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Afar-Issa Conflict Management

Afar-Issa Conflict Management

Afar-lssa Conflict Managment "In war a youth is killed, not born." Somali proverb

ASWASH, January 2000

By Marc Michaelson

It's just after 5 p.m. The scorching sun plunges into free-fall and a warm dusty breeze brushes the flatlands. Returning from an aborted visit to Afa'assey, our Toyota Landcruiser pulls into Gadamaytu, a disputed town on the border between Ethiopia's Afar and Somali Regions. We park in front of a square mud hut, pass an armed guard at the entrance, and find a dozen elders sitting in the backyard, chewing and plotting strategy for the following day's alMssa peace consolidation meeting.

The hut is packed with large bundles of contraband used clothes smuggled by camel from neighboring . Unfazed, a high-ranking Somali official pre- sides over the khat-chewing and discussion. The scene reeks of parody else- where in the world, a politician sharing drugs with constituents in a room brimming with illegal goods would be the subject of high drama. Among Soma- lis it is business as usual.

The irony is lost on all but myself, and is quickly overshadowed by the seri- ousness of the deliberations. The EPRDF (Ethiopian People's Revolutionary Demo- cratic Front) government, and especially the Afar and Somali Regional administrations, have worked hard to restore stability and peace to the north- eastern lowlands the traditional home and battleground of the Afar and Issa people. The next day's meeting of all 12 Issa family trees endeavors to unify and solidify the Issa in preparation for a joint Afar-Issa peace meeting in Awash toWn a few days later. THE AFAR-ISSA CONFLICT

Hassan Galab is introduced with labelsof respect and awe a great com- mander, strong man and brave fighter. That he has now metamorphosed into a

The Afar and are two distinct ethnic nationalities living in Ethiopia. The Issa are one clan of Somalis. Both Issa Somalis and Afars are Muslim, pastoralist people who inhabit parts of eastern Ethiopia and Djibouti. The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia is divided into nine regional states and two autonomous administrative zones. The Afar National Regional State (ANRS) and Somali National Regional State (SNRS), the foci of this article, are two Of the nine. These two states share a common border, sections of which are disputed. The Somali National Regional State should not be confused with the Republic of , which borders Ethiopia to the east. khat (pronounced "chat") is a narcotic leaf chewed by Afars, Somalis and some other peoples in the and . It is a social drug, most often chewed in groups, during long hot afternoons. As the chewing progresses, the conversa- tion flows and senses become more acute. Euphoric contemplation is also common; one Somali expression says that khat-chewers "build castles in the sky." Asmara O San-a SUDAN TIGRAY L 2

AMHARA L... AFAR

SOMALIA

OROMIYA

Warder

ChewBah Liben Regional States

Regional Zones

kilometers 2010 miles O0

All boundaries are approximate and unofficial.

2 MM-18 Camels carrying contrabandfrom Djibouti to Gadamaytu, Ethiopia peace-maker is understated and seemingly less worthy ney and left my livestock with my wife and two small of reverence than his vast achievements as a warrior. children. When I returned everything was gone my family were all dead and my livestock looted. I immedi- In both Somali and Afar societies, power is revered. ately gathered some of my people [Issas] and launched Bold, accomplished fighters are heroes, highly decorated an attack. We destroyed an entire Afar settlement. We and adorned with amulets and beautiful wives. They killed the people and took all the livestock. I used that are celebrated wherever they go and livestock are slaugh- livestock to get married again and have more children." tered to honor their visits. Some of these cultural rewards are slowly being phased out. As the two societies seek speaks matter-of-factly; as if these horrors peace, macho personas endure, but some warrior icons happened to someone else in a faraway place. He is are being disposed of. weathered, mellowed now. His indicates emotional distance, and this may be what enables him to confront Hassan is a compact, solid man in his early 60s. He the ghosts and reconcile with his enemies. exudes an air of inner strength, a quiet, unassuming power and confidence. Perched on'his haunches under a I ask Hassan how many livestock were stolen from shade tree, Hassan calmly tells a life-story riddled with him, and how many Afars he killed in the revenge at- personal tragedy and tit-for-tat brutality. tack.

"I was in my mother's womb when my father was "They stole about one hundred camels, four-to-five killed in the Saha Battle, east of here in a mountainous hundred head of cattle and over two thousand sheep. As area near the Djibouti borden Our people [Issas] had for those killed, there were many, but we Issas don't talk launched the attack on the Oga Ali [Afar clan] but were about how many we killed. It is a shame to do so." badly defeated. The vultures feasted on our dead. To take revenge for my father, I had to train to fight and engage Afar elders tell similar tales of brutality. In Gawane, in battle myself." an Afar village 100 kilometers north of Gadamaytu, Hamadu Ali Hubi recounts his own wartime experiences: He pauses for a pensive moment and then continues "It was 1976, Ethiopian Calendar [1984]. We were herd- his narration: "Once [about 40 years ago] I went on a jour- ing our cattle in Ba'ada between Mount Ayalew and

Sitting next to Hassan Galab during our interview was Kamil Delaty, a gray-bearded, thin-featured Issa elder. Kamil has a large looping hole in each of his ears, signifying a traditional rank akin to generalmit is said to decorate a man who has killed 1,000 men.

Institute of Current World Affairs 3 Issa warriors turned peace-makers Hassan Galab (left) and Kamil Delaty Abida. The Issa attacked us, killing sixteen Afars. We ferent. "This is a period of democracy and self-rule. We killed ten of them. They wanted to steal our cattle and are empowered to solve our own problems, and the cen- take our land. We retreated. That place is now part of tral government, for the first time ever, is giving us the in the rainy season we use it, and in the support to do so." While many elders sounded curiously dry season the Issa graze there." like government cadres, there is no small hint of truth to their claims. The federal system has enabled Humud Lalita, another Afar elder, adds his own regional governments to proactively confront their piece: "I also fought many times. Sometimes the Issa at- problems. And this case is an excellent example tacked us, sometimes we attacked them. There were two the Afar and Somali Regional States recognized the reasons- stealing cattle and land." self-destructive conflict between their peoples. In the past few years they have successfully stopped the archaic Nearly all Issa and Afar living in the boundary area tribal violence and instituted a modern system of legal- have felt the pain and devastation wrought by the fight- based order. ing. All have lost fathers, brothers or sons. At some point they all have had to defend their land and property from CONFLICT MANAGEMENT: HARMONIZING attack, or have had to fight for water, the liquid life that MODERN AND TRADITIONAL APPROACHES sustains pastoralists and their livestock. Inclusive Peace Conferences: Awash and The Afar-Issa feud is centuries old. According to el- ders on both sides, past governments fomented the con- The self-destructive cycle of Afar-Issa raids and re- flict by distributing arms and encouraging fighting. The venge came to a rapid halt in 1997. At that time, two pro- Christian, highlander-dominated regimes of Emperor cesses one traditional, one modern merged in a and Col. inflamed massive peace conference in Awash. lowland feuds. Conflict served as a deliberate instrument of social control, keeping marginalized peoples divided Awash represented the culmination of several dia- and disempowered. logues. Issa elders say they sent a group of women peace envoys to the Afar in 1995 to express their desire for peace The EPRDF government, these elders claim, is dif- and request a forum to discuss the conflict. One Issa el-

In Afar and Somali societies, women are perceived as non-threatening and have thus been traditionally charged with the cru- cial responsibility of initiating peace contacts. A group of women is sent to the enemy bearing a message of peace. If they are received and treated well given clothes, good food and gifts this is seen as an indication of seriousness and dedication to launching a peace process. If they are not treated very well, it is a sign that the hosts are unwilling to engage in peace deliberations.

4 MM-18 der explained: "fatigue and exhaustion had invaded us. administrative levels (regional, district, zonal). We realized we were destroying ourselves." Afar and Issa elders met at Kallala bridge, Gawane and in several other The Awash Meeting symbolized a turning point in venues. They talked about the history of their conflict Afar-Issa relations. Awash represented a fusion of the and the need to resolve disputes more peacefully. modem and traditional, a new partnership between lo- cal elders and government authorities. Simultaneously, regional officials from the five ad- ministrative units of eastern Ethiopia (Afar, Somali, In December 1998, the broad commitments of Awash Oromo, and Dire Dawa) met to discuss common were consolidated and translated into concrete institutions. Six issues of security, social affairs and trade. Sector heads hundred elders and government officials participated in the met quarterly and regional presidents convened bi-an- Dire Dawa Peace Conference, and reached important agree- nually. In 1996, the Regional Presidents gathered in ments on practical matters of peace implementation. Duftir (Afar Region) and exhaustively discussed the Afar-Issa conflict as well as lingering Somali-Oromo First, the elders decided that the Awash Meeting, as disputes. They decided to convene a large peace con- the symbolic turning point, would also function as the ference in Awash to thresh out the problems and formu- cutoff date for accountability. All killings, lootings and late solutions. other violations that occurred before Awash would be for- given under a general amnesty; all criminal acts since The Awash meeting brought officials from Afar Zones Awash would be investigated and punished. This deci- 1, 3, 5, and , the northernmost of 's sion represented a critical step. If the temporal scope of nine Zones, together, along with regional authorities, lo- the conflict had not been strictly delimited, claims and cal elders and a national government representative. The counter-claims dating back hundreds of years might have deliberations focused on root causes and resolved to emerged. Ancient grievances would be impossible to establish joint Afar-Issa Peace Committees on several prove and might spark new anger, tension and hos-

Street scene in Awash, the town that hosted the 1997 Afar-Issa Peace Meeting

The Regional Afar-Somali Peace Committee is based in Awash and is staffed by three people Hamud Fille (Somali Security Head), Mohamed Akli (Afar Security Head), and Captain Berhane ( Representative). This Committee coordinates and oversees all the activities of the lower level committees.

Institute of Current World Affairs 5 tility. The explicit time limit made instituting lawful- returned and the offenders given prison sentences exceed- ness a more manageable and realistic project. ing five months. Hiding a stray animal would incur up to a five-month prison term. Selling a stolen animal would Second, the elders decided on punishments and le- require the repayment of two cattle for every one sold. gal processes. In both Afar and Issa traditions, kill- Table 2 shows the status of looted animals and guns. ings are punished by the payment of blood prices. The elders agreed to adopt a variation on this tradition, call- Enforcing Peace: Special and ing for the payment of 52 cattle for each killing since Awash. Fifty cattle would be paid by the killer's family To administer , Dire Dawa established special to the relatives of the victim. The remaining two cattle courts and police. Each Region reassigned 15 officers to would be slaughtered for the Afar and Issa elders who the new border police force with one basic precondition managed and supervised the process, serving as a cer- none of the appointees could be of Somali or Afar na- emonial connector between the two communities. tionality. Most are speakers who have long served in Afar and Somali Regions. They are known by As Table I shows, during the last year a total of 2,704 the locals and are perceived as neutral, immune to the cattle have been paid, and only one remaining blood price emotional tribal battles of the area. The police are equally is outstanding. In the past, when an Afar killed an Issa or distributed in three disputed towns along the Afar-So- vice versa, the murderer received an honorary title, re- border Gadamaytu, Undufo and Adaytu. spect and gifts. Now, when someone kills, he receives a prison sentence and a taxing blood-price penalty. As a Ato Melaku Worku, the police commander in result, incidences of violence between Afars and Issas Gadamaytu, was born in , . He has have effectively come to a halt. served as a policeman for 24 years, the last eight posted in , the Somali Regional capital. The Dire Dawa Conference determined other pun- ishments as well. Henceforth, stolen animals would be Melaku sees considerable change in the relations be- Table 1: Blood Prices (15 Dec. 1998- 11 Oct. 1999) 8

Somali Region Afar Region Afar Region Afar Region Shinile Zone Zone 1 Zone 3 Zone 5 Paid Unpaid Paid Unpaid Paid Unpaid Paid Unpaid

#BloodPrices 31 5 1 12 4 (52 Cattle each)

Total Cattle 1612 260 52 624 208

Table 2: Looted Items (15 Dec. 1998- 11 Oct. 1999)9

Somali Region Afar Region Afar Region Afar Region Shinile Zone Zone I Zone 3 Zone 5 Returned Outstanding Returned Outstanding Returned Outstanding Returned Outstanding Cattle 1291 88 130 4 305 9 42 13 Camels 272 12 184 7 99 12 112 11 Sheep/Goats 211 15 588 9 103 1 144 Calves 22 6 13 Donkeys 3 11 32 6 5 Guns 38 4 1 3 3

According to Afar elders, th6 traditional blood price for killing a man was 65 head of cattle; for killing a woman (a taboo in Afar societies), the blood price was 80 cattle. According to one Issa official, the traditional Issa blood prices were 77 camels for a man and 55 camels for a woman. Source: Afar-Somali Joint Peace Committee, Awash, Ethiopia. Source: Afar-Somali Joint Peace Committee, Awash, Ethiopia. 6 MM-18 tween Afars and Issa in the area. "Previously, whenever they believe a confession results in lighter punishment." they came into contact, violence would erupt. Now they don't quarrel, and you can see them eating together and Does the community provide any support to the watering their animals together. Killings have stopped. ? Taddesse laughs, "We don't have any There are still occasional cases of banditry along the road, tough cases. The elders do most of the work for us. Often and looting of animals, but even these cases have it is a father or brother who turns in the accused." In the diminished." past, family loyalty always superseded legal consid- erations. "Parents used to hide their -breaking sons; I ask Melaku what are the biggest challenges his force now they turn them in." faces. "We don't have any vehicles or radio communica- tion, so when a crime is reported all we can do is write a The court convenes whenever cases arise or new evi- report." dence is discovered. Most of the cases involve either truck robberies or livestock thefts. Taddesse and I spoke in the These deficiencies notwithstanding, the police have late afternoon of 9 November 1999. Earlier that day, the solved several cases with crucial assistance from locals. court heard new in a months-old case of four "In January, a sick military officer was assassinated while Issa-owned cattle allegedly stolen by an Afar. The returning from hospital on the -Djibouti road. We took some Issa elders with us to the spot where the incident occurred. They followed the footprints and tracked down the three assailants, one of whom was carrying the victim's pistol."

Alleged criminals are held at the po- lice station until their in special courts. District courts sit in Gadamaytu and Adaytu, and a high court decides ap- peals in Adaytu. The Supreme Courts of Afar and Somali Regions are jointly man- dated to serve as the final court of ap- peals, although resolution at lower levels is encouraged. Like the police force, the courts are staffed by non-Somalis and non-Afars appointed by the two regions.

Hussein Said serves as in the Gadamaytu District Court. Born in Dese, Welo (Amhara Region), Hussein has worked for six years in Afar Region. The Prosecutor is Taddesse Regassa, a half-Amhara half-Oromo from Western (also in Amhara Region). He has worked for 23 years in different parts of Somali Region, and now considers Jijiga (the Somali Regional capital) his home. Neither Hussein nor Taddesse speak Afar or Somali. The of the court is Amharic. Translators are provided so that defendants and plaintiffs can fol- low proceedings and testify in their na- tive languages.

Prosecutor Taddesse says his job is easy. "When someone commits a crime here they don't deny it or hide it. They usually just tell the truth, unlike most other criminals I've had to deal with." I ask him why he thinks they are so forthcom- ing. "They are uneducated pastoralists; Magistrate Hussein Said in his tiny Gadamaytu courtroom

Institute of Current World Affairs 7 Table 3: Criminal Status by Offense (15 Dec. 1998 11 Oct. 1999) 9

Somali Region Afar Region Afar Region Afar Region Shinile Zone Zone I Zone 3 Zone 5 Imprisoned At Large Imprisoned At Large Imprisoned At Large Imprisoned At Large

Truck Bandits 10 10 33

Cattle Bandits 17 19 12 47

Killers next day two deliberations were scheduled- one ing, our Landcruiser filled with local Somali officials. regarding theft of road-construction materials from the local warehouse of a South Korean road-repair The terrain is flat and mostly barren. A few moun- project and the second concerning another livestock tains jut strangely out of the horizon. Abdi Shakur, a well- theft (two Afar-owned cattle allegedly stolen by an spoken, insightful administrator from Meisso, ruminates Issa). on the remote, otherworldliness of the landscape: "We hear the Americans have been to the moon..." he guf- As Table 3 shows, 136 criminals have been impris- faws heartily "...look around, you get a tour of the moon oned since the new legal infrastructure became opera- here, and you didn't have to travel nearly as far!!" tional. Thirty-six criminals remain at-large, most of whom have fled the area to escape the newly established hand Several vehicles pass us en route, and the Somali of justice. passengers grow impatient, egging our driver Negussie to pick up the pace. The ride takes nearly two hours, due All-Issa Peace Consolidation Meeting in part to the pock-marked dirt track and in part to Negussie's molasses-like driving. Afa'assey, the venue for the alMssa Peace Consoli- dation meeting, is 42 kilometers east of the tarmac Addis Afa'assey is a simple cluster of mud huts perched on Ababa-Djibouti "highway." We leave early in the morn- a plateau. A river flows through the adjacent valley only

A harsh, dryflatlands outside Afa'assey

8 MM-18 Elders at the All-Issa Peace Consolidation Meeting in Afa'assey after heavy rains, but water can be harvested from small them. Each can rule itself, use its own language, admin- wells year-round. As a result of this reliable water sup- ister its own people." ply, Afa'assey has emerged as the closest thing to a per- manent settlement in this nomadic region. Part II of the lecture entails a plea for local peace, much of which plays upon Ethiopia's border war with We park under large shade trees, march down into Eritrea. He cites Issa , which commands the dry riverbed and cross to the other side. Fifty meters that "if a territory is attacked, it must defend itself" a farther, under a clump of shade trees, a hundred men sit, thinly veiled justification for the war in the north. squat and stand all facing a row of VIPs seated in chairs. The elders brandish sticks, canes, traditional Next, VP Adam reveals Eritrea's dubious plot to ex- knives (in waist-sheaths) and old shotguns. My guide/ ploit Ethiopia's diversity by hammering rifts between na- translator Mohamoud Abdi-Ali Bayr and I hover in the tionalities: "Eritrea believes 62 million can't background, observing the proceedings. Our attempt at fight alongside each other. They say Afars and Issas can't inconspicuousness immediately fails and we are ceremo- fight in the same trenches and cooperate together. [In niously ushered to the front. Two elders are unseated to Badime] we've shown them wrong." make room for us amongst the VIPs. Continuing to play on the emotions of the elders, he Due to our late arrival, we miss the Islamic prayer recalls Eritrea's rude rebuff to Djibouti's former President that opened the proceedings. Somali Region Vice Presi- : "The OAU sent President dent Adam Abdillahi, himself an Issa, addresses the gath- Hassan to [Eritrean President] Isaias as a mediator. Isaias ering first. He speaks in a firm, confident voice and Bayr rejected him and said he was helping Ethiopia." The sig- whispers a translation in my ear. nificance? Djibouti's ex-President is a Somali from the Issa clan, just like all of them. VP Adam begins with a history lesson. He recounts the harsh, violent treatment Somalis received at the Following the VP's political soliloquy, Hamud Fille, hands of Emperor Haile Selassie and Col. Mengistu the Somali representative on the Afar-Issa Peace Com- Haile Mariam, and then moves on to the current pe- mittee, begins to address the crowd. He pauses just two riod of democratic rule: "Now we are in a period of minutes into his speech, turns to me and says this would democracy, where we have freedom of the individual be a good time to interview a few of the prominent el- we can talk, learn and speak out in our own lan- ders. I'd prefer to observe the proceedings and conduct guage." He goes on to explain the federal system: the interviews later, but this is an order, not a request. So "There are nine regional states, and we are one of as the meeting continues I retreat some 25 meters away

Institute of Current World Affairs 9 with a group of five elders, and chat with them .for 45 cials) seemed more interested in showing a miraculous minutes. peace between two historical enemies. They insisted on painting an all-is-hunky-dory, smily face on a more com- At the end of the interview, the elders smile broadly plex, mixed reality. and encourage me to head back to Gadamaytu. Vrlth feigned concern, they nudge me to depart: "You must be hungry A FRAGILE PEACE and thirsty; you should hurry back in time for lunch." On the return journey to Gadamaytu, it doesn't take After such a long trek to Afa'assey, I'm in no rush to long for the fragility of the peace to reveal itself. We pass leave. I send Bayr to ask Hamud if we can stay and watch several pastoralists trying to hitch lifts and politely de- a bit more ofthe meeting. He returns with a negative response. cline until we come across an animated group of five "They are discussing very sensitive issues. Hamud says it young men. Four wave us down frantically while the fifth would be better if we left." Fair enough. An armed es- stands aside, holding up an injured left arm and grimac- cort is appointed to accompany us and off we go. ing in pain. We stop, pick them up and continue toward Gadamaytu. Later that day, we ask a few elders what was dis- cussed. They explain that many rifts exist amongst the The injured young man sits bravely as blood con- Issas themselves. Many of the people aren't actively sup- tinuously trickles down his arm. We ask what happened. porting the peace they don't respect the and they "I was joking, playing around with my cousin. We got in defend guilty relatives rather than bring them to justice. a fight. He had his knife, but I didn't. He slashed my arm." Surely there must be more to the intra-Issa problems than The other boys are confident the offender will be caught, that. Unfortunately, I'm forbidden to scratch below the since he's a relative and has nowhere to run. surface. The previous day, along the same road, we had en- While relations between the Issa and Afar have countered several Issa camel herders transporting large greatly improved, several thorny issues and challenges bundles of contraband to Gadamaytu. I asked our guide remain. This is to be expected, and I had hoped to draw a Boqole if we could stop to take their pictures. He agreed, more complete, balanced picture, showing both the we stopped, he exchanged a few words with them and I achievements and the prickly, problem areas that still snapped away with my digital and 35 mm cameras. I need work. My Issa hosts (elders and government offi- showed the herders their pictures on the mini-screen of

Afragile peace Issa camel herders who threatened to rob us if we passed by at night 10 MM-18 Pastoralists and sheep at a well in the riverbed near Afa'assey the digital camera, we shared a few laughs, they had a is obvious. This pastoralist area continues to be a frontier few more words and we headed back to the vehicle. where the law isn't nearly as relevant as the blade of a knife or barrel of a gun. If a few camel herders can cred- Before continuing our journey, Boqole recommended ibly threaten the peace and cousins are still knifing each we turn back it was late in the afternoon and by the other, stability remains paper thin. Likewise, the centu- time we arrived in Afa'assey, we'd have to return in the ries of Afar-Somali violence that recently came to a sud- dark. Disappointed, we reluctantly agreed to postpone den halt must rest on fairly shaky ground. our trip to the next morning. Simple enough, right?

Back in Gadamaytu, Bayr (my translator) explained what had really happened. The camel herders told Boqole Perhaps the greatest threat to the new Afar-Issa peace that the white man should pay them for the photos. is the placement of major substantive issues on the back Boqole refused and tried to defuse the request by lying burner. Land, be it for grazing or watering livestock, lies and saying I was supporting Issa development projects. at the center of the Afar-Issa dispute. In our discussions, As we were leaving, one of the boys (who happened to Issas repeatedly downplayed the importance of land con- be armed with an ugly looking automatic rifle of some flicts, focusing instead on looting and revenge-killing. The sort) said: "That's all right they'll have to pass through Afars acknowledge that land is a key component of the here on their way back tonight. We'll become bandits and conflict and say they've agreed to temporarily set territo- get them then." rial issues aside. After a final investigation and negotia- tion, they believe the matter will be resolved. In the Unnerving, to say the least. Boqole was a respected interim, both peoples have agreed to share disputed ter- authority (and security officer), but he was from a differ- ritories up to 100 kilometers on either side of the road ent sub-clan and had no control over these young men. (the current official boundary). He decided to take the safe route and have us turn back. The touchiness of the land issue emerges most clearly The significance of these two not-so-subtle anecdotes during my interview with Mohamed Akli, the Afar rep- Institute of Current World Affairs 11 resentative on the Afar-Issa Peace Committee. I ask him process are impressive. Violent attacks have diminished for a map of the border area to illustrate who is where dramatically and almost come to a complete halt. Loot- and which lands belong to which groups. He replies ing still occurs, but much more rarely, drastically reduc- sternly that he can't provide any such map of the border ing tension between the two communities. Issas and Afars and anyone who does, either Afar or Somali, does so still do not live together in the same settlements or inter- falsely. marry, but they do conduct business and meet in social arenas. Just a few years ago, such basic interactions were "But," he continues, tone softening, "you are wel- unheard of. come to go to any of these areas- ask elders or indepen- dent outsiders who have lived here for decades [working The two concerned regional governments (with as- for previous governments]. They can tell you who owns sistance from the federal government) have prioritized what land." His confidence seems to imply that the dis- and supported this peace process from the outset. Sig- puted territories are in fact Afar lands. Mohamed's posi- nificant resources (time and money) are still being spent tion corroborated the comment of one Somali who quietly on the reconciliation process. The government has spon- admitted: "The Issa have been pushing westward for de- sored large meetings and established modem institutions cades. They've pushed the Afar out of their traditional --court and police- to enforce the peace. lands to the other side of the ." One lesson from this still-unfolding process is the Further complicating the land question is the no- importance of harmonizing traditional and modem strat- madic nature of both Issas and Afars. As pastoralists, both egies in local-level peace-making. Traditional elders have groups move seasonally to better grazing and watering conducted discussions and negotiations in tandem with points. To survive drought years they venture into less local government leaders. The inclusiveness of the pro- marginal areas. This harsh and transient life style often cess has lent it legitimacy within the communities. Atop- brings Issas into Afar lands and vice versa-- driving them down approach, engineered from Addis Ababa, would into direct competition for scarce resources. Likewise, not have been welcomed by suspicious local leaders. The these continuous population movements make the place- federal government's support and constructive partici- ment of solid, stationary boundaries problematic and pation evidences a new, positive engagement and should perhaps inappropriate. help improve relations between the center and furthest peripheries of the Ethiopian state. My conversation with Mohamed Akli takes place on 12 November 1999 during the joint Afar-Issa meeting in Problems remain and the progress will unlikely be Awash. In a hall just 20 meters from his office, woreda linear. Some violence may return to the area at some (district) level officials and traditional elders are evalu- point the fragile peace may break down. For example, if ating their past two months of activities. After talking the land question is not handled carefully and resolved with a few elders, I send a messenger to ask Mohamed to everyone's liking, aggrieved parties may try to under- for permission to attend the meeting. I am refused. mine it. Also, if the intense processes continuous peace meetings, special joint committees and Another opportunity to observe the processes of infrastructures do not maintain pace, violence may peace-making first hand is lost. Perhaps my presence return. would hinder open expression or the comfort-level of participants. Perhaps they would start to posture and In the past, Hassan Galab says, the Afar and Issa used pose for the outsider, rather than hunker down and tackle to make peace, but it would unravel after a year or so. the tough nitty-gritty details facing them. Perhaps all is The current d6tente is just a few years old. But as the not as rosy as they encouraged me to believe. There may Afar and Issa continue to interact and share social spaces, have been very good reasons not to have me there. What- the return of historically destructive behavior patterns ever the case, I wasn't welcome. will become increasingly less likely. As they graze ani- mals together, educate their children in the same schools, CONCLUSIONS meet in mosques and trade with each other in the mar- ket, their connections will deepen and strengthen. These With some of the contentious issues placed on the new connections may just pull them through, when fu- back burner, long-term peace prospects remain tenuous. ture disputes over scarce land and water arise and Still, the short-term achievements of the Afar-Issa peace threaten their fragile peace. GI

12 MM-18 Axumite empire 5.2 customs duties 13.4, 13.5, 13 7 Axumite Kingdom 14.3 A HistoryofEthiopia 5.2 Ayder Primary School 4 4 13 Aba Are 16.4 azmari beyts (traditional dance bars) 10.7 Dabayl 135 AbdeI- 133 Airlines 6 3 Abdi-Ali Mohamoud 18.9 B Bayr, Debre Zeyit 1.4 10 2 Abebaye (Dad) baboons 11.11 Deda 16.4 Kinfe 6 2 Abraham, Bada. See also Adi-Murug Dekamhare 3.2, 162 Adam Abdillahi 18.9 Badime 3.4, 3.7, 4 1, 4 2, 4.3, 4.8, 5 4, Deliberative Chambers 14.3 18 6, 18.7 Adaytu 5.5, 5.6, 5.10, 9 1, 9.10, 163, 17.7 Dembe Jefecke village 3.7, 16.1 Addis Ababa 1.3, 1.4, 8.1, 11 11 Badime front 17.11 Denakil Desert 5.4, 8.1 Addis Ababa Civil Service College 15.6 Badime trenches 17 9 Denden mountain 17.7 Addis Pharmaceutical Factory 4.4 Bagoweini village 3.6, 16 deportation 3 2, 4.5, 8.3, 9 7, 9.8 4.2 Adi-Murug (Bada) Bahir Dar (Gojjam Region) 5.9 deportees 16.1 3 2, 4.4 Bale National Park 11.12 dictatorship 6 5 Adua 5.4 Bale Province 11 2, 11.9, 11 10 Derg government 3 5, 4.4, 14.1, 14 3 Aeroflot 6.3 banking 13.6 the Derg 3 4, 5.3, 5 5, 10.4 18.8 Afa'assey barabaso (rubber sandals) 12 6 Dhu Nwas 5.2 Afabet 17.3 "barefoot doctors" 6.4 dik-diks 11.11 Afar 4.2, 5.6, 8.9, 11 9 Barentu 3 5, 16.1, 17.7 diplomatic recognition 7.11 Afar 18.1, 18.7 Region Barre., Mohamed Siad 7 3, 7.4, 7 6, 15.3 Dire Dawa 13.4 Afar-lssa conflict 18.1 Bashuka 16 4 Dire Dawa Conference 18 6 Afar-lssa peace meeting 18 BBC 17.1 Dire Dawa Regional Customs 13.9 Afeworki, Isaias 17.2 begging 11.2 Director General of the Marine Department of the "African Renaissance" 4 5, 4.8, 5.2, 9 2 Belgium 9.9 Ministry of Transportation and Communica- Afwerki, Isaias 3.4, 4.1, 4 5, 5 1, 5 4, 5 8, 6.2, Benishangul 11.9 tion 8.7 66, 9.2, 95 8 8, 13 4, 13.5 Djibouti 4.4, 4 8, 5.1,5 3, 5.5, 6 2, 7.3, 9.1, 11 10, Presse 17 Agence birr 5 7, 8.8 18.1 Agere Maryam 11 1, 11 2 blood prices 7 7, 18.6 DKT Ethiopia 10 7, 11.3 5.2 Agew BM-21 rocket launchers 9.9 doctors 15.11 aid 6.7 dependency Bole 123 Dolo Mena 11 12 Aideed, Mohamed Farah 7 6 Bole airport 1, 1.3 doro wot (spicy chicken stew) 1.7, 10 4 Air 6 3 Boqole 18 11 Dubai 7 9 Akli, Mohamed 18.11, 18.12 7.5 Duftir 18 5 Islamic fundamentalists 15.11 Al-ltihad Britain 5 4 Durex condoms 11.4 Al-lttihad 5 3 British Council library 6.6 Alaybede 13 5 9.9 E Alemayu 10.4 7 3, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7 ALF () 5.9 Burie 3.4, 4 3, 5.8, 8 2, 8.3, 8 9 EC (European Community) 4 7, 9 2 Alga-Aliteina 4.3, 5.5, 5.6 4.8, 9.1 economic development 6 8 Aliteina 4 1, 4.3, 9.1 bush pig 11.13 economy 5.7, 5.8 Allemitu 10.4 Education Bureau 15.11 Ambesete Geleba 4.3 Egal, Mohamed Ibrahim 7.5, 7.8 Amhara 11.9, 15 2 Egypt 5.9, 9.1 Amharic 15.11, 18 7 casualties, battle 4.3 EPDM (Ethiopian Peoples' Democratic amnesty 18.5 casualty reports 9.10 Movement) 14.3 Andemichael, Wereda 8.9 cattle 18.4 Ephrem, Isaac 9.1 Annan, Kofi 9.1 China 9.9 Ephrem, Sebhat 4.3 appropriate technology 12 11 Christianity 14.3 EPLF (Eritrean People's Liberation Front) 3.4, 4.5, Aptidon, Hassan Gouled 18.9 Citizens for Peace in Eritrea (CPE) 9.8 5.1, 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.7, 6.4, 6.6, 6.7, 7.3, 9.5, Arab oil-producing countries 8.6 civil war (1974-91) 16 9.8, 10.4, 17.2 Moi, Daniel 4.8 clan differences 15.6 EPRDF (Ethiopian People's Revolutionary ArbaMinch 11.4, 11.10, 11.11 Clinton, Bill 4.5, 4 8, 6.1, 9 1, 9.3 Democratic Front) 5.2, 10.4, 10 7, 11.9, 13 9, Ark of the Covenant 1.6 CNN 10 6 14.1 14.3, 15.1, 18.1, 18.4 ARRA (Administration for Refugee and Returnee coffee 5.8, 13.5 Erde Mattio 4 3 Affairs) 15.7 coffee ceremony 1.7 Eritrea 3.1, 4.1, 6.1, 11 10 11.3 Colobus monkeys 11 13 Eritrea Profile 3.8, 6 6 "AskYour Doctor" 11 4 colonial rule 4.2 Eritrean Force 4.2 Asmara 3.2, 5.9, 6 3, 6.4, 6.5, 8 1, 16.8, 17.1 COMESA (Economic Community of East and Eritrean military 17.8 Asmara airport 4.4 Southern African States) 8.8 Eritrean Pride 9.3 Asmara airport bombing 6.1 communications 8.5 Eritrean Public Health Program 6.4 Asmerom, Girma 9.10 conflict management 18.4 Eritrean women 6.6 4.4, 5 7, 5.8, 6.3, 8.1, 11 10 conspiracy theories 5.9 Eritrean Women's Association 6 7 Assab economy 8.6 6.7 Eritrean Youth Association 6.7 Assab Oil Refinery 8.1, 8.6 Constitution of 1994 14 4, 15.1 ERREC (Eritrean Relief and Refugee Commission) Assab Port 8.7 construction "" 15.8 36, 8.6, 164 Assab Salt Works 8.1, 8.8, 8.9 contraband 13.5, 13.7 Ethiopia 5 4 assembly 14.4 contraceptives 11 3, 11.4 Ethiopia-Eritrea border conflict Ato Gebre Egziabehr 12 6 corruption 7 8, 8.8, 13.9, 15.5, 15 8 33, 4.1, ,51, 52 61, 82 9.1, 1111, 1,511, 161, 17.1 Auberay 13.5 counterfeit-currency detector 6.3 Ethiopia-Somalia border 13.5 Awasa 11.10 courts 18.6 Ethiopian Airlines 4.5, 5.10 Awash 18.1, 184 crocodile 11.11 Ethiopian Enterprise Petroleum, 8.6 Awash Meeting 18.5 CRS (Catholic Relief Services) 10 7 Ethiopian mobilization 9.8, 9.9 Awash River 18.12 culture 1.7 Ethiopian Orthodox Church 1.4, 14.3 Aweke, Aster 1.5 currency 5.8 Ethiopian Somali Democratic League (ESDL) 15.5 Awel Dewalle 15.3 customary law () 7.6 Ethiopian Telecommunications Authority 4.5 Entries refer to ICWA Letters (MM-1, etc.) and page, with Letter number given before each page entry. Institute of Current World Affairs 13 Ethiopian Telecommunications Corporation 15.7 Hubi, Hamadu Ali 18.3 mamitay (little mom) 10.7 "ethnic cleansing" 9 5 rights 14.4 Marcus, Harold 5.2 14.1, 15.1, 16.1, 17 human-wave attacks 17.11 Mariam, Mengistu Haile 3.4, 4.4, 5.1, 7.3, 9.7, ethnic groups hydroelectric power 5.9 14 1, 14.3, 15.1, 15.3, 17 2, 18.4, 18 9 Amhara 3.5 masinko (traditional one string violin) 10.8 Banar 11.9 Massawa 5 7 Gamo 11.9 media 3 3, 6.8 Gedeo 11.9 ICRC (International Committee of the Red Cross) Megennanya 12.3 Gofa 11.9 46, 8.3, 168 Mehare, Zait 3.7, 16.1 Guji 11 9 infrastructure 11.11 Meisso 18.8 Hamer 11 7, 11.9 (flat bread made from fermented batter) 3.1, 4.4 Karo 11 8, 11 9 1.3, 5.7, 6.9, 10.7, 11 3 Mekonnen, Yigzaw 8.6 Konso 11.9 Inter-Governmental Authority on Development Menelik 1.6, 7.2 Mursi 11.9, 11.12 (IGAD) 3.4, 4.7, 5.1, 6.2 Menelik 14 3 Nara 16 2 intermarriage 5.4 Mengist, Saba 16 5 Oromo 3.5, 11 9 International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) Mengisteab, Dawit 8 7 Sidama 11 9 83 Mereb River 3 7, 5.4, 16.4 Expo '98 6.8 International Court of Justice 9.4 Meretab 16.5 Ezana 14.3 Italian colonization 5.3 merkato 12.1 Italy 54, 91 Mig-24 helicopters 9.9 F lyasu, Lijj 104 Mig-29 interceptors 9 9 Ministry of Defense 8 6 famine of 1983-84 11 10 Ministry of Foreign Affairs 17.8 Fatzi 3 2 Janmeda 1.6, 3.1 Ministry of Information 8.6 Federalism, Ethnic 14 1, 15.1, 16.1, 17.1 missir (lentils) 10.7 female soldiers 17 9 Japan 9 Jijiga 13 1, 13 3, 13.5, 13.6, 13.7, 13 8, 15 1, 15 3, Mitchell, Leslie 8.8 ferenji (foreigner) 12 10 Mituku, Aboosh 12 8 Fessehai, Habteab 3 7 15.4, 15.9, 18.6, 18.7 Jijiga Customs Office 13.8 7 6 feuds 183 Mombasa 8.8, 8.9 fish, Yemeni-style 6 2 Jijiga Nurse Training school 15.11 Jinka 11.7 11.10, 11.11 Follina 3 7 Mubarak, Hosni 4 8 France 9 9 K Mulki 3.7 Freedom Junior Secondary School 16.6 Museveni, Yoweri 4.8 Freemen of Montana 7 Kagame, Paul 4.7, 9 2 kai wot (meat in pepper sauce) 11.3, 11 13 N Kallala bridge 18 5 nakfa 5.7, 6.3, 8.7, 8.8 Gadamaytu 18 1, 18.3, 186, 187, 18.10 Karchally prison 10.4, 10.5 Kazanchis 12 3 Nakfa town 17 2, 17 3, 17.5 Galab, Hassan 18.1, 18 12 National Committee for Somali Region Trade Gamo-Gofa Province 11.2, 11.6, 11.9, 11 10 kebele (local government) 12 8 Kebre Beyih 13 8 Promotion (NCSRTP) 13.5 Gash-Barka Region 3 5, 17 7 national parks 11.11 Gawane 18 3, 18 5 Kebre Dehar 15 3 Kenya 5.2, 9.1, 11.10 ndemin adderu (good morning) 10 6 Gebremariam, Berhane 16.7 ndemin nachu (how are you?) 10.6 genital mutilation 14.4 Key Afer 11.7 Khartoum 5.10 Nebiyou, Hanna- 1997 11.4 geography 11 3 Nechisar National Park 11 11 Ghebray, Tekeste 4.8, 6.2 khat 8, 62, 7.6, 77, 7.8, 710, 11.1, 13.3, 13.5, 15.8 nepotism 7.8 Ghebretnsae, Woldemichael 3.6 NGOs (non-governmental organizations) 6 7, 7.9 Ginir 11.6 kickbacks 7.8 King Caleb 5 2 5.2 Goba 11 2, 11.6, 11.10, 11 12 Nile River 5.9 Gode 15 3 King Ezana 5.2 Gojjam 18.6 kitfo (ground beef with spiced butter) 9 O Gojjam Province 11 6, 11 11 Koka Dam 15.3 gomen (spinach) 10.7 Kolmay village 11.5 OAU (Organization for African Unity) 3.4, 4.7, 4.8, Gonder Province 5.6, 11 6, 11.11 Kombolcha 3.1 5 5, 9.1, 9.2, 9.4, 10.3, 17.11, 17 12 Gouled Aptidon, Hassan 4.8, 6.3 Konso 11.5, 11 7, 11 11 OAU initiative 9.5 Grassroots International 6.4 Koytobia 16.2 OAU peace plan 9.10 Greater Hanish 5 5 L Oga Ali [Afar clan] 18.3 "Greater Tigray" 5.6 Region 7 3, 15 1, 15.11 "green line" 7.6 labor supply 8.9 OgadenWar 7.3, 15.2 Bissau 5 2 Lake, Anthony 4.8, 9.1, 9.3 Ogaden Welfare Society (OWS) 15.8 Gurage 15.3 lakes 1.4 OLF () 5.9 Gurage Region 12.1 Abaya 11.11 ONLF (Odaden National Liberation guurti(elders' conferences) 7.5, 7.8 Bishoftu 1.4 Front 15 5 Guu (House of Elders) 7 5 Chamo 11 11 OPDO ('s Democratic Organization) 143 H Lalita, Humud 18.4 Land 18.11 "Operation Restore Hope" 7.3 Operation Sunset 9.10 Habtekere, Gebreneguse 3.6, 16.1, 16 2 Latvia 9.9 Legesse, Asmarom 3.8, 9.8 Oromiya National Regional State 15 11 Hamdalla, Nursabo 12.1 Oromiya Region 15.3 Hamud Fille 189 Libya 9.1, 9.9 life styles 11.7 Oromo Liberation Front (OLF) 15.11 Hanish Islands 5.3, 5 5 Oromo People's Democratic Organization (OPDO) Harar 13.4, 13.8 livestock 7.9 livestock thefts 18 7 143 Haraz Harmaz 17.3 Orotta 17.6 7.3, 7.5, 7 10, 13.4, 13 6 lowland peoples 14 3 hartebeest 11 11 P Hartisheikh 13.1, 13.3, 134, 13.6, 13.8 Health professionals 15.11 machiato (espresso and milk) 6.4 PACT 8.8, 10.7 Heret village 3 7 Mago National Park 11 12 Pan-Somali project 15 2 highland peoples 143 Mahdi, Ali 7.3, 7.4 pastoralists 18.12 Hiwot Trust condoms 11 3, 11.4 main market 12.1 peace plans 17.12 Entries refer to ICWA Letters (MM-1, etc.) and page, with Letter number given before each page entry. 14 MM-18 Petros, Col. Bezabieh 4 4 Sierra Leone 5.2 truck robberies 18.7 PFDJ (People's Front for Democracy and Justice) Sifreye Genet 3.7 Tsabra 17.6 5.2, 6.6 Silte village 12.1 Tsegaye, Ato 13.9 Piazza 12.3 Simien fox 11.12 Tsorona 9.10 pickpockets 1.7 smuggling 13.5, 13.8 'quur," Abdirahman 7.5, 7.6 police 1.7, 18.6, 18.7 Solomon 1.6, 14.3 TV advertising 11.4 population 11.3, 15 3, 17.4 Solomonic descent 14.3 Twenty-First Century Trading Company 15.8 port of Djibouti 6.3 5.2 Port Sudan 17.6 Somali 11.9 U press 6.8, 14.4 Somali budget 15.8 travel 6.1 press censorship 16.9 Somali clans U.S. Embassy warning U.S. Marines 7.3 press restrictions 16.6 Abgal 7.3 U.S.-Rwandafacilitation process 9.1, 9.2 propaganda 9.5 Dulbahante 7 4 U.S.-Rwanda initiative 9.5 prostitution 11.1 Gadabursi 7.4 U.S.-Rwanda Peace Plan 4.7 Prudence-brand family-planning pills 11.3, 11.4 7.5, 7.8 U.S./U.N. interventions 7.3 Purdy, Chris 11.3 Habr Ja'llo 7 6, 7.7 Habr Yonis 7 6, 7.7 5.2, 5.9, 9.1 7.3 Ukraine 9.9 7.3, 7.5, 7.6 UN Cartographic Office 4.7 Qaddafi, Muammar 3.4, 4.8 15.11 UN Cartographic Unit 9.4 Commissioner on Human See Qatar 9.9 (SNM) 7.3, 7.4, 7.5 UN Rights. Robinson, Mary R Somali oratory 7.7 Somali People's Democratic Party (SPDP) 15.5, Undufo 18.6 UNHCR ( High Commissioner radio advertising 11.4 15.8 Somali Region 13.5, 13.6, 15.1, 18.1, 18.7 for Refugees) 16.3 Ras Hailu of Gojjam 10.3 UNICEF 3.7, 13.5 Ras Mikhael Seul 5.3 Somali Salvation Democratic Front (SSDF) 7 3 Somali women 15.9 United Nations 4.7, 5.5, 9.2, 9.4 4.8, 5.8, 8 6 for the Coordination Somalia 5.2, 7.1, 13.5, 15.2 United Nations OCHA (Office Red Sea Airline 8.5 of Humanitarian Assistance) 3.6 refugee repatriation 6.8 Somalia-Ethiopia border 13.5 , Republic of 7.1, 8.1, 8.8, 9.1, 13.1, United Nations Security Council 4.8 Regassa, Taddesse 18.7 United Nations Task Force (UNITAF) 7 3 Region 5 13.1 13.4, 13.5, 13.6 constitution 7.8 United Somali Congress (USC) 7.3 Regional Health Bureau 15 11 9.4 Regional Parliament 15.10 elections 7.8 government 7 8, 7.9 USAID (United States Agency for International Regional Planning Bureau 15.8 Development) 11.3, 12.8 religion 1.4, 14 4 history 7.2 independence 7.2 USAID OFDA (Office of Foreign Disaster Republic of Somaliland 7.3 Assistance) 3.6 Resolution 1177 4.8 NGO's 7 9 Reuters 17.1, 17.8 private sector 7.10 V Revolutionary School 17 5 Protectorate 7.2 Rice, Susan 4.7, 9.2 secession 7 5 Value-added recycling 12.11 Rift Valley Fever 7.9 Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Village Voice 17.1, 17 8 Robinson, Mary 4 5 Region 11 9 (VOA) 16.6 Romania 9.9 Soyama 11.5 Ruba Hadai 17.3 Sudan 5.2, 5.9 W Rubattino Shipping Company 8.1 Sukhoi SU-27 fighter planes 9.9 warrior tradition 18.3 Russia 9.9 T Ibrahim 7.7 Rwanda 4 7 Warsama, Abdi water 15.3 tabot (holy slab) 6 Waugh, Evelyn 15.3 t'ala (traditional barley beer) 1.8, 10.4 weapons 15.11 Saha Battle 18.3 Teacher Training Institute (TTI) 15.8, 15 11 Welo Province 5.2, 5.6, 8.3, 11.6, 11.11 Sahnoun, Mohammed 9.1 teff 5.7 Western Somali Liberation Front (WSLF) 7.3, 15 2 Said, Hussein 18.7 tej (honey wine) 1.8 White Horse Whiskey 1.8 sales incentives 11 5 telecommunications 7.10, 13.6 women 14.4 Saneti Plateau 11.12 "tena yistilling" (good health) 10.6 women peace envoys 18.4 Savannah Hotel 17.1 Tesfaye-Mikael, Worku 3.6 Worku, Ato Melaku 18.6 Save the Children 10.7 Tesfazion, Afeworki 8.6 Woyane 9.5, 9.7 Save the Children/UK 13.4, 13.8 tibs (saut4ed meat) 1.4, 10.7 Sawa national military training camp 4.6, 5.5, 9.8, Tigray National Regional State 16.1, 16.4 Y 16.3 3.2, 4.2, 4 4, 5.3, 11.6, 11.9, 11 11 11.11 Seiassie, Haile 5 2, 5.4, 10.3, 14.3, 15.1, 15.3, Tigrayan nationalism 5.6 Ya'abelo 11.2, 10 4 18 4, 18.9 Tigrinya 3.8, 166 yehabesha dabo (Ethiopian bread) SEPDF (Southern Ethiopian Peoples' Democratic Tilahun, Ato 13.8 Yemen 5.3, 7.9 Front) 14.3 Tilahun, Mekbib 11.3 Yilma, Teshome 11 3 5.6 Setit 4.3 Timket, the epiphany 10.4 Yirga triangle Yohannes 5.3 Sewa Province 11.6 Timket, the Ethiopian Orthodox Church's IV celebration 1.6 Shabiya 9.5, 9.7 Z Shakur, Abdi 18.8 Tiravolo 16.6 Region 7.7 Shambuco 3.6, 9.10, 16.1, 16.2, 16.4 5.2 Sheba 1.6, 14.3 Togochale 13.5 TPLF (Tigray People's Liberation Front) 3.4, 5.1, Zaire (now Congo) 5.2 Shewa 8.3 Zalanbessa 3.2, 3.4, 4.2, 4.3, 5.5, 9.10, 16.3 Shinile Region 18.5 5.2, 5.3, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.7, 9.3, 9.5, 9 8, 11.9, 14.3, 17.3 zebra 11.11 Shinn, David 15.11 Meles tradition 1.8, 11.8 Zenawi, shir (traditional Somali congress) 7 4 9.2, 9.5, 14.3 training 15.10, 15.11 3.4, 4.2, 4.5, 5.1, 5.4, 6.2, shiro (crushed bean/chickpea sauce) 10.7 Zimbabwe 4.8, 9.1 SidamoProvince 11.2, 11 9, 11.12 transportation 1.4, 11.10, 13.4 Sidist Kilo 12.3 trenches 17.4

Entries refer to ICWA Letters (MM-1, etc.) and page, with Letter number given before each page entry.

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