onset of rainfall (1991) reported that grazing areas in the western region is very poor. It is a common phenomena to see emaci­ include hilltops, swamps, forest margins, roadside and ated oxen performing agricultural work in the fields. stony or infertile land. This shows that less attention is This is because during the long dry season farmers do given to feed in livestock production. Tesfaye (1991) not supplement their animals, as a result the working ox reported that in the dry period farmers supplement crop lose excessive weight, cropping operations entail daily residues, tree leaves, salt or atela (home brewery by­ rates of energy expenditure by the animals, so supple­ product) for their animals. These feeds are used either in mentary feeding becomes necessary (ILCA, 1981). In combination or separately. Animals are given supple­ the western region of Ethiopia supplementing oxen mentary feed on strict priority basis: first ploughing during the dry season is minimal compared with the oxen, second milking cows and last calves. On the central highlands (personal observation). The time contrary at present there is little utilization of the abun­ worked by a pair of oxen does not exceed 2-3 hours dant crop residues to supplement their livestock during (Legesse, et al 1987). This is due to shortage of feed for the dry season. In the future farmers should be encour­ livestock during the dry season. The major source of aged to utilize available feed resources.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 108 \ MULUGETA KEBEDE

Housing Health

Farmers do not provide shelter to protect the oxen from Animal health is a serious problem at farm level. Veteri­ rain and cold. The only animals housed at'night arc nary service is not efficient or not adequate to cover all calves, small ruminants and equine (Tesfaye, 1991). The areas in the region. Tesfaye (1991) reported that the top rest are kept in kraal near the fanners homestead. Special three cattle health problems in the region in order of care is not given to oxen. Therefore the protection of importance are trypanosomiasis, blackleg and parasites draft animals from harsh weather conditions through the (internal and external). In case of disease outbreak provision of a cheap form of housing is advisable. farmers use traditional medicine to treat their livestock.

Constraints for oxen traction development

Feeds and nutrition provision of medium-term credit for purchase of oxen.

Adequate livestock nutrition depends on the availability Short supply of draft oxen of adequate feed supplies and good management. Farm­ ers do not conserve and store feed during the wet season Low calving rate, long calving interval and low fertility when feed is abundant. Cultivation of improved forage of the indigenous cattle made the supply of draft oxen crops and use of crop residue is minimal. Because of limited on-farm. Traits of economic importance of cattle these oxen are not supplemented during working time is indicated in Table 4. There is also competition with and are in poor body conditions. Ox in poor condition the demand for beef. A large number of working age work less time and cover small area in ploughing and male animals are sold in the local market for slaughter. related activities. They are even trekked as far as Addis Abeba market from far places like Gambela. Even if the exact number Diseases is not available some animals are smuggled to the neigh­ bouring countries. Legesse et al. (1987) reported that in Trypanosomiasis, blackleg and internal and external Bako area, western Ethiopia, farmers with two or more parasites are the major health problems. The western oxen made 35%, with one ox 30% and with no ox 35%. region is one of the most tsetse infested part of the This shows a chronic shortage of oxen. country. The total infested area estimated is 67,000 sq. km, which is about 68% of the total area affected in the Lack of improved and acceptable farm country. It is found every where except in the highlands implements above 2500 meters above sea level (Office of National Committee for Central Planning, 1986). In some years The local plough or maresha is inefficient and inade­ farmers lose most of their oxen during peak agricultural quate tool for land preparation, as the seed bed produced operations. As a result less land is ploughed for crop is of poor quality. Seed bed preparation can take many production. passes of the plough, depending on the type of the crop. Improved plough is required to increase efficiency. Shortage of credit Lack of adequate research and promotion The cash generated from on-farm activities is not enough work to purchase oxen during the time of need. Well trained ox fetch birr 800-1200 in local markets. A young bull of Effort has not been made to conduct research on ox or about four years old fetch birr 600-700 (personal obser­ other type of draft animal in the region. Introduction of vation). Asfaw (1994) reported that a possible solution oxen traction technologies developed in the central to the draft power problem in the short run could be highlands is also minimal or non existent.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN TRACTION IN WESTERN ETHIOPIA. BAKO \ 109

TA B LE 4. Traits of economic importance in the cattle of the western Ethiopia

T rait Mean SD Range Mode

Age at first calving (yr) 4.4 0.88 3-7 4 Calving interval (mo) 22.0 7.19 12-48 24 Parity (yr) 7.9 1.95 4-12 8 Breeding age for male (yr) 4.0 1.32 2-7 3 Age for work for male (yr) 4.1 0.83 2-6 4 Milk yield per cow per day (kg) 1.7 0.92 0.5-6 1.7 Lactation length (mo) 8.0 1.83 4-12 7

Source. Tesfaye, 1991

Proposed future areas of research on oxen traction

■ Appropriate feeding and nutrition strategy should be fertility of the local cattle should be improved to developed by introducing improved, and adaptable increase the supply of oxen. forage crops. The palatability, nutritive value and method of feeding crop residues should be investi­ ® Increase the body size of the local cattle through gated. selection or upgrading.

■ Economically affordable and acceptable disease ■ Investigate acceptable credit system for the purchase control methods should be investigated and devel­ of oxen by farmers and bring to the attention of oped. Due attention should be given to the indige­ policy makers. nous knowledge; local herbs used by farmers to cure their animals should be documented and studied. ■ Introduce and evaluate single ox and cow traction technologies in potential areas of the region. ■ Effort should be made to improve the efficiency of local plough. 0 Detailed study of the role of oxen and the husbandry system in the different agro-ecology of the region. * Long calving interval, low calving rate and low

Conclusion

The importance of oxen traction in the traditional farm­ about oxen traction in the farming system of western ing system of western Ethiopia is quite clear. The major­ Ethiopia. From this review it is observed that no work ity of the farmers depend on oxen power for crop pro­ has been done in research and development to promote duction. Farmers who have oxen can plough larger area oxen traction. Suggestions were given on what should be in short time and plant earlier, which leads to good done in oxen traction research. Argent intervention is harvest at the end of the season. Non-ox owners cultivate required from livestock researchers, development work­ smaller area and get less yield compared to ox owners. ers and policy makers to promote and improve oxen This paper has tried to review all available information traction in the region.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 110 \ MULUGETA KEBEDE

REFERENCES

Albero, W., and Solomon Haile Mariam. 1932. The Indigenous Cattle of Ethiopia. World Anim. Review 41: 2-10. Asfaw Negassa, Beyene Seboka, Wilfred Mwangi and Abubeker Mussa. 1994. Farmers Maize Production Practices and Adoption of technologies in Bako area. Supplement to research report no. 16. Institute of Agricultural Research (IAR), Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Central Statistical Authority. 1996. Agricultural Sample Survey Vol. II. Report on Livestock, Poultry and Beehives Population (private peasant holdings) International Livestock Research Centre for Africa (ILCA). 1981. Animal traction in sub-saharan africa. ILCA bulletin no. 14. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia. Legesse Dadi, Gemechu Gedeno, Tesfaye Kumsa and Getahun Pegu. 1987. Bako mixed farming system zone, Welega and Shewa region. Diagnostic Survey Report no. 1. IAR, Addis Abeba. Office of the National Committee for Central Planning. 1986. Western Ethiopia regional atlas. Jima, Ethiopia. Tesfaye Kumsa. 1991. Livestock Production System of the Western Region of Ethiopia. Research Report no. 12. IAR. Addis Abeba, Ethiopia.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 113-117

Use of Oxen in the Traditional Farming System of Southwestern Ethiopia: Experience in Jima

Berhanu Belay Jimma College of Agriculture, PD Box 307, Jima, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

This paper reviews use of oxen power in the South-Western part of Ethiopia with the aim of identifying the potentials and limitation of oxen traction in the zone. The review indicated that, the oxen ownership per house hold is 1.32 and cows are kept primarily to provide replacement oxen and 4.56 cattle are required to acquire 1.32 oxen per house hold. The average farm size per house hold is 0.92 ha. The ownership pattern of oxen is moderate where 34% of the farmers own a pair of oxen and 24.2% do not have oxen. The efficiency of working oxen is poor. There is a very little research and development effort aimed at to improve the work efficiency of oxen in terms of improving the animal component and the farm implement. The paper has also highlightes future research areas both in oxen component and oxen drawn implements.

Introduction

South Western part of Ethiopia is characterized by a oxen. They also provide milk and manure and may be cereals, cash crop (coffee, chat), and livestock utilized for threshing. diversified agricultural production system. Annual rain Oxen are the mainstay of small holder production, fall is about 1500 mm. The average maximum and being employed as draft animal for land preparation, minimum temperature is about 25.9°c and 7.8 °c, weeding and partly for threshing of crops. They also respectively and the relative humidity is 68 %. provide manure which is utilized as organic fertilizer in Maize is the major cereal crop grown in the area and cereals, cash crop and root crops. The working oxen almost every farmer is producing maize. The second render beef at the end of their working life. important cereal crop is teff. Millet takes the third The importance of oxen in the small holder can position in land coverage. Pulses and oil seeds are rarely observed from the fact that, the use of hand cultivation found. Coffee and chat are an enterprise of outstanding in some areas of the region and the information obtained importance in the region. Farmers with coffee plantation from the farmers indicated also that, the timeliness of have high cash incomes. Godere, Enset and potato are cultural operations are commonly limited to restricted also grown in the region and used as the important staple availability of draft oxen. The importance of oxen can food crops. further be substantiated from their higher percent Livestock holding includes cattle, sheep, goat and composition and the area of land cultivated in the zone equine. Poultry are also kept. The farmers confine their by oxen (Table 2,3 and 5). Table 2 indicated that draft animals in the evening in a room which is part of the oxen cover 27.5% and 35.5 % in Oromia region and family dwelling. The national, regional and zonal Jimma zone, respectively. The percent composition of livestock distribution and composition is presented in oxen of jimma indicated in CSA (1994) is different from Table 1. Cattle forms the highest and equine contributes our observation around jimma where in jimma the oxen the least in composition. In crop dominated areas, cows composition is 28.9% and this percentage is very close are kept mainly to provide offspring for replacement to Oromia region and national oxen composition. 112 \ BERHANU BELAY

TABLE 1. National, regional and zonal livestock distribution and composition

contribution of Contribution of Contribution Livestock Ethiopia Oromia Oromia to Jima Jima to Ethiop. of Jima to type COOO) ('000) Ethiop. (%) (’000) (%) oromia (%)

Cattle 29825.03 13383.51 44,9 1044.11 3.5 7.8

Sheep 11545.85 4722.18 40.9 454.37 3.9 9.6

Goat 9611.63 3020.43 31.4 172.21 1.8 5.7

Horses 1121.29 679.82 60.6 46.42 4.1 6.8

Asses 2601.90 1132.00 43.5 22.09 0.8 2.0

Camel 248.16 131.97 53.2 0.53 0.2 0.4

Mule 215.09 67.50 31.4 9.95 4.6 14.7

Poultry 25776.28 9219.84 35.6 927.44 3.6 10.1

Bee hives 2821.56 1312.61 46.5 52.56 1.9 4.0

TABLE 2. Number and percentage distribution of cattle by age and oxen number and composition

Area Cattle <2 years age >2 years age Draft

Ethiopia 29825.03 8567.63 21257.4 8501.68 (28.5 %)

Oromiya 13383.51 3811.77 9571.74 3714.31 (27.8%)

Jima 1044.11 284,98 759.13 371.43 (35.6%)

The oxen ownership per house hold is 1.32 and cattle cultivated by the oxen is 0.92 ha. On the other hand ownership per house hold is 4.56 (Table 3). These fig- farmers are complaining of the lack of oxen for cultiva- ures are fairly big compared to Hararghe and fairly big tion. as compared to of Shoa and Gojam. The average oxen The ownership pattern of oxen in the region is pre- per farm in Gojam, Shoa and Hararghe is 2.2,2.1 and 0.5 sented in (Table 4). The farmers in the region were noted respectively. The average farm size per house hold to have no oxen or own oxen from one to four

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN SOUTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA, JIMA \ 113

TABLE 3. Cattle class number, composition and number of classes of cattle by household (n = 297)

Class Number % Cattle/household

cows 435 32.2 1.46

Oxen 391 28.9 1.32

Bull 88 6.5 0.30

Heifer 178 13.2 0.60

Calves 261 19.3 0.88

Total 1353 100.0 4.56

The majority of the farmers (34% ) own a pair of oxen, while 24,2% do not have oxen.

TABLE 4. Cattle and oxen ownership pattern around Jimma (n - 297)

Oxen Cattle

Ownership No. % farmers Ownership No. % farmer farmers farmers

0 72 24.2 0 22 7.4

1 100 33.7 1 22 7.4

2 101 34.0 2 38 12.8

3 14 4.7 3 47 15.8

>4 10 3.4 4 43 14.5

5 35 11.8

6 31 10.4

7 22 7.4

(8-21) > 8 37 12.5

N = 297

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 114 \ BERHANU BELAY

There is an agreed arrangement among the farmers area of land maintained for grazing (0.l2ha), it is when they are lacking working oxen. The farmers with reasonable to assume that the Zone is overstocked and it no oxen but owning land may either hire their land or is not possible to meet the nutritional requirement of acquire oxen in contractual basis. The two parties may animals by keeping on such a small plot of land. enter into such a commitment through ciders. The However, this is offset by high herbage productivity per farmers who own land and lack oxen usually work for ha due to high shower of annual rainfall (1500mm) and five days to get a pair of oxen and plow their own land longer rainy season that could extend up to 8 months. for two days. If the farmer hire his and he will agree to Moreover, the farmers are grazing their animals at the contribute seed, fertilizer and herbicide where as the border of their crop land and exercise stubble and crop farmer who own oxen is responsible for preparation the residue feeding. In the zone, 1.32 oxen are available to seed bed using his own oxen, application of herbicide, cultivate 0.92 ha of land per house hold, and the grazing harvesting the crops. The grains threshed by the oxen area left for animals is 0.12 ha. A herd of about 4.6 cattle owner will be shared equally. These arrangements are are needed to provide 1.32 oxen. The oxen number per often complicated and reduce the cropping capacity of area of land cultivated seems to be larger. This might be farmers lacking oxen. more complicated when one considers the number of Given a small land holding (Table 5) per house hold days (about 60 days) spent in different agricultural (0.92ha) and relatively higher livestock number per unit activities by oxen.

TABLE 5. Land use pattern of Jimma zone

Area Grazing Woodlan Region (land) Crop and fallow d Other HH Oxen Oxen/hh

Ethiopia 9476 7691 1352 25 408 8685 8502 1.00

Oromia 4494 3447 847 5 194 3315 3714 1.12

Jima 318 264 39 0 14 347 371 107

Management of oxen

The oxen are commonly involved in different The management practice offered to the oxen is agricultural activities which include cultivation, weeding different from the other classes of animals and depends (locally known as shilshalo) and partly on threshing of on the work load of oxen. During heavy agricultural cereals. They are also involved for land preparation for activities, the oxen are engaged for longer hours. For root and cash crops, and in uprooting of Godere example, in December and January oxen spent 3 hours collected for home consumption. The importance of in plowing because the land is hard to plow, feed is oxen in chat, coffee, and enset land cultivation is limited scarce and there is high heat load that could necessarily because most of the cultural practice in these crops is bring about shorter period of oxen on plowing. The hour done by hand tools (Table 6)indicating that their spent on working increases to 5 hours in February and importance in cash and root crops production is minimal. March. During these months there is shower of rain The time spent in plowing depends on the season which contributed to have more feed and a relative because of the fact that, season of plowing is closely decrease in heat load and the land could also be plowed linked to the availability of feed, the degree of work easily. The plowing period may extend up to 7 hours accomplished and the ease of land for plowing. during planting periods and the management scheme in

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN SOUTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA, JIMA \ 115

feeding and housing takes also a better position as ranges from 6 to JO hours( MOA, 1988). In addition to compared to the other seasons. Therefore, the time spent shorter time spent on plowing involvement of oxen in in plowing ranges from 3 to 7 hours in a day. This is different agricultural activity is limited since they are not quite different from other parts of Ethiopia such as Shoa involved in threshing of cereal grains such as maize and and Gojam, where the time spent in plowing in this areas millet.

TABLE 6. Cropping calendar For Jimma for major crops

Crop Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug. Sep Oct Nov

Maize 1*----- 2. 3 .*------4 .------5.- Tef 2. ------5 .------Millet 5.-~ — r ------3*- 4. Godere 2------3* — 5* Potato 1 * - 2.------3- 5. — r - 2 .------3.

Chat 2 . - 3 .------Coffee r -

1 = cultivation; 2 = planting; 3 = shifshafo (Weeding); 4 = pest control; 5 = harvesting 'Oxen are involved in agricultural activities

There is also a situation where teff used for seed and small parcel of land maintained for oxen and a land small house hold expenses is not threshed using oxen but found between the boundaries of cultivated land. It is the teff is collected stacked and put in family house and interesting to note that, during harvest seasons, it is the threshed manually by women. Thus the unique feature of oxen and lactating cows that are given priority to graze oxen utilization is that they are mainly used for plowing the stubble land and the other classes of animals are and weeding but not always involved in threshing. This allowed to graze later. This indicates that the oxen are clearly indicates that, the oxen are not effectively in use given higher priority even more than lactating cows in though they are computing for feed with other animals. feeding. There is also a situation where all animals are Given this ineffective use of oxen, the farmers are tethered in communal grazing area or boundaries of plots complaining about the lack oxen. They consider that of land for grazing to control crop damage. This oxen are capital reserve because there is always a market management option is adopted when oxen are not for them for draft power or supply of beef. In Jimma area involved in heavy agricultural activities. the crop residues are not also properly stored for a dry The The farmers also prefer to use casU'ated oxen, as period feeding. This situation necessitates, the need to castrated oxen are docile and easily yoked. The stilt (erf), convince the farmers to use oxen for threshing and sole (diggir), the share (maresha), the beam (mofor) are develop a situation where crop residues could be not heavy enough to plow deeper and the upper top soil effectively utilized. up to 10-15 cm is plowed. Moreover, the heavy shower The special management starts from housing, where of rain is also conducive for infestation of weed and all animals are tied with a rope and during the night crop compute for nutrients with food crops. Therefore, there residues are discriminately offered for oxen during dry is a pressing need to have a research on animal drawn season. Crop residues, green pasture and green maize implements by taking into account their ease of stock is provided to working oxen during wet season. operation, maintenance and cost of implements. The oxen may also be released and allowed to graze in

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 116\BERHANU BELAY

Past research and development efforts

Historically, the utilization of oxen for draft use is an Implements tested under station condition include steel integral part of agricultural activity in Ethiopia and it is mould board, plow, a single disc plow, spike tooth and believed to start back several millennia. The report by disc harrows and several different types of planters the MOA (1980) indicated that up to 1975, (Burley, 1955, Canaday, 1959). More effort was directed approximately 14% of the land under crop production at Jimma to use mules for tillage operation based on the was cultivated with tractors. The figure dropped to 5% technology used in USA, (Hendric 1963). The report after the period of land reform. The situation seems to indicated that, the technology was not acceptable due to have a similar picture in the Jimma area. Since the land the fact that, improved implement parts were not well was taken from land lords was distributed to peasants known by the farmers and local animals were not able to which has increased the use of oxen for traction in small cope up with the implements. The situation was more holder farmers. complicated because of the complexity of design, the The fanners interest is to own at least a pair of oxen difficulty of operation, lack of skill for repair and high for plowing, but the area cultivated in the zone is low cost of the implements. indicating that, the work efficiency of oxen is poor. The Unfortunately it seems that, the initiated research on work efficiency of the oxen is probably poor due to the oxen drawn implements around Jimma had been fact that the oxen drawn implements have not been discontinued since 1959. There was a shift of research on improved and feed is not available to provide the oxen drawn implements in the other part of Ethiopia and maintenance and work requirements. However, much of research was conducted in central shoa. Some agricultural research efforts by national and international farm implements like that of ARARSAW and ARDU organizations were directed towards improving crop oxen drawn implements were manufactured and production (esp. coffee) with little emphasis being given distributed to the producer cooperatives and targeted to livestock in general and for draft oxen in particular. farmers in the Jimma area through the MOA. However, Little research that has been carried out in traction is the acceptance of the implements under farmers situation directed to tillage implements, while animal component have not been evaluated and the animal component has is lacking (Geo, 1983) and the very little research was not been considered. This necessitates the need for conducted under station management condition. To further research on the importance of oxen in the farmers mention some of the efforts made around Jimma in area situation and design a researchable problems in the area of traction research, from 1955 to 1965 there was a of animal component, implements acceptance, cost and research on animal drawn tillage at Alemaya and Jimma. ease of maintenance and operation.

Constraints

Lack of high quality forages High stocking rate per ha of land Low crop yield (originated from light ploughing equipment and weed infestation) Crop residues are not efficiently utilized as animal feed More oxen per ha of land ploughed and inefficient use of oxen in the region The farm implements are poor in efficiency

Researchable areas

■ Improving of farm implements, by taking into of operation, maintenance and cost, account their accessibility to farmers situation, ease

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP use OF OXEN IN SOUTHWESTERN ETHIOPIA, JIMA \ 117

■ Establish the suitable feedingsystem (oxen, cattle, ■ Cow traction, one oxen plow, using crosses for etc) ploughing.

■ Utilization of crop residues and improvement crop ■ Evaluation and introduction of multi-purpose tree residues legumes in the fanning system

REFERENCES

CSA.1995. Agricultural sample survey 1994/95(1987 EC). Report on Livestock, poultry and beehive population (private peasant holding). Vol. H Addia ababa, Ethiopia. CSA.1995. Agricultural sample survey 1994/95(1987 EC). Report on Land utilization (private peasant holding) Vol. IV. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia MOA.1980. Distribution of land and farm inputs among the fanners of Ethiopia. 1965-71. Department of veterinary service. Imperial Ethiopian goverment, MOA. Addis, Aaba Ethiopia. Goe M.R. 1983. Current status of research on animal tractiion. World animal review. 45: 2-17. Goe M.R, 1987. Animal traction on Smallholder farms in Ethiopian highland. Ph.D. Dissertation. University microfilm international. Michigan, USA. Canadey E. 1959. The agriculture of Ethiopia VOL.6. Imperial college of Agriculture and mechanical arts. Jimma Agricultural and technical school. USA operation mission of Ethiopia point 4 Ethiopia and USA cooperative Agricultural programme. Annual report, January. Burrley R.H. 1955. The agriculture of Ethiopia VOL.2. Imperial college of Agriculture and mechanical arts. Jimma Agricultural and technical school. USA operation mission of Ethiopia pom 4 Ethiopia and USA cooperative Agricultural programme. Annual report, January. Hendric R. 1963. The agriculture of Ethiopia VOL. 10. Imperial college of Agriculture and mechanical arts. Jimma Agricultural and technical school. USA operation mission of Ethiopia poin 4 Ethiopia and USA cooperative Agricultural programme. Annual report, January.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 118-131

Use of Oxen in the Traditional Farming Systems of Eastern Ethiopia Experience in the Eastern Harerge

Mohammed Yusuf Kurtu and Eshetu Mulatu Alemaya University of Agriculture, P.O. Box 138, Dire Dewa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

ivestock keeping is a very important component in the crop-livestock based small scale farming system of the Harerge region. The livestock kept include cows, oxen, goat, sheep, donkeys and camels. Among these, oxen play a crucial role in supporting the crop production activity mainly through provision of draft power, increased access to land, labor and serving as cash sources. The area, due to high population growth which resulted in shortage of grazing land, is highly constrained by oxen availability. Today almost all large ruminants are tethered. The farm households which own oxen are with in the range of 25-45% whereasL the remaining do not own at a!l. To overcome the feed shortage and also oxen availability farmers have developed various copping mechanisms without any research assistance. To obtain feed for livestock in general and oxen in particular, farmers depend more on crop by products and weeds. Among ail livestock, oxen are probably the better fed animals. The problem of oxen shortage is tackled by various share arrangements and exchange with labor and land. The paper, after discussing on the major role of oxen in stabilizing the farming systems of the Harerge region highlights on the major management practices and the copping mechanisms developed by farmers to overcome the problem imposed by oxen shortage. At last it forwards future potential research areas which could assist to overcome the problems associated with oxen shortage, management and proper use. Introduction

Based on geographical parameters including altitude, with faba bean and field peas in the highlands. In the low rainfall and temperature the eastern Harerge zone in to intermediate altitude areas (l 500-1 $00 m) haricot general is divided into traditional zones of ‘Dega\ beans are replaced with groundnuts in the intercropping ‘Woinadega’ and ‘Kolia’. These traditional zones corre­ system to be grown with sorghum and maize. Depending spond, respectively, to highland, intermediate altitude on the location, either t’chat, groundnuts, haricot beans and lowlands. The area in general, has a bi modal rainfall or shallot are grown as cash crops, The remaining crops pattern with the short or ‘Belg..’ rains starting in mid- are mainly grown for household consumption and are March and finishing in May and the long or ‘Meher1 sold only when there are surpluses and/or compelling rains starting in mid June and finishing in September. conditions. In irrigable areas, potato and onions are The average annual rainfall is with in the range of 750 grown as major cash sources in the off-season. mm-850 mm depending on the location. The variation in Livestock keeping is an important component of the physical settings resulted in the development of different farming systems of the eastern region. The livestock kept socioeconomic niches that exhibit different farming in the region include cattle, sheep, goat and poultry. The systems. The farming systems in the region are charac­ highland part being densely populated (more than 80 terized by the presence of complex production units in inhabitants per km2), the number of livestock per house­ which different crops are grown in combination with hold is very small. As a result of continuous heritage of livestock husbandry. The major cereal crops of the land among family members, the current average land- region include sorghum, maize, wheat, barley and tef in holding is less than one hectare. Due to this steady that order (tables l and 2). Among pulses the major ones increasing pressure on land, crop production is expand­ are haricot beans, faba beans, peas, fenugreek and lentils. ing to marginal areas formerly left for livestock grazing. SoTghum, maize and haricot beans are grown in mixed The condition has resulted in severe land degradation cultures, whereas wheat and barley are grown in rotation and decrease in livestock number through time. Through use OF OXEN IN EASTeRN ETHIOPIA, EASTERN HARERGE \ 119

a farming systems study conducted in the Kombolcha sumed in the household and partly sold. Donkeys are Woreda of East Harerge, it was Ieamt that the present important pack animals where as the major objective of livestock ownership to be as follows: keeping oxen is for draft purpose. Goat and sheep are mainly kept to satisfy Animat Number urgent needs of cash in the household. In general, livestock keeping plays an important role Cow 1.1 in the lives of the small scale farmers of the region as it Ox 0.2 provides draft power, milk, cash and manure. Fanners overcome difficult years by selling animals. Use of oxen Heifer 0.6 is important not only as draft sources but also increasing Donkey 0.4 access to labor and land for the crop production sub­ system. This paper tries to discuss the role played by Goat 1.7 oxen in the eastern region, their management and also Sheep 0.6 highlights on the major constraints for increased owner­ ship. Source: FSR and E Office, AUA (Unpublished data) Cows are kept for milk production which is partly con-

TA B LE 1: Estimates of area, Production and Yield of Major Crops for Private Peasant Holdings in East Harerge

CROP TYPE TOTAL AREA (000' ha) TOTAL PRODUCTION (000' Qt) YIELD (Kg/ha) Number % Number % CEREALS 148.19 95.63 1824.42 95.51 1231 Tef 6.50 4.20 62.90 3.29 968 Barley 3.66 2.36 38.23 2.00 1045 Wheat 8.19 5.29 109.23 5.72 1334 Maize 45.36 29.27 565.92 29.62 1248 Sorghum 84.32 54.41 1046.06 54.76 1241 Millet - -- - 1300 Oats 0.16 0.10 2.08 0.11 1360 PULSES 6.18 3.98 84.07 4.40 1378 Faba Beans 4.58 2.95 63,12 3.30 1378 Field Peas 1.30 0.84 17.91 0.94 1378 Haricot Beans 0.13 0.08 1.76 0.09 1354 Chick Peas - - - - Lentils 0.17 0.11 1.28 0.07 753 Vetch - - - - - OTHERS 0.59 0.38 1.79 0.09 303 Noug - - - - - Linseed 0.52 0.34 1.08 0.06 208 Fenugreek 0.07 0.05 0.71 0.04 1014 Rapeseed - - - - - All crops 154.96 100 1910.28 100 1233 Source: CSA, 1995

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 120 \ MOHAMMED AND ESHETU

TABLE 2. Estimates of area, production and yield of major crops for private peasant holdings in West Harerge (1994/95)

TOTAL AREA (000’ ha) TOTAL PRODUCTION (000‘ Qt) YIELD (Kg/ha) CROP TYPE Number % Number %

CEREALS 131.40 96.32 1798.57 96.88 1369 Tef 3.07 2.25 21.39 1.15 697 Barley 2.68 1.97 19.52 1.05 728 Wheat 0.75 0.55 7.18 0.39 957 Maize 33.65 24.66 434.51 23.40 1291 Sorghum 90.81 66.56 1314.27 70.79 1447

Millet - - -- - Oats 0.44 0.32 1.70 0.09 386

PULSES 4.27 3.13 48.63 2.62 1139 Faba Beans 2.32 1.70 26.37 1.42 1137 Field Peas 0.06 0.04 0.53 0.03 883 Haricot Beans 0.95 0.70 9.07 0.49 955 Chick Peas 0.73 0.54 10.13 0.55 1388 Lentils 0.21 0.16 2.53 0.14 1205 Vetch - - - - - OTHERS 0.75 0.55 9,29 0.50 1239 Neug -- - - - Linseed 0.30 0.22 3.18 0.17 1060 Fenugreek 0.45 0.33 6.11 0.33 1358 Rapeseed - - - - - ALL CROPS 136.42 100 1856.49 100 1361 Source: CSA, 1995 Livestock population and distribution

The overall livestock population of the eastern region is donkeys. Wibaux et al (1986) showed that the shift from given in Table 3 whereas the cattle population above 2 keeping large ruminants to small ruminants is a recent years of age together with the purpose of keeping and the occurrence dictated by high population pressure. As the distribution per household in some representative Peas­ area for grazing decreased through time and fodder ant Associations (PAs) arc given, respectively, in tables became scarce, farmers started keeping small stock as 4 and 5. From the tables it could be observed that small they can thrive better in small areas compared to the ruminants are the commonly found animals followed by former. cattle and equines. The latter is mainly composed of

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TABLE 3. Livestock Population in the eastern region (000')

AREA CATTLE SHEEP GOAT POULTRY EQUINE CAMEL

Cherecher 800 1500 1000 1000 200 160

Habro 700 150 200 650 100 3

Harar Zuria 350 50 900 500 100 30

Wo bera 190 95 95 800 150 5

Garamuleta 160 50 70 650 100 15

Dire Dawa 300 840 1000 200 50 150

Jijiga 250 200 200 20 40 120

Gursum 350 285 215 50 50 100

Degahabur 80 200 200 - 30 100

Kebridehar 70 150 150 - 20 50

Gode 60 160 150 - 20 -

Warder 70 250 250 - 20 -

Kelafo 100 250 250 - 30 -

Total 3500 4120 4420 3840 920 1075 Source: CSO, 1984

TABLE 4: Cattle Population Aged 2 Years and Above by Sex and Purpose in the Private Holdings of East and West Harerge (in Thousands)

Sex and Purpose Number Percent

Mate cattle 417.86 100.00

For draft 398.66 95.4

For Beef 14.72 3.5

For Other 4.48 1.1

Female Cattle 512.85 100.00

For Milk 411.61 80.3

For draft 0.32 0.06

For Beef 6.55 1.3

For other 94.37 18.4 Source: CSA (1995)

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TABLE 5. Percent of households owning different type of animals In midland and highland part of Miesso and Chiro weredas, eastern highlands

Type of Miesso Chiro Animal Midland Highland Midland Highland

Garbo PA Medicho PA Jafara PA Kuni PA

With Without With Without With Without With Without

Oxen 41 59 49 51 51 49 47 53

Cows 37 63 24 76 60 40 37 63

Donkey 43 57 14 86 50 50 68 32

Goats 67 33 32 68 70 30 34 76

Sheep 61 39 16 84 10 90 42 58 Source: Adugna et al., 1996

As could observed from Table 5, almost half of the According to farmers, if the fragmentation of land households in the study Woredas of Miesso and Chiro among family members continues at the current rate representing, respectively, the low to intermediate and because of the continuously increasing farming popula­ highland areas do not own oxen. The situation, as will be tion, large ruminant keeping will be replaced by small discussed later, jeopardizes the crop production in the ruminants and also the number of oxen will diminish. region. From Table 4 it could be seen that male cattle are The reasons are the resulting serious feed shortage, mainly kept for draft purpose whereas there is a very reduced need for oxen as a result of less land to be limited use of female cattle for draft purpose despite cultivated per head and failure in purchasing power of their existence in higher numbers. the small scale farmers.

Role of oxen in the farming systems of Harerge

As discussed earlier small scale livestock husbandry is main traditional soil fertility reproduction technique. an important component of the farming systems of the Harerge region for it provides milk for household con­ Moreover, oxen are the most important sign of sumption or sale, draft power and manure. Sale of animal wealth. In this connection, Eshetu et al (1996) and to buy grain is a common occurrence in the farming Adugna et al (1996) reported that farmers in various systems of the eastern region which is known to operate Woredas of east Harerge use oxen ownership as the first under various biotic and abiotic stress conditions. Oxen criteria to classify farmers into different wealth groups. in particular play a determinant role in the crop produc­ tion sub-system. Among the major roles of oxen are found the following: Oxen as draft sources

• Provision of draft power required for crop production In the eastern region, farmers traditionally use the "Maresha" pulled by a pair of oxen to plow their land. • Cash source from beef fattening Use of single ox, pairing an ox with other animals or the use of other animals like horses and donkeys for plowing • Manure used in the composting process which is the is unknown. Effort is made to introduce alternatives to

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(he use of oxen for plowing. That means, a farmer has to 0 There is a high probability that late planted maize and depend entirely on a pair of oxen to plough his land or sorghum will enter a terminal stress period due to other wise he has to use the traditional hoe called early cessation of the season’s rainfall, "Akafa" which requires, as reported by Wibaux et al (l 986), 60 man days compared to oxen plowing ° It is highly probable that late planted maize and requiring 6 man days per hcctare. Oxen in general are sorghum will be severely damaged by the maize stalk the major determinants for timely land preparation and borer, a major crop pest in the region, planting. Looking into the strong seasonal dimension of crop production in the Harerge highlands and the ° It is a common occuircnce that late planted sorghum associated lowlands, timely land preparation and will succumb due to sever shoot fly attack, planting are the first requirements to guarantee good crop stand. ♦ It is highly probable that late planted maize and In a field study conducted in four Woredas of East sorghum will enter the dry spell period (mid May-end Harerge including Fedis, Babile, Melkabelo and June) while still in their sensitive stage to water Gorogutu the number of ox owning households were stress, found to be with in the range of 16-46% (Eshetu et al, 1996). The highest number was found in Gorogutu • It is a common occurrence that late planted maize whereas the lowest number is in Melkabelo. The and sorghum will be severely attacked by army worm agriculture of Melkabelo is practised in marginal areas which occurs once every three years during the dry with undulating relief resulting in poor performance of spell. the crop sub-system. As a result, farmers in Melkabelo could not generate surplus which they can sale to buy That means, one of the root causes for poor oxen. In all the study Woredas, farmers characterized the households to stay in the vicious circle of poverty is the ox owners as better-off households whereas the lack of oxen for which they can't start the season on remaining 54-84% households were identified as poor time. To overcome the problem of draft oxen shortage households. It can, hence, be seen that the number of ox farmers have developed various strategies which will be owning farm households in the Harerge region is very discussed later on. small. Among the major factors for which such a large In addition to plowing, in the Harerge region oxen are number of households are not owning oxen are the also used for threshing wheat, barley, faba beans and following: field peas.

♦ Poor performance of the crop production sub-sector not enabling farmers to generate surplus to sale and Oxen as cash source buy oxen, As could be observed from Table 4 fattening young ♦ Problem of feed for which farmers are forced to stock is another important use driven from male cattle in abandon large ruminant keeping, the Harerge region. Harerge beef cattle which is reputable for its quality both in domestic and export ♦ Absence of credit facility to be used for purchase markets such as Djibouti, Somalia and Saudi Arabia is ofoxen. the product of the mixed production system. The better- off farmers in the region use relatively young oxen of 4- The households who do not own oxen are forced to 5 years old for ploughing in the first year and fattening either plant late, planting hastily in a sub-optimally it for sale in the latter period. Such animals are fed with prepared plot, use "akafa" on part of their plot and leave succulent sorghum and maize stalk throughout the crop the other part fallow etc. In general, a farmer who misses cycle. The system, which is an innovation of farmers the traditionally defined planting period due to lack of themselves, is becoming increasingly popular in the oxen will operate under a potential risk of crop failure highlands where maize and sorghum production due to any one or some of the following reasons: predominates. It is, however, severely constrained by

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 124 \ MOHAMMED ANO ESHETU

lack of capital, absence of credit facility, appropriate cattle/year was obtained from a monitoring of technology for small scalc fattening and appropriate livestock herd at the farm level for one full year. market. Problems associated with the latter are becoming Through a laboratory study, the authors determined serious that a large number of the beef cattle are the nitrogen concentration of the manure to be 1.5% smuggled into the neighbouring Arabian countries by weight of manure. This percentage concentration through Somalia and Djibouti, Today, it is becoming corresponds to 30 Kg nitrogen production per year/1 common to see beef cattle being driven in twenties and TBU. thirties to Somalia and Djibouti via Jijiga and Dire Dawa. • They also estimated that the nitrogen/ha available every year from applied manure will enable farmers to attain yield levels of 1200 Kg/ha grain. In their Manure production calculation, the authors assumed all the arable land of the region to be covered with sorghum which is the In Harerge manure is a very important component of the predominant crop. As reported by Tamire (1986), crop production sub-system especially in the cereal- nitrogen is the major limiting factor in the eastern "chat'’-horticulturaI crops producing highland complexes Harerge cropping systems. The same author stated characterised by severe land shortage and high cropping that the nitrogen content of a 100 Kg grain sorghum index. In such areas manure is entirely used for soil to be 1.7 Kg. That means without utilization of fertility maintenance. Despite the severe shortage of fire artificial fertilizer, manure from 3.6 TBU could wood farmers never use manure for energy purpose. All guarantee the production of 1200 Kg/ha sorghum cow dung and urine is collected each morning and used grain which is sufficient to sustain the average family in a composting process to be applied in crop fields in size year round. the dry season. Owing to the severe erosion which degraded the soil condition, farmers prefer the use of It has to be noted, however, that utilization of manure manure to artificial fertilizers as it has more additional to restore soil fertility is influenced by several factors advantages. Wibaux et al. (1986) estimated that in among which the method of composting, land holding eastern Harerge, in areas like Alemaya and Kombolcha, and herd size are important. The latter two elements a minimum of 3.6 Tropical Bovine Unit (TBU) per ha is reflects that it is only the better-off households which required to produce manure sufficient to restore the can benefit from the use of manure and at the same time fertility of the soil so that sufficient grain of maize and who have access to artificial fertilizers. As the majority sorghum be produced to satisfy the subsistence of the farming households do not own cattle, one can requirement of an average farming family which is 6.4 conclude that soil fertility restoration in the Harerge persons. The estimate is based on a grain requirement of highlands is highly constrained by lack of animals. 200 Kg /person/year. The following premises enabled Moreover, the traditional way of composting in the open the author to calculate the per hectare manure causes an important loss of nutrients, especially nitrogen requirement for one crop cycle: through volatilization and leaching. The condition decreases the available minerals which could have been * 1 TBU produces on average 2 t of fresh manure per returned to the soil by practising proper composting year. The quantity of manure produced/head of process.

Management of draft oxen and constraints in draft capacity

Oxen are probably the better fed animals compared to maize and sorghum and overall crop residue (Fig. 1). any livestock in Harerge region. Feeding of oxen is Thinned maize and sorghum are fed to animals in the managed by the men household heads unlike the other months of June-November whereas preserved crop animals who are looked after mainly by other family residues are fed to animals throughout the dry season members including boys and women. Livestock feed is from December-April. Weeds also constitute an obtained from crop thinning products, defoliation of important portion of livestock feed. Among the crop

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW ANO STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN EASTERN ETHIOPIA, EASTERN HARERGE \ 125

residues dried sorghum leaves called "Hoba" are kept in tasselling. Fifteen to twenty days after tasselling farmers a stack of sorghum stalk to be fed to oxen during land cut the part above the ear and feed it to their milking preparation in March-April. It has to be noted here that cows and oxen. Sorghum stands are continuously farmers of the Harerge region persistently grow long thinned up to the boot stage or anthesis which occurs at stalk late maturing sorghum varieties which are about 150 days after sowing. Thereafter, thinning of incompatible with the rainfall condition to appease the sterile and diseased plants will continue. In addition the severe animal feed shortage. lower leaves of sorghum are removed from mid-October Due to severe shortage of grazing land all livestock onwards and either are fed immediately or stored for are tethered throughout the crop season from April to latter use. When the plants enter maturity, all the leaves December. Throughout this time the male household are removed for fodder puipose before harvest. Sorghum head feeds his ox or oxen by tieing them near the plot thinning stops at about 165 days after sowing. Maize is borders where he is working with thinned products and harvested in October-November and Sorghum in weeds. At night the same are fed with tinned products December. Stover of both crops are removed with care which the owner carry from his plot to his house. To get for dry season feed. In some localities farmers reserve a thinned products farmers in the Harerge region start the small portion of their land for grass growing. Such crop season with 170, 000-300,000 stands of sorghum grasses will be cut and properly cut and preserved as hey and maize/ha and progressively bring this density to to be fed to milking cows and oxen at the start of the 30,000-45,000 plants/ha at harvest (Wibaux et al, 1986). planting season. Farmers around Hamaressa flour mill The authors reported that farmers thin sorghum and and Harar brewery purchase, respectively, wheat bran maize after 5-6 weeks of emergence for animal feed. For and brewers grain to feed their milking cows and oxen in maize the process occurs daily until approximately 90 the dty season. days after sowing corresponding to the period of

Fodder type Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Crop residues

Leaves and bark of trees and shrubs

Green grass (cut and carry)

Thind plants and weeds

Defoliated leaves and barren stalks

Maize tassel

Major feed source Supplements

FIGURE 1. The prevalent livestock feed calendar In Harerge region

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Previous workers including Wibaux et al (1996); combination of limited feed availability and high energy Storck et al (1997) and Adugna et al (1996) reported that demands for plowing oxen suffer from severe weight all farmers owning livestock experience severe feed losses. Oxen become too weak to break the soil when shortage at the end of the dry season and the start of the especially the rainfall is too little. Under this situation it short rains. The most critical periods are from April-June is very difficult to undertake effective tillage which when almost all land is put under crop cultivation and could guarantee good yield. This coupled with the low weeds and thinning products are not yet ready. As all the productivity of the indigenous herd manifested through dry conserved crop residue will be consumed by the the long calving interval (2-3 years), poor growth rate (4- draft oxen no reserve will be found. The seasonal feed 6 years to reach maturity), severe disease condition and shortage is further exacerbated by peak feed demands poor animal health services affect the availability and during this period by the draft oxen. As a result of a work force of oxen in the region.

Opportunities to alleviate constraints

As could be realized from the discussion presented considered. As indicated in Fig.l a number of shrub above feed shortage and poor purchasing power of species grown scattered in the village and with in farmers are the main constraining elements for increased plots are used as fodder sourccs. Studying the dry ownership of oxen in the Harerge region. The former is matter production and their potential feed value in related to the severe reduction in grazing areas due to comparison with fodder species under on-farm high population pressure while the latter is a result of condition enables to promote adoptable technologies. diminishing holding size and poor performance of the crop production sub-sector. If strategies are not to be ■ integration of forage research with crop research. As designed to correct the problems there is high risk that has been already said one of the reasons forcing the number of livestock in general and that of oxen in farmers grow late maturing varieties is to obtain particular will continue diminishing. The opportunities livestock feed. Most improved varieties of sorghum which could be tapped to overcome the problem are so which could perform better under the prevailing limited and require concerted effort. Farmers attitude rainfall condition were rejected as a result of failures towards livestock keeping in general, however, could in satisfying livestock feed requirement. Crop serve as a potential entry point to tackle the situation. breeding programs, especially that of sorghum has to consider breeding for forage and grain production. ■ Building on farmers indigenous knowledge of oxen management in terms of feed provision, share ■ The Harerge farmer has a good experience in small arrangements, simultaneous use for draft and beef scale irrigation management and use. This will etc. could be given serious thought for improvement, provide a good opportunity to grow forage seedlings near water sources and along water channels year ■ Integration of forage production with cropping round provided that the appropriate species are activities. As was said earlier there is an encouraging identified and made available. knowledge base with farmers for feed production, conservation and management. Scientific research * Among all crops in the region "chat" provides much has to contribute to its betterment through by products throughout the year. To date only goats introductions of different forage production followed by sheep feed on f chat left overs. Further techniques with suitable materials. The production of research has to be conducted on how to utilize t’chat forage around homesteads, plot borders, live fences, as a feed source for oxen. as bunds and along terraces etc. has to be envisaged. For Example, most farmers in the highlands use the ■ There are several NGOs working in the region. If plant Lantana camara as live fence. Replacing the properly advised, they can assist in establishing small plant with other plants having forage values can be scale revolving loan fund base for oxen purchases.

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Farmers copping mechanisms with problems of oxen shortage

In all the areas surveyed different authors reported that ownership vary depending on several factors like size of the majority of the Harerge farmers are constrained by bolding and crop. Table 6 gives the percentage of shortage of oxen (see Storck et al, 1997; Adugna et al, households owning oxen in relation to the farm size for 1996; Eshetu et al, 1996). Storck et al (1997), reported two Woredas Chiro and Miesso. In the analysis the that in Babile only 25% of the farm households own a authors considered only those households who own pair of oxen where as 64% of the fanners were able to oxen. As it could be seen from the same Table, the use a pair of oxen in a season either owned or through number of fanners owning oxen increases with holdings different arrangements for plowing. The remaining 11% more than 0.5 ha. Among the reasons which attribute to of the farming households were not in a position to the shortage of oxen the major one is the limited capacity deploy oxen for a season as they didn’t have at all access of poor households owning less than 0,5 ha arable land through any of the means to be discussed below. In this to generate surplus which they can use to buy oxen. connection, Adugna et al (1996) reported that oxen

TABLE 6. Relationship of oxen ownership and land holding size in Chiro and Miesso weredas of the Harerge region (% values)

Land holding (ha) Miesso (lowland) Chiro

Midland Highland

s0.05 32 40 60

0.05-1.0 78 60 40 Source: Adugna et al., 1996 Percent values are computed by only considering ox owners.

Many farm households try to overcome the problem of define property rights and obligations of the parties cash shortage for oxen purchases by rearing small stock. involved in different ways. The owner either gets all or The strategy, however, is constrained by the already part of the offspring. The keeper has to feed the animals existing high stocking rate in the very small communal and make use of their products and services including grazing lands which resulted in sever feed shortage. Due draft power. As this paper discusses on the use of oxen to this it is difficult for a farming household to keep we will present the share arrangements for oxen below. more than 2-3 small stock at a time. From such small number of small stock it is unthinkable to get money Working for oxen oivner with ones own labor which can be used to purchase an ox as the latter costs to get oxen for ploiving in exchange more than birr 800.00 in. the local market. The arrangements are called ‘inje\ ‘wajino’ or ‘guza\ To overcome the shortage of animals in general and Under the ‘inje’ arrangement oxen constrained that of oxen in particular, different copping mechanisms households work for oxen owners for three consecutive are developed by farmers. These include share days with their ‘akafa’ and get oxen for one day in arrangements, gift or transfer of animals from parents or exchange. In the ‘wajino1 arrangement oxen constrained relatives to sons during marriage, exchange of draft household has to work for five consecutive days with a power for labour, keeping and feeding ones animals, single labour to get a single day use of oxen. The contracting ones own land to oxen owners etc. The difference between ‘inje’ and ‘wajino’ arrangements is copping strategies will be discussed below and emphasis determined by the level of relations among the will be made on the share arrangement. exchanging households. If the relationship is close or is Storck et al (1997) reported that in the Harerge a blood relation farmers use the ‘inje’ arrangement. region, livestock keeping in general comprises both ‘Guza’ refers to a condition where by an oxen owned and share features. Livestock sharing conditions constrained household will call for a group of villagers

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 128 \ MOHAMMED AND ESHETU

to help him work in an oxen owner field for a day to get land every other day at his turn. oxen for exchange to plow for two to three days in his own field. The oxen owner will provide t’chat, tea and Keeping andfeeding ones oxen for plowing lunch for the working ‘guza’ group. The arrangement Those households having more than one ox will enter will enable the oxen owner to entertain the oxen request into informal contractual agreement with ox constrained of only one household whereas the oxen constrained fellow villagers in such a way that the latter will feed the household will have better chance of planting on time all ox throughout the dry period and use it for plowing after or most of his land. In exchange the oxen constrained which he will return to the owner. The strategy is used to farmer has to work for all of his ‘guza’ group whenever overcome the feed shortage occurring in the dry season. they require his assistance. In general these arrangements are conditions whereby labour constrained ox-owning Contracting ones own land for oxen owner farm households manage to increase their labour in the With this arrangement a farmer who owns oxen will planting period whereas it also gives ox-con strained contract the land of the none-ox owner for a season and households a chance of planting on time. Table 7 divide the grain output from the same land equally. This presents the percent of farm households which employ arrangement enables oxen owners to access and cultivate various mechanisms to obtain draft oxen for land more land in a season. In areas like east Harerge where preparation in Miesso and Chiro Woredas. As could be average land ownership is less than one hectare this is a seen from the Table in Miesso Woreda 53% of the farm favourable situation for oxen owners to attain households own oxen whereas 40% employ share subsistence levels, but at the expense of non-ox owners. arrangements and only 7% rent. In Chiro Woreda, on the From this discussion it can be seen that owning oxen other hand, 47-49% of the farm households own oxen is not only for draft purpose but beyond that it also whereas 51-53% use share arrangements. The rent enables owners to access more land and more labour. In arrangement which is not that much developed in both general farmers lacking oxen will be forced to spend Woredas is an arrangement whereby a negotiated their time working for oxen owners and as a result it is amount of grain is paid to the oxen-owner at harvest. highly probable that they will miss the traditionally defined optimum planting time. As date of planting is so Idaama sensitive in the tropics, it is highly probable that a delay This is an arrangement whereby two farm households in some days would result in a substantial yield reduction. owning a single ox each agree to pair their oxen. Each of the households has the right to use the pair to plow his

TA B LE 7; Percentage of Households Using Different Means to Obtain draft Power for Land Preparation in Miesso and Chiro Woredas of the Harerge Region.

Draft source Miesso (Lowiand) Chiro

Midland Highland

Owned 53 49 47

Inje/Wajino 40 51 53

Rent 7 0.00 0.00

As a strategy to cope with oxen shortage, outsiders crcdit schemes for oxen at all. More of the credit propose the delivery of oxen to farmers through a credit schemes managed by the MoA and NGOs focus on seed scheme. The few experience registered in the mid­ and other inputs. Majority of the farmers who are eighties in some Woredas like Fedis and Babile turned benefitting from such small scale credit schemes, out to be remarkable failures as the MoA who distributed however, emphasize that to properly utilize the input oxen through service cooperadves to needy households credit availability of oxen is the primary determinant. failed to recover the loan fund. Currently there are no The potential providers of loan fund such as the

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN EASTERN ETHIOPIA, EASTERN HARERGE \ 129

Agricultural Development Bank and the Commercial there is high risk of default which could emanate from Bank of Ethiopia indicated that oxen credit has a high loss of animals due to disease, poor feed provision and cost of transaction and low return to investment. As a frequent crop failures forcing farmers to sale oxen to result of this and lack of policy incentives they are survive difficult periods reluctant to address the issue. Moreover, they stress that

Implications for future areas of research

Oxen are important components of the crop-livestock based small scale production system of the Harerge ■ Studying the level of efficiency of the currently region. Oxen shortage is found to be an important employed composting process and developing and element that affect both the crop production sub-system promoting workable technologies. and cash security of farmers. Availability and draft force of oxen in the region depend on many factors. ■ Investigating the conditions for the establishment of Overcoming the constraints imposed by such factors is revolving loan fund base for oxen. Focus has to be required to increase the number of oxen or to look for made on organizing fanners in small numbers using other alternatives which could enable to create a more different traditional organizations. stable and sustainable crop production sub-system. It is only by giving emphasis to the oxen component of the ■ Studying use of other plowing implements than the mixed production system that the overriding objective of locally used ‘maresha’ for efficient tillage operation. attaining food self-sufficiency could be attained in the said region. Among the elements which require focus for ■ Studying and setting recommendations for improved further research are found the following: oxen marketing in general to overcome the steadily increasing drift of oxen from the region into the ■ Designing research strategies which enable to neighbouring countries. overcome the severe feed shortage. This includes developing alternative technologies which could ■ Investigating and developing recommendations for build upon indigenous knowledge used for feed improved use of oxen through sharing. procurement. Attention has to be given to those technologies which enable to produce more feed ■ Looking to possibilities of improving the without endangering the crop production activities. reproduction and growth performance of local cattle Designing forage development strategies that would breeds. fit existing farming system has to be given a prior consideration. ■ Studying and developing better cattle disease control strategies. ■ Studying the socioeconomic and cultural settings of the farming community to understand the current ■ Investigating the cunent feed preservation situation and there by propose strategies and mechanisms and developing technologies which approaches which could bring change in attitude of enable better storage conditions. farmers towards adopting alternative technologies such as the use of single ox, use of cows, use of ■ Developing strategies which could enable farmers to donkeys and camels for traction. use current feed resource with other supplements.

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 130 \ MOHAMMED AND ESHETU

REFERENCES

Adugna Wakjira, Anane-Sakyi C., Fininsa C., Padila N., Peackoe B. 1996 al. 1996. Suuporting Agricultural innovation in two districs of Western Hararge: The role of Research, Extension and Framers. Wrking doxcument series 52, ICRA, Wageningen, The Netherlands, Eshetu M. Daniel E., Yilma T. 1996. Evaluation report on SCF-Harar 1996 Seed Intervention in Some Selected Woredas of East Harerge, SCF-Harar. Storck H., Berhaou Bezabih E., Getu H.1997. Management Strategies for Fanning Systems in Uncertain Environments and Approach for Their Improvement. Fanning Systems and Resource Economics, Vol. 27, Wissenschaftsvelag Vank Kiel, Germany, Tamire Hawando. 19B6. The Role of Improved Soil, Water and Crop Management Practices in Increasing Agricultural Productivity, Alemaya University of Agriculture (Mimeograph). Wibaux H., Lafleuriel., Lanaglias C. 1986. Agriculture in the Highlands of Harerge: Study of Six Farms in Kombolcha Area. Farming Systems research Unit, Alemaya University of Agriculture (Mimeograph).

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 131-136

Use of Oxen in the Highlands of Ethiopia Experience at Holetta and Ginchi

Taye Bekure IAR, Holette Research Center, P.O.Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT

Crop production in the Ethiopian Highlands is largely dependant on Animal power, especially oxen. Over 90% of the farmers use a pair of oxen in food crop production, considering the size of holdings, economic condition of the farmers and continuing energy crisis draft oxen w ill continue to play an important role on smallholder farms of Ethiopian Highlands. Work done in IAR, Holetta Research Centre indicates the animals loose weight during the short rain and dry season, gain during the long rainy season. The draft capacity depends on the size of the animal. A single draft animal produce between 0.4 to 0.8 horse power on sustainable basis. It is usually assumed 5 pair of animals can be substituted by one tractor. The power output of indigenous oxen pulling the "Maresha" is dependant on body weight. Local breeds weight ranges between 250 and 300 kg. While the cross bred weighs between 600-700 kgs. physiological response to work is lower in indigenous breeds than the cross breed. Draft oxen work less than 100 days/year. There is un equal distribution of oxen among Ethiopian farmers. Time for seed bed preparation is short and the draft capacity is insufficient for timely plaughing and planting. Therefore this paper attempts to look into work done at Holetta & Ginchi on oxen traction, both locals and crossbred animals, identify constraints and suggest possible solutions.

Introduction

Holetta is located 38° 30' East and 9" North. It is about Ginchi is a source of draft power. In these areas the land 45 kilometers west of Addis Ababa. The altitude is 2390 is tilled by using pair of oxen for pulling the maresha. meters above sea level, rainfall is 1200 millmeters per Because of the importance of cattle as a source of annum. The temperature is 18.9 - 26.8°c maximum and draft power in the area the farmer has to keep his cattle 2.0 - 9.0°c minimum. The soil type is predominantly for producing his replacement oxen. The vertisol at Nitosoil in Holetta area & vertisol in Ginchi area. Ginchi Ginchi is very difficult to till especially during the rainy is located on the main highway to Ambo, 85 kilometers seasons while the Nitosoil or red soil at Holetta can of Addis Ababa. The altitude is 2225 meters above sea easily be tilled. Cropping and feeding calendar of both level mean annual rainfall is 1090 millimeters. The Holetta and Ginchi area has been identified. There are maximum and minimum temperature is 24" and 8.8°c. three seasons in the study area namely dry season, short Both Holetta and Ginchi are representatives of Ethio­ rainy season and long rainy season. The pattern of ani­ pian highlands. The rain usually starts in march and 85% mal feeding behavior in the three seasons have been falls from June to September. The climate of Holetta & characterized. Ginchi are generally of temperate type and favorable for Major crops grown in both areas are Teff, Wheat, both crop and livestock production. Horsebean, Barley and Rough pea. Survey done at both Smallholder mixed crop and livestock farming is the sites indicate a family of 5 person owns on average 1.5 - dominant mode of production. The prime contribution of 5 ha. The pasture area is both communal and private. livestock to the agricultural production in Holetta and 132 \ TAYE BEKURE

Livestock population in the area

In both study areas the farming system is crop: livestock TABLE 1. Livestock population and farm size holding integrated. Cattle are kept primarily to produce draft at Holetta and Ginchi power and manure. Milk and its by products are Average holdings of animal/farmer produced for home consumption and sold when there is Holetta Ginchi Cattle 11.16 8.83 a surplus. Other species like sheep, goat and poultry are Sheep 5.37 3.25 kept to satisfy immediate need of cash for the family. Goats 6.47 - Cattle population & distribution is indicated in table 1. Equine 3.07 2.40 There is high livestock population in Holetta than Ginchi. Source: Taye and Kasshun, 1995 (urtpubl)

Role of oxen traction in the farming system in Holetta and Ginchi

The climate of the highlands of Ethiopia is ideal for crop more cattle are needed to produce them (table 2). and livestock production. Out of 14 million hectare The main target of the smallholder farmer are (1) under crop production 9 million hectare which is (64%) produce for the family, (2) acquire income through sales is cultivated with the use of animal power, tractor of surplus products to purchase consumable items and cultivates 3 million hectare (22%) and hoe cultivation farm inputs and (3) minimize risk and constraints covers 2 million 14% (MOA, 1980). There are 15,000 (Getachew & Zerbini, 1993). The farmer allocates his tractors in the country, with equal numbers of scarce resource of land, labor, capital and management implements (Damtew, 1987). As most of the country has skills to a mix of crops (Cereals, Pulses, Oil crops) and steep and rugged topography animal power is the only livestock, subsection so that he could drive cheap source power source and will continue to play decisive role in of inputs to farming for example use of animal power for the Ethiopian highland farming system. crop production and crop residues and by products for livestock feed. The traditional arrangement of pairing of oxen by two neighboring farmers each of whom has one TA B LE 2. Average holding of oxen and ox is often in convenient, because the plaughing season cattle by farm size at Giant, 1988 is short and the draft capacity is insufficient to allow Farm size Oxen Cattle other both farmers to plan at the optimal time. than oxen Vertisols cover 12.6 million hectare in the country, s 1.5 0.7 2.3 out of which 7.6 million hectare is found in the highlands 1.5 m and < 2.0 1.5 3.8 (Birharu 1985). About 1.4 million hectare has been 2.0 m and < 2.5 1.5 3.9 2.5 m and < 3.0 1.6 4.6 utilized for crop production animal power is the only 3.0 m and <4.0 1.9 5.3 alternative for plaughing the vertisols. Vertisols are 3.5 m and < 4.0 2.2 5.8 virtually not convenient for tractor operations under wet Source; Getachew (1991) situtations. Hence draft animals are the only alternative source of power for cultivation of vertisols. The unequal distribution of oxen per household is a The power out put of indigenous oxen pulling the major constraints to crop cultivation in Ethiopia maresha is dependent on body weight local breeds (Gryseels et al 1984). Average holdings of oxen in weight ranges between 250 - 300 kilograms, while the Ethiopian Highlands farmers is not fairly distributed. A crossbred weigh between 600 - 700 kilogram. Physical survey at Ginchi & representative area for highland response to work is lower indigenous breeds than the farming system showed that more cattle are kept to crossbreeds. Local oxen starts plaughing when they are produce more oxen (Getachew, 1991). The number of between 4 - 5 years of age. There is no special cattle and oxen increases with farm size. As farm size management both in terms of housing, feeding and increases more oxen are required for more work and thus health care until they start work. The only time they are

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN THE HIGHLANDS, HOLETTA AND GINCHI \ 133

supplemented is right after work and during the night. works on average 5 hours per day. After work the The supplement they get is crop residues only. working oxen is supplemented with crop residue and There is a power deficit to do their work properly hay. Since an ox works less than 100 days/year it will be especially during the rainy season, when the soil is too left to graze with other herds when not working. When muddy for the animals to walk in. Survey done at Holetta the animal is old and cannot work it will be fattened and and Ginchi areas indicate a family of 5 person owns on sold for beef. average 1.5 to 5 hectare. The pasture area is both In both study areas, monitoring of feeding behavior communal and private, Oxen power is the only power of the animals and cropping calendar was studied. The source to do agricultural work like plaughing, threshing seasons were divided into three, short rainy season (mid and sledge pulling an ox starts doing work when they are Feb. - May), long rainy season (June - September) and 3 - 4 years old. Oxen are not managed differently from dry season (October - January) according to the seasons other herd except when it starts to do work. Oxen usually the feeding behavior of the animals vary (Figure I).

Farmers strategy in copping with problems of oxen power

The distribution of oxen among Ethiopian farmers are, draft shortage is called Debo. In this case the fanner in 29% of the farmers has no ox 34% of the farmers has question asks or begs those farmers who owns pair of one ox, 29% has two oxen and 8% of the farmers has oxen to plaugh for him in teams, their number could be three or more oxen (MOA, 1980). The unequal three to 10 pairs in one day. Another strategy the farmer distribution of oxen per household in the working area is uses to alleviate draft power shortage is Hiring of oxen. a major problems. Oxen are the major source of draft This strategy involves payment of cash or grain for the power for the major agricultural operations like oxen owners on the daily basis. The farmer pays 10 plaughing threshing and sledge pulling. Very few birr/day for a pair of oxen in Holetta area and 12 bin/day fanners own a pair of oxen. The majority of the farmers in Ginchi area. has none or one only. The fourth strategy is borrowing of the pair of oxen. In order to overcome this shortage the farmers in If the farmer is a resource poor and his field is not Holetta and Ginchi area has developed different plaughed on time the resource rich farmer usually could strategies. They have arrangement of pairing of oxen by borrow him. This strategy has it own problem in that he two neighboring farmers each of whom has one ox. This can notplaugh at the optimal time. kind of arrangement is inconvenient because the The fifth strategy used in the area is labor exchange plaughing season is short and the draft capacity is for oxen. The farmer who does not own oxen works for insufficient to allow both farmers to plan at the optimal certain days for the days he used the oxen for plaughing time. The second strategy the farmers use to cop up with his fields.

Draft research activities

IAR is conducting on farm research on the identification average working speed of both crossbred and local oxen of constraints which affects draft performance of local at different levels of pull was studied and at all levels of oxen. This research includes estimates o f work output pull, all crossbred oxen have shown faster working during a working season and the construction of a feed speeds as compared to the local breeds. As the level of calendar in two distinct mixed crop livestock farming pull increased, the working speed of all breeds of oxen systems. IAR has been conducting on station decreased. The drop in speed was found to be less than comparative evaluations on the draft capacity of proportional to the increase in pull. The power output physiological responses of local and crossbred oxen. The relative to body weight for local oxen were significantly

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 134 \ TAYE BEKURE

TABLE 3. Average speed and power output of lower than those of crossbred oxen. All crossbred oxen crossbred and local oxen have comparative performance relative to the body Speed Power Power/100 weight (Takele Gemeda et al 1991) Breed (m/sec) output kg body Since the crossbred oxen were heavier in weight than (kw.) wt. (kw) the locals the difference in their daily useful energy Local 0.53 0.47 0.070 output seems to be the result of the difference in body 0.66 0.79 0.087 Simmenta! x local weight. In general heavier animals were found to Jersey x local 0.64 0.78 0.085 Friesian x local 0.66 1.05 0.089 consume a greater amount of feed as compared with Source: Takele Gemeda et al, 1991 lighter animals and found to have a positive relationship with the amount of work the animal does.

TA B LE 4. Average daily energy output daily energy intake and output- input ratio of crossbred and local oxen

Energy Per 100 kg Oxen Breed Output (M/J) live wt. (M/J) Intake (M/J) Energy (%) Local 8.45a 1.25a 134.30* 6.47a Sementa! x local 17.60b 1.58b 222.59b 7.97b Jersey x local 4.03c 1.53b 184.76c 7.54b Freisian x local 18.64b 1.59a 237.14“ 7.93b Significance P< 0.01 P< 0.01 P< 0.05 P< 0.01 Values in column followed by the same letter are not different from each other Source: Adugne Kebede, Takele Gemeda & Mulken Tilahun

Constraints limiting oxen power

Draft oxen are too weak to pull the maresha especially in economy is undoubtedly Very high. Another constraint the ploughing exercise, because there is an acute is the inadequate knowledge of the farming system about shortage of feed. To meet the energy and protein draft animals. Training starting from primary school up requirement of working animal only by feeding with to higher educational centres are not offered in draft native pasture, crop residue and industrial by products is animal. The awareness is missing at all levels of the impossible. Because either they are not available or they community. It is only recently that the research centres are limited in quantity. It has been suggested that energy and some institution started to work along this line. The requirement raise by up to five times maintenance level fifth major constraints is shortage of draft power. Since when animals perform work. Animal health is the second oxen are employed in all aspects of farm operations the major constraint. Diseases of various types exist in the shortage of this important component is magnified. farming community. Animal health services does not The sixth major constraint is the genotype of local exist in the highlands. Another constraint is policy issue. oxen. Local breeds are vary small weighing between 250 There is no policy on draft animals in particular & cattle - 300 kg, while that of cross-bred is between 600 - 700 at large. More emphasis is given to crop production. kgs. In order to maximise their efficiency these small There is unfair competition between crops and animals. breeds has to be up graded. The main determinant of the The third major constraint is Institutional constrains. ability of the animal to perform draft cultivation There is no institution that caters for this major input for operation is the draft force. The level of draft force that crop production. Draft animals are not given a due can be sustained depends on body weight, duration of emphasis even though their share in the country's work and the ability of the force.

Future areas of research

In the highlands of Ethiopia, there is a need to intensify the use of draft animals by increasing the quality and

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP USE OF OXEN IN THE HIGHLANDS, HOLETTA AND GINCHj \ 135

quantity of feeds. Research has to be designed to up and cultural aspect of draft animals. Study has to be grade the indigenous animals so that we can have bigger conducted on determination of feeding system and and heavier animals. Animal health campaign such as nutritional environment for working animals. control of various diseases has to be launched. Improved Determination of draft power requirement for different implements that can fit the farmers condition has to be farm operation and efficient animal/employment distributed. Policy has to be developed by the combination has to be conducted. Further more methods government to give momentum to this important power has to be developed for selecting animals with best source but forgotten areas of agriculture. performance and alternative source of draft power. There is a need to study physical, social economic "O ct

(A) Holetta

£ Major crops grown

(B) Ginchi Sowing (Sep. - M id Oct.) Weeding (Mid Aug. - Nov)

Major crop., grown

Figure 1. Cropping and feeding calendar in the Holetta and Ginchi ares

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP 136 \ TAYE BEKURE

Conclusion

It is unfortunate that draft animals power has been ne­ these countries may have to continue to depend on draft glected by policy makers, governments, scientists and animal power for many years to come. Draft animal professionals, while programs for milk and meat cattle power is complementary to petroleum based power and are gaining momentum in developing countries, there is in fact there is no real conflict. no corresponding large program for up grading draft Mechanisation as a process of industrialisation may animal breeds. The role of draft animals have been continue at a feasible pace. Draft animals may be used making significant contribution to society. Over 2 billion only whenever it is inevitable and appropriate. While people in developing countries depend on draft animal efforts to mechanise should continue the existing techno­ power, over 7.6 million hectare of vertisol can only be logical level of animal powered system also has to be up tilled by use of animal power. For variety of reasons graded in both implement/and animal aspect.

REFERENCES

Adugna, K., T. Gemeda and M.Telahun 1991. Draught capacity and physiological responses of Fj crossbred and local oxen: 1, Draught characteristics. In: IAR Proceedings, third national livestock improvement conference held on 24-26 May 1989, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. NLIC proceedings Mo 2. p. 116-120. Berhanu Debele. 1985. The vertisols of Ethiopia: Their properties, classification and management In: Fifth meeting of the Eastern African sub-commiUee for soil correlation and land evaluation. World Soil Resources Report No. 56. FAO, Rome. p. 31- 54. Damtew G/Giorgis 1987. Manufacture, Distribution and maintenance of Agricultural equipment in Ethiopia. Paper presented at Agricultural mechanisation seminar, held March 23 - 24,1987. IAR, Nazareth Research centre, Nazareth Ethiopia. FAO. 1986. FAO production year book. Vol. 40. FAO statistics series No. 76. Rome. FAO. Getachew Asamnew. 1991. A study of the fanning systems of the some Ethiopian highland Vertisol areas, working document, highland program research site. ILCA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Getachew Asamnew, Ericole Zerbini, Abate Tedla. 1993. Crop Livestock Interaction and Implications for Animal Traction Research in Highlands of Ethiopia. In: Proceedings Fourth Livestock Improvement Conference. 13-15 Nov. 1991. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, p 29-36. Gemeda, T., A.Gebrewold, K. Adugna and M.Telahun 1991. Draught capacity and physiological responses of F, crossbred and local oxen. 2 physiological responses under different loading conditions. In: IAR proceedings. Third National Livestock Improvement Conference held on 24 - 26 May 1989, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. NLIC proceedings no 2 pp 121 - 124. Goe, M.R. 1987. Animal Traction Research in Ethiopia. Paper presented at Agricultural Mechanisation Seminar Program held on 23-24 March, 1987. IAR, Nazareth Research Centre, Nazareth, Ethiopia. Grseels, G., F.M. Anderson, J. Durkin and Getachew Asaminew. 1986. Draft power and smallholder grain production in the Ethiopian highlands. ILCA, Newsletter 5(4):5-7. Ministry of agriculture (Ethiopia). 1980. Distribution of land and farm inputs among the fanners of Ethiopia, with special reference to distribution of traction power. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Taye Bekure, Kassahun VV/G. 1995. Survey of Farming system in Holetta and Ginchi area (unpublished).

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP PART III

STRATEGIES FOR FUTURE RESEARCH IN ANIMALTRACTION Proceedings First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 139-141

Group Discussion

PART I: Review of past efforts and achievements

Workshop participants thoroughly discussed past efforts Even though some fragmented research results are in the areas of: available in some components, complete package have not been fully developed. In terms of technology trans­ ► Technology development fer, the only attempt done is demonstration of improved implements. However, in this area again the workshop ► Technology transfer and adoption participants noted that there is lack of popularization and efforts in multiplication of improved implements are ► Sustainability and environmentally friendliness as very limited. Workshop participants also realized the applied to oxen traction. extension system is weak for extending oxen traction technology. Training of farmers, manufacturers, trainers and Past efforts in technology development were not extension agents was also noted to be very much limited. systematic and comprehensive to bring impact in agricul­ In higher learning institutions the depth and coverage of tural sector. In most areas of animals traction (breed courses in draft animals is also of limited scope. development, diseases and other management aspects) The workshop participants also realized adoption of no research has been initiated under local condition. In technology in draft animals is below satisfactory because some areas like nutrition of draft animals the efforts were of limited availability, affordability and due to lack of not comprehensive enough to develop feeding package targeted popularization. for optimum draft performance. Relatively better studies were done on implements associated with draft animals.

PART II: Constraints

Workshop participants thoroughly discussed and identi­ ► lack of integrated animat traction research fied major constraints in optimal utilization of draft power under the following categories: shortage of feed and knowledge gap on strategic supplementation strategy ► Technical disease and parasite ► Organizational absence of natural resource conservation technique ► Socioeconomic and policy shortage of draft power and alternatives

Technical constraints absence of breed evaluation and development for draft purpose Major constraints which deserve serious attention as identified by workshop participants are: 140 I GROUP DISCUSSION

Organizational constraints ► Little effort to integrate economic analysis in techni­ cal development process ► Lack of coordination of research and development efforts among different organization/disciplines » Limited studies on adoption and impact

► Facilities ► Limited popularization and demonstration

► lack of farmers organization Socioeconomic and policy costraints ► Lack of credit availability for farmers ► Little attention to participatory research and less efforts to integrate indigenous knowledge

PART III: Strategy development

The group in their deliberation on Strategy Development ■ Easily accessible in animal power Research focused on three main issues. ► Multiplication ► Distribution ► Indicators of success m undertaking the research. ■ Should have national/regional significance ► Identification of the main stakeholders of animal power research in the country. ■ Strong enough to influence the policy environment

► The short, medium and long terms researchable area for each stakeholders. Institutions and their share of responsibility in short, medium and long term period

Indicators for sustainable animal power Higher learning institutions research and development Short-term activities include:

■ The research should be focused to felt needs of ► Development of internal capacity to offer animal farmers/users. traction as a course

■ It should be participatory type ► Incorporate animal traction in their curriculum at undergraduate level ■ Realistic/achievable in regard to resources Medium-term activities include capacity building to ■ Should have the potential to achieve break through undertake basic/applied research in animal power. within a given period of time Long term activities include: ■ Sustainable and environmentally sound ► Offer post graduate courses in animal power ■ Culturally and socially acceptable ► Strengthen research capability both in basic and ■ Economically attractive strategic research

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP GROUP DISCUSSION \ 141

Federal research center responsibility Long term: Short-term: • Develop research strategy that will enable animal • Undertake impact assessment power to get a national commodity status. • Commence long term research • Identification of coordination center • Team formation International centers • Train manpower Shor term: • Facility development • Undertake/commence research of short term • Participates in the Federal strategy development • Assist NARS in capacity building Medium term: • Training • Assist in organizing workshop • Strengthen research programme • Manpower development Medium term: • Facilities building • Coordination of animal power at all level • Undertake strategic research in animal power • Develop animal power package • Assist NARS in capacity building • Undertake adoption studies Long term: Longterm: ► Continue to undertake strategic research in animal • Commence impact assessment studies power • Undertake long term research in animal power ► Development of breeds appropriate for traction/power Regional research centers Short term: Son-governmental organizations term: • Develop capacity in • Manpower ► Participate in federal/regional animal power strat­ • Facility egy • Undertake diagnostic survey of their fanning system ► Development to familiarize themselves with the focusing on power Federal/regional Animal power development issues. • Priortize animal power problems Medium term: • Participate in the National/Federal team activities Technology dissemination - fabrication of Medium term: implements/equipment that are needed for develop­ ment • Strengthen capacity • Manpower development Long term: • Facility development • Animal power package development Impact assessment of technology • Commence medium term research

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First N a tio n al O x en T r ac tio n Research Review a n d Str ateg y W o rkshop Published by EARO a n d ILRI P. 142-143

Observations and Recommendations

Highlights of the prevailing scenario

■ High population growth rate, fragmentation of farm ■ Prevailing agricultural practices lands and land degradation. ► traditional ■ Shortage and skewed distribution of draft oxen. ► subsistence of production level ► no conservation of basic resources ■ Feed shortage and resultant poor body condition of draft oxen. ■ Traditional implements not well adopted to land shaping and problems associated with seed place­ ■ Undiversified use of oxen. ment and weeding.

■ Wide spread occurrences of infectious and parasitic ■ Other alternative animal power sources are not diseases fully utilized

■ Existence of tse tse and trypanosomiasis infested ■ Absence of institution and policy support to pro­ areas preventing the introduction of oxen in the mote comprehensive and focused work in animal farming system traction.

Recommendations

In view of the persistence of these prevailing situations, ■ Characterization of cattle and other draft animal streamlining the current research undertaking with aim species and breeds within species for draft power. of improving the productivity of research and thereby: ■ Research undertakings and development activities ► enhance agricultural integration and intensified. currently emotion are characterized by being ► increase farm out put and contribute towards food fragmented, isolated and devoid of package out put security and as well as conserve the environment. in goals. It should therefore involve multi­ ► to achieve these, the workshop participants have disciplinary team and themes. Farmers participation come up with following recommendations. is a must.

■ The absence of information has been found to be a ■ Research and development undertakings should major limiting factor. Generation of data base and equally address the well being of the environment system is recommended. and constituent stakeholder.

■ It has been reported that farmers have wealth of ■ The importance of oxen power in the farming knowledge in the area of animal power. This system of the country is crucial and high. Research wealth of knowledge needs to be documented, is however underdeveloped. Considering its harnessed and used as bases for future research and tremendous importance it deserves to be treated as development works. a commodity program. OBSERVATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS \ 143

be developed addressing the problems of farmers in ■ Improve the efficient utilization of oxen power and increasing sustainable production. other working animals to enhance the productivity of agriculture. ■ Lack and shortage of trained manpower for research and development activities has lagged ■ Popularization of the use of oxen power and tech­ behind current demands. The required training nologies by making available credit schemes. should receive the attention of institutions of higher learning. ■ Appropriate technologies on animal power should

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW ANO STRATEGY WORKSHOP Proceedings First National Oxen Traction Research Review and Strategy Workshop Published by EARO and ILRI P. 145-147

Workshop Participants

Abebe Belayneh Alemu Tadesse Ministry of Agriculture Holetta Research Center PO Box 7838, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia P0 Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Abebe Kirub Alemu Yami Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization Deber Zeit Research Center PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia P0 Box 3, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia

Abera Deresa Amare Gizaw Melkasa Research Center Holetta Research Center PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia P0 Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Abera Legesse Amare Molla Minsitry of Agriculture Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization PO Box 9937, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia P0 Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Abiye Astatke Aster Yoltannes International Livestock Research Institute Holetta Research Center PO Box 5689, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Abule Ebro Azage Tegegn Adamitulu Agricltural Research Center International Livestock Research Institute PO Box 35, Zeway, Ethiopia PO Box 5689, Addis Abeba Ethiopia Adugna Wakjira Holetta Agricltural Research Center Berhanu Belay PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia Jimma College of Agriculture PO Box 307, Jimma, Ethiopia

Ahmed Mahmud Eskinder Tesfamihret Minsitry of Agriculture Melkasa Research Center PO Box 62347, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Alemu Gebrewold Ebenezer Olaloku Holetta Research Center International Livestock Research Institute PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia P0 Box 5689, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Alemu Hailye Eeva Saarisalo Adet Research Center International Livestock Research Institute PO Box 08, Bahir Dar, Ethiopia PO Box 5689 Addis Abeba, Ethiopia 146 \ PARTICIPANTS

FikreAbera Mengistu Geza Ambo College of Agriculture Melkasa Research Center POBox19, A m b o , Ethiopia PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Firew Kelemu Mohammed Kurtu Melkasa Research Center Alemaya University of Agriculture PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia P0 Box 138 Dire Dewa, Ethiopia

Fiseha Gereab Mohamed Saleem Fcaulty of Veterinary Medicine International Livestock Research Institute PO Box 34, Deberezeit, Ethiopia P0 Box 5689 Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Getachew As aminew Mulugeta Kebede United Nations Development Porgramme Bako Research Center PO Box 5580, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia P0 Box 3 Bako, Ethiopia

Hailu Beyene Paskal Osuji Holetta Research Center International Livestock Research Institute PO Box 2003 Addis Abeba, Ethiopia P0 Box 5689 Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Hailu Geletu Sebelewengel Talle Ethiopian Science and Technology Commision International Livestock Research Institute PO Box 2490, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia P0 Box 5689, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Hailu Yoseph Sendros Demeke Ethiopian Science and Technology Commision Holetta Agricitural Research Center PO Box 2490, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Kasahun Woldegebriel Seyoum Bediye Holetta Research Center Holetta Research Center PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia P0 Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Liyusew Ayalew Sintayehu Gebre-Mariam Holetta Research Center Food and Agricultue Organization P0 Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia PQ Box 5536, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Mekonin Haile-Maraim Taye Bekure Deber Zeit Research Center Holetta Agricitural Research Center P0 Box 3, Debre Zeit, Ethiopia P0 Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Mengistu Alemayeh u Tesfaye Kumsa Holetta Research Center Holetta Research Center P0 Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

Mengistu Hulluka Tesfaye Zegeye Alemaya University of Agriculture Ethiopian Agricultural Research Organization PO Box 138, Dire Dewa, Ethiopia PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP PARTICIPANTS \ 147

Tilahun Mulatu Zemene Simie Melkasa Research Center Minsitry of Econimic Development and PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia Cooperation Addis Abeba, Ethiopia Teshome Bullo Melkasa Research Center Zinash Sileshi PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia Holetta Research Center P0 Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia Zelalem Getachew Holetta Research Center PO Box 2003, Addis Abeba, Ethiopia

FIRST NATIONAL OXEN TRACTION RESEARCH REVIEW AND STRATEGY WORKSHOP -

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