Detailed Table of Contents

Foreword...... xxi

Preface...... xxiii

Section 1 The United States

Chapter 1 African American Students, Racism, and Academic Injustice: Igniting a FUSE...... 1 Patrice W. Glenn Jones, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University, USA Warren C. Hope, Florida Agricultural and Mechanical University, USA

In effort to align academic achievement for all students, this chapter offers Fostering Urban Student Excellence (FUSE) as an instructional strategy to curtail not-learning and evoke academic improvement among African American students, particularly those from low socioeconomic backgrounds. In addition to introducing FUSE, this chapter outlines the achievement gap, along with the factors that impact it, and reveals the academic position imposed upon African American students by social injustices. The chapter also establishes the critical need for FUSE as a specific instructional strategy to combat the impact of racial injustice.

Chapter 2 Re-Conceptualizing Race in New York City’s High School Social Studies Classrooms...... 24 Edward Lehner, Bronx Community College (CUNY), USA John R. Ziegler, Bronx Community College (CUNY), USA

In New York State Public Schools, social studies education centers on employing interdisciplinary approaches to help students learn civic values and historical events. Increasingly, due in no small part to the influence of popular culture, social studies education research is making fewer distinctions about racial and ethnic identities. Following some trends in the larger academic community, more of the research in social studies education categorizes ethnically and religiously diverse European and African groups into the narrow categories of White or Black. This practice of flattening diverse European and African groups into current day race frameworks can be problematic when teaching high school social studies, particularly in highly diverse urban centers, because it perpetuates binary racial constructions that both are rooted in the historical fallacy of presentism and tend to contradict the students’ ontological realities.

  

Chapter 3 State-Wide Teacher Walkouts Highlight Equality Gaps...... 46 Sherrie L. Wisdom, Lindenwood University, USA

Arizona, Colorado, Kentucky, North Carolina, Oklahoma, and West Virginia mounted statewide teacher walkouts related to teacher salary during 2018. This study offers a synthesis of literature surrounding the walkouts, along with examination of similarities and differences in publicly available measures, highlighting equity gaps and comparison to states whose teaching force did not choose to walkout and demand increased pay and per-student spending, better benefits, or better working conditions. Relationships are sought between the variables considered: per-pupil expenditures, achievement, graduation rates, college persistence of high school graduates, college graduation rates, attainment of varied levels of degree credentials, and cost of living, as related to teacher salaries, increases, and decreases. Links between political and policy issues and the variables related to unrest leading to the walkouts are explored through literature.

Chapter 4 Barriers to a STEM Career: Math Anxiety and the Adult Female...... 64 Luanne M. Amato, Holy Family University, USA

Inequality of gender representation in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) careers continues, despite the narrowing of the gender achievement gap. This chapter showcases original qualitative research that provides clearer insights into origins and effects of math anxiety as the reason females are less likely to choose (STEM) majors and related careers. The role of instruction methodology of the academic organization in perpetuating marginalization practices limits women’s STEM achievement. The stage environment fit (SEF) theoretical model probes the relationship of the policies and procedures of the academic organization to the likelihood of female adult-student success in higher education. The American Statistical Association’s (ASA) funding of the Guidelines for Assessment and Instruction in Statistics Education Report (GAISE) mandates reforms for mathematics instruction among the information about new research opportunities and the current state of STEM education in the United States.

Chapter 5 Consequences of Inequality and Exclusion on the Culture of Higher Education Institutions...... 91 Melodie A. Carr-Winston, Lindenwood University, USA

This chapter explores counseling research emphasizing depression, anxiety, and behavioral changes due to microaggressions. Other consequences discussed include academic stress and a lack of career advancement resulting from feelings of isolation, sense of belonging, low self-esteem, lower grades (students), and fewer opportunities for career advancement (faculty). Additional investigations include the role of exclusionary institutional policies and practices on minority faculty and student experiences. Additional discussions include same-race mentoring along with how microaggressions and the resulting consequences influence the culture of higher education institutions. In conclusion, best practices and practical applications recommend how to approach equity and inclusion in higher education.

Chapter 6 Peer Support of Graduate Students of Color Through a Formal Graduate Student Association...... 111 Kya Rose Roumimper, Keene State College, USA Audrey Faye Falk, Merrimack College, USA 

This chapter explores the experiences of graduate students of color and examines the support systems in place to promote their success in the academy. The authors provide an overview of the relevant literature and pertinent theoretical frameworks, including critical race theory and self-determination theory, as they relate to the experiences of graduate students of color. Furthermore, the chapter describes the initiation and early development of a Graduate Students of Color Association at Merrimack College, a private, Catholic college in New England. The chapter include both benefits and challenges of participating in and sustaining the group, while offering recommendations for future practice and research. It may be of particular interest to graduate students of color; faculty, staff, and administration in graduate education; and researchers focused on graduate degree attainment among individuals of color.

Chapter 7 An Examination of How Legal Status Affects Enrollment and Graduation Rates: Immigrant Students in Colleges and Universities...... 130 Florence Nyemba, University of Cincinnati, USA

This chapter explores the educational choices of immigrants and how the issue of legal or immigration status contributes to social inequality in the United States classrooms and institutions of higher learning. Immigrants within U.S. population have increased dramatically, yet their educational attainment remains small in comparison to native-born Americans. Although large numbers of immigrant students graduate from high school, their path to higher education remains difficulty with fewer getting college degrees. Drawing on literature from multiple disciplines, the issue of immigration status in relation to immigrant education is examined. The chapter recommends the adoption of immigration reform legislations that create better pathways to citizenship for undocumented immigrants and progressive educational provisions. This chapter benefits immigrants and educational leaders in institutions of higher learning.

Chapter 8 Education and Rural America: Interconnected Problems...... 149 Joseph Albert Cernik, Lindenwood University, USA

Rural America has a number of problems that cannot be addressed by simply thinking in abstract and superficial liberal versus conservative terms. Rural schools need high-speed internet, and oftentimes telecommunication companies have little interest in bringing high-speed internet to rural areas since the potential for profits are not there. In addition, Medicaid is important to rural schools since the funds from this program can go a long way toward helping students in rural schools stay in school and graduate. While it is often heard that “self-reliance” reflects the views of rural America, government programs (both federal and state) are needed. As high-speed internet goes through technological changes, many rural areas, specifically rural schools, will be further left behind, which increases the need for government help.

Chapter 9 A School Model for Developing Access to Higher Education for African American: Social Capital and School Choice...... 167 Sheldon Lewis Eakins, Shoshone-Bannock School District, USA

This chapter discusses the social inequalities in school choice and the racial disparities of college access. Utilizing the theories of social capital and social inclusion, the author provides a conceptual framework for developing a college-going school culture in charter schools. Through this lens, the author considers that the level of school support needs to be equitable to the varying stages of self-efficacy, academic 

behaviors, and post-secondary aspirations that students enter school with. The author suggests the importance of the RECIPE (rigorous curriculum, expectations, collegiality, interconnection, parental engagement, and exposure) to prepare African American students for college.

Chapter 10 What Are We Missing?...... 190 Tina Wagle, Empire State College (SUNY), USA

“Silenced voices” is an oft-used metaphorical term for marginalized and oppressed peoples. It pervades studies and literature related to important issues of social justice. However, recent research has prompted a literal reconceptualization of the term, raising the question: Are we aware and attentive to voices that are silent and not silenced? This reflective piece is a call to attention that best practices result from empirically based results of studies but on a population of students that attend school on a regular basis. As we know, this population is limited, so this chapter draws attention to limitations of data from researchers who have restrictions to certain populations, including minors.

Chapter 11 Envisioning Change and Extending Library Reach for Impact in Underserved School Communities...... 202 Michelle Kowalsky, Rowan University, USA

This project aimed to improve and promote the school libraries in a K-12 district which serves primarily African American and Latino students. Surveys about the libraries were distributed to each teacher, student, and parents. Students independently and overwhelmingly reported that they enjoyed the author visits, the new books, and the library research projects which utilized them. Reactions to this district-wide library initiative contributed to the students’ positive reviews of these aspects of their school libraries in roughly equal parts; in other words, students don’t only appreciate the ability to surf the internet. Students in this underserved population mentioned that their class research projects turned out better, that they were able to find more information in books and online via new library computers, and that they found exciting new materials to read. Students, teachers, and parents consistently reported that they felt more interested and more successful in library research after their school library was updated and its resources were promoted.

Chapter 12  The Role of Language Ideologies in the Self-Efficacy of Pre-Service Bilingual Education Teachers...... 220 Amanda R. Szwed, University of North Texas, USA Ricardo González-Carriedo, University of North Texas, USA

This chapter examines how language inequities within education are associated with perceptions of Spanish language self-efficacy in pre-service bilingual education teachers. The chapter delves into how language ideologies play a role in shaping disparities amongst bilingual education programs. The teacher shortages which exist within the field of bilingual education have assisted in the increased demands placed on bilingual pre- and in-service teachers. The programs created to instruct bilingual teachers have had to modify their design in order to meet the needs of future teachers. The needs are determined by the perceptions of each bilingual. Additionally, each bilingual chooses what skills are needed in order to use Spanish as a medium of instruction and, in some cases, to teach Spanish as a foreign language. 

Using a grounded theory, this study analyzed the cycle of language ideologies, self-efficacy, and language inequities. The results show that language ideologies have impacted the bilinguals’ self-efficacy. Finally, it was determined that language inequality has played a key role in shaping language ideologies.

Section 2 Other Countries Throughout the World

Chapter 13 Transformation and Social Justice in South African Higher Education: An Unequal Turf...... 238 Sithabile Ntombela, University of South Africa, South Africa Itumeleng I. Setlhodi, University of South Africa, South Africa

There are inequalities at all levels of the South African education system, and these are more visible in higher education, which, until recently, was inaccessible to most people. Levelling the turf and bringing about true transformation in higher education institutions requires redress of past inequalities and catering for all students who seek admission. To increase participation levels by students from varied backgrounds and achieve justice, it is essential for higher education institutions, particularly those offering open distance e-learning, to devise plans towards tackling challenges confronting students and possible ways to overcome them. This chapter discusses the purpose of higher education in offering support to students in the context of massification. It also explores the manner in which higher education institutions model transformation, how they bring about equity and redress to overcome challenges and to pursue justice. Lastly, it concludes with possible considerations for these institutions to tackle inequalities and attain social justice for their students.

Chapter 14 Capabilities-Based Transformative Online Learning Pedagogy for Social Justice...... 253 Lydia Sophia Mbati, University of South Africa, South Africa

This chapter presents pedagogical approaches for online learning with a focus on pedagogies that support interaction and active learning amongst diverse student populations. Understanding the challenges that feed social inequality are broad and complex nexus challenges, the various aspects and activities that go into learning design are discussed from the perspective of fostering equal representation and social justice in the online learning environment. While this chapter provides possible angles that may be employed to facilitate learning in a diverse student population, empirical studies need to be undertaken to test the efficacy of the approaches suggested.

Chapter 15 Perpetuating Social Injustice Through Neglecting the Voices of the Non-Unionized Teachers: An Analysis From the Rawlsian Perspective...... 273 Shuti Steph Khumalo, University of South Africa, South Africa

The democratic dispensation elevated teacher trade unionism to unparalleled and unprecedented levels in the South African education system. The education laws of South Africa recognize teacher unions which meet the South African labor-related requirements. The three powerful teacher unions that recognize and represent thousands of teachers are the South African Democratic Teachers Union (SADTU), the National Professional Teachers’ Organisation of South Africa (NAPTOSA), and the Suid Afrikaanse Onderwysersunie (SAOU). These recognized teacher unions represent their members in decision making 

processes and not teachers who are non-union members. This chapter is based on an in-depth evaluation of extant literature, and further, it is interpretive in approach and employs social justice as the theoretical and conceptual framework.

Chapter 16 The Impact of Knowledge and Attitude of SGB Members Toward Adoption of Social Justice and Democracy: Challenges, Implications, and Opportunities...... 289 Austin Musundire, University of South Africa, South Africa Rudzani Israel Lumadi, University of South Africa, South Africa

The purpose of this literature study was to investigate the impact of the knowledge and attitude of School Governing Board (SGB) members towards adoption of social justice and democratic practices for quality education in South African public schools with special reference to the language policy. Findings indicated that that bias is still a challenge in the institutions of learning in South Africa in terms of the implementation of the language policy by the members of the SGB. It was also found that increasing the level knowledge of the members; SGB members regarding social justice and democratic principles and practices with special reference to the South African language policy will change their attitude and behavior geared towards improved implementation of the same policy. It is also concluded that effective implementation of change management models can also coordinate the link between knowledge development, change of attitude and behavior towards effective implementation strategies of the language policy.

Chapter 17 The Role of Culturally Responsive Teacher to Ensure Social Justice in Education...... 311 Kasım Karataş, Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University, Turkey Tuncay Ardıç, Dicle University, Turkey

In this chapter, the importance of having culturally responsive teacher competencies to carry out the education process in accordance with the social justice is discussed within the context of teacher roles and responsibilities. Indeed, education as a social institution is an important institution that provides individuals with an understanding of justice, equality, freedom, and solidarity in a way that enables individuals to live harmoniously within society. In this respect, education system components should be designed with culturally responsive pedagogy on the basis of social justice principles. Besides implementing a culturally responsive teaching in classrooms can be achieved with teachers who have culturally responsive teaching competencies. With these roles and responsibilities, teachers should develop their individual and professional competencies for culturally responsive teaching at teacher education programs.

Chapter 18 An Overview of International Students and Discrimination in Higher Education...... 333 Kamil Demirhan, Zonguldak Bülent Ecevit University, Turkey

This chapter focuses on the international students’ exposure to unequal treatment in higher education institutions. The study aims at explaining how international students are perceived by hosting institutions and societies. The first part gives information about the international students. It explains the approaches of higher education institutions to international students in terms of their contribution to the internationalization of institutions, international students’ contribution as a financial sector and as a market, and international students’ contribution to increase diversity and interaction. The second part 

includes the experiences of international students as the subjects of discrimination. The experiences may help to identify the suspects of unequal treatment and to understand which characteristics that students have targeted by hosting society. The third part identifies the reasons of unequal treatment and negative perception about international students. This study tries to schematize types, reasons, and results of unequal treatment towards international students.

Chapter 19 Acculturation Stress and Its Reflections in Terms of Social Inequality...... 348 Kasım Karataş, Karamanoglu Mehmetbey University, Turkey Mustafa Baloglu, Hacettepe University, Turkey

Within the framework of social justice principles, it is important that the members of the host culture and the immigrant community develop bilateral acceptance and solidarity. Both bodies have responsibilities in preventing discrimination, social inequality, social disparity, and social injustice so that the experiences of acculturation stress do not become detrimental to societal peace and accord. It is an important source of social inequality that the members of the host country have prejudice and discriminate against immigrants on a personal and institutional basis and deprive them of social support. Higher levels of acculturation stress experienced by immigrant children and adolescents due to social inequality might lead to an unhealthy acculturation process. As a result, in the light of social justice and on the basis of universal human rights, a healthy social interaction and integration will be achieved by handling the process of acculturation and reducing the effects of acculturation stress.

Chapter 20 Bridging the Gap With QR Codes: QR Codes for Enhancing Cyberculture in Istanbul...... 366 Moazzam Naseer, Riphah International University, Pakistan Celalettin Aktaş, Istanbul Commerce University, Turkey

Turkey was at 40th as per Google’s Our Mobile Planet five years ago. There are hardly a few counties, in these indices, which had seen such an upsurge of smartphone penetration rate in a short period of time. With the immense proliferation of smartphones there comes all types of uses and gratification consumers could attach to the smart gadgets. QR Codes were the inventions of same decade and were taken by storm by these smartphone consumers in Turkey. Past studies conducted in economically and digitally developed countries concluded that research and development in the area of QR Codes is in the field of advertising and marketing mainly. There are hardly advanced discussions from the dimension of media and communication. This study explores the basic themes and expansion of the idea of digital literacy around the academia; furthermore, a case is presented of how digital literacy is linked with digital divide in developing economies and how QR Codes can synergize the process of digital growth of societies and how QR Codes are addressed around the world.

Chapter 21 Parental/Guardian Subsidization of Extra Tuition and the Marginalization of the Poor in Zimbabwe: Social Exclusion in Education Sector in Zimbabwe...... 383 David Makwerere, Bindura University of Science Education, Zimbabwe Donwell Dube, Lupane State University, Zimbabwe

This chapter focused on the issues of social exclusion in the education sector in Zimbabwe. The primary focus was on the primary and secondary school education systems in the country. Using the lenses of the 

social exclusion concepts, the chapter looked at how the inequalities are informed by a chain of historical developments including colonialism, the effects of the Structural Adjustment Programmes of the 1990s, and the effects of the Fast Track Land Reform Programme, as well as the Indigenization and Economic Empowerment acts. The chapter submits that the children in urban high-density areas, farming, and rural areas are victims of structural inequalities that have led to social exclusion in the education sector. There is the need for the Government of Zimbabwe to address these inequalities as a matter of urgency.

Chapter 22 Promoting Access and Success for Disadvantaged Students in Indonesian Basic Education: Social Justice in Education...... 403 Amirul Mukminin, Jambi University, Indonesia Akhmad Habibi, Jambi University, Indonesia

Although Indonesia has made improvements in the basic education and secondary education, one of the biggest problems is regarding the provision of equitable access and success for disadvantaged children aged between 7-15 years old in obtaining basic education with an acceptable quality in rural, urban, and remote areas. The purpose of this paper is to explore the causes related to disadvantaged children’s limited access and success and the social justice educational programs to promote their access and success in the Indonesian basic education. Data gathered from research articles and policy reports are the sources of the chapter. This chapter focuses on the contexts of access and success for disadvantaged children, the constraints on access and success in the Indonesian basic education for disadvantaged children, and how various policies and programs or groups (e.g., programs and policies at national government, local government, school district, and school levels) should address the problems to promote access and success for disadvantaged children in the basic education.

Chapter 23 Educational Reform...... 414 Joseph Ezale Cobbinah, University of Ghana, Ghana Michael Yamoah, University for Development Studies, Ghana

This chapter aims at examining the nature of educational reforms in general, access how they impact on the lives of the citizens, and identify some of the global perspectives of educational reforms. It examines how education could be reformed to make it equitable, address inequality and social injustice that still persists in our society. Educational programs in many parts of the world continue to undergo reformation due to governments’ policy changes or ideology, yet so many people seem not to be satisfied with the nature of education delivery. The chapter concludes that educational reform should not only aim at introducing just new courses, restructure the curriculum per se but should aim at ensuring that it equips the citizenry to make them develop entrepreneurial skills, be able to find solutions to their problems and self-reliant. Reforms must also address the social inequality, social injustice, and lack of equity, social and racial discrimination that still persists in our societies today.

Chapter 24 Types of Leadership...... 431 Joseph Ezale Cobbinah, University of Ghana, Ghana Samuel Agyemang, Bia Lamplighter College of Education, Ghana 

Leadership is an important component for performance of every organization. Schools like any other organization also need leadership that will make things happen. The social inequalities existing in schools make it very important for school authorities to appreciate that although leadership is a key to improvement in every school, there is the need for school authorities and stakeholders to appreciate that not every type of leadership is needed in every situation of the school. Different situations need different types of leadership. Therefore, the inequalities in schools also calls for different leadership types. This chapter critically examines the various types of leadership needed in PK-12 educational setting and how such leaders could help address the social inequalities that exist in our schools.

Chapter 25 Parental Involvement Contributes to Family Cultural Capital in J District in Shanghai: Based on Taoyuan Private Primary Migrant School...... 448 Keyi Lyu, East China Normal University, China Cong Lyu, East China Normal University, China Jiacheng Li, Shanghai Municipal Institute for Lifelong Education, China Ghassan Shughri, East China Normal University, China

Family cultural capital can be defined as a series of family cultural elements that are mainly held and transmitted by parents, that can contribute to children development. Many studies reveal that the family cultural capital of the migrant works is insufficient, which exerts negative effects on the development of their children. The study focuses on exploring the relationship between parental involvement and family cultural capital. The authors selected Taoyuan migrant as a case which has conducted home- school collaboration reform for more than three years, using the methods of interview, questionnaire, and observation to get two mains findings: (1) The model of parental involvement experienced a change process from self-elimination to active-participation, in which the school played a major role. (2) When parents adopt the model of active-participation, family cultural capital changes in three main forms of activation, increasing and transformation.

Compilation of References...... 470

About the Contributors...... 544

Index...... 552