Forced Begging, Aid and Children's Rights in Senegal

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Forced Begging, Aid and Children's Rights in Senegal Forced Begging, Aid and Children’s Rights in Senegal: Stories of Suffering and Politics of Compassion in the Promotion of Rights for the Taalibe Qur’anic School Children of Senegal and Mali Sara Elizabeth Lahti Thiam Department of Anthropology McGill University, Montreal December 2014 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy © 2014 Sara Thiam To Mom and Dad Abstract Due to recently expanded definitions of human and child trafficking among transnational actors, thousands of Qur’anic students throughout Senegal, West Africa, called taalibes, who beg to support their schools, have been identified as victims of trafficking. Senegal’s generous supply-driven alms-giving draws schools of boys from throughout the region to beg. To gain financial and institutional support to promote the taalibes’ human rights, activists disseminate compassion- generating communications to transnational audiences about their exploitation at the hands of their masters. Locally in Senegal, taalibe begging is not seen as trafficking. Rather, within a discourse about Qur’anic schools as vulnerable schools, people understand their mass urban migration and begging to be an unfortunate result of severe rural poverty. Malian families that send their children to Senegal defend taalibe hardship within a pedagogy of suffering– to instill respect and discipline. Where the transnational trafficking discourse calls Qur’anic masters who make their pupils beg criminal exploiters, the local vulnerable schools discourse views them as legitimate educators. To them, they are victims of past colonial repression and a currently neglected educational system. In this thesis, I document how each of these discourses have taken form and what happens when they converge on the ground. This thesis reports on 10 months of original ethnographic fieldwork in Senegal and Mali in 2010, and 10 weeks of field research in Senegal in 2007. I also draw on several years of experience studying and working in Senegal and Guinea between 2002 and 2006. I have found that these diverging discourses of vulnerable schools and trafficking clash on the ground to perpetuate child suffering. Anti-trafficking interventions on the ground have failed to condemn exploiters. As a group, Qur’anic masters defend their right to send taalibes out to beg. They claim that the practice is integral to children’s and families’ rights to choose religious education. Within a politics of compassion, actors surrounding the taalibes dance between discourses as they tell varying stories of child suffering to rally support for their activities. This results in the provisioning of hundreds of thousands of dollars in aid to scattered Qur’anic masters and schools, while diverting attention away from the Senegalese state’s failure to accommodate these students on a national scale or to prosecute offenders in cases of documented abuse. The taalibes of Senegal are at the center of costly rights-promotional campaigns, yet my thesis makes it clear that the boys in question remain devoid of any reclaimable rights as thousands of them continue to endure violence- enforced begging and live in conditions which threaten their healthy development. Résumé À cause d’une expansion récente des définitions de la traite humaine et de celle des enfants par les institutions transnationales, des milliers d’élèves coraniques en Afrique de l’ouest, appelés taalibes, qui mendient pour soutenir leurs écoles, ont été identifiés comme des victimes de traite. Au Sénégal, les dons généreux d’aumône, qui sont axés sur l’offre, favorisent l’avènement d’écoles coraniques venant de toute la sous-région dans ses centres urbaines pour mendier. Pour obtenir un soutien financier et institutionnel et promouvoir les droits humains des taalibes, nombreux sont des activistes qui soutiennent un discours génératrices de compassion devant des audiences transnationales concernant l’exploitation des taalibes par leurs maîtres. Au niveau local au Sénégal, par contre, la mendicité des taalibes n’est pas vue comme une traite. L’allocution sur les écoles coraniques en tant qu’écoles vulnérables, assimile leur migration urbaine en masse et leur mendicité d’être un résultat regrettable de la pauvreté rurale accentuée. Au Mali, des familles qui envoient leurs enfants au Sénégal prônent une pédagogie de souffrance pour inculquer le respect et la discipline. Là où le discours transnational de la traite décrit les maîtres coraniques comme des criminels qui envoient leurs élèves à mendier, le discours local d’écoles vulnérables les voit comme des éducateurs légitimes. Pour ces acteurs, ils sont eux-mêmes victimes de la répression coloniale et d’un system éducatif négligé jusqu'à présent. Dans cette thèse, je documente comment chacun de ces discours a pris forme et ce qui se passe quand ils convergent sur le terrain. Cette thèse est le rapport de 10 mois de recherches ethnographiques originales au Sénégal et au Mali en 2010, 10 semaines de recherches de terrain au Sénégal en 2007, et plusieurs années d’expérience à étudier et travailler au Sénégal et en Guinée entre 2002 et 2006. J’ai trouvé que ces discours divergents, d’écoles vulnérables et de la traite se choquent sur le terrain pour perpétuer la souffrance des enfants. Les interventions de lutte contre la traite humaine sur le terrain ont échouées à condamner les exploiteurs. En tant que groupe, les maîtres coraniques défendent leur droit de faire mendier les taalibes. Ils reclament que la pratique est un élément intégral à la réalisation des droits des enfants et des familles de choisir une éducation religieuse. Ainsi, dans une politique de compassion, les acteurs qui entourent les taalibes dansent entre les discours en racontant des récits discordants de la souffrance des enfants, visant à rallier de soutien pour leurs activités. Ceci aboutit à l’approvisionnement de centaines de milliers de dollars en aide destinés à des écoles coraniques éparpillées, pendant que l’attention soit détournée de la défaillance de l’état d’accommoder ces écoles au niveau national et de poursuivre les offenseurs dans des cas d’abus documentés. Les taalibes du Sénégal sont au centre de couteux campagnes promotionnelles de droits, cependant, ma thèse éclaircit que les garçons en question restent dépourvus d’aucun droit exigible. Des milliers d’entre eux continuent à endurer la mendicité forcée et de vivre dans des conditions qui menacent leur développement sain. Contents Acknowledgements .........................................................................................................................................x List of Acronyms ...........................................................................................................................................xii Glossary of Foreign Terms ....................................................................................................................... xiv Chapter 1 – Introduction Stories of Suffering and Politics of Compassion ..................................................................... 1 Children’s Human Rights as Rights to Humanitarian Aid .................................................................. 8 The Politics of Compassion ................................................................................................................ 12 Children’s Voices and Taalibes’ Best Interests .................................................................................... 14 Taalibe Begging: Exploitation or Survival? ....................................................................................... 16 The Ethnographic Method ................................................................................................................. 19 Thesis contents .................................................................................................................................... 23 Part I – Trafficking and Counter-Trafficking: The Transnational Discourse of Child Trafficking of Taalibes ................................................ 27 Chapter 2 – Decrying Child Trafficking The Rise of the Taalibe Trafficking Victim ......................................................................... 28 Documenting a Rise in Human Trafficking ..................................................................................... 28 Telling Tales of Trafficking ................................................................................................................ 31 Defining the ‘Trade in Women and Children’ in Colonial French West Africa ........................... 32 Defining Child Trafficking in West Africa Today ............................................................................ 36 Trafficking versus Slavery: Questions of Movement and Consent ............................................... 38 The US State Department’s Attack on Trafficking of Taalibes in Senegal ...................................... 42 Trafficking in Taalibes .......................................................................................................................... 48 Chapter 3 – Fighting Taalibe Trafficking Anti-Trafficking Initiatives in a Context of Child Circulation ............................................ 51 The Physics of Where the Global Meets the Local .......................................................................... 54 Attempts at Preventing Child Trafficking in Mali ........................................................................... 56 Increasing
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