Independent Research Group 234

Impressum © 2003 Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin Design: Grafisches Atelier Rudolf J. Schmitt, Berlin Realization: Jürgen Baumgarten, Ivonne Bratke, Renate Hoffmann, Ulrich Kuhnert, Yvonne Misun, Erna Schiwietz, Peter Wittek of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development

Printed 2003 by DruckVerlag Kettler GmbH, Bönen/Westfalen, Germany Board of Directors Paul B. Baltes Jürgen Baumert Gerd Gigerenzer (Managing Director, January–December 2001) Karl Ulrich Mayer (Managing Director, January–December 2002)

Board of External Scientific Advisers Marlis Buchmann Laura L. Carstensen Leda Cosmides Jacquelynne S. Eccles Klaus Fiedler Andreas Krapp Herbert W. Marsh Walter Müller Jürgen Oelkers Anik de Ribaupierre-Bobillier Contents Introduction 6

Highlights 12

Cooperation with Universities 16

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 24

Center for Educational Research 60

Center for Lifespan Psychology 128

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 188

Independent Research Group 234

Service Units 248

Appendix 256 Introduction

8 Introduction Introduction

The Max Planck Institute for Human Development is a multidisciplinary research establishment dedicated to the study of human development and education. Its inquiries are broadly defined, but concentrate on the evolutionary, social, historical, and institutional contexts of human development, as well as examining it from life-span and life-course perspectives. The disciplines of education, psychology, and sociology reflect the current directors’ backgrounds, but the Institute’s scholarly spectrum is enriched by the work of colleagues from such fields as mathematics, economics, computer science, evolutionary biology, and the humanities. The Institute is one of about 80 research facilities financed by the Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science (Max-Planck-Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Wissenschaften e.V.), the core support for which is provided by the Federal Republic of Germany and its 16 states. The total permanent staff at the Institute is 113, including 37 researchers, supplemented by a varying number of predoctoral, postdoctoral, and affiliate researchers and visiting fellows.

Research Centers in medicine, law, and education. Research into processes of human Each of these research areas empha- development is conducted primarily sizes the evolutionary foundations from the theoretical vantage points of behavior and cognition, in partic- offered by models of life-span ular their domain specificity and psychology, bounded rationality and functional adaptiveness. adaptive behavior, life-course sociol- The Center for Educational Re- ogy, and conceptions of social- search (Director: Jürgen Baumert) historical change. examines learning and development The Institute is organized into four from an institutional point of view. research centers: Educational settings such as schools The Center for Adaptive Behavior offer a variety of developmental op- and Cognition (Director: Gerd Gigerenzer) investigates human rationality, in particular decision-making and risk perception in an uncertain world. Current research focuses on (1) bounded rationality, that is, the simple heuristics—cognitive, emotional, and behavioral—that laypeople and experts use to make decisions under constraints of limited time and knowledge, (2) social intelligence in cooperation and competition and (3) risk understanding and uncertainty management in everyday life, including applications

Introduction 9 portunities, but at the same time ceptual and methodological design exclude others. The impact of such of the studies. Theory, methodology settings is investigated from three and history of developmental psy- perspectives: (1) the long-term con- chology define an additional area of sequences of schools’ opportunity interest. structures on individual develop- In the Center for Sociology and ment in terms of cognitive compe- the Study of the Life Course tencies as well as motivational and (Director: Karl Ulrich Mayer), empiri- social resources, (2) international cal research is oriented toward the comparison of the outcomes of analysis of social structure and in- schooling in the fields of reading stitutions in a multilevel, historical comprehension, mathematics and and comparative perspective. Cur- science literacy, and cross-curricular rently, this research is organized competencies, and (3) improvement around four major foci: (1) Educa- of learning and instruction in terms tion, Training, and Employment; of the cognitive activation of stu- (2) East German Life Courses after dents, mainly in science and mathe- Unification (LV-Ost); (3) Welfare matics. State, Life Courses, and Social In- The Center for Lifespan Psychology equalities; and (4) Life-Course Re- (Director: Paul B. Baltes) is charac- search and Analysis: Theory, Meth- terized by a lifespan perspective and ods, and Synthesis. The research a concern with the optimization of centers on the degree of interde- human potential. The studies of pendence among the processes of children, adolescents, adults, and family formation, educational ca- the elderly concentrate primarily on reers, and occupational trajectories the development of personality, in the life histories of members of motivation, selfhood, intelligence, various birth cohorts that differ in memory, and information processing, their historical situation as well as as well as on various aspects of life- in their sociopolitical contexts (e.g., long socialization including the fam- former East vs. West Germany). The ily. In each of these areas, plasticity methodology of sociostructural of human functioning and the con- analysis and the analysis of dynamic ditions for successful development processes provide additional foci of play an important role in the con- activity.

Fotos: David Ausserhofer.

10 Introduction Governance of the Institute The Institute is governed by a Board of Directors, currently consisting of the four members of the Institute who are fellows (Wissenschaftliche Mitglieder) of the Max Planck Socie- ty (Jürgen Baumert, Paul B. Baltes, Gerd Gigerenzer, Karl Ulrich Mayer). The board is augmented by one member from the Institute’s research staff (Ralph Hertwig) and Organization of the Annual Report the head of administration (Nina This research report is organized in Körner). Each of the directors is the following manner: elected to serve as managing direc- • The presentation of each research tor for a two-year period on a rotat- center begins with an introductory ing basis. overview summarizing its program. Several in-house committees com- • The introduction is followed by posed of representatives elected by descriptions of the center’s re- the entire scientific staff or by ap- search areas and selected projects pointment advise the Board of Di- along with a list of scientific pub- rectors on matters of scientific re- lications. search and policy. One of the major • The supportive activities of the institute-wide committees is the service units—library and comput- scientific staff committee (Mitar- ing services—are described in a beiterausschuss) which is elected by special section at the end of the all scientists. report. The International Board of Scien- • The appendix provides information tific Advisers offers an important on the research colloquia held at source of external review and advice the Institute, the visiting scholars, to both the directors and the scien- and the cooperation of the Insti- tific staff on matters of research at tute’s scientific staff with projects the Institute. Members are selected outside the Institute. It also in- from an international circle of dis- cludes an index of the scientific tinguished researchers and appoint- staff and their research interests. ed by the President of the Max Inquiries about publications should Planck Society to four-year terms. be addressed to the author(s) in- They meet biannually to discuss volved in the individual projects. completed, ongoing, and future Copies of the annual reports are research projects at the Institute. available from the Publications Unit A list of the current members can (Redaktion) of the Institute upon re- be found on the frontmatter of this quest. report.

Berlin, March 2003 For the Board of Directors: Jürgen Baumert

Introduction 11 Highlights Honors and Awards

Paul B. Baltes Honorary Doctorate, Humboldt University of Berlin Paul B. Baltes “Großes Bundesverdienstkreuz mit Stern“ of the Federal Republic of Germany Paul B. Baltes 2001 Distinguished Career Contribution to Gerontology Award of Behavioral and Social Sciences Section of The Gerontological Society of America Jürgen Baumert Honorary Doctorate, University of Fribourg, Switzerland Jürgen Baumert Franz Emanuel Weinert Prize, German Psychological Association (DGPs) Felix Büchel Honorary Professor of Sociology, Free University of Berlin Wolfgang Edelstein 2002 Kuhmerker and Gifts of Time Foundation Award of the Association for Moral Education Gerd Gigerenzer “Most Informative Book of the Year 2002“ by “Bild der Wissenschaft“ for “Reckoning with Risk: Learning to Live with Uncertainty“ Gerd Gigerenzer Fellow, Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina Lothar Krappmann Member, United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child Oliver Vitouch 2002 City of Vienna Science Award

Professional Career Advancements Eckhard Klieme Full Professor for Educational Science, University of Frankfurt/Main, and Head of the Department of Educational Evaluation, German Institute for International Educational Research (DIPF) Olaf Köller Full Professor for Educational Psychology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg Laura Martignon Professor for Mathematics and Mathematical Education, Teachers College of Ludwigsburg Markus Raab Junior Professor, University of Flensburg

Students Awards Barbara Fasolo 2002 Charlotte Hayes Dozier Award for Best Research Record, University of Colorado at Boulder Barbara Fasolo 2001 Student Poster Prize, Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Economics Barbara Fasolo 2001 University of Colorado at Boulder Fellowship Anne Goedicke The German Sociological Association's Prize for the best doctoral dissertation of the years 2001 and 2002 Yaniv Hanoch MINERVA Fellowship of the Max Planck Society Anke Höhne Marie Curie Fellowship of the European Commission, Research Directorate-General Markus Raab 2001 Karl Feige Prize, Sports Psychologists Association (asp) Tania Singer Otto Hahn Medal of the Max Planck Society Masanori Takezawa Research Fellowship, Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science Where have Our Researchers Gone? New Positions 2001–2002

Research Scientists Michael Corsten 2001, University of Jena, Assistant Professor Alexandra M. Freund 2003, Northwestern University, Evanston, Assistant Professor Eckhard Klieme 2001, University of Frankfurt a.M. and DIPF, Full Professor for Educational Science Olaf Köller 2002, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Full Professor for Educational Psychology Ineke Maas 2002, University of Utrecht, Dept. of Sociology, Associate Professor Laura Martignon 2003, Teachers College of Ludwigsburg, Professor for Mathematics and Mathematical Education Oliver Vitouch 2002, University of Vienna, Dept. of Psychology, Associate Professor

Postdoctoral Research Fellows H. Clark Barrett 2001, University of California at Los Angeles, Dept. of Anthropology, Assistant Professsor Pascale Dorenlot 2001, INSERM–RFR Santé, Vieillissement, Société, Groupe hospitalier Ste Perrine Paolo Ghisletta 2001, Maitre Assistent, Centre Interfacultaire de Géronto- logie, University of Geneva Judith Glück 2002, University of Vienna, Dept. of Psychology, Associate Professor Yongfang Liu 2002, Shandong Normal University Barnaby Marsh 2002, Research Fellowship, University of Oxford Richard McElreath 2002, University of California at Davis, Dept. of Anthropology, Assistant Professor Markus Raab 2003, University of Flensburg, Junior Professor Lixia Yang 2003, University of Toronto, Postdoctoral Fellow

Predoctoral Research Fellows Sanjay Chandrasekharan Carleton University, Ottawa, Doctoral Candidate, Cognitive Science Carola Fanselow 2002, University of Applied Sciences Eberswalde Christine Gürtler 2002, Dept. of Educational Science, University of Potsdam Joseph Johnson, 2002, Indiana University, Doctoral Candidate Michael Rapp 2002, Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York Judith Schrenk 2002, Dept. of Educational Science, University of Potsdam Christoph Wassner 2002, University of Kassel, Doctoral Candidate Joachim Wirth 2002, University of Essen, Dept. of Psychology, Assistant Professor

14 Highlights Conferences Organized by Institute Researchers

Overeducation in Europe: What Graduate Program “Neuropsychia- Do We Know? try and Psychology of Aging“ (MPI for Human Development & ROA at (MPI for Human Development & Free University Maastricht University) of Berlin) November 2002 Fall Academy 2001, October (Organizers: Felix Büchel & Antje Mertens, (Organizer: Jacqui Smith; Directors: Paul B. Baltes together with Andries de Grip) & Isabella Heuser)

International Max Planck Research Changing Work and Life Patterns School in Western Industrial Societies The Life Course: Evolutionary and (MPI for Human Development, DIW, WZB, Brandeis University, & Murray Research Center at Harvard Ontogenetic Dynamics (LIFE) University) (MPI for Human Development & University September 2001 of Michigan) (Coorganizer: Heike Trappe) LIFE Fall Academy 2002, October (Organizer: Julia Delius; Directors: Paul B. Baltes & Jacquelynne S. Eccles) Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Graduate Program “Neuropsychia- Economics try and Psychology of Aging“ (MPI for Human Development, University of (MPI for Human Development & Free University Nottingham, & Universitat Pompeu Fabra) of Berlin) August 2001 Fall Academy 2002, October (Organizer: Jörg Rieskamp; Directors: Gerd (Organizer: Jacqui Smith; Directors: Paul B. Baltes Gigerenzer, Chris Starmer, & Robin Hogarth) & Isabella Heuser) Xenophobia and Right-Wing Summer Institute on Bounded Extremism Rationality in Psychology and A Multi-Disciplinary Colloquia Series May – July 2001 Economics (Organizer: MPI for Human Development Staff Special Focus: Emotions as Foundations of Representatives Committee: Felix Büchel, Judith Bounded Rationality Glück, Ulrich Hoffrage, Petra Stanat, & Joachim (MPI for Human Development, University of Wirth) Nottingham, & Universitat Pompeu Fabra) August 2002 (Organizer: Stephanie Kurzenhäuser; Directors: Comparative Education Law: Gerd Gigerenzer, Chris Starmer, & Robin Hogarth) A New Approach Schulen als differentielle (MPI for Human Development & German Institute for International Educational Research, DIPF) Entwicklungsmilieus March 2001 November 2001 (Organizers: Jürgen Baumert & Hermann Avena- (Organizers: Eckhard Klieme, Olaf Köller, & Elsbeth rius, together with Hans-Peter Füssel) Stern)

Lectures on Human Aging (Ernst Schering Research Foundation, MPI for Human Development, Humboldt University Berlin, Graduate Program “Neuropsychiatry and Psychology of Aging“, Free University of Berlin) May 2002 Leonard Hayflick: Human Aging, Disease, and Longevity Determination Cellular Aging, Immortality, and the Telomere Replicometer

Highlights 15

Cooperation with Universities Teaching and Academic Degrees

The Institute has always considered its cooperation with universities as very important, especially by participating in teaching activities. Researchers from our Institute teach courses at three universities in Berlin and at the University of Potsdam as well as at many other universities in Germany and abroad. In the years 2001–2002,, more than 100 courses were taught by scientific staff members—directors, research scientists, postdoctoral as well as predoctoral fellows—of the Institute. In addition, Institute members were supported in completing their academic degrees in cooperation with the universities in Berlin and elsewhere. In the years 2001–2002, 5 habilitations and 13 doctoral dissertations were completed by scientific staff members of the Institute. 42 student assistants associated with projects at the Institute completed Master’s and diploma theses. All degrees are listed in the Appendix.

Carolyne Kardia, Sculpture Installation: Exhibition in the Institute’s entrance hall.

18 Cooperation with Universities International Max Planck Research School The Life Course: Evolutionary and Ontogenetic Dynamics (LIFE)

This graduate program is part of the In 2002, the first cohort of 9 doctor- Co-chairs Max Planck Society’s framework of al fellows with diplomas and mas- Paul B. Baltes International Max Planck Research ters’ degrees in anthropology, biolo- Jacquelynne S. Schools. It was established in 2001 gy, educational science, sociology, Eccles (University as a collaboration between the Max and psychology from Europe and the of Michigan, Ann Planck Institute for Human Develop- USA were recruited to begin the Arbor) ment, Berlin, the Humboldt Universi- program in Berlin. They are studying ty Berlin, the Free University of at one of the three Berlin institu- Coordinator Berlin, and the University of Michi- tions and are joined by further Julia Delius gan, Ann Arbor, USA. The goal of the external fellows (funded by other Research School is advanced re- institutions) also taking part in the www.imprs-life.mpg.de search training in the study of program. In parallel, 5 fellows com- human behavior and institutional menced the program at the Uni- systems over evolutionary and onto- versity of Michigan in Ann Arbor. genetic time. LIFE will take an Further fellows will be recruited integrative and interdisciplinary ap- annually (see list overleaf). proach to understanding human As the opening event, the first LIFE development in a changing world, Fall Academy took place at the Har- connecting evolutionary, ontogenet- nack House in Berlin from October ic, historical, and institutional per- 10–13, 2002. Participants included spectives. An added focus is on the LIFE fellows from Ann Arbor and evolution and interaction of individ- Berlin, along with guest fellows ual and institutional development. from the Chinese Academy of Sci- The target group of the Research ences in Peking, the University School are post-diploma or post- of Warsaw, and other international master’s graduate students who in- institutions. The teaching faculty tend to pursue a doctorate in one consisted of faculty members from of the relevant disciplines (biology, Berlin and Ann Arbor. Weekly psychology, sociology, anthropology, courses at the Max Planck Institute educational science). As a collabora- for Human Development are taught tive Research School, LIFE offers throughout students unique training in the dy- the academic namics of human behavior and soci- year. The next etal institutions linked to the life Academy is course on different time scales. It scheduled to includes opportunities for research take place at abroad at a cooperating institution. the University The training program involves of Michigan courses, a series of Fall and Spring from May Academies, and collaborative super- 5–10, 2003. vision of research training.

Cooperation with Universities 19 Faculty Toni Antonucci, Psychology, University of Michigan 2002/2003 Jens B. Asendorpf, Psychology, Humboldt University Berlin Paul B. Baltes (Co-chair), Psychology, MPI for Human Development Jürgen Baumert, Educational Science, MPI for Human Development Kai Cortina, Psychology & Education, University of Michigan Jacquelynne S. Eccles (Co-chair), Psychology & Education, Univ. of Michigan Georg Elwert, Ethnology, Free University of Berlin David L. Featherman, Sociology & Social Psychology, University of Michigan Peter A. Frensch, Psychology, Humboldt University Berlin Alexandra M. Freund (Faculty Associate), Psychology, MPI for Human Devel- opment Gerd Gigerenzer, Psychology, MPI for Human Development Peter Hammerstein, Biology, Humboldt University Berlin Martin Kohli, Sociology, Free University of Berlin Ralf T. Krampe (Faculty Associate), Psychology, MPI for Human Development Rainer H. Lehmann, Educational Science, Humboldt University Berlin Shu-Chen Li (Faculty Associate), Psychology, MPI for Human Development Bobbi S. Low, Evolutionary & Behavioral Ecology, University of Michigan Betsy Lozoff, Pediatrics, University of Michigan Karl Ulrich Mayer, Sociology, MPI for Human Development Hans Merkens, Educational Science, Free University of Berlin Richard E. Nisbett, Psychology, University of Michigan Patricia Reuter-Lorenz, Cognitive Psychology, University of Michigan Ralf Schwarzer, Psychology, Free University of Berlin Peter M. Todd (Faculty Associate), Psychology, MPI for Human Development Henry M. Wellman, Psychology, University of Michigan

LIFE Doctoral Jaap J. A. Denissen, Humboldt University Berlin Fellows Natalie C. Ebner (external LIFE fellow), MPI for Human Development 2002/2003 Katherine Leigh Fiori, University of Michigan Jessica Garrett, University of Michigan Nicole Hess, Humboldt University Berlin Rainer Heuer (external LIFE fellow), Free University of Berlin Oliver Huxhold, MPI for Human Development Christina Karlyn Limbird, Free University of Berlin Helen Krumme, Free University of Berlin Rui Mata, MPI for Human Development Gabriel Nagy (external LIFE fellow), MPI for Human Development Thorsten Pachur (external LIFE fellow), MPI for Human Development Christina Röcke, MPI for Human Development Dennis Rünger, Humboldt University Berlin Sabine Schäfer (external LIFE fellow), MPI for Human Development Tih-Fen Ting, University of Michigan Andreas Wilke, MPI for Human Development Rebecca Utz, University of Michigan Nicole Zarrett, University of Michigan

20 Cooperation with Universities The Graduate Program (Graduiertenkolleg) on the Neuropsychiatry and Psychology of Aging

Neuropsychiatry and Members of the Center for Lifespan This program represents a cross-dis- Psychology of Aging Psychology involved include: cipline collaboration between psy- Paul B. Baltes (Co-chair) chology, psychiatry, and medicine www.fu-berlin.de/age Jacqui Smith (Member of the and illustrates an important link be- Steering Committee) tween the Center for Lifespan Psy- Alexandra M. Freund chology and the FU in fostering jun- Paolo Ghisletta (–2001) ior researchers. Seven research Judith Glück (–2002) groups are involved in the program: Ralf Krampe FU—Department of Psychology Ute Kunzmann (Schwarzer), University Hospital Shu-Chen Li Benjamin Franklin, Psychiatry Clinic (Heuser, Reischies), and ENT Clinic Predoctoral fellows in the Center (Scherer); the Max-Delbrück- for Lifespan Psychology: Centrum for Molecular Medicine Albina Bondar (Berlin-Buch); the Neurological Clin- Natalie C. Ebner ic of the Charité, Humboldt Univer- Susanne Ehrhorn sity Berlin; as well as the Max Denis Gerstorf Planck Institute for Human Develop- Daniel Grühn ment, Center for Lifespan Psycholo- Michael Rapp gy. Together, these groups seek to Michaela Riediger integrate medical, psychiatric, and Susanne Scheibe psychological research on aging and Florian Schmiedek very old age. Antje Stange In the period 2001–2002, 10 doctoral fellows from the Center for Life- span Psychology have worked to- This special program for doctoral gether with 10 fellows (medicine training in psychological and psychi- and psychology) from the FU to fur- atric gerontology located at the Free ther their studies in gerontology. In University of Berlin (FU) was estab- total, 9 dissertations have been sub- lished in October 1998 by the late mitted from the program, including Margret M. Baltes and Hanfried 7 by fellows from the Center for Helmchen with funding from the Lifespan Psychology or supervised by German Research Council (DFG). The Center researchers (see overleaf). program was co-chaired by Hanfried The Berlin Aging Study (BASE) serves Helmchen (Psychiatry, FU) and Paul as a context for these graduates to B. Baltes (Psychology, Max Planck learn about the different theoretical Institute for Human Development) and practice-related perspectives from March 1999 to March 2001. In associated with the general field of April 2001, Isabella Heuser (Psychia- gerontology (e.g., biology, public try, FU) took over the chair after the health, sociology, demography, his- retirement of Hanfried Helmchen. tory, adult education, economics).

Cooperation with Universities 21 The graduate program involves regu- Rapp, M. (2003). Dual-task perform- lar seminars, workshops, and Fall ance in memory and balance: The Academies in which international role of aging and Alzheimer’s disease. researchers and doctoral fellows Doctoral thesis, Free University of from other programs participate. Berlin. From 2002, postdoctoral fellow at Dissertations completed the Department of Psychiatry, Bondar, A. (2003). Balance and cog- Mount Sinai School of Medicine, nition: Resource allocation and its New York. control in young and older adults. Doctoral thesis, Free University of Riediger, M. (2001). On the dynamic Berlin. Available online: relations among multiple goals. www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2003/48. Doctoral thesis, Free University From 2003, postdoctoral fellow at of Berlin. Available online: the MPI for Human Development. www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2001/266. From 2003, research scientist at the Jopp, D. (2003). Erfolgreiches Altern: MPI for Human Development. Zum funktionalen Zusammenspiel von personalen Ressourcen und Schmiedek, F. (2003). The structure adaptiven Strategien des Lebens- of cognitive abilities in old and very managements. Doctoral thesis, Free old age: On the importance of specif- University of Berlin. Available online: ic group factors in a dedifferentiated www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2003/50 factor space. Doctoral thesis, Free (Thesis supervisors at the Free Uni- University of Berlin. versity of Berlin: Jacqui Smith & From 2003, postdoctoral fellow at Paul B. Baltes). the MPI for Human Development.

Lißmann, I. (2002, submitted). In- Singer, T. (2000). Testing-the-Limits traindividuelle Veränderungen von in einer mnemonischen Fähigkeit: Extraversion und Neurotizismus im Eine Studie zur kognitiven Plastizität hohen Alter: Die Bedeutung sen- im hohen Alter. Doctoral thesis, Free sorischer Beeinträchtigung. Doctoral University of Berlin. Available online: thesis, Free University of Berlin www.diss.fu-berlin.de/2000/78. (Thesis supervisors at the Free Uni- From 2002, postdoctoral fellow at versity of Berlin: Jacqui Smith & the Wellcome Department of Imag- Paul B. Baltes). ing Neuroscience, London. From December 2002, appointment at the University of Marburg.

22 Cooperation with Universities Cooperation with Universities 23

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Contents

Introductory Overview ...... 27

Bounded Rationality ...... 29

Ecological Rationality ...... 34

Social Rationality ...... 40

Evolutionary Psychology ...... 44

Methods, Metaphors, and Theory Construction ...... 47

Publications 2001–2002 ...... 52

Scientific Staff 2001–2002

Uwe Czienskowski, Gerd Gigerenzer, Ralph Hertwig, Ulrich Hoffrage, John M. C. Hutchinson, Monika Keller, Lothar Krappmann (retired in 2001), Laura Martignon (as of 2003: Teachers College of Ludwigsburg), Marianne Müller-Brettel, Jörg Rieskamp, Lael Schooler, Peter M. Todd, Oliver Vitouch (as of 2002: University of Vienna) Postdoctoral Research Fellows H. Clark Barrett (as of 2001: University of California at Los Angeles), Barbara Fasolo, Konstantinos Katsikopoulos, Elke M. Kurz-Milcke (Schloeßmann Scholar- ship), Yongfang Liu (as of 2002: Shandong Normal University), Barnaby Marsh (as of 2002: University of Oxford), Richard McElreath (as of 2002: University of California at Davis), Markus Raab (as of 2003: University of Flensburg), Torsten Reimer, Masanori Takezawa, Annika Wallin Predoctoral Research Fellows Sanjay Chandrasekharan (as of 2002: Carleton University, Ottawa), Anja Dieckmann, Thomas Dudey, Carola Fanselow (as of 2002: University of Applied Sciences Eberswalde), Christine Gürtler (as of 2002: University of Potsdam), Michaela Gummerum, Yaniv Hanoch (MINERVA Fellowship), Joseph Johnson (as of 2002: Indiana University), Stephanie Kurzenhäuser, Rui Mata (LIFE), Thorsten Pachur (LIFE), Judith Schrenk (as of 2002: University of Potsdam), Christoph Wassner (as of 2002: University of Kassel), Andreas Wilke (LIFE) Long-Term Visitors Konrad Halupka, Andreas Ortmann, Rocio Retamero-Garcia, Jorge Simão, Szymon Wichary

26 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Introductory Overview Truth is ever to be found in simplicity, The Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition (ABC) investigates reason- and not in the ing and decision making under uncertainty at the levels of both individuals multiplicity and and social groups. The research group consists of psychologists, mathe- confusion of maticians, computer scientists, evolutionary biologists, economists, and re- things. searchers from other fields. With different methodological abilities—such as Isaac Newton experimental methods, computer simulation, and mathematical analysis— they cooperate in solving the same problems. In this world noth- The ABC program combines a strong theoretical focus with practical appli- ing is certain but cations, that is, the research group both develops specific models and death and taxes. explores their applications. Those applications range from using heuristics Benjamin Franklin for stock market investment to teaching statistical thinking and improving statistical reasoning—for instance, of expert witnesses in law courts—by particular representations of numerical information about risks. The theoretical focus is on rationality and can be, albeit artificially, divided into three aspects: bounded, ecological, and social rationality.

Bounded rationality that such a match exists, heuristics Models of bounded rationality at- need not trade accuracy for speed tempt to answer the question of and frugality. The simultaneous how people with limited time, focus on the mind and its environ- knowledge, money, and other scarce ment, past and present, puts re- resources make decisions. This pro- search on decision making under gram is an alternative to the domi- uncertainty into an evolutionary and nant optimization paradigm in ecological framework, a framework cognitive science, economics, and that is missing in most theories of behavioral biology that poses the reasoning, both descriptive and nor- question of how Laplacean superin- mative. In short, we study the adap- telligences and other ominicient tation of mental and social strate- beings would behave. We study the gies to real-world environments proximal mechanisms of bounded rather than compare strategies to rationality, that is, the adaptive the laws of logic and probability heuristics that enable quick and fru- theory. gal decisions under uncertainty. This collection of heuristics and their Social rationality building blocks is what we call the Social rationality is a variant of eco- adaptive toolbox. logical rationality, one for which the environment is social rather than Ecological rationality physical or technical. Models of so- Models of ecological rationality de- cial rationality describe the struc- scribe the structure and representa- ture of social environments and tion of information in actual envi- their match with boundedly rational ronments and their match with strategies people use. There is a va- mental strategies, such as boundedly riety of goals and heuristics unique rational heuristics. To the degree to social environments. That is, in

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 27 Key Reference addition to the goals that define can create a consensus. To a much Gigerenzer, G. (2000). ecological rationality—to make fast, higher degree than for the purely Adaptive thinking: Ration- frugal, and fairly accurate deci- cognitive focus of most research on ality in the real world. New York: Oxford University sions—social rationality is concerned bounded rationality, socially adap- Press (344 p.). with goals, such as choosing an op- tive heuristics include emotions and tion that one can defend with argu- social norms that can act as heuris- ment or moral justification, or that tic principles for decision making.

These three notions of rationality (according to which the present text is largely structured) converge on the same central issue: to understand human behavior and cognition as adaptations to specific environments, ecological and social, and to discover the heuristics that guide adaptive behavior. In a fourth section we report on work that directly relates to O XFORD U NIVERSITY PRESS 2000 evolutionary psychology, which, as a meta-theoretical framework, lies behind the “adaptive“ in our center’s name. The research reported in the last section relates to methodological, historical, and theoretical questions, in particular the influence of methodological preferences—such as linear models—on theories of cognition. Our reflections on methodologies constitute a source of ideas that is of central importance to modeling visions of rationality. The ABC program is an invitation to take a journey into an exciting terri- tory. The journey ventures into a land of rationality that is different to the familiar one we know from the many stories in cognitive science and economics—tales in which humans with unlimited time and knowledge live in a world where the sun of enlightenment shines down in beams of logic and probability. The new land of rationality we set out to explore is, in contrast, shrouded in a mist of uncertainty. People in this world have only limited time, knowledge, and computational capacities with which to make inferences about what happens in their world. The notions of bounded, ecological, and social rationality are our guides to understanding how humble humans survive without following the heavenly rules of rational choice theory.

28 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Bounded Rationality Bounded rationality is what cogni- Humans and animals do make inferences about unknown features of their tive psychology is world under constraints of limited time, knowledge, and computational all about. And the capacities. Many models of rational decision making in cognitive science, study of bounded economics, biology, and other fields, in contrast, tend to ignore these con- rationality is not straints. We, however, do not conceive bounded rationality as optimization the study of opti- under constraints, nor do we think of bounded rationality as the study of mization in relation how people fail to meet normative ideals. Rather, bounded rationality is the to task environ- key to understanding how people make decisions without utilities and prob- ments. abilities. Bounded rationality consists of simple step-by-step rules that Herbert Simon function well under the constraints of limited search, knowledge, and time— whether an optimal procedure is available or not. Just as a mechanic will pull out specific wrenches, pliers, and spark-plug gap gauges to maintain an Key References engine rather than just hit everything with a hammer, different domains of Gigerenzer, G., & Gold- thought require different specialized tools. The notion of a toolbox full of stein, D. G. (1996). Rea- soning the fast and frugal unique single-function devices lacks the beauty of Leibniz’s dream of a way: Models of bounded single all-purpose inferential power tool. Instead, it evokes the abilities of rationality. Psychological Review, 103, 650–669. a craftsman, who can provide serviceable solutions to almost any problem Gigerenzer, G., Todd, P. with just what is at hand. M., & the ABC Research Group (1999). Simple heuristics that make us The Adaptive Toolbox – The heuristics in the adaptive smart. New York: Oxford This repertoire of specialized cogni- toolbox are orchestrated by some University Press (416 p.). tive mechanisms, which include fast mechanism reflecting the impor- Gigerenzer, G. & Selten, R. (Eds.). (2001a). Bounded and frugal heuristics, were shaped tance of conflicting motivations rationality: The adaptive by evolution for specific domains of and goals. toolbox. Cambridge, MA: inference and reasoning. We call MIT Press (377 p.). this collection of mechanisms built Fast and Frugal Heuristics into the human mind Fast and frugal heuristics generally SIMPLE the “adaptive tool- consist of three building blocks: sim- HEURISTICS box.” We clarify ple rules for guiding search (in mem- THAT MAKE US the concept of an ory or external search), for stopping SMART adaptive toolbox search, and for decision making. as follows: They are effective when they can – It refers to a specific group of exploit the structures of information GERD GIGERENZER,PETER M. TODD, AND THE ABC RESEARCH GROUP rules or heuristics rather than to a in the environment. That is, their general-purpose decision-making rationality is a form of “ecological Hertwig, R., & Hoffrage, algorithm. rationality,” rather than one of con- U. (2001b). Empirische – These heuristics are fast, frugal, sistency and coherence (Hertwig & Evidenz für einfache Heuristiken. Eine Antwort and computationally cheap rather Hoffrage, 2001b). During the last auf Bröder. Psychologische than consistent, coherent, and two years we have continued to Rundschau, 52, 162–165. general. study fast and frugal heuristics, in- Goldstein, D. G. & Gigerenzer, G. (2002). – These heuristics are adapted to troduced in the last annual report, (2002). Models of ecologi- particular environments, past or for pair comparisons (e.g., Take The cal rationality: The recognition heuristic. Psycho- present, physical or social. Best or the recognition heuristic; logical Review, 109, 75–90. Goldstein & Gigerenzer, 2002) and

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 29 In 1999, a Dahlem Konferenz organized by Gerd Gigerenzer and Reinhard Selten focused around Bounded Rationality. A number of in- ternationaly well-known social scientists discussed issues such as the adaptive toolbox , fast and frugal heuristics, fiction of optimization, self-esteem, risk taking, Prisoner's Dilem- ma, social learning, emotions, and norms. The collected background papers and group reports, written by all participants, document the overall goal of the conference: (a) to provide a framework of bounded rationality in terms of the metaphor of the adaptive toolbox, (b) to provide an understanding about why and when the simple heuristics in the adaptive toolbox work, (c) to extend the notion of bounded rationality from cognitive tools to emotions, and (d) to extend the notion of bounded rationality to include social norms, imitation, and other cultural tools.

for numerical estimation (e.g., Quick- options, and choice quality. They Est). In the following we will selec- propose Take The First as a heuristic tively report on some other heuris- that operates in ill-defined tasks, tics and new areas of applications. and conducted an experiment (involving a realistic sports situation Take The First presented to athletes) to test the Experimental decision-making re- predictions of the model. Initial search often uses tasks in which results support the model’s key pre- participants are presented with dictions: Strategies producing fewer alternatives from which they must generated options result in better choose. Although tasks of this type and more consistent decisions. may be useful in determining measures (e.g., preference) related to Fast and Frugal Heuristics in explicitly stated alternatives, they Legal Decision Making neglect an important aspect of Many legal decisions, such as the many real-world decision-making decision to bail upon adjourning a environments, namely, the option- case, have major consequences for generation process. Johnson and both defendants and society. In the Raab (in press) extend previous liter- English legal system, magistrates, ature that fills this void by present- most of whom are lay people, are ing a model that attempts to de- afforded considerable discretion and scribe the link between the use of must work under constraints such different strategies and the subse- as time pressure. Dhami and Ayton quent option-generation process, as (2001) conducted a judgment analy- well as the resulting choice charac- sis of the bail decision-making teristics. Specifically, they examine policies of 81 magistrates from 44 the relationship between strategy courts throughout England and use, number and order of generated Wales and found intra- and inter-

30 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition magistrate inconsistency in bail de- tioning (i.e., adaptively taking differ- Key References cisions, discrepancies between stat- ent pieces of evidence into account). Dhami, M. K., & Harries, ed and elicited cue use, and high Modeling the Hindsight Bias With C. (2001). Fast and frugal versus regression models levels of post-decisional confidence. Fast and Frugal Heuristics of human judgement. Furthermore, magistrates’ policies Some years ago, the work on fast Thinking & Reasoning, 7, 5–27. were better described and predicted and frugal heuristics was extended Hertwig, R., Fanselow, C., by a fast and frugal model charac- to model a well-known phenomenon & Hoffrage, U. (in press). terized by noncompensatory cue use of memory research, the hindsight Hindsight bias: How knowledge and heuristics than by either of two compensatory bias. Hindsight bias can occur when affect our reconstruction integration models. In such compen- people make a judgment or choice of the past. Memory. satory models, the most important and are later asked to recall what cue could in principle be compen- their judgment had been. If, in the sated for by other cues such that interim, they are told what the cor- the decision suggested by that cue rect judgment would have been, could be changed after considering their memory of their own judgment other and less important cues. tends to become biased toward the new information. To explain this Fast and Frugal Heuristics in phenomenon, Hoffrage, Hertwig, and Medical Decision Making Gigerenzer (2000) developed the Following Brunswik, social judgment RAFT model (Reconstruction After theorists have long relied on regres- Feedback with Take The Best). The sion models to describe both an in- core assumption of the model is dividual’s judgments and the envi- that new information updates the ronment on which such judgments knowledge base, which, in turn, will are made. However, the social judg- be used to reconstruct the initial ment theory is not synonymous with response. these compensatory, static, structur- Recently, Hertwig, Fanselow, and al models. Dhami and Harries (2001) Hoffrage (in press) put this model to compared the characterizations of a further test. Although typically physicians’ judgments using a reconsidered to be a robust phenome- gression model with that of a fast non, the hindsight bias is subject to and frugal, noncompensatory process moderating circumstances. A well- model. They found that both models known meta-analysis of the phe- fit the data equally well. Both mod- nomenon has revealed that the els suggest that physicians use few more experience people have with cues, that they disagree amongst the task under consideration, the themselves, and that their stated cue smaller the resulting hindsight bias use is discrepant with the models’ is. This observation is one bench- stated cue use. However, the fast mark against which the explanatory and frugal model is easier to convey power of the process models of to physicians and is also more psy- hindsight bias can be measured. Can chologically plausible. Therefore, the RAFT model account for this such models of bounded rationality “expertise effect?” Yes. Specifically, offer an attractive alternative for so- using computer simulations of the cial judgment theorists to conceptu- RAFT model, Hertwig, Fanselow, and alize the process of vicarious func- Hoffrage observed that the more

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 31 Key Reference comprehensive people’s knowledge decisions quickly can be met both by Dudey, T., & Todd, P. M. is in foresight, the smaller their increasing the internal information- (2001). Making good deci- hindsight bias is. In addition, they processing speed and by minimizing sions with minimal information: Simultaneous and made two counterintuitive observa- the amount of information to be sequential choice. Journal tions: First, the relation between used. Dudey and Todd (2001) fo- of Bioeconomics, 3, 195–215. foresight knowledge and hindsight cused on the latter effect and asked bias appears to be independent of how agents can make good deci- how knowledge is processed. Sec- sions with a minimum of informa- ond, even if foresight knowledge is tion using two specific tasks as false, it can reduce hindsight bias. examples. When a choice must be This work will be included in a made between simultaneously avail- special issue on the hindsight bias, able options, a minimum of infor- to appear in Memory, with Ulrich mation in the form of binary recog- Hoffrage and Rüdiger Pohl as guest nition (whether or not each item is editors. recognized) can be used by the recognition heuristic to choose ef- Fast and Frugal Heuristics in fectively. When options are encoun- Emotional and Cultural Contexts tered sequentially one at a time, a Fast and frugal heuristics alone do minimum of information (whether not fully characterize the function- or not each option is the best ing of our cognitive architecture. encountered so far) is sufficient to Emotions, such as fear or parental guide agents using a simple search- love, provide a powerful and effec- cutoff rule to high performance tive stopping rule by restricting along several choice criteria. This the range of options contemplated simple cutoff rule is even robust to and evaluated and by focusing the changes in the environment. Both agent’s attention on specific para- examples have important economic meters or aspects of the information as well as biological applications, (Hanoch, 2002). Similarly, in social and show the power of simple fast species, imitation and social learning and frugal heuristics to produce serve as mechanisms that enable good decisions with little informa- fast learning and obviate the need tion. for individual calculations of expected utilities. Social norms can also be The Benefits of Cognitive Limits seen as fast and frugal algorithms The premise that human informa- that dispense with individual cost- tion-processing capacity is limited is benefit computations and decision usually accompanied by another as- making. For instance, culture (as a sumption, namely, that these limita- system of values and beliefs) con- tions pose a liability: They constrain strains the number of options we our cognitive potential. These limi- consider when facing real-world tations bar us from performing feats decisions. such as reciting an epic poem from memory. Even more sinister, though, Satisficing is that these cognitive limits are The adaptive pressures facing hu- also suspected of being the culprit mans and other animals to make behind lapses of reasoning. The link

32 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition between cognitive limitations and regard for those limitations; in fact, Key Reference reasoning errors, more generally, and in psychologically important con- Hertwig, R., & Todd, P. human irrationality can be found in texts, simple strategies can actually M. (in press). More is not always better: The benefits such disparate research programs as outperform “unbounded” strategies. of cognitive limits. In L. Piaget’s theory of the cognitive Secondly, it is argued that limita- Macchi & D. Hardman (Eds.), Thinking: Psycholog- development of children, Johnson- tions in processing capacity can ac- ical perspectives on rea- Laird’s mental model theory, and tually enable rather than disable im- soning, judgment, and decision making. Chichester: Kahneman and Tversky’s heuristics- portant adaptive functions. Thirdly, Wiley. and-biases program. By bringing to- it is suggested that some of the gether ideas on cognitive limits from reasoning errors produced by the a variety of fields, Hertwig and Todd mind’s cognitive limits fulfill impor- (in press) challenge the seemingly tant adaptive functions. Finally, the obligatory link between cognitive assumption is challenged that sim- limitations and human irrationality. ple decision-making strategies have While not doubting that limits can evolved in response to the cognitive exact a price, they question their limitations of the human mind. The exclusively negative status. Firstly, reverse causality is suggested and the thesis is put forth that decision- the thesis is submitted that capacity making strategies that take limita- constraints may, in fact, be a by- tions into account need not be less product of the evolution of simple accurate than strategies with little strategies.

The ABC Research Group in December 2002

Left to right: (front row) John Hutchinson, Konstantinos Katsikopoulos, Anja Dieckmann, Barbara Fasolo, Yaniv Hanoch, Monika Keller, Laura Martignon, Ulrich Hoffrage, Stephanie Kurzenhäuser; (middle row) Annika Wallin, Michaela Gummerum, Stefan Krauss, Gerd Gigerenzer, Richard McElreath, Peter Todd, Masanori Takezawa, Rui Mata, Joseph Johnson, Thomas Dudey, Ralph Hertwig, Uwe Czienskowski; (back row) Torsten Reimer, Lothar Krappmann, Jörg Rieskamp, Andreas Wilke, Lael Schooler, Thorsten Pachur, Markus Raab, Oliver Vitouch.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 33 Perhaps the organ- Ecological Rationality ism could be seen as playing the role In the research on bounded rationality we found that the performance of of the husband and several fast and frugal heuristics, by and large, matches that of algorithms the environment that involve complex computations. Even if humans had the mental compu- that of the wife, or tational power to use such complex algorithms, they would not gain much, the reverse may be if anything at all by using them. The astonishingly high accuracy of these argued as well. heuristics indicates their ecological rationality; fast and frugal heuristics ex- Egon Brunswik ploit the statistical structure of the environment and they are adapted to this structure (Martignon & Hoffrage, 2002). Our upcoming group book, the Human rational follow-up to Simple Heuristics That Make Us Smart, will focus on ecological behavior (…) is rationality by exploring the ways that simple decision mechanisms fit with shaped by a scis- particular information structures in their environment. The book will cover sors whose two heuristic building blocks and decision trees, social and nonsocial environ- blades are the ments, as well as how people structure their own environments for easier structure of task cognition, and it will feature decision domains ranging from medical diag- environments and nosis to choosing a parking space to children’s games of chance. the computational We have pursued the issue of ecological rationality in yet another way, capabilities of the namely, by studying the question of representation. Representational for- actor. mats constitute environments for cognition. This research has practical rele- Herbert Simon vance in many domains, such as diagnostic inference or risk assessment in legal cases, where the external representation of diagnostic information influences physicians,’ counselors,’ and lawyers’ performances.

Key Reference Information Representation and, in particular, at the external Martignon, L., & Consider a situation in which a phy- representation of the information. Hoffrage, U. (2002). Fast, sician needs to infer the probability Probabilities and percentages are frugal, and fit: Simple heuristics for paired that an asymptomatic man has col- representations of uncertainty that comparison. Theory and orectal cancer (C) after he received a were devised only a few hundred Decision, 52, 29–71. positive hemoccult test result (pos) years ago. For most of the time dur- in a routine screening. In terms of ing which the human mind evolved, probabilities, the relevant informa- information was encountered in the tion (concerning a population of men form of natural frequencies, that is, aged 50) is a base rate for colorectal absolute frequencies as they result cancer p(C) = 0.3%, a sensitivity from observing cases that have p(pos|C) = 50%, and a false positive been representatively sampled from rate p(pos|¬C) = 3% (see Fig. 1). a population. The same information Whereas the Bayesian answer is represented in terms of natural 4.7%, typically most lay people (and frequencies is: “Thirty out of every also doctors) estimate this probabili- 10,000 people have colorectal ty at approximately 50% or higher. cancer. Of these 30 people with col- This result has been interpreted as orectal cancer, 15 will have a posi- the “base-rate neglect.” tive hemoccult test. Of the remain- To evaluate and understand the per- ing 9,970 people without colorectal formance of the human mind, one cancer, 300 will still have a positive needs to look at its environment hemoccult test.”

34 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Figure 1. Why natural frequencies facilitate the Probabilities Natural frequencies computation of the probability p(C|pos) of cancer given a positive test. The 10,000 Colorectal No colorectal symbols C and ¬C stand cancer cancer for colorectal cancer and no colorectal cancer, p(C) = .003 respectively, and pos and 30 9,970 p(pos | C) = .50 neg stand for a positive p(pos | ¬C) = .03 and negative test result, respectively. One can see that Bayes’s rule for prob- 300 9,670 15 15 abilities (left side) involves more calculation than for positive negative positive negative natural frequencies (right test test side).

Natural frequencies simplify ple believe this to be the case, the Key References Bayesian computations and, as a conclusion is not justified. This per- Gigerenzer, G., & consequence, help people gain in- centage, in fact, means that from Hoffrage, U. (1995). How to improve Bayesian rea- sight into Bayesian reasoning. This 1,000 women who participate in the soning without instruc- was demonstrated both with lay screening, 3 will die from breast tion: Frequency formats. Psychological Review, 102, people (Gigerenzer & Hoffrage, cancer within ten years, whereas 684–704. 1995) and recently also in different from 1,000 women who do not par- Hoffrage, U., Lindsey, S., fields of professional decision mak- ticipate, 4 will die. The difference Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, G. (2000). Communicating ing (Hoffrage, Lindsey, Hertwig, & between 4 and 3 is the 25% “rela- statistical information. Gigerenzer, 2000). tive risk reduction.” Expressed as an Science, 290, 2261–2262. “absolute risk reduction,” however, Representations of Risk Reduction this means that the absolute benefit Natural frequencies are also benefi- is 1 in 1,000, that is, 0.1%. Cancer cial for a related problem, namely, to organizations and health depart- understand the benefit of a therapy ments typically inform women of or of participation in a screening the relative risk reduction, which program. Women are generally in- gives a higher number—25% as formed that mammography screen- compared to 0.1%—and makes the ing reduces the risk of dying from benefit of screening appear larger breast cancer by 25%. Does that than if it were represented in ab- mean that from 100 women who solute risks. participate in the screening, 25 lives Matter-Walstra and Hoffrage (2001) will be saved? Although many peo- showed that women’s willingness

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 35 Calculated Risks / Reckoning with Risk / Das Einmaleins der Skepsis At the beginning of the 21st century, most children have learned to read and write, but many adults still do not know how to reason about uncertainties and risk. As this book repeatedly demonstrates, physicians or legal experts often do not understand the risks either. This problem has been called innumeracy and this book offers a remedy. The book provides experts and lay people with mind tools for understanding risks and communicating these effectively to others. These tools are easy to learn and can turn innumeracy into insight. They can help reduce the widespread uninformed consent in medical, legal, and everyday situations, from mammography screening to understanding the meaning of a DNA match in a legal trial. The book was published by Penguin in the UK and Simon & Schuster in the US (under the title Reck- oning with Risk: Learning to Live with Uncertainty). The German translation (Das Einmaleins der Skep- sis: Über den richtigen Umgang mit Zahlen und Risiken) has been selected the Most Informative Book of the Year by Bild der Wissenschaft, a major German science magazine. A Japanese translation is underway.

to participate in a mammography- Applications in Law screening program was considerably Judges also must make decisions lower after both the benefits and based on probabilities. Does the the disadvantages of the procedure representation of numerical infor- were explained in terms of natural mation in natural frequencies foster frequencies. By using natural fre- Bayesian reasoning in court? Profes- quencies that referred to the same sionals and law students in Germany reference population, the number of evaluated two criminal court case women who gained from screening files involving rape and forensic could be easily compared to those evidence of a DNA match. Expert who were harmed. Kurzenhäuser testimony reported the statistical (2003) analyzed 27 brochures that information of DNA profiles and informed women about mammogra- the rates of technical and human phy screening. The main result was mishaps leading to false-positive re- that the relevant statistical informa- sults. This information was present- tion about risks and benefits are, ed in two different formats, one for the most part, poorly explained. stated as probabilities and the other Even when information is provided, as natural frequencies. When these it is frequently given in terms of statistics were expressed as proba- vague verbal descriptions rather bilities, only 13% of the profession- than in precise numbers. als and less than 1% of the law

36 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition students correctly inferred the probing in the use of natural frequencies Key References ability that the defendant was actu- can even help people to reason with Sedlmeier, P., & ally the source of the trace. But probabilities. The solution is to teach Gigerenzer, G. (2001). Teaching Bayesian reason- when the identical statistics were people how to translate probabilities ing in less than two hours. stated as natural frequencies, 68% into natural frequency, representa- Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 130, and 44% of these same participants tions. Traditionally, however, stu- 380–400. made the correct inference. Perhaps dents are taught routinized proce- Kurzenhäuser, S., & more significantly, the different dures how to plug probabilities Hoffrage, U. (2002). Teaching Bayesian reason- ways of expressing the same statis- into mathematical formulae such ing: An evaluation of a tical information altered the verdicts as Bayes’s rule. We evaluated classroom tutorial for medical students. Medical in each case. When the information both teaching methods using a Teacher, 24, 516–521. was presented as probabilities, 45% computerized tutorial (Sedlmeier & Lindsey, S., Hertwig, R., & of the professionals and 55% of the Gigerenzer, 2001) as well as a tradi- Gigerenzer, G. (in press). students rendered a verdict of guilty, tional classroom setting (Kurzen- Communicating statistical evidence. Jurimetrics. but only 32% and 33% did so when häuser & Hoffrage, 2002). Note that the same statistics were expressed unlike in the studies reported earlier, as natural frequencies (Hertwig & all test problems were stated in Hoffrage, 2002; Lindsey, Hertwig, & probabilities. In both settings we Gigerenzer, in press). When verdicts found that teaching representations hinge on statistical evidence, under- was more effective. For instance, standing that evidence is crucial, when tested five weeks after train- and pursuing such simple methods ing, students who were taught how of fostering statistical insight could to translate probabilities into natu- contribute to that goal. ral frequencies could solve 90% of the new problems, whereas those Implications for Teaching Bayesian who were taught rules could only Reasoning solve approximately 20% (Sedlmeier The beneficial effects of natural fre- & Gigerenzer, 2001). Most of the quencies on statistical reasoning in students had probably only forgot- the studies reported above occurred ten the rules. Teaching representa- without training or instruction. tions rather than rules—and express- More importantly, systematic training statistical information in natural

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 37 Key Reference frequencies where appropriate—can increased the performance of Wassner, C., Martignon, help to foster the statistical reason- students dramatically and enabled L., & Sedlmeier, P. (2002). ing needed to make sound decisions. them to solve Bayesian problems Die Bedeutung der Dar- bietungsform für das all- with ease. Depending on the age tagsorientierte Lehren von ABC Goes to School: Classroom and pre-skills, the effect of frequen- Stochastik. In M. Prenzel & J. Doll (Eds.), Bildungs- Statistics for Everyday Life cy-training was 1.6 to twice as large qualität von Schule. Our findings are also relevant for as with probability-training. Schulische und außer- schulische Bedingungen teaching statistics at schools. mathematischer, naturwis- German school students consider How to Solve the Monty Hall senschaftlicher und über- fachlicher Kompetenzen probability theory an extremely Problem (pp. 35–50). Weinheim: appealing branch of mathematics Base-rate neglect is an example of a Beltz (Zeitschrift für Päda- (Wassner, Martignon, & Sedlmeier, so-called bias, typically revealed un- gogik, 45. Beiheft). 2002). Nonetheless, they find it der conditions that differ from peo- difficult to understand probability ple’s natural environments. By repre- problems and to solve them. Al- senting (statistical) information in though realistic probability problems a way that better fits the natural are concrete and numerical, they are environment in which our cognitive often presented to students in an system evolved, reasoning becomes abstract and formalized language. not only more accurate, but also We put the hypothesis that humans more consistent with statistical or should be better in understanding probability norms, such as Bayes’s probability problems with natural rule. Here is another example: Sup- frequencies rather than with proba- pose you are on a game show and bility formats to another test in lab- you are given the choice between studies with German school students three doors. Behind one door is a aged 14 to 19 years, whom we di- car; behind the others are goats. You vided into two groups with compa- pick, for example, door number 1, rable mathematical abilities. and the host, who knows what is One group was working with a new behind the doors, opens a different training software (developed by door, say, door number 3, to reveal a Sedlmeier & Köhlers) based on tree- goat. He then asks you, “Do you representations and natural fre- want to switch to door number 2?” quencies, the other group used a Is it to your advantage to switch conventional training software with your choice? What contestants probabilities. The evolutionary should do in this situation (known adapted training with frequencies as the Monty Hall problem or the

38 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition three-door problem) sparked a heat- atically give the wrong answer, and Key Reference ed public debate. Although it is to (...) insist on it, and are ready to Krauss, S., & Wang, X. T. the advantage of the contestant to berate in print those who propose (2003). The psychology of the Monty Hall problem: switch, until now, all experimental the right answer.” Discovering psychological studies on the Monty Hall problem Krauss and Wang (2003) were able mechanisms in solving a tenacious brain teaser. led to similar results: The vast ma- to shed light into this “mental tun- Journal of Experimental jority of participants believes that nel” by formulating the problem in Psychology: General, 132, switching and staying are equally an ecologically appropriate manner: 3–22. good alternatives. By asking “In how many of the pos- Piattelli-Palmarini singled out the sible arrangements would the con- Monty Hall problem as the most ex- testant win by switching and in how pressive example of the “cognitive many would she win by staying?” illusions” or “mental tunnels” in they allowed their participants to which “even the finest and best- reason in a frequentistic manner trained minds get trapped.” Relating (see Fig. 2). this problem to others, he concluded By implementing further manipula- that “no other statistical puzzle tions into the problem’s wording comes so close to fooling all the (e.g., a perspective change from the people all the time. (...) The phenom- perspective of the contestant to the enon is particularly interesting pre- perspective of the game show host), cisely because of its specificity, its they could bring a substantial por- reproducibility, and its immunity to tion of the participants to a full higher education.” He went on to understanding of the brain teasers’ state “even Nobel physicists system- underlying mathematical structure.

Figure 2. Explanation of the solution to the Monty Door 1 Door 2 Door 3 Hall problem: In two out of three possible car-goat Arrangement 1: goat goat car Here the contestant wins arrangements the contest- by switching. ant would win by switch- I ing; therefore she should then Monty switch. first choice Hall opens

Arrangement 2: goat car goat Here the contestant wins by switching. I then Monty first choice Hall opens

Here the contestant wins Arrangement 3: car goat goat by staying, no matter what Monty Hall does.

first choice

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 39 Social Rationality

Some of the most ambitious decisions faced by social species are those arising from an environment comprised of the decisions of conspecifics. Social environments are characterized by the speed with which they can change and by the need to consider the decisions being made by others. These two features make social rationality an important and distinct form of ecological rationality.

Social Heuristics for Cooperation erately grim (see Fig. 3), predicted A framework that has frequently on average 65% of the decisions for been used to investigate cooperation a cross-validation sample. The is game theory. Following this tradi- heuristic starts by investing the tion, Rieskamp (2001) studied whole endowment, and if player B people’s social heuristics in the in- reciprocates the trusting investment definitely repeated investment with a substantial return, the game, which is a two-person se- heuristic continues to invest as long quential bargaining game that has as player B makes a substantial been used to study trust and reci- return. However, if player B exploits procity. Two players, A and B, receive player A with a low return in the an endowment, e.g. $10. Player A first period, or if player B repeatedly can invest any amount of the exploits player A during the game, endowment, which is then tripled, Moderately grim advances to the producing some surplus before it is third state, in which it will make no delivered to Player B. Player B then investment in all following periods. decides how much of the tripled The best heuristics for player B, amount she wishes to return to Reactive (see Fig. 3), predicted on player A. average 52% of the decisions. The social heuristics developed to Depending on player A’s decision in predict participants’ decisions were the first period, Reactive either re- more successful than alternative turns nothing when a low invest- models, including a learning model. ment was made or makes a return The best heuristic for player A, Mod- that leads to equal payoffs for both

Figure 3. The best heuristics developed to predict Moderately grim Reactive behavior in the indefinitely repeated investment game. E R: Reciprocal returns, D D E: Exploitive returns, Start R Start 0% T: Trust expressed by sub- 100% 100% stantial investments, and R D: Distrust expressed with D T low or no investments. E T T 0% Start 70%

40 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition players when a substantial invest- als pay attention to the behavior of Key Reference ment was made. The combination of others, the distributed effects of in- McElreath, R. (in press). these two simple social heuristics dividual actions are very complex. Community structure, mobility and the strength of demonstrates how people can make A good amount of speculation and norms in an African socie- cooperative decisions in asymmetric induction from historical and ethno- ty, the Sangu of Tanzania. In J. Henrich et al. (Eds.), interactions with a minimum of graphic cases exists, but deductive Foundations of human so- memory and computation. analysis of these arguments has ciality: Ethnography and experiments in 15 small- been lacking. Thus the function and scale societies. Oxford: The Roles of Cognition and value of the attitudes that generate Oxford University Press. Emotion in Cooperation cultures of honor are unclear. The details of what cues and algo- McElreath (in press) analyzed a for- rithms are involved in altruism, mal model of conflict management friendship, and general good will, as strategies that track and value per- well as the potential functions of sonal honor to explore the material emotional states in these algorithms, incentives and community structures have been the subject of a good that might lead to and maintain amount of speculation and research. them. The analyses indicate that, For a recent Dahlem Conference vol- unlike models of public standing for ume, McElreath et al. (in press) regulating cooperation, simple reviewed of the empirical evidence honor-attentive strategies perform and theory about the cognitive well even when information about nature of heuristics for cooperation, the standing of others is poor. The and the role of emotion and affect results may also explain the persist- in regulating such behaviors. This lit- ence of cultures of honor in situa- erature has important implications tions where the material incentives for interpreting natural history (for that may have lead to the values animals ranging from bats to her- arising are no longer present. maphrodite fish) and for predicting the effects of institutional design on Adaptive Foundations of an patterns of human cooperation. Egalitarian Social Norm One of the important problems of Honor and the Regulation of social rationality is to explain how a Conflict social norm will emerge from the In many societies, people value their interactions among socially rational public standing or “honor,” and oth- agents who adopt their behaviors er individuals recognize this stand- and cognitions in response to cur- ing as predictive of how others will rent social environments. As an il- behave when threatened or exploit- lustration, we focused on the emer- ed. Such cultures of honor have gence of an egalitarian distributive existed in many places and times, norm widely observed in primordial seem to arise quickly, and have en- societies. It has been argued that during properties. Yet the logic of communal sharing has emerged be- honorable strategies is poorly under- cause it is a social device reducing stood. Social strategies of this type uncertainty that is inherent in re- are impossible for individuals to de- source acquisition, but this cannot cide upon rationally: When individu- explain how the so-called free-rider

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 41 Key References problem is solved. Through a series and development can be obtained, Kameda, T., Takezawa, M., of evolutionary computer simula- which was not the case for friend- & Hastie, R. (2003). The tions, it was shown that communal ship (Keller, in press-a). The relation- logic of social sharing: An evolutionary game analysis sharing norms can emerge and are ship between structure and content of adaptive norm develop- sustained when there is asynchro- of friendship reasoning in different ment. Personality and So- cial Psychology Review, 7 nous uncertainty on food acquisition cultures—including different (1), 2–19. (Kameda, Takezawa, & Hastie, 2003). Western and Eastern cultures—was Keller, M. (in press-a). Die We further extended the results and explored by Gummerum (2002). Entwicklung von Verpflich- tungen und Verantwortun- hypothesized that this environment We have started to analyze the tran- gen in Beziehungen. Eine structure may work as a cue to sition from adolescence into young kulturvergleichende Per- spektive. In M. Knopf & induce a sharing behavior: When a adulthood in friendship reasoning in W. Schneider (Eds.), Fest- resource acquisition is framed as a cross-cultural perspective (Keller, schrift für Franz Weinert. uncertain, people may tend to share in press-b). A system for categorizing Tübingen: Hogrefe. such a resource with the others. This friendship reasoning was developed hypothesis was confirmed in differ- based on the integration of cogni- ent cultures under different settings tive-developmental theories, that is, (vignette and laboratory experiments theories on self, ego, and socio- in Japan and the U.S.; Kameda, moral development. The analyses Takezawa, Tindale, & Smith, 2001). support a transition from adolescent In a new project by Keller, Takezawa, reasoning of close identification with and Gummerum, the sharing of friends into reasoning of young resources is studied with children in adulthood, which is characterized by the context of cooperative games. individuality and autonomy. While young Chinese adults emphasize the Moral Decision-Making and Moral self as part of the societal system, Emotions in a Cross-Cultural they nevertheless reveal individuality Perspective and autonomy. Over the last two years, we have further explored the question of Development of Moral Emotions in how children and adolescents from a Cross-Cultural Perspective different Western and Asian cultures Moral feelings in the case of rule reason about morally relevant con- violation indicate moral sensitivity. flict situations in the family and in Younger children have been defined close friendship. Concerning the as “happy victimizers” because they developmental levels of socio-moral attribute positive feelings to moral reasoning in Icelandic and Chinese rule violators, while older children children and adolescents, the results tend to attribute moral (guilt) feel- revealed developmental differences ings to such a moral violator. How- in younger children—Chinese chil- ever, findings have been inconsistent dren are more advanced in socio- with regard to the attributional shift moral reasoning, for instance. In in older children. Based on the find- adolescents, however, such differ- ings from Chinese children, we test- ences were not observed. Further- ed whether a self-other differentia- more, in decision making and rea- tion may be an explanation for these soning about the authority dilemma, inconsistent findings. In a cross- a complex interaction of ecology cultural study we compared 6- and

42 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 9-year-old German and Portuguese children show that children are Key Reference children’s reasoning about the emo- aware of a hierarchy of influence Hertwig, R., Davis, J. N., & tions attributed to a rule violator, and that they have conceptions of Sulloway, F. J. (2002). Parental investment: How both in the role of self and hypo- how influence is exerted by them- an equity motive can pro- thetical other (Keller, Lourenco, selves and other. duce inequality. Psycho- logical Bulletin, 128, Malti, & Saalbach, in press). Younger 728–744. and older children attributed moral Parental Investment feelings more frequently to them- A special form of social behavior is selves as violator than to the hypo- behavior among family members. thetical other. But the findings also How can simple heuristics, particu- revealed a developmental shift in larly one-reason decision making, be both roles. Thus, a self-other differ- employed in the domain of parental entiation only partly accounts for in- investment? Specifically: How can consistent results in the attribution a parent decide which of several of emotions to others. Two other offspring he or she should give re- studies have been performed to fol- sources to first? The equity heuristic low up on the phenomenon of moral is a boundedly rational decision emotions in different contexts. rule specifying that parents should attempt to split resources equally Social Support among their children. But, whereas The submission of the report to the an equity motive produces a fair German Parliament on the “Condi- distribution at any given point in tions of Growing-up in Germany“ time, it yields a cumulative distribu- (1998), prepared by an expert com- tion of investments that is unequal mittee headed by Lothar Krapp- (Hertwig, Davis, & Sulloway, 2002). mann, was followed by a number of Which birth rank suffers most activities by which results of re- from a resource handicap depends search in development and social- on which growth period, and thus, ization were disseminated to groups which kind of resource is considered and organizations that are active in most important. If the total amount promoting children’s and adoles- of resource is crucial, then the equi- cents’ development and education. ty heuristic creates a middle-child A special feature of children’s social resource handicap. If, however, the world are their peer networks. Chil- first period is most important, this dren differ in social standing and in- heuristic creates a later-born re- fluence, although they offen claim source handicap. If one focuses on to be equals and do not accept uni- resources specific to the last period, lateral determination by a peer. The then an earlier-born resource handi- project “Inequality Among Children“ cap occurs. Across all handicaps, investigates how children’s social- middle-born children are never best ization is shaped by the conflicting off. Thus, as Hertwig, Davis, and Sul- experiences of functional leadership, loway concluded, the equity heuris- disrespectful exertion of power, tic can provide an explanation of and mutual negotiation. Analyses of why the birth-order literature re- questionnaire and interview data ports notoriously conflicting results collected from 9- to 11-year-old and conclusions.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 43 The tabula of hu- Evolutionary Psychology man nature was never rasa and it is Evolutionary psychology lies at the heart of many research projects under- now being read. taken by the ABC research group, providing a motivation for bounded William Hamilton rationality, supporting the significance of the environment in ecological rationality, and emphasizing the importance of the social interactions that lead to evolutionary change in social rationality. At the same time, evolutionary psychology is grounded in ecological rationality: It assumes that our minds were designed by natural selection to solve practical problems in an efficient and effective manner. While evolutionary psychology focuses specifically on ancestral environments and practical problems with fitness consequences, ecological rationality additionally encompasses decision making in present environments without privileging problems with fitness consequences. Recently, Hoffrage and Vitouch (2002) wrote a chapter on these and other issues involved in the evolutionary psychology of thinking and problem solving for a textbook on general psychology, which is notable for being—to the best of our knowledge—the first account of this topic in such a German textbook. Thus, ABC members are leading the growing interest in Germany toward this relatively new field, also organizing symposia and giving keynote lectures on the subject at major German conferences. In these efforts, we are also taking the opportunity to introduce the discussion of ecological rationality and the “adaptive toolbox” into the realm of evolutionary psychology, adding a new theoretical dimension to this area.

Key References Evolutionary psychology is the chology and the environment in Todd, P. M. (2000). The search for the evolved “mental which they live. ecological rationality of adaptations” that fill our behavioral Through the influence of cognitive mechanisms evolved to make up minds. American repertoire. These psychological science, mental adaptations are typ- Behavioral Scientist, 43, mechanisms were shaped over mil- ically viewed as software modules 940–956. lennia of natural and sexual selec- designed by evolution, specialized to Hoffrage, U., & Vitouch, O. (2002). Evolutionspsy- tion to solve the survival and repro- process naturally occurring informa- chologie des Denkens und duction problems our ancestors tion about biologically important Problemlösens. In W. Prinz & J. Müsseler (Eds.), All- faced, and they continue to guide situations in ways that guide adap- gemeine Psychologie our decisions and preferences today. tive behavior. Thus, evolutionary (pp. 734–794). Heidelberg: Spektrum Akademischer This does not mean that everything psychologists tend to analyze adap- Verlag. an individual does has been selected tive problems, such as mate choice, for, or even that those traits that foraging, habitat selection, etc., in have been selected for will neces- terms of the structure of the deci- sarily confer some advantage on an sion maker’s environment, and the individual expressing them in a types of perception, computation, modern environment. What this inference, strategies, and signals does mean is that the behaviors ex- that the decision maker uses. Again, pressed by modern individuals are because of cognitive science (and expected to be a result of the inter- particularly the influence of com- action between their evolved psy- puter models), analyzing the en-

44 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition vironment often gets short shrift, sexual reproduction entails combin- Key Reference while the computations assumed to ing one’s own genes with another Ketelaar, T., & Todd, P. M. be occurring inside a person’s head individual’s genes to produce off- (2001). Framing our thoughts: Ecological ra- are typically intricate and involved. spring. Through mate choice, indi- tionality as evolutionary However, ABC’s focus on ecological viduals can influence the quality of psychology’s answer to the frame problem. In H. R. rationality argues that evolution the genes passed on to their Holcomb (Ed.), Conceptual would have produced simple heuris- offspring, and the quality of the challenges in evolutionary psychology: Innovative re- tics for decision making in many parental care their offspring will search strategies (pp. 179– contexts, mechanisms that enable receive. For many species, including 211). Dordrecht: Kluwer. individuals to make decisions rapidly humans, potential mates are not and efficiently when it is important encountered simultaneously, but to do so. rather sequentially. When individuals find a potential mate they must Evolved Mechanism as a Solution decide whether the prospect is good to the Frame Problem enough to have offspring with. This Simple fast and frugal heuristics can sequential search problem can be help individuals make decisions addressed through the use of simple quickly, both by limiting the amount satisficing heuristics, which estab- of information they use to choose a lish a threshold aspiration level that course of action and by focusing at- enables the straightforward judg- tention on only the information that ment of the acceptability of a given will be most useful in making the potential mate. Simão and Todd (in choice. Thus, these simple evolved press) have explored ways in which inference mechanisms can help this aspiration level can be set based organisms overcome one form of on the experience of the individual the classic frame problem plaguing searching for a mate, finding that any information-processing decision simple threshold-adjustment mech- maker: How to avoid considering anisms can outperform complex the infinite number of possible real- optimizing methods in this domain, world options and their unlimited as in others. future consequences when choosing The decision mechanisms that may a course of action. Ketelaar and have evolved to help us solve adap- Todd (2001) demonstrate how sim- tive problems such as mate choice ple satisficing mechanisms that stop rely on the structure of the environ- search, using an aspiration level, can ment to make appropriate choices, limit the number of choices consid- and they will not work as well when ered, and how emotions can focus the environment is different from information gathering on only those what they expect (i.e., constantly cues that will be most useful to the being confronted with images of decision maker. beautiful people through mass media may skew our mate preferences Mate Choice in ways that lead to poorer individ- One of the most evolutionarily im- ual choices). But these mechanisms portant decisions facing sexually not only exploit environment struc- reproducing animals, including hu- ture, they also initially help to cre- mans, is mate choice. By definition, ate it. As an example, mate-choice

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 45 mechanisms affect the population of Billari (in press) explored this ques- available mates for others to choose tion by constructing a simulated from, which in turn can be seen in population of individuals all looking population-level measures of mating for marriage partners using simple success, such as the age at which search rules and found that, with individuals mate. In the human case, appropriate settings, these rules, op- demographers have studied patterns erating at the individual level, could of the age at which people first get indeed account for the aggregate married, and found that the pattern, population-level outcome commonly a right-skewed bell shape relating observed. Studies such as this (see percentage of the population get- also Todd & Kirby, 2001) close the ting married against the age at loop from environment structure to which marriage occurs, is remark- evolved behavioral mechanisms back ably constant in shape across cul- to behaviorally influenced environ- tures and historical periods. Could ment structure, further strengthen- this pattern be the consequence of ing the connection that evolutionary the individual mate-search strate- psychology focuses on between the gies that people are using? Todd and mind and the world.

46 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Methods, Metaphors, and Theory Construction … if the history of human achieve- In spite of the fact that most scientists search for universal truths, scientific ment in knowledge “truths” are contingent in important ways on the statistical and experimen- proves anything, it tal tools used to discover and test them. From different starting points and is that the all- based on different case studies, we converge on the same general issue in decisive discovery this project area, namely, the detection and understanding of the limitations is that of an and powers of scientists’ tools. effective and fruitful method. Experimentation in Psychology in psychology and economics. They John Dewey and Economics conclude that experimental econo- The core method in psychological mists’ prohibition of deception is a Key References research is experimentation. Hertwig sensible convention that economists Hertwig, R., & Ortmann, and Ortmann (2003) observed that A. (2001a). Experimental should not abandon. practices in economics: A the experimental practices in psy- The use of deception, however, is methodological challenge chology and experimental economics not the only striking difference in for psychologists? Behav- ioral and Brain Sciences, differ. In particular, a frequently the experimental practices of econo- 24, 383–403, 444–451. used methodological tool in psycho- mists and psychologists. Hertwig Ortmann, A., & Hertwig, logical experiments, the deception and Ortmann’s (2001a) investiga- R. (2002). The costs of deception: Evidence from of participants, is generally taboo in tions revealed that, in contrast to psychology. Experimental experimental economics. Recently, psychologists (here they mean Economics, 5, 111–131. however, it has been argued that the researchers in behavioral decision evidence in social science research making and related areas in social suggests that deceiving subjects in and cognitive psychology such as an experiment does not lead to a social cognition, problem solving significant loss of experimental and reasoning), economists bring a control. Based on this assessment, precisely defined script to experi- experimental economists have been ments and ask participants to enact counseled to lift their de facto pro- it, using repeated experimental tri- hibition against deception to cap- als. This allows participants to learn ture its potential benefits. Ortmann in the task environment, and to be and Hertwig (2002), argue that this paid on the basis of clearly defined recommendation draws on a selec- performance criteria. Do these tive sample of the available evi- methodological differences matter? dence. Building on a systematic re- Based on a review of empirical evi- view of relevant research in psychol- dence, Hertwig and Ortmann argue ogy, they present two major results: that the practices in experimental First, the evidence suggests that the psychology of not providing a pre- experience of having been deceived cisely defined script for participants generates suspicion, which, in turn, to enact, not repeating experimental is likely to affect the judgment and trials, and paying participants either decision making of a nonnegligible a flat fee or nothing leaves the so- number of participants. Second, they cial situation “experiment” open to a find little evidence for reputational variety of interpretations. The fact spillover effects that have been hy- that psychologists are (in)famous for pothesized by a number of authors deceiving participants’ is likely only

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 47 to magnify participants uncertainty of the conjunction rule is the Linda and second-guessing. The typical ex- problem, introduced by Tversky and perimental practices in psychology Kahneman: increase rather than decrease the background of variation against Linda is 31 years old, single, outspoken, and which effects are appraised and thus very bright. She majored in philosophy. As a reduce the replicability of results. student, she was deeply concerned with issues of discrimination and social justice, and also Hertwig and Ortmann (2001a) con- participated in anti-nuclear demonstrations. cluded that by improving research Rank the following statements by their proba- designs (e.g., repetition of trials, bility: Linda is a bank teller (T) performance-based payment) psy- Linda is active in the feminist movement (F) chologists can increase their control Linda is a bank teller and is active in the femi- of these sources of variation, thus nist movement (T & F) increasing effect sizes and the power of statistical tests. Hertwig and Ortmann (2001b) responded to the The typical result was that 80% to comments of 34 psychologists and 90% of participants judged T & F to economists, who discussed their be more probable than T, a judgment analysis of the different experimen- inconsistent with the conjunction tal culture in these two neighboring rule. With Tversky and Kahneman’s fields. Specifically, they argued that norm for rational reasoning, the the impact of key methodological content of the Linda problem is ir- variables should not be taken for relevant; one does not even need granted, but experimental practices to read the description of Linda. themselves should be based in em- As Hertwig and Gigerenzer (1999) pirical evidence. To this end, they argued, all that counts are the terms proposed that if no evidence about “probability” and “and,” which the impact of design variables is Tversky and Kahneman assume must available, then the decision about be interpreted as the mathematical design and implementation ought to probability and logical AND, respec- be subjected to systematic experi- tively. However, as the Oxford mentation. In brief, they argued English Dictionary shows both words against empirically blind conven- have multiple legitimate meanings tions and against methodological in natural language; only few of choices based on beliefs, habits, or them correspond to the mathe- rituals. matical probability and logical AND, and therefore need not obey the Adversarial Collaboration conjunction rule. Hertwig and A famous example that has often Gigerenzer showed that when the been used to illustrate human irra- polysemy of the English term “prob- tionality is the conjunction fallacy, ability” is eliminated—for instance, that is, violations of the conjunction by replacing “probability” with “fre- rule (if A includes B, then the proba- quency”—the conjunction fallacy bility of B cannot exceed the pro- disappears. Kahneman and Tversky bability of A). The classic problem (1996), however, devised a frequency designed to demonstrate violations version of the Linda problem in

48 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition which the conjunction fallacy reap- entist’s daily practice, suggested Key References peared. new theoretical metaphors and con- Gigerenzer, G., (1991). To debate controversial interpreta- cepts. It also predicted that once From tools to theories: A heuristic of discovery in tions of the conjunction fallacy, a proposed by an individual scientist cognitive psychology. Psy- new approach called adversarial col- (or a group), the new theoretical chological Review, 98 (2), 254–267. laboration was then adopted. It metaphors and concepts are more Mellers, B. A., Hertwig, R., requires both parties to agree on a likely to be accepted by the scientif- & Kahneman, D. (2001). procedure for resolving a dispute ic community if the members of Do frequency representations eliminate conjunc- and, with the help of an arbiter, the community are also users of the tion effects? An exercise conduct empirical tests. Mellers, new tools. in adversarial collaboration. Psychological Hertwig, and Kahneman (2001) A prominent researcher who used Science, 12, 269–275. began their collaboration with the tools-to-theories heuristic was Hertwig’s claims that frequencies Brunswik. Gigerenzer and Kurz eliminate conjunction effects and (2001) showed that after Brunswik that Kahneman and Tversky’s results switched to correlations as his new with frequencies were an artifact of tool, his concept of the mind also some participants interpreting “and” changed. He began to regard the as an “or.” Hertwig proposed two mind as an “intuitive statistician,” conjunction phrases that avoided and he suggested that the intuitive this interpretation. Kahneman pre- statistician would use the same new dicted that conjunction effects tools: correlation and regression. would still occur with one of them. In particular, vicarious functioning, Mellers served as arbiter. Frequen- which Brunswik considered the most cies by themselves did not eliminate fundamental principle of the science conjunction effects with any of the of perception and behavior, began to phrases, but when filler items were be modeled by multiple regression. removed, conjunction effects disap- Gigerenzer and Kurz proposed a rad- pear with Hertwig’s phrases. Al- ically different way to model vicari- though theoretical disagreements ous functioning: the framework of remain, Hertwig and Kahneman fast and frugal heuristics. Simple agree that joint experiments have heuristics are psychologically plausi- yielded theoretical progress and ble alternatives to multiple regres- advanced the understanding of sion and, in addition, are consistent conjunction effects that would not with Brunswik’s own ideas. The have been achieved by working sep- adaptive value of vicarious function- arately. ing is not only in making accurate judgments, but also in being able to Tools-to-Theories make judgments quickly and with Where do new ideas come from? In limited knowledge. Gigerenzer and his earlier work, Gigerenzer (1991) Kurz proposed to fill Brunswik’s lens wrote about scientific discovery in model (which provides a language terms of heuristics of discovery and for describing the environment and proposed that scientists often em- the cognitive system using the same ploy a tools-to-theories heuristic. terms) with fast and frugal heuris- This thesis predicted that new scien- tics and reported a counterintuitive tific tools, once entrenched in a sci- result: When making inferences

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 49 Key Reference about real-world criteria, such a fast that others did not care or dare to Gigerenzer, G. (1998). and frugal lens is not only as accu- ask. Surrogates for theories. rat as, but is even more accurate Krauss and Wassner (2001, 2002) Theory & Psychology, 8, 195–204. than the computationally complex focused on the educational aspect. multiple regression model. They provided a pedagogical concept of how to eliminate typical miscon- Null-Hypothesis Testing ceptions when teaching inference In a discussion of the limitations of statistics. The main aim of their di- (some) statistical tools, Gigerenzer dactical proposal is to foster insight (1998) predicted that future histori- by contrasting different statistical ans of psychology would be puzzled inference paradigms (null-hypothe- by an odd ritual: null-hypothesis sis testing according to Fisher, alter- testing. Although this ritual is cam- native hypothesis testing according ouflaged as the sine qua non of sci- to Neyman and Pearson, and entific methods, Gigerenzer argued Bayesian statistics) and to illustrate that it undermines the theoretical what can be obtained by each of progress in psychology by giving these paradigms and what cannot. researchers no incentive to specify Because the interpretation of the their hypotheses and by replacing results from all these paradigms is statistical thinking with the appli- based on the idea of conditional cation of a mindless statistical pro- probability, a sound understanding cedure. Such a mechanized routine of this core idea is required as a invites diverse misinterpretations. basis for understanding inference By using a questionnaire developed statistics (which can be obtained by Oakes in the year 1986, Haller with the “natural frequency” con- and Krauss (2002) found typical cept, see above). Finally, Gigerenzer misinterpretations of a significant and Krauss (2001) focused on the test result in 100% of the partici- history of significance tests and the pating German psychology students. development of the various prob- Astonishingly, even among the lems and misinterpretations. They participating methodology instruc- illustrated the relevance of eliminat- tors (university teachers who teach ing these misinterpretations at an psychological methods to psycholo- early stage in a student’s schooling. gy students), 80% showed misconceptions about the meaning of a Confusing Predictors and Criterion significant test result. Of course, the In cases in which a criterion is diffi- teaching of null-hypothesis testing cult to measure, a proxy may be can only be justified if students, substituted. For instance, because and their teachers, are able to grasp scientific achievement is hard to as- the meaning of what they are sess, the Institute of Scientific Infor- doing. In Gigerenzer, Krauss, and mation (ISI) citation rates are often Vitouch (in press), a curious stu- used instead. As a result, citation dent, who wanted to understand rates (the frequency of citations in a rather than perform the ritual, had set of journals) are in danger of be- the courage to ask questions that coming an objective measure of sci- seemed naive at first glance and entific quality. Müller-Brettel (2001)

50 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition argued that citation analysis will jority of citizens, pacifistic attitudes only be a useful tool for measuring predict pacifistic behavior only in scientific relevance as long as there times of peace, while in a concrete is a consensus in the scientific com- conflict situation social influences munity that publications in journals and attachments are better predic- with high citation rates are honest tors of behavior than moral values. indicators of scientific quality. An- As these two examples show, one other example is using self-reports should be careful to distinguish pre- to predict behavior in extreme situa- dictors and criteria: A citation rate tions. How reliable are these re- refers to scientific achievement, but ports? In a historical analysis of psy- it is not an objective measure for chological research on war and scientific quality, and a particular peace, Müller-Brettel (in press) as- value on an attitude scale refers to sessed the failure of militarism/paci- a mental disposition, but may not be fism scales to predict behavior in a reliable predictor for behavior. wartime situations. Among the ma-

Future Directions One of the major goals for the near future is to finish our new book on the match between heuristics and environments, thereby promoting and interconnecting research on bounded rationality and ecological rationality. Another major goal is to explore the legal dimensions of (the use of) heuristics and the way information is communicated. To this end, we will (1) extend the existing collaboration with the Max Planck Project Group "Common Goods: Law, Politics and Economics," (2) a Dahlem conference on Heuristics and the Law which will be held in June 2004 (organizers Gerd Gigerenzer and Christoph Engel), and (3) the third Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality (to be held 2003), for which we were able to get funding from the VW Stiftung, will focus on applications in the law (the last one focused on emotions, see box).

Summer Institutes 2001 and 2002

The Summer Institute intends to put forth a view of decision making that is anchored in the psycho- financial support: logical possibilities of humans rather than in the fictional construct of homo oeconomicus. The special focus in 2002 was to explore the idea of social rationality in combination with bounded rational-

Σ BoundedNP*=(u1*-c1)(u2*-c2)•(dove,dove)>1/2 (hawk, hawk) 1/2 (hawk, dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|Ai) * p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai) • NP*=(u Σ c1)(u2*-c2) • (dove, dove) > 1/2 (hawk, hawk) 1/2 (hawk, dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|Ai) * p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai) • NP*=(u1*-c1 Σ (dove, dove) > 1/2 (hawk, hawk) 1/2 (hawk, dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|Ai) *p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai) • NP*=(u1*-c1)(u2*-c2)• Σ ity and to integrate research on emotions into bounded rationality. Our emotional systems enable us 1/2 (hawk, hawk) 1/2 (hawk, dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|Ai) * p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai) • NP*=(u1*-c1)(u2*-c2) • (dove, dove) > 1 Σ hawk) 1/2 ,dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|Ai) * p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai) • NP*=(u1*-c1)(u2*-c2) • (dove, dove) > 1/2 (hawk, hawk) 1 Σ dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|Ai) * p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai) • NP*=(u1*-c1)(u2*-c2) • (dove, dove) > 1/2 (hawk, hawk) 1/2 (hawk, dove) Σ = p(B|Ai) * p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai) • NP*=(u1*-c1)(u2*-c2) • (dove, dove) > 1/2 (hawk, hawk) 1/2 (hawk, dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|A Σ Σ p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai)•NPc1)(u2*-c2) • (dove, dove) > 1/2 (hawk, hawk) 1/2 (hawk, dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|Ai) * p(Ai)/ Σ • NP*=(u1*-c1)(u2*-c2) • (dovawk, hawk) 1/2 (hawk, dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|Ai) * p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai) • NP*=(u1*-c1)(u2 Σ to make choices “fast and frugally”—that is, by reacting to our immediate emotional responses as dove) > 1/2 (hawk, hawk) 1/2 (hawk, dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|Ai) * p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai) • NP*=(u1*-c1)(u2*-c2) • (dove, dove) Σ Rationality(hawk, hawk) 1/2 (hawk, dove) • p(Ai|B) = p(B|Ai) * p(Ai)/ p(B|Ai) p(Ai) • NP*=(u1*-c1)(u2*-c2) • (dove, dove) > 1/2 opposed to engaging in costly deliberation. Because of their precise formulation, fast and frugal Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Economics Special Focus: heuristics provide a fruitful framework for studying when and how emotions come into play. Emotions as Foundations of Bounded Rationality 35 participants from eight European countries, the US, Israel, and China were selected from about August 13-21, 2002 - Berlin, Germany Aim The widespread conflict between the psychological and the rational is, in our view, an unnecessary fiction. Our aim is to encourage a view of human rationality that is anchored in the cognitive and emotional possibilities of humans rather than in the fictional construct of Homo economicus. Further- more, we want to foster understanding of how decision making using 200 applicants. They had backgrounds in psychology, economics, philosophy, anthropology, biology, various heuristics is adapted to specific environments. As a special focus this year, we consider how our emotional systems allow us to make fast and frugal decisions.

management, and finance, resulting in an international and interdisciplinary blend of young re- Summer Institute Directors Gerd Gigerenzer, Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany Robin Hogarth, Pompeu Fabra University, Barcelona, Spain searchers. They discovered a common interest in bounded rationality and benefitted from learning Chris Starmer, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, Great Britain

Venue Max Planck Institute for Human Development, Berlin, Germany about perspectives taken in other research fields. We are very encouraged that the Summer Institute Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Gisa Wilkens · 02/2001

Homepage http://www.mpib-berlin.mpg.de/SummerInstitute/  worked out as a technique to cross the borders between different disciplines.

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 51 Publications 2001–2002

Ashworth, G. J., Andersson, Å. fast and frugal way. Journal of Gigerenzer, G. (in press-a). ary, psychology, and motivation E., Baer, N. S., Leonhard, J.-F., Behavioral Decision Making, 14, Striking a blow for sanity in (pp. 113–143). Lincoln: Univer- Lyall, J. M., Martignon, L., 141–168. theories of rationality. In B. sity of Nebraska Press. Rütimann, H., Schubert, U., & Augier & J. G. March (Eds.), Es- – (2001b). The adaptive tool- Sˇtulc, J. (2001). Paradigms for Dhami, M. K., & Harries, C. says in honor of Herbert Simon. box. In G. Gigerenzer & rational decision-making in the (2001). Fast and frugal versus Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. R. Selten (Eds.), Bounded ra- preservation of cultural proper- regression models of human – (in press-b). Where do new tionality: The adaptive toolbox ty. In N. S. Baer & F. Snickars judgement. Thinking & Reason- ideas come from? A heuristic of (pp. 37–50). Cambridge, MA: (Eds.), Rational decision- ing, 7, 5–27. discovery in cognitive sciences. MIT Press. making in the preservation of In M. C. Galavotti (Ed.), Obser- – (2001c). Content-blind cultural property (pp. 277– Dudey, T., & Todd, P. M. vation and experiment in the norms, no norms, or good 294). Berlin: Dahlem University (2001). Making good decisions natural and social sciences. norms? A reply to Vranas. Cog- Press. with minimal information: Dordrecht: Kluwer. nition, 81, 93–103. Simultaneous and sequential – (2003). The adaptive toolbox – (2001d). Decision making: Atmaca, S., & Krauss, S. choice. Journal of Bioeconom- and lifespan development: Nonrational theories. In N. J. (2001). Der Einfluß der Auf- ics, 3, 195–215. Common questions? In U. M. Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.-in- gabenformulierung auf Staudinger & U. Lindenberger Chief), International encyclope- stochastische Performanz. Fang, G., Fang, F.-X., Keller, M., (Eds.), Understanding human dia of the social and behavioral Das “Drei-Türen-Problem.“ & Edelstein, W. (2003). A de- development: Dialogues with sciences (Vol. 5, pp. 3304– Stochastik in der Schule, 21, velopment study on Chinese lifespan psychology (pp. 423– 3309). Oxford: Elsevier Science. 14–21. children’s understanding of 435). Boston, MA: Kluwer. family relationship. Psychology – (2002a). The adaptive tool- Barrett, H. C. (2001a). Is cate- in the Schools, 40, 125–138. box: Toward a Darwinian gory specifity in the world or in rationality. In L. Bäckman & the mind? Behavioral and Brain Fiddick, L., & Barrett, H. C. C. von Hofsten (Eds.), Psycholo- Sciences, 24, 478–479. (2001). Evolution of cognition: gy at the turn of the millenium: – (2001b). On the functional An adaptationist perspective. In Vol. 1. Cognitive, biological, and origins of essentialism. Mind N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes health perspectives (pp. 481– and Society, 2, 1–30. (Eds.-in-Chief), International 505). Hove: Psychology Press. encyclopedia of the social and – (2002b). Calculated risks: Betsch, T., Hoffmann, K., behavioral sciences (Vol. 7, How to know when numbers Hoffrage, U., & Plessner, H. pp. 4996–5000). Oxford: deceive you. New York: Simon (2003). Intuition beyond recog- Elsevier Science. & Schuster (310 p.). nition: When less familiar – (2002c). Das Einmaleins der events are liked more. Experi- Skepsis. Über den richtigen mental Psychology, 50, 49–54. Umgang mit Zahlen und Risiken. Berlin: Berlin-Verlag Bilotta, E., Miranda, E. R., (406 p.). Pantano, P., & Todd, P. M. – (2002d). Intelligente Heuris- (2001). ALMMA 2001: Proceed- tiken. Rationalität aus darwi- – (2001e). Digital computer: ings. Workshop on artificial life nistischer Sicht. In C. Engel, Impact on the social sciences. models for musical applica- J. Halfmann, & M. Schulte In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes tions, Prague, September 9, (Eds.), Wissen—Nichtwissen— (Eds.-in-Chief), International 2001. Cosenza: Editoriale Bios. Unsicheres Wissen (pp. 161– encyclopedia of the social and 189). Baden-Baden: Nomos behavioral sciences (Vol. 6, Borges, B., Goldstein, D. G., & (Gemeinschaftsgüter: Recht, pp. 3684–3688). Oxford: Gigerenzer, G. (in press). Politik und Ökonomie, Vol. 8). Elsevier Science. Recognition heuristic: A fast – (2002e). In the year 2054: – (2001f). Ideas in exile: The and frugal way to investment Innumeracy defeated. In struggles of an upright man. In choice? In C. R. Plott & V. L. P. Sedlmeier & T. Betsch (Eds.), K. R. Hammond & T. R. Stewart Smith (Eds.), Handbook of ex- Etc.: Frequency processing and (Eds.), The essential Brunswik: perimental economics results. cognition (pp. 55–66). Oxford: Beginnings, explications, appli- Amsterdam: Elsevier-North Oxford University Press. cations (pp. 445–452). Oxford: Holland. Fischer, J., Steiner, F., Zucol, F., – (2002f). Wie kommuniziert Oxford University Press. Berger, C., Martignon, L., man Risiken? Fortschritt und – (2001g). Der unmündige Pa- Czienskowski, U., & Giljohann, Bossart, U., Altwegg, M., & Fortbildung in der Medizin, 26, tient. Kursbuch, 145, 132–144. S. (2002). Intimacy, concrete- Nadal, D. (2003). Use of simple 13–22. ness, and the “self-reference heuristics to target macrolide – (2001a). The adaptive tool- Gigerenzer, G., Czerlinski, J., & effect.“ Experimental Psycholo- prescription in children with box: Toward a Darwinian Martignon, L. (2002). How gy, 49, 73–79. community-acquired pneumo- rationality. In J. A. French, good are fast and frugal nia. Archives of Pediatrics and A. C. Kamil, & D. W. Leger heuristics? In T. Gilovich, D. Dhami, M. K., & Ayton, P. Adolescent Medicine, 156 (10), (Eds.), Nebraska Symposium on Griffin, & D. Kahnemann (Eds.), (2001). Bailing and jailing the 1005–1008. Motivation: Vol. 47. Evolution- Heuristics and biases: The psy-

52 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition chology of intuitive judgment experimental economics results. (2001). Why and when do sim- societies. In J. Henrich et al. (pp. 559–581). Cambridge: Amsterdam: Elsevier-North ple heuristics work? In G. (Eds.), Foundations of human Cambridge University Press. Holland. Gigerenzer & R. Selten (Eds.), sociality: Ethnography and Also in: R. Elio (Ed.), Common Bounded rationality: The adap- experiments in 15 small-scale sense, reasoning, and ration- Gigerenzer, G., & McElreath, tive toolbox (pp. 173–190). societies. Oxford: Oxford Uni- ality (pp. 148–173). Oxford: R. (in press). Social intelligence Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. versity Press. Oxford University Press. in games. Journal of Institution- al and Theoretical Economics. Hahn, K., & Vitouch, O. (2002). Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., Gigerenzer, G., Hertwig, R., – (2003). Social intelligence in Preference for musical tuning Camerer, C., Fehr, E., Gintis, H., Hoffrage, U., & Sedlmeier, P. games: Comment. Journal of systems: How cognitive anato- McElreath, R., et al. (2001). In (in press). Cognitive illusions Institutional and Theoretical my interacts with cultural search of homo economicus: reconsidered. In C. R. Plott & V. Economics, 159 (1), 188–194. shaping. In C. Stevens, D. Behavioral experiments in 15 L. Smith (Eds.), Handbook of Burnham, G. McPherson, E. small-scale societies. American experimental economics results. Gigerenzer, G., & Selten, R. Schubert, & J. Renwick (Eds.), Economic Review, 91, 73–78. Amsterdam: Elsevier-North (Eds.). (2001a). Bounded ration- Proceedings of the 7th Interna- Holland. ality: The adaptive toolbox. tional Conference on Music Per- Henrich, J., & McElreath, R. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press ception and Cognition, Sydney, (in press). The evolution of cul- Gigerenzer, G., & Krauss, S. (377 p.). 2002. Adelaide: Causal Produc- tural evolution. Evolutionary (2001). Statistisches Denken tions. Anthropology. oder statistische Rituale: Was – (2002). Are peasants risk- sollte man unterrichten? In M. Haller, H., & Krauss, S. (2002). averse decision makers? Cur- Borovcnik, J. Engel, & D. Wick- Misinterpretations of signifi- rent Anthropology, 43, mann (Eds.), Anregungen zum cance: A problem students 172–181. Stochastikunterricht: Die share with their teachers? NTCM-Standards 2000. Klas- Methods of Psychological Re- Hertwig, R., Davis, J. N., & sische und Bayessche Sicht- search Online: http://www.mpr- Sulloway, F. J., (2002). Parental weise im Vergleich (pp. 53–62). online.de, 7, 1–20. investment: How an equity Hildesheim: Franzbecker. motive can produce inequality. Hanoch, Y. (2002a). The effects Psychological Bulletin, 128, Gigerenzer, G., Krauss, S., & of emotions on bounded ra- 728–744. Vitouch, O. (in press). What tionality: A comment on Kauf- you always wanted to know man. Discussion. Journal of Hertwig, R., Fanselow, C., & about null-hypothesis testing Economic Behavior and Organi- Hoffrage, U. (in press). Hind- but were afraid to ask. In zation, 49, 131–135. sight bias: How knowledge and D. Kaplan (Ed.), Handbook on – (2002b). Natural frequencies heuristics affect our recon- quantitative methods in the and the representation of risk struction of the past. Memory. social sciences. Thousand Oaks, [Letter to the editor]. Interna- CA: Sage. – (2001b). Rethinking rationali- tional Journal for Quality in Hertwig, R., & Hoffrage, U. ty. In G. Gigerenzer & R. Selten Health Care, 14, 337. (2002). Technology needs Gigerenzer, G., & Kurz, E. M. (Eds.), Bounded rationality: The – (2002c). “Neither an angel psychology: How natural fre- (2001). Vicarious functioning adaptive toolbox (pp. 1–12). nor an ant“: Emotion as an aid quencies foster insight in reconsidered: A fast and frugal Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. to bounded rationality. Journal medical and legal experts. In lens model. In K. R. Hammond of Economic Psychology, 23, P. Sedlmeier & T. Betsch (Eds.), & T. R. Stewart (Eds.), The es- Gigerenzer, G., & Todd, P. M. 1–25. Etc.: Frequency processing and sential Brunswik: Beginnings, (in press). Rationality the fast cognition (pp. 285–302). explications, applications and frugal way: Introduction. Hanoch, Y., & Wallin, A. (in Oxford: Oxford University Press. (pp. 342–347). Oxford: Oxford In C. R. Plott & V. L. Smith press). The “wicked“ and the – (2001a). Eingeschränkte und University Press. (Eds.), Handbook of experimen- “kind“: Educating intuition. ökologische Rationalität. Ein tal economics results. Amster- Journal of Applied Psychology. Forschungsprogramm. Psycho- Gigerenzer, G., & Kurzen- dam: Elsevier-North Holland. logische Rundschau, 52, 11–19. häuser, S. (in press). Fast and Henrich, J., Albers, W., Boyd, R., – (2001b). Empirische Evidenz frugal heuristics in medical de- Goldstein, D. G., & Gigerenzer, Gigerenzer, G., McCabe, K. A., für einfache Heuristiken. Eine cision making. In R. Bibace, J. G. (in press). Ignorance-based Ockenfels, A., & Young, H. P. Antwort auf Bröder. Psycholo- Laird, K. D. Noller, & J. Valsiner decision making and the less- (2001). What is the role of cul- gische Rundschau, 52, (Eds.), Heuristics and values: is-more paradox. In C. R. Plott ture in bounded rationality? In 162–165. Relating the universals and the & V. L. Smith (Eds.), Handbook G. Gigerenzer & R. Selten (Eds.), particulars in thinking about of experimental economics Bounded rationality: The adap- Hertwig, R., & Ortmann, A. health. Westport, CT: Green- results. Amsterdam: Elsevier- tive toolbox (pp. 343–359). (2003). Economists’ and wood Publishing Group. North Holland. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. psychologists’ experimental – (2002). Models of ecological practices: How they differ, Gigerenzer, G., Martignon, L., rationality: The recognition Henrich, J., Boyd, R., Bowles, S., why they differ and how they Hoffrage, U., Rieskamp, J., heuristic. Psychological Review, Camerer, C., Fehr, E., Gintis, H., could converge. In I. Brocas & Czerlinski, J., & Goldstein, D. G. 109, 75–90. McElreath, R. (in press). J. D. Carillo (Eds.), The psychol- (in press). One-reason decision “Economic man“ in cross- ogy of economic decisions: making. In C. R. Plott & V. L. Goldstein, D. G., Gigerenzer, cultural perspective. Economic Vol. 1. Rationality and well- Smith (Eds.), Handbook of G., & Martignon, L., et al. experiments in 15 small-scale being (pp. 253–272). New York:

Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 53 Oxford University Press. experts. In E. Kurz-Milcke & G. des Denkens und Problem- Festschrift für Franz Weinert. – (2001a). Experimental prac- Gigerenzer (Eds.), Experts, past lösens. In W. Prinz & Tübingen: Hogrefe. tices in economics: A method- and present. New York: Kluwer J. Müsseler (Eds.), Allgemeine – (in press-b). Moralische Ent- ological challenge for psychol- Academic/Plenum Publishers. Psychologie (pp. 734–794). wicklung als Voraussetzung für ogists? Behavioral and Brain Heidelberg: Spektrum prosoziales Handeln und Ver- Sciences, 24, 383–403, Hoffrage, U., Gigerenzer, G., Akademischer Verlag. antwortungsübernahme. In 444–451. Krauss, S., & Martignon, L. D. Sturzbecher & H. Grossmann – (2001b). Money, lies, and (2002). Representation facili- Hutchinson, J. M. C. (2002). (Eds.), Soziale Partizipation in replicability: On the need for tates reasoning: What natural Two explanations of the dawn der Kindertagesbetreuung. empirically grounded experi- frequencies are and what they chorus compared: How mono- Neuwied: Luchterhand. mental practices and interdis- are not. Discussion. Cognition, tonically changing light levels – (in press-c). Self in relation- ciplinary discourse. Behavioral 84, 343–352. favour a short break from ship: Developmental changes in and Brain Sciences, 24, singing. Animal Behaviour, 64, adolescence from a cross- 433–451. Hoffrage, U., Hertwig, R., & 527–539. cultural perspective. In D. K. Fanselow, C. (in press). Model- Lapsley & D. Narvaez (Eds.), Hertwig, R., & Todd, P. M. ing the hindsight bias. In F. Johnson, J. G., & Busemeyer, J. Morality, self and identity: (in press). More is not always Detje, D. Dörner, & H. Schaub R. (2001). Multi-stage decision Essays in honor of Augusto better: The benefits of cogni- (Eds.), Proceedings of the 5th making: The effect of planning Blasi. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. tive limits. In L. Macchi & D. International Conference of horizon length on dynamic – (2001). Moral in Beziehun- Hardman (Eds.), Thinking: Psy- Cognitive Modeling. consistency. Theory and Deci- gen. Die Entwicklung des chological perspectives on rea- sion, 51, 217–246. moralischen Denkens in Kind- soning, judgment, and decision Hoffrage, U., Hertwig, R., & heit und Jugend. In W. Edel- making. Chichester: Wiley. Gigerenzer, G. (in press). Die Johnson, J. G., & Raab, M. (in stein, F. Oser, & P. Schuster – (2002). Heuristics. In V. S. ökologische Rationalität ein- press). Take the first: Option (Eds.), Moralische Erziehung in Ramachandran (Ed.), Encyclo- facher Entscheidungs- und generation and resulting der Schule. Entwicklungspsy- pedia of the human brain Urteilsheuristiken. In H. Siegen- choices. Organizational Be- chologie und pädagogische (Vol. 2, pp. 449–460). New thaler (Ed.), Evolution, Tradition havior and Human Decision Praxis (pp. 111–140). Wein- York: Academic Press. und Rationalität. Processes. heim: Beltz.

Hill, H., & Raab, M. (2002). The Hoffrage, U., Kurzenhäuser, Kameda, T., Takezawa, M., & Keller, M., Laurenco, O., Malti, application of event related S., & Gigerenzer, G. (in press). Hastie, R. (2003). The logic of T., & Saalbach, H. (2003). The potential measures for the Understanding benefits and social sharing: An evolutionary multifacetted phenomenon of analysis of a complex visuo- risks: Why the representation game analysis of adaptive norm “happy victimizers“: A cross- motor tracking task. Interna- of statistical information development. Personality and cultural comparison. British tional Journal of Psychophysiol- matters. In R. Bibace, J. Laird, Social Psychology Review, 7 (1), Journal of Developmental Psy- ogy, 45, 90–91. K. D. Noller, & J. Valsiner (Eds.), 2–19. chology, 21, 1–18. Heuristics and values: Relating Hoffrage, U. (in press-a). Over- the universals and the particu- Kameda, T., Takezawa, M., Ketelaar, T., & Todd, P. M. confidence. In R. Pohl (Ed.), lars in thinking about health. Tindale, R. S., & Smith, C. M. (2001). Framing our thoughts: Cognitive illusions: Fallacies Westport, CT: Greenwood Pub- (2002). Social sharing and risk Ecological rationality as evolu- and biases in thinking, judg- lishing Group. reduction: Exploring a com- tionary psychology’s answer ment, and memory. Hove: Psy- – (2001). Positive Mammogra- putational algorithm for the to the frame problem. In H. R. chology Press. phie = Brustkrebs? Von den psychology of windfall gains. Holcomb (Ed.), Conceptual – (in press-b). Risikokommu- Schwierigkeiten im Umgang Evolution and Human Behavior, challenges in evolutionary psy- nikation bei Brustkrebs- mit statistischen Informatio- 23, 11–33. chology: Innovative research früherkennung und Hormon- nen. Schweizer Zeitschrift für strategies (pp. 179–211). ersatztherapie. In B. Renner & Managed Care und Care Katsikopoulos, K. V., Duse- Dordrecht: Kluwer. R. Schwarzer (Eds.), Zeitschrift Management, 3, 22–25. Anthony, Y., Fisher, D. L., & für Gesundheitspsychologie, Duffy, S. A. (2002). Risk atti- King, J. M., & Hutchinson, J. Special Issue "Risikowahr- Hoffrage, U., & Pohl, R. (Eds.). tude reversals in drivers’ route M. C. (2001). Site fidelity and nehmung und Risikokommu- (in press-a). Hindsight bias. choice when range of travel recurrence of some migrant nikation." Memory, Special Issue. time information is provided. bird species in The Gambia. – (2001a). Eingeschränkte Ra- – (in press-b). Research on Human Factors, 44, 466–473. Ringing & Migration, 20, tionalität. In Max-Planck- hindsight bias: A rich past and 292–302. Gesellschaft zur Förderung der a promising future. Memory, Katsikopoulos, K. V., & Engel- Wissenschaften (Ed.), Jahrbuch Special Issue. brecht, S. (in press). Markov Krappmann, L. (in press-a). 2001 (pp. 724–730). Göttingen: decision processes with delays Familie im Lebensentwurf. Die Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. Hoffrage, U., Lindsey, S., and collection. IEEE Trans- Perspektive der nachwachsen- – (2001b). Risikokommunika- Hertwig, R., & Gigerenzer, G. actions on Automatic Control. den Generation. In W. Geißler tion in der Medizin: zum Wohle (2001). [Response to:] Butter- (Ed.), Gerechtigkeit für Familien. des Patienten? Berliner Ärzte, worth, Brian: Statistics: What Keller, M. (in press-a). Die Ent- Freiburg: Lambertus. 38, 12–15. seems natural? Science, 292 wicklung von Verpflichtungen – (in press-b). Identität. In (No. 5518), 854–855. und Verantwortungen in U. Ammon, N. Dittmar, & Hoffrage, U., & Gigerenzer, G. Beziehungen. Eine kulturver- K. Mattheier (Eds.), Sociolin- (in press). How to foster the di- Hoffrage, U., & Vitouch, O. gleichende Perspektive. In guistics—Soziolinguistik. Berlin: agnostic inferences of medical (2002). Evolutionspsychologie M. Knopf & W. Schneider (Eds.), de Gruyter.

54 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition – (2003). Bildung als Ressource und pädagogische Konzepte Hohengehren. in der BSE-Krise. Illusorische der Lebensbewältigung. Der (pp. 89–102). Opladen: Leske + Krappmann, L., & Scheilke, C. Sicherheit und Transparenz. Beitrag von Familie, Schule und Budrich (Jahrbuch Grundschul- (Eds.). (in press-a). Bildung, Bundesgesundheitsblatt— der Einrichtungen der Kinder- forschung, 5). Gesellschaft, Religion. Seelze: Gesundheitsforschung— und Jugendhilfe zum Bildungs- – (2002h). Warnung vor dem Kallmeyer. Gesundheitsschutz, 44, 336– prozess in Zeiten der Plura- Begriff der Selbstsozialisation. – (in press-b). Bildung und 340. lisierung und Flexibilisierung Zeitschrift für Soziologie der Religion in der pluralen der Lebensverhältnisse. In Erziehung und Sozialisation, 22, Gesellschaft. In L. Krappmann Kurzenhäuser, S., & Hoffrage, R. Münchmeier, H.-U. Otto, & 178–185. & C. Scheilke (Eds.), Bildung, U. (2002). Teaching Bayesian U. Rabe-Kleberg (Eds.), Bildung – (2001a). Bindungsforschung Gesellschaft, Religion. Seelze: reasoning: An evaluation of a und Lebenskompetenz. Kinder- und Kinder- und Jugendhilfe: Kallmeyer. classroom tutorial for medical und Jugendhilfe vor neuen Was haben sie einander zu students. Medical Teacher, 24, Aufgaben (pp. 33–47). Opladen: bieten? Neue Praxis, 31, 338– Krauss, S. (2001). Wahrschein- 516–521. Leske + Budrich. 346. lichkeit und Intuition: Zwei – (2002a). Ich. In G. Endruweit – (2001b). Bindungsforschung Seiten einer Medaille? In Kurzenhäuser, S., & Lücking, A. & G. Trommsdorf (Eds.), und die Praxis der Kinder- und M. Borovcnik, J. Engel, & (in press). Bayesian inference. Wörterbuch der Soziologie Familienhilfe. In G. J. Suess, D. Wickmann (Eds.), Anregun- In R. Pohl (Ed.), Cognitive illu- (p. 218). Stuttgart: Lucius & H. Scheurer-Englisch, & W.-K. gen zum Stochastikunterricht: sions: Fallacies and biases in Lucius. 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56 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition – (2001b). NASPSPA visit and genommene Expertise eines press). Modeling mate choice (Eds.), Agent-based computa- see. Psychologie und Sport, 1, Kommunikators. Zeitschrift für in monogaous mating systems tional demography (pp. 117– 42–43. Sozialpsychologie. with courtship. Adaptive Be- 137). Heidelberg: Physica- – (2001c). SMART: Ein dyna- havior. Springer Verlag. misches Zwei-Prozess-Modell Reise, H., Benke, M., & – (2002). The self-organizing zur Erklärung von Entschei- Hutchinson, J. M. C. (2002). nature of mating systems. Pro- Todd, P. M., & Gigerenzer, G. dungsverhalten im Sport. In A sinistral specimen of the ceedings of the Workshop on (in press-a). Bounding rational- J. R. Nitsch & H. Allmer (Eds.), terrestrial slug Arion lusitani- Self-Organizing Social Systems. ity to the world. Journal of Denken, Sprechen, Bewegen. cus (Gastropoda: Pulmonata: – (2001). A model of human Economic Psychology: Special Bericht über die 32. 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Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 57 Krappmann, L. (2002). Erzie- Hogrefe. Wassner, C., Krauss, S., & Wassner, C., Martignon, L., & hungseinstellungen von Müt- – (2001). When your ear sets Martignon, L. (2002). Muss Sedlmeier, P. (2002). Die Be- tern in Ein- und Zwei-Eltern- the stage: Musical context der Satz von Bayes schwer deutung der Darbietungsform Familien und Selbstverantwor- effects in film perception. Psy- verständlich sein? Praxis der für das alltagsorientierte tung ihrer Kinder. Psychologie chology of Music, 29, 70–83. Mathematik, 44, 12–16. Lehren von Stochastik. In in Erziehung und Unterricht, 49, M. Prenzel & J. Doll (Eds.), 287–301. Wassner, C.,& Krauss, S. Wassner, C., & Martignon, L. Bildungsqualität von Schule. (2001). Häufigkeitsrepräsenta- (2002). Teaching decision Schulische und außerschulische Vitouch, O. (in press-a). Ab- tionen im Stochastikunterricht. making and statistical thinking Bedingungen mathematischer, solutes Gehör. In T. H. Stoffer & Zählen und verstehen. In with natural frequencies. In naturwissenschaftlicher und R. Oerter (Eds.), Enzyklopädie G. Kaiser (Ed.), Beiträge zum B. Phillips (Ed.), Developing a überfachlicher Kompetenzen der Psychologie. Allgemeine Mathematikunterricht 2001. statistically literate society: (pp. 35–50). Weinheim: Beltz Musikpsychologie. Göttingen: Vorträge auf der 35. Tagung für Proceedings of the Sixth Inter- (Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, Hogrefe. Didaktik der Mathematik vom national Conference on 45. Beiheft). – (in press-b). Erwerb musika- 5. bis 9. März 2001 in Ludwigs- Teaching Statistics, South lischer Expertise. In T. H. Stoffer burg (pp. 644–647). Africa (CD-ROM). Voorburg, & R. Oerter (Eds.), Enzyklopädie Hildesheim: Franzbecker. The Netherlands: International der Psychologie. Allgemeine Statistical Institute. Musikpsychologie. Göttingen:

58 Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition Center for Adaptive Behavior and Cognition 59

Center for Educational Research Contents

Introductory Overview ...... 63

Research Area I Opportunity Structures of School and Individual Development in Adolescence and Young Adulthood . . . . . 66

Research Area II Establishing a Monitoring System for Educational Performance: Foundational Studies ...... 80

Research Area III Learning and Instruction: Cognitive Activation and Cognitive Tools ...... 97

Research Projects of the Director Emeritus Wolfgang Edelstein ...... 118

Publications 2001–2002 ...... 121

Scientific Staff 2001–2002

Cordula Artelt, Jürgen Baumert, Christa Händle (retired in 2002), Ilonca Hardy, Eckhard Klieme (as of 2001: University of Frankfurt a.M. and DIPF), Helmut Köhler, Olaf Köller (as of 2002: University of Erlangen-Nuremberg), Stefan Krauß, Detlef Oesterreich, Thomas Rochow, Gundel Schümer, Petra Stanat, Elsbeth Stern, Ulrich Trautwein, Luitgard Trommer (retired in 2002), Rainer Watermann Predoctoral Research Fellows Martin Brunner, Ping-Huang Chang, Zoe Daniels (until 2002), Anke Demmrich, Anja Felbrich, Nele Julius-McElvany, Mareike Kunter, Oliver Lüdtke, Kai Maaz, Gabriel Nagy, Michael Schneider, Joachim Wirth (as of 2002: University of Essen), Regina Wolf

62 Center for Educational Research Introductory Overview

The Center for Educational Research was restructured in 1996 when Jürgen Baumert was appointed director. The Center's specific concern is research on development and learning from the perspective of institutionalized education. Educational settings such as schools are conceived as providing a specific structure of opportunities and constraints for learning and development. This structure offers a variety of developmental opportunities, but at the same time excludes others. How do aspects of schooling affect learning within and across subject domains, impact on the intra- and interindividual differentiation of personality traits, and guide career-forming processes? Such questions are explored by a multidisciplinary team which includes educational scientists, psychologists, mathematicians, and sociologists. A strong theoretical focus is combined with an applied approach in the fields of system monitoring, professionalization of teaching, and improvement of learning and instruction.

Conceptual Orientation: Schooling processes which the learner must as a Cultural Artifact and an nevertheless perceive as personal Authentic Part of Life and authentic. The more educational The Center's research program is in- institutions try to integrate authen- stitutional as well as developmental tic everyday experiences into their in orientation. This calls for a multi- programs, the more obvious the par- level research perspective: adox becomes. The acquisition of (1) With regard to the social struc- knowledge in educational institu- ture of societies, formal education tions is confined by the structural can be conceived as a career-form- properties of the institution, regarding process, even in its initial stages. less of whether or not authentic (2) From an institutional perspective, learning is emphasized. This consti- the focus is on facilitating and fos- tutes the difference between learn- tering cumulative learning within ing inside and outside of school-like and across subject domains. institutions. (3) From an individual point of view, At the same time, however, school is learning development can be con- a central part of the student's life, ceptualized as a process of inter- and impacts strongly on cognitive and intraindividual differentiation. activities, beliefs, and behavior out- The Center's research agenda is side of school. Educational institu- shaped by each of these perspec- tions command a large part of the tives. time of children, adolescents, and It is a structural paradox of formal young adults, and thus constitute education that the experiences social environments in their own made available within institutions of right. The social rules and regula- formalized education are always vi- tions of educational institutions not carious—selected and prepared with only create the conditions for sys- the aim of facilitating learning tematic instruction and learning, but

Center for Educational Research 63 provide the setting for immediate Summary Outline everyday experiences. In our re- The following summary of the Cen- search program, this effect of ter's research program is not com- schooling is taken into particular prehensive. Rather, research projects consideration in a longitudinal study have been selected to illustrate the exploring individual development in major lines of inquiry pursued in the terms of cognitive competencies, Center and provide a representative motivational and social resources, overview of the three areas of our and value commitment. current research. The way in which educational insti- Research Area I focuses on the re- tutions have structured content ar- lationship between the opportunity eas into different academic subjects structure of schools and the opti- determines the high domain-speci- mization of individual development ficity of knowledge acquisition. in terms of cognitive competencies, This is taken into account in our re- motivational and social resources, search on the structure of knowl- value commitment, and successful edge—including domain-specific transition to university education, epistemological beliefs—acquired in vocational training, and the labor school. In large-scale assessment market. The basis for this research studies, classroom studies, and ex- program is provided by a multiple- perimental training studies, we cohort longitudinal study which was focus on domains of knowledge initiated in 1991 with a sample of which represent basic cultural 13-year-olds. In 2001 these main tools and, as such, are critical for cohort participants, now aged 23, individual development in modern took part in a sixth wave of meas- societies. Mathematics and science urement (Learning Processes, Educa- education and reading compre- tional Careers, and Psychosocial hension constitute main areas of Development in Adolescence and research. Special emphasis is placed Young Adulthood [BIJU]). BIJU is on the question of how cognitive supplemented by two longitudinal activation and self-regulation can studies focusing on students at the be stimulated and supported by end of schooling and during the instructional environments. subsequent transitions: Transforma- In all our research on the interaction tion of the Upper Secondary School between the individual learner and System and Academic Careers the institutional educational setting, (TOSCA) and Developmental Regula- the learner is perceived as the pro- tion during the Transition from ducer of his or her own develop- School to Vocational Education ment—not only in the constructivist (DRAMA). sense of active and idiosyncratic ac- Research Area II comprises studies quisition of knowledge, but also in which can be seen as representing the sense that he or she proactively the first steps in the establishment selects and shapes the developmen- of a national monitoring system to tal environment. gauge the performance of the Ger- man school system. These foundational studies combine basic re-

64 Center for Educational Research search and system monitoring in an Research Area III consists of proj- international comparative perspec- ects on learning and instruction tive. The most important projects in with an experimental or quasi-ex- this research area are the Third In- perimental approach. Most of these ternational Mathematics and Sci- studies address research questions ence Study (TIMSS), and the that have emerged directly from the OECD's Programme for Interna- first and second areas of research. tional Student Assessment (PISA). They are conducted either in the These studies are complemented by laboratory (ENTERPRISE) or as lon- the second CIVIC Education Study gitudinal studies in school environ- initiated by the International Associ- ments with a strong emphasis on ation for the Evaluation of Educa- teacher expertise (COACTIV). In the tional Achievement (IEA). Together field of mathematics education the with a project on state schooling in Center closely collaborates with the the former GDR funded by the Ger- Center for Adaptive Behavior and man Research Foundation (DFG), Cognition. Building on a strong the- these studies provide a firm basis for oretical background, these studies the Center's Report on Education have practical implications for the (Bildungsbericht), which is pub- optimization of classroom instruc- lished in collaboration with the Cen- tion and teacher training. ter for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course.

Baumert, J., Klieme, Baumert, J., Artelt, C., Baumert, J., Artelt, C., Cortina, K. S., Baumert, Key References E., Neubrand, M., Klieme, E., Neubrand, Klieme, E., Neubrand, J., Leschinsky, A., Prenzel, M., Schiefele, M., Prenzel, M., M., Prenzel, M., Mayer, K. U., & U., Schneider, W., Schiefele, U., Schneider, Schiefele, U., Schneider, Trommer, L. (Eds.). (in Stanat, P., Tillmann, W., Tillmann, K.-J., & W., Tillmann, K.-J., & press). Das Bildungs- K.-J., & Weiß, M. (Eds.). Weiß, M. (Eds.). (2002). Weiß, M. (Eds.). (2003). wesen in der Bundes- (2001). PISA 2000. PISA 2000. Die Länder PISA 2000. Ein differen- republik Deutschland. Basiskompetenzen von der Bundesrepublik zierter Blick auf die Strukturen und Ent- Schülerinnen und Deutschland im Ver- Länder der Bundes- wicklungen im Über- Schülern im inter- gleich. Opladen: Leske republik Deutschland. blick. Reinbek: Rowohlt. nationalen Vergleich. + Budrich (254 p.). Opladen: Leske + Opladen: Leske + Budrich (432 p.) Budrich (548 p.).

Center for Educational Research 65 The Research Research Area I Team Opportunity Structures of School and Individual Devel- opment in Adolescence and Young Adulthood Jürgen Baumert Olaf Köller (as of 2002: Uni- Educational Institutions as Developmental Environments versity of Erlangen- The successful development of human beings across the entire life span is Nuremberg) dependent both on their individual internal characteristics and on external Ulrich Trautwein socializers, such as significant others and social institutions. The relative im- Rainer Watermann portance of internal and external promoters varies across the life span and Helmut Köhler between the areas of individual functioning. While parents, for example, play a dominant role for their children’s development during infancy, child- Ping-Huang Chang hood, and early adolescence, their influence decreases during adolescence Zoe Daniels and often ceases entirely in adulthood. Particularly in the domain of aca- (until 2002) demic learning and, more generally, cognitive development, the social insti- Oliver Lüdtke tution of school plays an important role during childhood and adolescence. Kai Maaz Furthermore, schools have an impact on the formation or development of Gabriel Nagy motivation, emotions, attitudes, and other personal characteristics. Regina Wolf (predoctoral Inasmuch as the theoretical per- of intraindividual change across do- fellows) spective of the Center for Educa- mains and of interindividual differ- tional Research highlights the insti- ences in the patterns of intraindivid- tutional influence on human devel- ual change. The national longitudi- opment, it requires longitudinal nal project Learning Processes, multilevel studies that collect data Educational Careers, and Psychoso- at school, class, and individual lev- cial Development in Adolescence and els, cover more than one knowledge Young Adulthood (BIJU) fulfills the domain, and allow the investigation requirements of a multilevel longi-

Figure 1. Research design 199919981997199619951994199319921991Year 2000 2001 of the BIJU project. Education Grade 7 21 3 L 1: Longitudinal cohort 1 L 2: Longitudinal cohort 2 Grade 8 C 1: Cross-sectional cohort 1

Grade 9 L 1

Grade 10 1 4 C 1 1 Grade 11/vocational education L 2

Grade 12/vocational 2 5 education Grade 13/vocational 5a education University/vocational education/job 3 6

66 Center for Educational Research tudinal design in its investigation of (4) analysis of ways of coping with the effects of school and class envi- the transition from school to voca- ronments on human development. tional training and working life or The BIJU study has four guiding college, taking into account the in- components, each with specific terplay of personal resources and the tasks and addressing specific issues: conditions of the vocational training (1) provision of institutional and system and the labor market. individual baseline data on the Thus far, research has focused main- integration of the East and West ly on the first three guiding compo- German educational systems; nents of the BIJU project. Because description and analysis of the all the students in the sample have transformation of the East German now left school, the theoretical educational system and the sub- focus is currently shifting to the sequent impact on system perform- fourth BIJU component, that is, ance; more emphasis is being placed on (2) analysis of domain-specific students’ ways of coping with the learning as dependent on social and transition from school to work or to cognitive resources, prior knowledge, university. BIJU is the starting point motivational orientation, learning for two supplementary studies, and processing strategies, quantity TOSCA and DRAMA, which allow for and quality of instruction, and gen- a more specific investigation of a eral institutional conditions; subset of questions concerning the (3) analysis of long-term trajecto- transition from school to work or ries of psychosocial development in to university education. adolescence as shaped by varying In the following, three of the conditions of schooling and instruc- current research projects will be tion; described in more detail. Associated scientists: Olaf Köller The BIJU Study Data Collection (University of The BIJU longitudinal study began with a survey of the main cohort (longitudinal cohort 1) during Erlangen- the 1991/92 school year (see Fig. 1). Data was gathered from seventh-graders at three measurement Nuremberg) points. The first point of measurement coincided with the transformation of the unitary school system of the former GDR to the tracked system adopted from West Germany. The fourth wave of data Kai S. Cortina collection was conducted in spring 1995, when the main cohort students were in the final grade of (University of lower secondary school. The next follow-up survey took place in Spring 1997, when the participants Michigan, Ann were in either the vocational education system or the academic track of upper secondary level. The sixth wave of data collection was conducted in 2001, focusing on how students have mastered the Arbor, USA) transition from school to university or from vocational education to the labor market. In collaboration The sample of school classes comprises of some 8,000 students from 212 schools of all secondary with school types in the states of Berlin, Mecklenburg-West Pomerania, North Rhine-Westphalia, and Saxony-Anhalt. Jacquelynne Eccles, In Spring 1993, the sample was supplemented by a second longitudinal cohort of 1,330 students in Michigan Study of the final grade of lower secondary level. In order to provide a baseline for an East-West comparison Adolescent Life at the end of lower secondary school, a separate cross-sectional study of the tenth-grade (involving Transitions—MSALT approximately 1,600 students) was also carried out. This study concentrated on issues of political socialization and the transition to vocational training and working life. (University of Overall, the BIJU design makes it possible to simultaneously analyze aspects of individual develop- Michigan, Ann ment, the particular situation of different birth cohorts, and the impact of social change. Arbor, USA)

Center for Educational Research 67 Opportunity Structures, Academic groups of students, in which teach- Achievement, and Cognitive ers can adapt their instructional Development in Secondary Schools strategies according to the entry One of the basic assumptions of our achievement levels of their students. research program is that schools It is, therefore, assumed that school represent learning environments in types differ with respect to the which cognitive development during demands made by instruction: The adolescence may be promoted more higher the track, the more demand- www.biju.mpg.de or less successfully. Due to its longing the classes. Being exposed to term character, with five measure- higher demands in class should lead ment points over a period of six to higher levels of cognitive stimu- years within the school context, the lation and higher gains in achieve- BIJU project enables us to compare ment. The different types of second- the learning trajectories of students ary school are thus assumed to pro- in different types of secondary vide specific learning environments schools from grade 7 to grade 12. that differ with respect to how The findings show quite clearly that much they promote the cognitive the transition from elementary functioning of their students. school to different types of second- The assumption that different school ary school has remarkable effects on types will result in different domain-specific learning processes. achievement levels was tested in The highest achievement gains are a series of studies and for several reached at the Gymnasium, followed subjects. Especially for the core by the Realschule, the Gesamtschule subjects, such as English as a for- (comprehensive school), and finally eign language and mathematics, the Hauptschule. Additional analyses considerable differences in achieve- show that learning differences ment gains were shown even after across the school types are not only controlling for important precondi- a consequence of reducing the tions, such as basic cognitive abili- achievement heterogeneity between ties and social background. The students within classes, but are steeper achievement trajectory of mainly effects of different learning Gymnasium students may not be and teaching cultures in the differ- caused by ability-grouping per se. It ent school types. Interestingly, the is likely that the learning environ- different types of secondary school ment of the Gymnasium contributes do not only influence learning tra- to higher learning rates. This as- jectories in curriculum-based knowl- sumption is supported by the find- edge, as measured with standardized ings of the TIMS-Video study, in achievement tests, but also impact which mathematics lessons in Ger- on nonverbal psychometric intelli- man schools were rated by experts gence. on various instructional variables. The rationale for the early assign- Relative to students’ prior knowl- ment to different school types in edge, the exercises used at the Germany is that learning and in- Gymnasium are cognitively more de- struction are supposedly more effec- manding than in other school types, tive in relatively homogeneous thus helping students to learn in a

68 Center for Educational Research more effective manner. These results with the segregated system of the Key References provide empirical support for the as- Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). Köller, O., Baumert, J. & sumption that different school types At the beginning of the BIJU data Schnabel, K. (1999). Wege zur Hochschulreife. Offen- in Germany represent different collection (Time 1), these students heit des Systems und learning environments, in which the had just been placed in either Sicherung vergleichbarer Standards. Zeitschrift für given opportunity structures have a Gymnasium or lower track schools. Erziehungswissenschaft, 2 substantial influence on student A nonverbal marker test for mental (3), 385–422. progress (Köller, Baumert, & ability was available at two time Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2001). Leistungsgrup- Schnabel, 1999; Köller & Baumert, points, at Time 1, when the students pierungen in der Sekun- 2001). were in grade 7 and at Time 2, in darstufe I. Ihre Konse- quenzen für die Mathe- The context effect is not restricted grade 10. matikleistung und das to curriculum-based achievement Our analyses replicated the well- mathematische Selbst- outcomes only, but also impacts on known finding that the choice of a konzept der Begabung. Zeitschrift für Pädago- highly g-loaded measures of mental particular type of secondary school gische Psychologie, 15, ability. Because of the transforma- (academic vs. vocational track) is 99-110. tion of the school system of the for- strongly determined by students’ mer German Democratic Republic prior school achievement and by (GDR) in 1991, the BIJU dataset is parental socio-economic status well suited to draw conclusions (SES). Moreover, even after control- about unique schooling effects on ling for these variables, students’ cognitive development. Prior to mental ability turned out to be 1991, all students in the former GDR highly predictive for their choices, had attended the comprehensive meaning that, all other things being Polytechnische Oberschule and thus equal, brighter children were more had experienced a similar institu- likely to enter the Gymnasium. This tionalized education. After German finding indicates a self-selection reunification, however, these stu- process into different types of dents were tracked in accordance schooling.

130 Figure 2. Cognitive development in four student Vocational tracks groups with different Gymnasium initial levels of mental ability.

110

90 Mental ability in grade 10 (Mean Scores)

70 up to 85 85 to 100 100 to 115 > 115 Mental ability in grade 7 (Mean Scores)

Center for Educational Research 69 Figure 3. Structural equation model for predicting School mental ability in grade 10. type

.40 .44

R2 = .45

Mental ability .39 Mental ability grade 7 grade 10

.93 .90 .85 .85 .78 .86

Parcel 1 Parcel 2 Parcel 3 Parcel 1 Parcel 2 Parcel 3

.13 .19 .27 .28 .39 .25

However, differences between school analyses revealed a highly signifi- tracks in psychometric intelligence cant effect of school type (Gymnasi- emerge not only because of self- um vs. others; standardized regres- selection effects. Our analyses show sion coefficient β = .40). that prior differences increase longi- After controlling for school type tudinally as a function of school there was no effect of school-aver- type. Longitudinal multilevel and age ability score. This suggests that structural equation modeling (SEM) institutional features of the differ- analyses revealed a substantial ef- ent school types are predictive, but fect of school type on the develop- not the composition of the student ment of mental ability. body in terms of basic intellectual After controlling for mental ability capacity. This finding is in line with and social background at grade 7, the results on the quality of mathe- students in the academic track had matics exercises in different types of mental ability scores at the end of secondary schools reported above. grade 10 that were more than half a Moreover, the analyses also revealed standard deviation higher than vo- that parental SES did not influence cational track students. As shown in cognitive development within the Figure 2 for four groups of students, school types. Since prior differences gains from grade 7 to grade 10 were in all relevant variables were con- larger in the Gymnasium than in the trolled for in all reported analyses, vocational tracks of Realschule and the differences in cognitive develop- Hauptschule. Further research on ment are attributable to differences the details of this pattern was con- in the quality of schooling between ducted using a structural equation school tracks. model (see Fig. 3). After correcting Taken together, this research shows for measurement error, the SEM that different school types attract

70 Center for Educational Research different student populations. The studies indicate that academic self- Key Reference children differ with respect to their concepts of adolescents drop after Marsh, H. W., Köller, O., & school achievement, parental SES, the transition to high school. One Baumert, J. (2001). Reuni- fication of East and West and mental ability. Moreover, differ- possible reason for this decrease in German school systems: ent school opportunity structures the mean level of self-concept of Longitudinal multilevel modeling study of the big- maximize the differences in stu- high school students is the in- fish-little-pond effect on dent’s intellectual abilities in the creased emphasis on achievement academic self-concept. American Educational long run. The substantial effect of and competence evaluation in high- Research Journal, 38, schools or school types on cognitive er grades. Moreover, transitions into 321–350. development reaches beyond the more academically selected classes confines of curriculum-based knowl- tend to have a deteriorating effect edge. Possible pedagogical implica- on the self-concept of high-achiev- tions of these results include the ing students. These findings were provision of more favorable oppor- confirmed by the BIJU study, which tunity structures in vocational track allowed the development of self- schools, in order to improve the concept of East German students to cognitive development of the stu- be examined after introduction of dents in these schools. the three-tier school system (Marsh, Köller, & Baumert, 2001). Thus, there Opportunity Structures and is clear evidence that changing Nonacademic Outcomes social comparison groups impact on The impact of contextual factors is the mean level of self-concepts in not confined to progress in specific a particular subgroup. subjects and basic cognitive abili- However, contextual effects may not ties. Many studies have also demon- be restricted to the mean level of strated the malleability of self- self-concepts; they may also affect concepts, academic interests, and the structure of self-concept or even societal beliefs in different or moderate the dynamics of self- changing contexts. The BIJU design concept, that is, the directionality of extends beyond the effects of school causal effects between more global types, outlined in the previous chap- self-concepts (such as self-esteem; ter, to include further contexts that e.g., “At times I think I am no good are important for individual devel- at all”) and more domain-specific opment. Here this will be illustrated self-concepts (such as mathematics by the dynamics of self-concept of self-concept; e.g., “Nobody’s perfect, students from West and East Ger- but I am just not good at maths”). many after reunification. A second Whereas some classic models em- study focuses on the effects of phasize bottom-up effects (i.e., school-to-work-transition on stu- effects from domain-specific self- dents’ societal beliefs. concepts to more global self- concepts), other researchers have Context Effects on the Dynamics of adopted a top-down perspective. Self-Concept Because East and West German stu- Context effects on self-concepts are dents experienced very different pervasive in the educational context. school environments prior to and For instance, the results of several shortly after reunification, the BIJU

Center for Educational Research 71 Key Reference study design provides a unique op- concept in East Germany than in Trautwein, U. (in press). portunity to examine the moderat- West Germany for two reasons. First, Schule und Selbstwert ing role of context factors on the because the East German school [Schools and self-esteem]. Münster: Waxmann. dynamics of self-concept. system put more emphasis on social When the Wall came down, the achievement comparisons, academic newly established East German achievement can be expected to be states decided to replace their uni- of greater relevance to the general tary school system with the West self-concept of East German stu- German school system. Therefore, dents. Although the East German East German students experienced a school system was replaced by the profound change in their school en- West German system, we assumed vironment. In addition to differing that these elements of the teaching structural elements (comprehensive culture should remain stable for school system vs. tracking system), some time. Second, these students there were several other differences had to deal with a major shift in in the East and West German school their school environment shortly be- environment. For instance, it was an fore our study commenced—namely, explicit educational goal in East the introduction of a tracked sys- Germany to foster accurate self- tem. For most students, this meant evaluations. “Accurate self-evalua- placement in a new class, the expe- tion,” which essentially meant that rience of new teachers, and the students were expected to conform establishment of new school poli- with the teachers’ evaluation, was cies. Such changes in the school seen as a prerequisite for “creating environment (e.g., grading practices harmoniously developed socialistic and a different social comparison personalities.“ Accordingly, teachers group) might lead to a readjustment in East Germany emphasized social of domain-specific self-concepts comparisons in their classes. Their which, in turn, will affect global feedback stressed the relative per- self-esteem. Accordingly, relative to formances of individual students their West German counterparts, and was given publicly in front of bottom-up effects should be the entire class throughout the stronger in students from East school day and in public settings Germany. outside of school. Hence, in the The hypothesis was tested in a BIJU study the members of the East three-wave cross-lagged panel de- German sample differed greatly from sign. The study took place shortly their West German counterparts. after German reunification, using a Given the differences between East sample of 5,648 students from West and West in the school environment, and East Germany. Mathematics and we expected the school context to German school grades and domain- moderate the relationship between specific self-concepts in German more specific and more general self- and mathematics were sampled in concepts (Trautwein, in press). More addition to global self-esteem. precisely, we expected to find more Moreover, the effects of school type empirical support for bottom-up were controlled. Overall, the results effects in the dynamics of self- supported our hypotheses. The inter-

72 Center for Educational Research .16***/.12*** Figure 4. The dynamics of self-concept. T1, T2, T3 = T1-self- T2-self- T3-self- measurement point. Num- .66***/.59*** .49***/.45*** esteem esteem esteem bers left of slash: scores for West German students; numbers right of slash: .12***/.03 .10***/.05 scores for East German students. .28***/.28*** .24***/.21*** .17***/.20***

.01/.13*** .01/.14***

T1-math T2-math T3-math self-concept .47***/.62*** self-concept .39***/.42*** self-concept

.21***/.24*** *** p < .001. relationship between self-esteem a general understanding about the Key Reference and mathematics self-concept is il- causes of social inequality in a given Watermann, R. (in press). lustrated in Figure 4. As can be seen, society. For instance, people make Gesellschaftsbilder im Ju- gendalter. Vorstellungen the stability of self-esteem and self- sense of societal issues such as Jugendlicher über die Ur- concept was high in both the West social upward mobility (i.e., being sachen sozialer Mobilität [Adolescents’ views of so- and the East German sample. How- successful in one’s life or career) by ciety: Their causal beliefs ever, stronger bottom-up effects identifying their causes. Causal ex- in upward mobility]. were found in the self-concept de- planations for social upward mobili- Opladen: Leske + Budrich. velopment of East German students ty typically fall into two broad cate- (values following the slash), whereas gories: either individual factors or top-down effects predominated in societal factors are held responsible. West German students. Thus, the Whereas individual or dispositional study indicates that context effects factors refer to differences in moti- do not only influence the mean vation, effort, or capability (e.g., “in level of self-concept, but also might order to get ahead in life you have moderate the dynamics of self- to be talented and smart”), societal concept. or situational factors refer to conditions of birth or social background Context Effects on the Dynamics of (e.g., “in order to get ahead in life Societal Beliefs you have to come from the right In modern liberal societies, middle family”). The results of several stud- and late adolescence is known to be ies indicate that both individual and the formative period for developing societal explanations for social suc- political identity. It is often argued cess can be found in an individual’s that adults’ political attitudes and belief system. values are shaped in part by the way In order to gain a more accurate in- they dealt with social experiences sight into why people develop par- during this developmental phase. ticular explanations for social up- One key component of political ward mobility, contexts have to be identity formation concerns the taken into account. General ideas process of acquiring and modifying about “how society works” are

Center for Educational Research 73 learned during childhood and early well suited for investigating the adolescence in the family context effects of the school-to-work transi- and in school. Particularly the school tion in general, and the importance system fosters beliefs in the efficacy of individual experience in particu- of individual factors such as effort lar. In Germany, vocational-track and ability. In middle and late ado- students (but not their counterparts lescence, students’ growing personal in the academic track) typically face experience as well as their more the transition from school to ap- sophisticated reasoning, critical ana- prenticeship or other types of voca- lysis of society initiated by various tional training at the end of grade subjects at school, and intense ex- 10. Particularly in a tight labor mar- change among peers may stimulate ket, students reflect on the difficul- the awareness that both individual ties facing adolescents entering vo- and societal factors may be impli- cational training after school. Their cated. At this stage, the belief experiences during the transition system is assumed to be relatively from school to work are likely to unstable and open to diverse influ- conflict to some degree with beliefs ences. about the efficacy of individual fac- One of the great challenges for ado- tors developed in school. Thus, the lescents’ societal beliefs is, of interplay of peer context and the course, the school-to-work transi- school-to-work transition may make tion. Conflicts between personal young adults more aware of situa- beliefs and experiences acquired tional and societal factors that during this stage are not unlikely to might account for differences in occur. The German school system, in social upward mobility. which students are allocated to one In light of these considerations, we of three secondary tracks according expected experiences gained during to their ability level, is particularly the school-to-work transition to im-

Figure 5. Results of multiple-group longitudinal T1 T2 factor analysis. Numbers Endorsement of .57***/.29*** Endorsement of left of slash: scores for ac- societal factors societal factors ademic track students; numbers right of slash: scores for vocational track students. –.02/.34*** –.21***/.18***

T1 T2 Endorsement of .46***/.39*** Endorsement of individual factors individual factors

*** p < .001.

74 Center for Educational Research pact on the stability and change of Results of a multiple-group (acade- school leavers’ beliefs about social mic-track Gymnasium vs. non- upward mobility. Specifically, youths academic school types) two-wave with a less successful transition factor analysis revealed significant from school to work (i.e., students group differences in the stability who did not manage to find an ap- over time of beliefs about the im- prenticeship in their desired occupa- portance of societal factors for up- tion) are expected to be more likely ward mobility (r = .57 vs. r = .29). to endorse societal factors than Lower stability in the nonacademic those who have been successful. group indicates that the transition Longitudinal data were collected from school to work impacts on the from N = 1,455 German students in formation of societal beliefs as an grade 10 (in the school year 1995) ecological context variable. Group and again in 1997 when they were differences in the stability of the in grade 12 (academic-track Gymna- importance accorded to individual sium) or in vocational training. Stu- factors were not significant (see dents were asked: “What do you Fig. 5). think is necessary in our society to Our findings also show that the per- be successful in one’s life and ceived efficacy of individual factors career?” Two factors were derived predominates in the whole sample. based on participants’ responses to In line with developmental studies, 12 Likert-type items (1 = strongly our data provide evidence for an in- disagree to 4 = strongly agree) that crease in the perceived relevance of tapped their beliefs about the rele- individual factors (not illustrated). vance of individual (e.g., “you have However, as expected, adolescents to make an effort and work hard”) who did not find an apprenticeship and societal factors (e.g., “you have in their desired occupation become to have money and wealth” or “you more cognizant of societal factors have to have the right connec- (see Fig. 6). Further analyses showed tions”). that this change is at least partly

3.3 Figure 6. The dynamics of the perceived relevance of 3.2 Nonacademic track (Match) societal factors for social 3.1 Nonacademic track (Mismatch) upward mobility in two groups: nonacademic track 3.0 with match (desired apprenticeship obtained), or 2.9 mismatch (desired apprenticeship not obtained) at 2.8 two time points. 2.7

2.6 2.5 Mean (endorsement of societal factors) 2.4 Grade 10 Vocational training Measurement point

Center for Educational Research 75 explained by the tendency to blame demic context. In a first step, the the system. Although students TOSCA project is currently concerned become more critical about societal with students from two academic allocation mechanisms, the per- settings, “berufliches Gymnasium” ceived efficacy of individual factors (vocational Gymnasium) and “allge- for getting ahead in life remains mein bildendes Gymnasium” (tradi- unaffected. In contrast, a successful tional Gymnasium): How do they transition was related to a decline in differ? Do they reach the same the perceived importance of societal levels of qualification for university or situational factors. access and successful university Our results suggest that adolescents’ education? views about the causes of upward Due to the opening up of the educa- mobility may develop in concert tional system, university access in with the experiences they gain in Germany has become more diversi- their developmental contexts. With fied (Köller & Baumert, 2002a). regard to the process of political Tracks leading to the General Higher socialization, it is noteworthy that— Education Entrance Qualification despite an increase in the awareness now include the Integrated Compre- of societal factors—there seems to hensive School (Integrierte Ge- be a consensus among young people samtschule) and the vocational that unequal social outcomes reflect Gymnasium as well as the tradition- differences in individual effort and al Gymnasium. The former two have ability. Thus, adolescents learn to the important role of providing an balance individual and societal ex- access to university education for a planations for social upward mobili- population that, traditionally, tended ty. From a human development per- to be averse to the preuniversity spective, the maintenance of beliefs tracks of secondary school. There is about the relevance of individual solid evidence that, on their en- causes can be considered highly trance to upper secondary level, stu- adaptive and an important resource dents of the traditional Gymnasium, for adolescents’ future career man- on the one hand, and students of agement. the vocational Gymnasium and the Integrated Comprehensive School, Opportunity Structures and the on the other hand, significantly dif- Transition from School to Work or fer in their social and educational University backgrounds. For instance, about The BIJU study as well as the sup- 80% of the students at vocational plementary data supplied by the Gymnasiums in Baden-Württemberg, www.tosca.mpg.de TOSCA and DRAMA studies provide currently under review by TOSCA, a deeper insight into the transition had initially attended schools of the from school to work or from school- non-preuniversity type. Thus, voca- to-university education. In our ap- tional Gymnasiums help to ensure proach, the focus is on the predic- that a sufficient number of students tors of successful transition, taking are qualified for university educa- into account individual resources as tion. This school type is a typical ex- well as certain aspects of the aca- ample of the opening up of universi-

76 Center for Educational Research ty access—previous choices prompt- practical criteria exist (e.g., college Key References ed by the three-tier school system entrance exams) and tests for which Köller, O., & Baumert, J. can be more easily revised. proficiency levels have been defined (2002a). Das Abitur— Immer noch ein gültiger Differences in students’ educational on a sound theoretical basis. In the Indikator für die Studier- and social backgrounds lead to dif- TOSCA project (Köller, Watermann, fähigkeit? Aus Politik und Zeitgeschichte, B26, ferences in the achievement levels Trautwein, & Lüdtke, in press), 12–19. reached in the traditional and in the we stick to such well-established Schnabel, K., Alfeld, C., vocational Gymnasiums. Therefore, it instruments. Eccles, J. S., Köller, O., & Baumert, J. (2002). seems more reasonable to focus on For assessing mathematics achieve- Parental influence on stu- the extent to which students of the ment, the preuniversity mathematics dents’ educational choices in the United States and vocational Gymnasium attain the test from the Third International Germany: Different ramifi- minimum standards needed for suc- Mathematics and Science Study cations—same effect? cessful university education, rather (TIMSS) was used. This use of TIMSS Journal of Vocational Be- havior, 60, 178–198. than on the issue of differences in tasks, on the one hand, provides a Köller, O., Watermann, overall achievement. Furthermore, as basis for comparing results with the R., Trautwein, U., & a matter of distributive justice, ef- national average and, on the other Lüdtke, O. (Eds.). (in press). Wege zur forts should be made to ensure that hand, allows for academic achieve- Hochschulreife in Baden- assessment standards in different ment to be interpreted in terms Württemberg. TOSCA— Eine Untersuchung an school types are comparable. of the proficiency levels defined in allgemein bildenden und Laying down minimum standards is TIMSS. These proficiency levels can beruflichen Gymnasien. not always an easy task because of be described as critical thresholds in Opladen: Leske + Budrich. the lack of criteria that teachers and achievement, above which there is school and university administrators sufficient probability that students agree upon. However, there are will provide the correct response to achievement tests for which some advanced mathematics questions

Associated scientist The TOSCA and DRAMA Studies—Research Goals and Database The TOSCA project combines educational and developmental questions. On the educational side, (TOSCA, DRAMA): TOSCA examines the opportunity structures for students with different backgrounds, attainment of Olaf Köller educational standards in German upper secondary schools, and the comparability of school-leaving (University of certificates in Germany. It also attempts, on the basis of multiple measures and assessments, to predict the academic choices students from different backgrounds are likely to make. Erlangen- The TOSCA project encompasses data of about 4,700 students in their last year of upper secondary Nuremberg) education (about age 17–19). All students were sampled from Baden-Württemberg, and they attended either “allgemein bildendes Gymnasium“ (traditional Gymnasium) or one of five forms of “beruf- DRAMA: In liches Gymnasium“ (vocational Gymnasium). The first wave of data collection took part in March to May 2002. A second wave of data collection in November to December 2003 is planned, thereby collaboration with opening a longitudinal perspective. By that time, a large proportion of the students (> 50%) will Jutta Heckhausen attend college. (University of TOSCA measures focus on academic achievement variables (e.g., TIMSS tests, TOEFL scores) and cognitive abilities (indicators of mental ability). Additional instruments include student self-reports on California, Irvine, motivation and personal goals, academic and nonacademic self-concept, interests, and family back- USA) ground. Moreover, the students’ school and family context was further examined using teacher, school headmaster, and parental reports. The DRAMA longitudinal study examines the microsequential change of adolescents’ goal engagement in the transition from school to work in 760 adolescents in grade 9 and 10 of German comprehensive schools (N = 760). Students were examined at the beginning and the end of grade 9 and five more times at intervals of two months during grade 10, and there are several follow-ups after the transition to working life. Currently, goal-related strategies for the developmental goal “finding an apprenticeship” and “qualifying for the upper level of the preuniversity school track” are a primary research interest.

Center for Educational Research 77 Figure 7. Distribution of 100 students across levels of Level III or IV: mathematical proficiency 27 28 Knowledge of upper in the final year of upper secondary level secondary school in 80 49 mathematics/ Baden-Württemberg (by problem solving school type) in comparison with TIMSS-Germany 60 Level II: Applying results. routine procedures 49 46 Level I: Elementary reasoning 40

Students in percent 43 20 24 26 8 0 Traditional Vocational TIMSS- Gymnasium Gymnasium Germany (without Baden- School type Württemberg)

which call for particular knowledge can be defined as the achievement or skills. Here, sufficient probability level which will enable students is defined as a 65% probability that with Abitur to pursue a university the correct answer will be given. In education in Anglo-American coun- TIMSS four different levels of math- tries. The Test of English as a Foreign ematical proficiency were defined. Language (TOEFL), which was elabo- On the lowest level, tasks involve rated by the Educational Testing elementary, everyday reasoning. Service (ETS) in Princeton, New Level II, characterized by the correct Jersey, has been generally accepted application of routine procedures as a standard instrument for testing which should as a rule have been English language proficiency in stu- acquired before the end of compul- dents with English as a foreign lan- sory schooling, constitutes the lower guage, who are planning to study in limit of what can be expected from English-speaking countries. In the students at the end of upper sec- USA, the lower limit is by now fixed ondary school (Abitur). A consider- at a minimum score of 500, with able share of these students, how- prestigious universities relying on a ever, should be able to cope with cut-off point of 550 or more. In the Level III tasks, since these represent TOSCA study, a specifically validated typical upper secondary level con- short version of an older TOEFL was tent. The tasks posed on Level IV not used. only require knowledge typical of First analyses for mathematics re- upper secondary level mathematics, vealed that achievement levels were but call for independent argumenta- positive as compared to the national tion and problem solving. The desir- level while, at the same time, able minimum standard for English marked differences in achievement

78 Center for Educational Research levels were shown between the ic achievement. As had been expect- vocational Gymnasium and the tra- ed, differences in students’ social ditional Gymnasium (cf. Fig. 7). backgrounds and prior knowledge English scores of at least 500 (TOEFL could not be compensated. What, test) were achieved by more than then, are the consequences of these half of the students with Abitur in differences in the achievement lev- the TOSCA sample—their English els reached in various subjects for a proficiency, thus, being no obstacle long-term prediction of success in to studying in the USA. Here again, university education? The longitudi- however, marked differences be- nal design of the TOSCA study, tween school types were revealed. which in future steps will focus on Results from TOSCA so far suggest indicators for success in university that differences in the opportunity education, will provide the basis for structures of different school types a more detailed examination of this have a significant effect on academ- issue.

The Center for Educational Research 2002

Left to right: (front row) Gundel Schümer, Mareike Kunter, Nele Julius-McElvany, Ping-Huang Chang, Ulrich Trautwein; (middle row): Oliver Lüdtke, Anke Demmrich, Ilonca Hardy, Anja Felbrich, Jürgen Baumert, Elsbeth Stern, Petra Stanat, Martin Brunner; (back row): Helmut Köhler, Thomas Rochow, Rainer Watermann, Michael Schneider, Cordula Artelt, Regina Wolf, Gabriel Nagy, Stefan Krauss, Kai Maaz.

Center for Educational Research 79 Research Area II Establishing a Monitoring System for Educational Performance: Foundational Studies

Despite the complex system of governance and federal cooperation that has been developed in the German educational system, Germany is one of the few industrial states which has no national system of quality control to monitor the outcomes of educational processes and provide a framework for international or national comparisons. With participation in TIMSS and PISA, reliable data on performance of selected cohorts of students in curricular and cross-curricular domains have become available.

Key Reference In the past, the Organization for ation for the Evaluation of Educa- Stanat, P., & Baumert, J. Economic Cooperation and Develop- tional Achievement (IEA). Funded by (2001). Large-scale assessment (OECD) used the results of the German Research Foundation, ment studies and their contribution to education- studies such as the Third Interna- the Center for Educational Research al psychology. European tional Mathematics and Science implemented the international de- Journal of Psychology of Education, 16 (3), Special Study (TIMSS) as performance indi- sign and extended it with a number Issue. cators for the comparison of the of national supplements. In Spring education systems in its member of 1999, 3,700 8th-grade students states. Data on student performance participated in the assessment are a regular feature of the OECD’s which included knowledge tests and annual publication “Education at a attitude items relating to such as- Glance“ (OECD, 2002). In 1997, the pects as democracy, social and eth- OECD launched its own program to nic disparities, and national identity. monitor the outcomes of education The national report on the results systems in terms of student achieve- of the assessment was published in ment, and to provide internationally 2002 (Oesterreich, 2002). comparable indicators for central With its involvement in internation- domains on a regular basis. All 16 al large-scale assessment studies of the German states participate in such as TIMSS, PISA, and Civic Edu- this Programme for International cation, the Center for Educational Student Assessment (PISA), which Research pursues several goals. builds on the experiences of TIMSS, In addition to helping to establish but seeks to achieve qualitative im- a monitoring system based on state- provement in many respects. As was of-the-art theoretical and method- the case for TIMSS, the Center for ological foundations, we utilize Educational Research chairs a con- the opportunities these studies sortium responsible for the national afford for basic research (Stanat & management of PISA. Baumert, 2001). Based on theoreti- In addition to TIMSS and PISA, we cal approaches from psychology, are also involved in the Civic Educa- sociology, and education, we have tion Study, a collaborative project of systematically extended the inter- 28 countries conducted under the national design of each of the three auspices of the International Associ- projects, allowing us to explore ba-

80 Center for Educational Research sic research questions from multiple on developing the skills and orienta- Key References perspectives with representative tions necessary to function as an Klieme, E., Baumert, J., & samples of students. Examples of autonomous citizen, the school tries Schwippert, K. (2000). In H.-G. Rolff, W. Bos, K. such investigations will be presented to provide an environment that Klemm, H. Pfeiffer, & R. below. functions like a small society and Schulz-Zander (Eds.), Jahrbuch der Schulent- Using the instruments developed gives students the opportunity to wicklung (pp. 387–420). within the large-scale assessment experience being part of a demo- Weinheim: Juventa. projects, moreover, our Center has cratic system. The evaluation study Oesterreich, D. (2002). Politische Bildung von 14- carried out several studies designed explores the extent to which such a Jährigen in Deutschland. to evaluate innovative school pro- set-up can succeed in simultaneous- Studien aus dem Projekt Civic Education. Opladen: grams. These studies demonstrate ly fulfilling the goals it aims to Leske + Budrich (286 p.). how system monitoring and school achieve in the domains of personali- Köller, O., & Trautwein, effectiveness research—two tradi- ty development and civic education U. (2003). Schulqualität tions that, for a long time, were as well as in the curricular domains und Schülerleistung. Eva- luationsstudie über inno- considered to be largely incompati- of reading, mathematics, and vative Schulentwicklung ble—can be linked. In one of the science (Stanat, Watermann, Traut- an fünf hessischen Gesamtschulen. Weinheim: projects, five comprehensive schools wein, Brunner, & Krauss, in press). Juventa (240 p.). with unique profiles in the Land of In addition to assessing existing Stanat, P., Watermann, Hesse were examined with tests and programs, the Center for Educational R., Trautwein, U., Brunner, M., & Krauss, S. questionnaires from TIMSS and BIJU Research has also evaluated a new (in press). Multiple Ziel- (see Research Area I). This project curriculum designed to improve erreichung in Schulen. Das Beispiel der Laborschule has three goals. First, it examines mathematics instruction. Again, us- Bielefeld. Eine Evaluation whether comprehensive schools with ing tests and questionnaires from mit Instrumenten aus innovative programs differ from oth- TIMSS, this study takes advantage of Schulleistungsunter- suchungen. Die Deutsche er comprehensive schools in terms the opportunities that large-scale Schule. of the composition of their student assessments offer in terms of instru- bodies and in terms of achievement mentation and benchmarking infor- levels in mathematics. Second, the mation, and provides an example of study analyzes the extent to which a productive connection between cognitive and noncognitive goals of system monitoring and school-level schooling are compatible and shows evaluation (Klieme, Baumert, & how instruments from large-scale Schwippert, 2000). assessments can be used to explore such questions. Finally, by providing The Programme for International comprehensive feedback on the Student Assessment (PISA) results, it shows how individual The Programme for International schools can utilize information from Student Assessment (PISA) is de- assessment studies for school devel- signed to provide information on the opment (Köller & Trautwein, 2003). outcomes of school systems in the In a related project, instruments participating countries. The project from PISA and the Civic Education assesses the knowledge, skills, and Study were used to evaluate the competencies of 15-year-old stu- Laborschule Bielefeld, a prime exam- dents in reading, mathematics, and ple of a school which has imple- science, as well as in cross-curricu- mented substantial structural lar domains. Because the assess- changes. With its strong emphasis ments take place on a regular basis,

Center for Educational Research 81 with three-year cycles, the study these national additions to the in- presents a tool for monitoring ternational design. As part of the changes in the performance of national options, moreover, the Ger- countries’ education systems and for man ministers of education decided gauging the effects of measures to enlarge the PISA sample such taken to improve learning outcomes. that it provides reliable estimates Another important feature of the for the individual states and allows PISA project is that it allows for na- results to be compared across the tional additions to the international states. Thus, the monitoring ap- design. This gives national commit- proach in Germany includes both an tees the opportunity to address international and a national per- research questions that are of par- spective. ticular interest to them. The German PISA allows for in-depth analyses PISA consortium has made extensive of the outcomes of educational use of this opportunity and supple- systems within and across the par- mented the program such that cen- ticipating countries. The project is tral research questions in education designed to yield three types of and educational psychology can indicators: be addressed. Table 1 lists some of

Table 1 Some national supplements to the international PISA design for analyses of knowledge structures and their determinants

Cross-curricular Student Reading Mathematics Science competencies background

Assessment of Fine-grained More compre- Assessment of • • • • • Assessment of learning from differentiation hensive assess- general prob- mental ability texts as a com- and description ment of under- lem-solving as a control ponent of of competency standing of sci- skills and vali- variable for es- reading literacy classes entific concepts dation of the timating effects distinct from Addition of a to test the dis- construct of individual- working with • tinction be- level and broader range • Assessment of texts of items assess- tween concept aspects of social school-level Assessment of ing aspects of and process competence factors • components of proximal an- mathematical Assessment of scientific liter- Exploration of • tecedents of literacy not cov- • additional indi- acy the role schools text compre- ered by the in- play in the de- cators for stu- hension to ternational test • Identification velopment of dents’ social identify possi- Ratings of items and description cross-curricular background ble points for • of competency based on a the- competencies More differenti- intervention levels • ory of cognitive ated assessment demands • Differentiation of families’ mi- Identification of of five cognitive gration history • competencies effects of cur- Assessment of defined in terms • ricular and di- peer-group of processes in dactical tradi- characteristics tions on knowl- working out sci- edge structures ence problems

82 Center for Educational Research • Profiles of the knowledge and depth. The first cycle of PISA in- Key References skills acquired by students ap- cludes a carefully designed assess- Baumert, J., Klieme, E., proaching the end of compulsory ment of students’ socio-economic Neubrand, M., Prenzel, M., Schiefele, U., Schneider, education in curricular and cross- background, cultural capital, and W., Stanat, P., Tillmann, curricular domains. These profiles social capital. The data provide a K.-J., & Weiß, M. (Eds.). (2001). PISA 2000. Basis- pinpoint the strengths and weak- unique opportunity to examine the kompetenzen von Schü- nesses of educational systems and relative role of these factors for lerinnen und Schülern im internationalen Vergleich. locate areas requiring action. school success in different educa- Opladen: Leske + Budrich • Contextual indicators relating per- tional systems. Analyses of the ef- (548 p.). formance to student and school fects of socio-economic background Baumert, J., Artelt, C., Klieme, E., Neubrand, M., characteristics. Information on on student performance, and of the Prenzel, M., Schiefele, U., these relationships can shed light ways these effects are mediated, Schneider, W., Tillmann, on the effectiveness of education- will be presented below, after a K.-J., & Weiß, M. (Eds.). (2002). PISA 2000. Die al systems (e.g., to what extent description of the test design and Länder der Bundesrepublik they succeed in weakening the some of the main assessment Deutschland im Vergleich. Opladen: Leske + Budrich link between student performance results. (254 p.). and social background) and draw Baumert, J., Artelt, C., attention to possible points of in- International Test Design and Klieme, E., Neubrand, M., Prenzel, M., Schiefele, U., tervention. National Extensions Schneider, W., Tillmann, • Trend indicators showing how re- PISA does not seek to examine K.-J., & Weiß, M. (Eds.). (2003). PISA 2000. Ein dif- sults change over time. whether students have acquired a ferenzierter Blick auf die Data collection for the first cycle of specific knowledge base. Rather, it Länder der Bundesrepublik PISA took place in the year 2000, aims to assess the extent to which Deutschland. Opladen: Leske + Budrich (432 p.) and the first national report was young people have developed a published in December 2001 deeper understanding of central (Baumert et al., 2001). Two further concepts; master processes such as reports presenting detailed analyses modeling situations, communicating of performance profiles in the Ger- results, or critically evaluating infor- man federal states appeared in June mation; and are able to apply this 2002 and March 2003 (Baumert conceptual and procedural knowl- et al., 2002, 2003). In addition to edge in various contexts (OECD, the level of performance, both the 1999/Deutsches PISA-Konsortium, international and the national re- 2000). ports explore issues of equity in

Center for Educational Research 83 Key References Reading Literacy present information in a variety of Artelt, C., Stanat, P., Each cycle of the international PISA different ways. Thus, PISA adopts a Schneider, W., & Schiefele, program will focus on one of the relatively broad notion of what U. (2001). Lesekompetenz: Testkonzeption und Ergeb- three assessment domains. In the constitutes a text. nisse. In J. Baumert, E. first cycle, this major domain is The international approach examines Klieme, M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, U. Schiefele, W. reading. The international frame- reading comprehension in the con- Schneider, P. Stanat, K.-J. work for the assessment of reading text of working with texts. In the Tillmann, & M. Weiß (Eds.), PISA 2000. Basiskompe- literacy is largely based on a struc- test, students were allowed to refer tenzen von Schülerinnen tural model developed by Kirsch and back to the text while answering und Schülern im internationalen Vergleich (pp. Mosenthal (1998), which strongly questions about it. This approach 69–137). Opladen: Leske + influenced both the U.S. National clearly captures an important aspect Budrich. Assessment of Educational Progress of reading literacy. Yet, reading liter- Artelt, C., Schiefele, U., & (NAEP) and the OECD’s International acy also encompasses the ability to Schneider, W. (2001). Pre- dictors of reading literacy. Adult Literacy Study (IALS). At a generate mental representations of European Journal of Psy- general level, this model distinguish- a text such that the information can chology of Education, 16, 363–383. es between a primarily text-based be used at a later point in time, and a more knowledge-based aspect without having to consult the docu- of reading comprehension. Whereas ment again. This aspect, which can the former relies almost exclusively be described as learning from texts, on information provided in the text, was assessed in the national exten- the latter also draws on prior knowl- sion of the international PISA edge. These two aspects are further design. The national test is based on broken down into five types of de- the psychological theory of text mands that readers encounter when comprehension developed by Kintsch working with texts, namely retriev- (1998) and van Dijk and Kintsch ing information, developing a broad (1983). This theory differentiates understanding, and developing an three types of text representations: interpretation, on the one hand verbatim representations, which (representing text-based compre- result from the basic processing of hension), as well as reflecting on the a text’s surface; prepositional content of the text and reflecting on representations, which capture the the form of the text, on the other meaning of texts; and situational (representing more knowledge-based representations, which integrate the comprehension). For the purposes of information from the text with reporting, these demands are col- prior knowledge. By separating the lapsed into three scales summarizing reading or learning phase from the students’ performance in retrieving test phase, the national test assesses information, in interpreting texts, each of these representations. and in reflecting and evaluating. More specifically, students answered The PISA reading assessment covers questions about a text they had a broad range of text types. In addi- read without being able to refer tion to continuous texts, which are back to it. Using methodology devel- typically organized in terms of oped within the framework of prob- sentences and paragraphs, it also abilistic test theory, analyses explor- includes noncontinuous texts, such ing the dimensionality of the inter- as graphs, tables, and forms, that national and national reading tests

84 Center for Educational Research show that they do, in fact, capture matical problems requires the per- distinct competencies (Artelt, son to link an initial situation with a Stanat, Schneider, & Schiefele, 2001; mathematical model (“mathematiza- Artelt, Schiefele, & Schneider, 2001). tion“). The model has to be identified, processed, interpreted, and Mathematical Literacy validated. Although the situation in The international PISA framework which the problem presents itself for the assessment of mathematical may involve an authentic, real-life literacy is strongly influenced by the context, it may also be situated “realistic mathematics“ approach strictly within the world of mathe- introduced by Hans Freudenthal. The matics. In working on complex prob- approach starts with the assumption lems, the circle of mathematization, that mathematical concepts and processing, interpreting, and validat- ideas have primarily been developed ing will have to be completed more as tools for grasping and structuring than once. Thus, it is assumed that phenomena of the physical, social, this notion of mathematical model- and mental world. In line with this ing describes the general process in- assumption, the international PISA volved in working on different kinds test consists mainly of items that of problems. require students to apply their Using the theoretical framework of knowledge and skills in authentic mathematical modeling as a starting situations. Moreover, the composi- point, the national consortium fur- tion of the test reflects the idea that ther differentiated the three compe- problems involving modeling and tency classes defined for mathemat- application present the best indica- Figure 1. The process of tors for mathematical understand- mathematization. ing. The “realistic mathematics“ approach reflects current ideas on constructivist teaching and situated learning that are quite popular in research on instruction (see Re- processing search Area III). Model Consequences The national PISA consortium extended the notion of mathematical Mathe- interpreting literacy adopted in the international matics framework to develop a broader conceptualization of the domain. This conceptualization is based on a mathematization process view of working out mathe- World matical problems that draws on models from cognitive psychology (Kintsch & Greeno, 1985; Reusser, Situation Results validating 1992, 1996) and mathematics education (Blum, 1996; Schupp, 1988). According to this view, which is Problem Solution depicted in Figure 1, solving mathe-

Center for Educational Research 85 Key References ical literacy in the international PISA guishes five such processes: (1) rec- Klieme, E., Neubrand, M., framework, thus providing a more ognizing scientifically investigable & Lüdtke, O. (2001). fine-grained conceptualization of questions, (2) identifying evidence Mathematische Grundbil- dung: Testkonzeption und mathematical competency. In order needed in a scientific investigation, Ergebnisse. In J. Baumert, to capture the elements of this (3) drawing or evaluating conclu- E. Klieme, M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, U. Schiefele, model, the international test design sions, (4) communicating valid con- W. Schneider, P. Stanat, was extended by a broader range of clusions, and (5) demonstrating the K.-J. Tillmann, & M. Weiß (Eds.), PISA 2000. Basis- items that were administered on a understanding of scientific concepts. kompetenzen von Schü- second, national test day. Based on Although some scientific knowledge lerinnen und Schülern im internationalen Vergleich theoretical approaches from mathe- is needed for all five processes, only (pp. 139–190). Opladen: matics, mathematics education, and the fifth primarily focuses on this Leske + Budrich. cognitive psychology, moreover, a aspect of scientific literacy. In other Neubrand, M., Klieme, E., model of cognitive demands was de- words, the understanding of scien- Lüdtke, O., & Neubrand, J. (2002). Kompetenzstufen veloped. Trained experts applied this tific concepts is not intended to be und Schwierigkeitsmodelle model to rate the cognitive demands the main challenge in working out für den PISA-Test zur mathematischen Grundbil- of each item used in PISA. The as- items designed to assess the first dung. Unterrichtswissen- sessment data and item ratings were four of the processes covered in the schaft, 30, 100–119. used, among other things, to test international PISA test. hypotheses about the structure of The national framework for scientific mathematical competency, to iden- literacy differentiates the interna- tify and describe levels of mathe- tional conceptualization from two matical proficiency, and to gauge perspectives. First, to ensure compat- the effects of traditions in mathe- ibility with the German curriculum, matics education on structures of the subdomains of biology, physics, mathematical knowledge and skills and chemistry are distinguished such (Klieme, Neubrand, & Lüdtke, 2001; that students’ performance can be Neubrand, Klieme, Lüdtke, & Neu- evaluated separately for each of brand, 2002). these school subjects. Second, the framework adopts a psychological Scientific Literacy perspective and defines five cogni- As is the case with mathematics, the tive competencies representing basic first cycle of PISA assesses scientific building blocks of scientific literacy. literacy as a minor component. In These competencies are described in line with the Anglo-American notion terms of processes involved in work- of scientific literacy, as described in ing out science problems, such as the Benchmarks for Science Literacy transforming information from published by the American Associa- graphs or diagrams, using knowledge tion for the Advancement of Sci- of scientific concepts or facts, or ence, for example, the international applying a mental model. Again, we PISA framework emphasizes process extended the international test skills. It defines processes as “mental design for the science domain with (and sometimes physical) actions national items that were adminis- used in conceiving, obtaining, inter- tered on the second day of testing. preting, and using evidence or data Analyses of the complete item pool to gain knowledge or understand- confirm that the five cognitive coming“ (OECD, 1999, p. 61) and distin- petencies form distinct components

86 Center for Educational Research of scientific literacy. Using this dis- tion is vitally important for young Key References tinction, moreover, profiles of people leaving school. Similarly, the Baumert, J., & Demmrich, strengths and weaknesses could be capacity to evaluate one’s own ef- A. (2001). Test motivation in the assessment of stu- identified for different student fectiveness and learning strategies is dent skills: The effects of groups, such as male and female relevant for working life as well as incentives on motivation and performance. Euro- students and students from former for leisure activities. A positive self- pean Journal of Psychology East and West German states. concept, finally, helps individuals to of Education, 16, 441–462. overcome barriers in such activities. Artelt, C., Baumert, J., Julius-McElvany, N., & Assessment of Cross-Curricular By analyzing students’ approaches Peschar, J. (in press). Ap- Competencies to learning, namely their motivation, proaches to learning: Strategies and motivation. PISA is the first international assess- their use of learning strategies, and A thematic report for the ment study that goes beyond the their academic self-concepts, PISA OECD Programme for In- measurement of knowledge and focuses on central prerequisites for ternational Student As- sessment. Paris: OECD. skills in curricular domains and at- effective self-regulation and lifelong tempts to capture so-called cross- learning. These characteristics play a curricular competencies that can be central role when it comes to the applied in a broad range of situa- prediction of students’ competencies tions. This approach follows the as measured with the PISA literacy general idea that the goals of formal tests. The picture that emerges from education are not restricted to max- the international data is relatively imizing curriculum-based knowl- consistent across the participating edge. In the first cycle of PISA, cog- countries: Students who have nitive, metacognitive, and motiva- acquired the prerequisites for self- tional prerequisites of self-regulated regulated learning are at a relative learning were assessed in most par- advantage in developing academic ticipating countries. The instrument competencies (Artelt, Baumert, for this part of the assessment was Julius-McElvany, & Peschar, in developed by PISA-Germany in col- press). laboration with the OECD and the Within the framework for self-regu- In cooperation with University of Groningen. It is based lated learning, the role of motiva- Jules L. Peschar on Boekaerts’s (1997) model of self- tional dispositions in academic do- (University of regulated learning, which assigns mains is explored. In addition, we Groningen) equal status to the cognitive and conducted an experiment to test the motivational components of learn- effects of different types of test mo- ing. Boekaerts defines self-regulated tivation on student performance. In learning as a complex interactive this experiment, we investigated the process involving motivational as impact of (1) social incentives asso- well as cognitive self-regulation. ciated with participation in an inter- Ideally, at the end of their school national study, (2) informational career, students should have feedback on performance, (3) grades, acquired not only competencies in and (4) performance-contingent school subjects, but also the ability financial rewards. The findings to evaluate whether their approach- suggest that all of these conditions es to learning are effective and to make the various components of gauge their own levels of interest, test motivation equally salient. Con- motivation, and proficiency. Motiva- sequently, no differences were found

Center for Educational Research 87 Key References with respect to either intended and between the lowest and the highest Baumert, J., Klieme, E., invested effort or test performance achieving students is wider than in Neubrand, M., Prenzel, M., (Baumert & Demmrich, 2001). any of the other participating coun- Schiefele, U., Schneider, W., Stanat, P., Tillmann, tries. The large disparities in student K.-J., & Weiß, M. (Eds.). Performance Profiles in Curricular performance are attributable prima- (2001). PISA 2000. Basiskompetenzen von Domains: Results of International rily to the particularly poor results Schülerinnen und Schülern and National Comparisons of the least proficient students (see im internationalen Ver- gleich. Opladen: Leske + How well did students in Germany left half of Fig. 3). In Germany, 13% Budrich (548 p.). and within the German states per- of students only reach the lowest Baumert, J., Artelt, C., form on the PISA tests? In reading of five proficiency levels defined in Klieme, E., Neubrand, M., Prenzel, M., Schiefele, U., (see Fig. 2) as well as in mathemat- PISA and almost 10% are not even Schneider, W., Tillmann, ics and science, student perform- proficient at this level. Thus, almost K.-J., & Weiß, M. (Eds.). ance in Germany falls below the one-quarter of young people can (2002). PISA 2000. Die Länder der Bundesrepublik OECD average. The differences be- only read at an elementary level Deutschland im Vergleich. tween the German mean and the (OECD average: 18%). In terms of Opladen: Leske + Budrich (254 p.). means of the highest performing independent reading and lifelong Artelt, C., Schiefele, U., countries are equivalent to achieve- learning, these students must be Schneider, W., & Stanat, ment gains of one-and-a-half to regarded as a potentially at-risk P. (2002). Leseleistungen deutscher Schülerinnen two academic years. group. In countries such as Korea, und Schüler im interna- Particularly in reading, variation in Finland, Canada, Australia, and tionalen Vergleich (PISA). Ergebnisse und Erklä- student performance is compara- Sweden, this group is much smaller, rungsansätze. Zeitschrift tively large in Germany. The gap at less than 15% of students. für Erziehungswissen- schaft, 5, 6–27.

Selected Mean Canadian provinces and OECD countries federal states of Germany

Alberta (550/3.3) Finland (546/2.6)

British Columbia (538/2.9) Quebec (536/3.0) 530 Ontario (533/3.3) Australia (528/3.5) Manitoba (529/2.7) / Saskatchewan (529/2.8) United Kingdom (523/2.6) Japan (522/5.2) Nova Scotia (521/2.3) Sweden (516/2.2) Prince Edward Island (517/2.4) / 510 Newfoundland (517/2.8) Bavaria (510/4.0) Austria (507/2.4) United States (504/7.0) OECD average New Brunswik (501/1.8) (500/0,6) Baden-Württemberg (500/5.5) Switzerland (494/4.2) 490 Saxony (491/5.0) Italy (487/2.9) Germany Rhineland-Palatinate (485/6.6) Saarland (484/2.4) (484/2,5) North Rhine-Westphalia (482/2.6) / Thuringia (482/7.0) Schleswig-Holstein (478/4.2) Figure 2. Mean reading lit- Hesse (476/6.6) eracy in 14 federal states 470 Lower Saxony (474/4.9) Portugal (470/4.5) of Germany* in compari- Mecklenburg-West Pomerania (467/5.9) son with 8 Canadian provinces and selected Brandenburg (459/6.3) OECD countries (mean/ 450 Saxony-Anhalt (455/5.9) standard error). Bremen (448/4.1) * In Berlin and Hamburg, student participation rates fell below the Luxembourg (441/1.6) specified minimum of 80%. There- fore, these states had to be excluded from most analyses Source: Bussière et al. (2001, p. 50).

88 Center for Educational Research Finland Finland Canada Australia Japan Canada Australia United Kingdom Sweden United States United Kingdom Belgium Bavaria Bavaria Austria Norway France Sweden Norway Baden-Württemberg Denmark Japan OECD-Mean North Rhine-Westphalia United States OECD-Mean Italy Switzerland Saxony Rhineland-Palatinate Belgium Germany Switzerland Austria Baden-Württemberg France Thuringia Schleswig-Holstein Germany Denmark Rhineland-Palatinate Saxony Saarland Hesse Poland Lower Saxony North Rhine-Westphalia Saarland Portugal Thuringia Schleswig-Holstein Poland Mecklenburg-West Pom. Italy Hesse Bremen Lower Saxony Mecklenburg-West Pom. Brandenburg Portugal Saxony-Anhalt Saxony-Anhalt Luxembourg Brandenburg Bremen Luxembourg Brazil Brazil 20100 30 5040 60 405060 30 20 10 0 Percent Percent Percentage below Level I Percentage at Level V Percentage at Level I Figure 3. Percentage of students in 14 of the Ger- man federal states and selected OECD countries By contrast, the proportion of stu- as well as with the performance of performing below or at proficiency Level I and at dents in Germany performing at the students in countries such as Den- proficiency Level V on the highest proficiency level in reading mark, France, Austria, and Switzer- reading literacy scale. is close to the international average, land. with 9% of students reaching Level For the most part, the pattern of re- V (see right half of Fig. 3). This is sults for Germany in the domains comparable with the OECD average of mathematics and science is quite

Center for Educational Research 89 Key References similar to that found for reading. suggests that measures to promote Baumert, J., & Schümer, Also, the findings for the German reading literacy should make reading G. (2001a). Familiäre states generally substantiate those motivation a primary target. The Lebensverhältnisse, Bil- dungsbeteiligung und of the international comparison. In association between reading per- Kompetenzerwerb. In J. almost all of the states, a relatively formance and knowledge of effec- Baumert, E. Klieme, M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, U. low level of overall performance (see tive learning strategies, moreover, Schiefele, W. Schneider, P. Fig. 2) is coupled with a wide varia- is even closer. Again, this points Stanat, K.-J. Tillmann, & M. Weiß (Eds.), PISA 2000. tion in student performance and a to opportunities for targeted inter- Basiskompetenzen von relatively high proportion of stu- vention measures (Artelt, Schiefele, Schülerinnen und Schülern im internationalen Ver- dents classified as belonging to the Schneider, & Stanat, 2002). gleich (pp. 323–407). at-risk group (see Fig. 3). Most of Opladen: Leske + Budrich. the states perform around the Ger- Family Background and Student Baumert, J., & Schümer, man mean in all three domains and, Performance: Results of Interna- G. (2002). Familiäre Le- bensverhältnisse, Bil- within this middle range, any cross- tional and National Comparisons dungsbeteiligung und state differences are practically Although the relationship between Kompetenzerwerb im nationalen Vergleich. In J. insignificant. When the highest and social background and school suc- Baumert, C. Artelt, E. lowest performing states are com- cess relaxed somewhat in the two Klieme, M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, U. Schiefele, W. pared, however, the differences are decades following World War II, the Schneider, K.-J. Tillmann, substantial. In fact, the largest connection is still quite strong. & M. Weiß (Eds.), PISA 2000. Die Länder der Bun- cross-state differences are equiva- Transition points involving decisions desrepublik Deutschland lent to performance gains of one- about future paths in the education- im Vergleich (pp. 159– and-a-half to two academic years. al system, such as the decision for a 202). Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Regional performance differences certain track after the completion of Baumert, J., Trautwein, of this magnitude are also found in elementary school, have proved to U., & Artelt, C. (2003). other federal countries such as be crucial for the development of Schulumwelten. Institu- tionelle Bedingungen des Canada (see Fig. 2). Even when tak- social disparities in attainment. At Lehrens und Lernens. In ing account of differences in the such points, primary and secondary J. Baumert, C. Artelt, E. Klieme, M. Neubrand, composition of the student popula- disparities can be identified (cf., M. Prenzel, U. Schiefele, tion across the German states, and Breen & Goldthorpe, 1997). Primary W. Schneider, K.-J. Till- mann, & M. Weiß (Eds.), considering the performance of stu- disparities are differences in compe- PISA 2000. Ein differen- dents without a migration history tencies relevant to a transition that zierter Blick auf die Länder separately, marked differences in persons have acquired up to that der Bundesrepublik Deutschland (pp. 259– mean performance can still be ob- point and that are related to their 330). Opladen: Leske + served. social background. Secondary dis- Budrich. The performance of individual stu- parities, on the other hand, emerge dents within a country in the read- when transitional decisions vary de- ing literacy assessment is related pending on individuals’ social back- to a number of different factors. In grounds, even when their competen- Germany, there is a significant link cy levels are comparable. 1 Odds ratios are com- between student performance and, In PISA, primary and secondary so- monly used in research on social disparities and epi- among other things, interest in cial disparities in school type atten- demiology to describe rel- reading and reading activities. At dance were estimated with odds ative chances and risks. 1 Unlike differences between the same time, the proportion of ratios (Baumert & Schümer, 2001a, percentage points or pro- young people who report that they 2002). Table 2 shows the relative portions of conditional probabilities, they are in- never read for pleasure is—at 42%— chances of 15-year-olds from differ- dependent of base rates. particularly high in Germany. This ent social backgrounds of attending

90 Center for Educational Research Table 2 Relative chances of attending different school types depending on social class (odds ratios)1

Social class of household head Educational track (Reference category: Intermediate track—Realschule) (EGP) Lowest track/vocat. school Academic track Comprehensive school (Haupt-/Berufsschule) (Gymnasium) (Gesamtschule)

Model2 Model2 Model2

I II III I II III I II III

Higher grade professionals (I) .49 .55 .48 4.28 3.40 2.89 .56 .61 .59

Lower grade professionals (II) .46 .54 .69 3.34 2.75 2.24 ns ns ns

Routine non-manual ns ns ns 1.80 1.83 1.97 ns ns ns employees (III) Self-employed (IV) ns ns ns 1.87 1.79 1.77 ns ns ns

Skilled manual workers (V, VI) Reference group (odds = 1)

Semi-skilled and unskilled 1.50 1.33 ns ns ns ns 1.51 1.52 1.40 manual workers (VII)

1 Only statistically significant findings are reported; ns = nonsignificant. 2 Model I does not control for covariates; Model II controls for mental ability; Model III controls for mental ability as well as reading, mathematical, and scientific literacy. a certain school type. In this analy- combined effect of primary and sec- sis, social background is categorized ondary disparities. For example, the according to the multidimensional figure of 4.28 reported for children classification system by Erikson, of higher grade professionals in the Goldthorpe, and Portocarero (1979). Gymnasium column indicates that To facilitate interpretation, the same the relative chances of students reference categories were used in all from this background to attend the comparisons, namely, children of academic-track Gymnasium rather skilled manual workers as the social than the Realschule are 4.28 times reference group and the intermedi- higher than those of children of ate track (Realschule) as the refer- skilled manual workers. By compari- ence category for school type. Thus, son, the odds that a young person the figures reported in Table 2 from the highest socio-economic describe the relative chances that class will attend the vocationally- 15-year-olds with a given social oriented Hauptschule rather than background will attend a school the Realschule are only about half type other than the Realschule as (odds ratio = .49) those of a student compared to children of skilled from a working-class background. manual workers. The odds ratios To estimate secondary disparities, presented for Model I show the Model II controlled for the level of

Center for Educational Research 91 basic mental ability as an indicator Social disparities in school-type at- for the competency level reached at tendance were found in all of the 14 the end of primary education, and German states for which sufficient Model III also controlled for reading, data are available. However, in the mathematical, and scientific literacy former East German states, the rela- at age 15. As Table 2 shows, even tive probability of attending a Gym- when their basic mental ability and nasium is far less dependent on the reading literacy are comparable, family’s socio-economic status than students from the highest socio- in the former West. In addition, economic class have an almost three considerable differences among the times higher chance of attending former West German states can be the Gymnasium rather than the observed. The association between Realschule than children of skilled social background and type of manual workers. school attended is most pronounced

Figure 4. Slopes of the so- North Rhine-Westphalia cial gradients for reading literacy in 14 of the Ger- Bremen man federal states and selected OECD countries. Hesse Lower Saxony Schleswig-Holstein Saarland Germany Rhineland-Palatinate Bavaria Baden-Württemberg Mecklenburg-West Pomerania Switzerland United Kingdom Saxony-Anhalt Thuringia Saxony United States Brandenburg France Sweden Finland

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Change in level of reading literacy (test scores) when the socio-economic index increases by one standard deviation

92 Center for Educational Research in Bavaria, Rhineland-Palatinate, performance in the lower socio- Key Reference and Schleswig-Holstein. Exploratory economic groups. Baumert, J., Watermann, analyses suggest that these varia- Again, within Germany, the closest R., & Schümer, G. (in press). Disparitäten der tions between the states are, among links between student background Bildungsbeteiligung und other things, related to regional dif- and performance are found in the des Kompetenzerwerbs: Ein institutionelles und ferences in traditions of educational former West German states (see psychologisches Media- participation and accessibility of the Fig. 4). Although the social divide tionsmodell. Zeitschrift für different school types. tends to be less pronounced in the Erziehungswissenschaft. To compare the extent to which stu- former East German states, it is still dent achievement and social back- large compared to the other PISA ground are related within the OECD countries. countries and the German federal states, regression analyses were per- Mediation of the Relationship formed, predicting students’ per- Between Students’ Family formance on the PISA tests from the Background and Achievement socio-economic status of their par- As PISA and other studies have ents. The slopes of the resulting re- shown, various structural aspects of gression lines, which are commonly students’ family background are re- referred to as social gradients, indi- lated to school performance. These cate the extent to which students’ include socio-economic status, level competency levels change when the of education, and migration history. socio-economic index increases by However, little is known about the one standard deviation. These slopes factors that mediate this relation- are depicted in Figure 4. In all of the ship. Based on the work of Bourdieu countries participating in PISA 2000, (1983) and Coleman (1988), we there is a significant link between explored the role of several process social background and performance. factors indicating aspects of fami- However, nowhere is this relation- lies’ economic, cultural, and social ship as strong as it is in Germany. capital (Baumert, Watermann, & Links of a similar magnitude are Schümer, in press). Figure 5 shows found in countries such as Belgium, the resulting structural model de- Switzerland, and Luxembourg. This scribing the interplay between pattern of results suggests that the characteristics of students’ families association between social back- and the level of reading literacy ground and achievement tends to achieved.2 The structural character- be stronger in systems with early istics of family background entered tracking. Particularly Japan, Korea, in the model are the parents’ high- 2 Due to considerable regional differences in mi- Iceland, Finland, but also Canada est socio-economic status and edu- gration patterns, separate and Sweden manage to combine a cational level, their migration models had to be estimat- high overall level of performance history, and the students’ length of ed for the former East and West German states. The with a weak relationship between residency in Germany. The process main difference between social background and student factors are cultural practices (cul- the models is that the re- performance. This desirable combi- tural possessions, common cultural lationship between social nation—high performance, low activities) and communication with- background and achievement is less pronounced in social inequality—is attained largely in the family (general amount of the former East German by ensuring a satisfactory level of discussion, discussions of cultural states.

Center for Educational Research 93 .13

.36 Socio-economic .31 Cultural status practices .11 .20 .59 .05 .38 Communication .40 .15 within the –.27 Level of family education .14 ns .25 Investment in ns Reading .17 –.27 .36 consumer goods literacy –.32 –.13 Migration .19 .17 history .03 .16 –.69 Number of children –.63

Length of .63 .15 Home residency in language Germany

Figure 5. Structural model .10 of the relationships among structural and process aspects of the family back- issues), investment in consumer process factors are overlooked, the ground and reading litera- goods (possession of consumer relationship between family back- cy in the former West Ger- durables), number of children, and ground and competency develop- man states (standardized home language (German vs. another ment is systematically and signifi- path coefficients; R2 in bold type). language). With the exception of cantly underestimated. Furthermore, number of children and home lan- the process variables specified in the guage, the process factors are mod- model prove to be important media- eled as latent variables, each of tors of the impact associated with which is represented by two indica- structural factors. The effect of the tors. The criterion variable is reading parents’ educational level is mediat- literacy, represented in the measure- ed entirely by the family’s cultural ment model by the three compo- practices. Likewise, the family’s mi- nents of retrieving information, in- gration history has no direct effect terpreting texts, and reflecting and on the reading literacy of 15-year- evaluating that were differentiated old students when controlling for in the PISA assessment. their length of residency in Ger- The variables contained in the model many. Thus, consistent with the as- explain 36% of the variance in read- sumptions of Bourdieu (1983), cul- ing literacy—a much larger propor- tural capital seems to be the best tion than when only structural char- predictor of competency develop- acteristics of family background ment. On the other hand, contrary are taken into account. Thus, when to Coleman’s (1988) predictions,

94 Center for Educational Research communication within the family Baumert, Köller, and Schnabel Key Reference was not found to have a specific im- (2000) have shown that the various Baumert, J., Köller, O., & pact above and beyond the effects school types in Germany constitute Schnabel, K. (2000). Schul- formen als differentielle of the other process factors. It is, different developmental environ- Entwicklungsmilieus—Eine however, conceivable that the nega- ments. More specifically, in some ungehörige Fragestellung? In Gewerkschaft Erziehung tive effect of the number of siblings tracks, students gain more in terms und Wissenschaft GEW reflects changes in communication of knowledge and skills over the (Ed.), Messung sozialer Motivation. Eine Kontro- patterns that may be associated course of secondary school than in verse (pp. 28–68). Frank- with this variable. others. This means that the choice furt a.M.: Bildungs- und Förderungswerk der GEW The model of the relationships be- of a secondary school track has (Schriftenreihe des Bil- tween family background and read- direct implications for students’ dungs- und Förderungs- ing literacy presented in Figure 5 is educational outcomes—even when werks der GEW, Vol. 14). an improvement on simple analyses cognitive, motivational, and social of bivariate correlations as well as prerequisites for learning are held on models that take a multivariate constant. For this reason, it is vital approach but consider structural for mediation models to include an aspects only. From the psychological institutional component that reflects and sociological standpoint, how- this choice. In the current analysis, ever, the model is unsatisfactory as it is represented by the school track it does not identify the psychologi- attended. cal and institutional mechanisms However, students’ progress within that mediate the association be- educational tracks is also largely tween family background and com- dependent on their prior knowledge petency development. Such media- and motivational characteristics— tion processes are of particular that is, the skills and dispositions interest from a pedagogical point that determine which secondary of view. A relatively simple psycho- track is chosen at the end of pri- Figure 6. Psychological and institutional mediation logical and institutional mediation mary schooling (see, e.g., Lehmann, model of the relationships model is outlined in Figure 6. Peek, & Gänsfuß, 1997; Baumert & between aspects of family background and school outcomes.

Basic mental ability

Reading speed (as a proxy for prior knowledge)

School Aspects of socio- type attended Reading literacy structural background (SES, education, migration); investment Motivation and in consumer goods; metacognitve cultural and social learning strategies practices within the family Secondary disparities in educational participation

Secondary disparities in competency development

Center for Educational Research 95 Schümer, 2001). These performance- model explains 73% of the variance relevant characteristics, in turn, coin reading literacy, indicating a very vary with students’ social and cul- good model fit. The predictors with tural background. Accordingly, basic the most explanatory power are, as mental ability and reading speed (as expected, the indicators approximat- a proxy for prior knowledge) as well ing students’ prior knowledge. More as motivational characteristics and importantly, the effects of the metacognitive learning strategies process attributes of family back- are included in the model as psy- ground are mediated almost entirely chological mediating variables. by psychological and institutional The model presented in Figure 6 mechanisms. At the same time, the suggests that the effects of struc- institutional effects of school type tural and process attributes of fami- attended remain substantial, even ly background on competency devel- when controlling for process attrib- opment are mediated by psychologi- utes of family background and psy- cal process factors and the school chological characteristics. In line type attended. The model also al- with our expectations, the academ- lows primary and secondary dispari- ic-track Gymnasium represents the ties in educational participation and most conducive environment with in competency development to be respect to competency development, disentangled. Again, secondary dis- even when holding individual differ- parities result from direct effects of ences in aptitude constant. the family background that are not Overall, the results of these analyses mediated by performance-related or indicate that the relationship be- motivational characteristics or by tween social background and school differential decisions for a certain success can only be mapped out school type. An accurate estimation properly if both structural and of these secondary disparities hinges process characteristics of the family on the specification of the psycho- are taken into account. If—as is logical mediation model. It is quite often the case in the literature— possible that the relevant part of the analysis is limited to structural the model is underspecified in aspects, the magnitude of the rela- Figure 5 such that the secondary tionship is systematically under- disparities may, to some extent, be estimated. Furthermore, the findings overestimated. show that the effects of family Stepwise regression analyses were structure and process characteristics performed to test the psychological are largely transported by individual and institutional mediation model in differences in aptitude and motiva- Figure 6. Due to its complexity, the tion (basic mental ability, reading table of results is not presented speed, interest in reading, metacog- here. The structural and process as- nitive learning strategies). The psy- pects of students’ family back- chological and institutional media- ground, the psychological variables, tion mechanisms contribute jointly and the school type attended were as well as individually, and thus entered blockwise in the regression cumulatively, to social differences in analyses. The complete mediation achievement.

96 Center for Educational Research Research Area III Learning and Instruction: Cognitive Activation and Cognitive Tools

Three cornerstones of competence acquisition have to be integrated into research on learning and instruction: the tasks to be mastered, the students (who have to be engaged in meaningful learning activities), and the teachers (whose task it is to facilitate students’ learning). Each cornerstone highlights different aspects of the learning process. Focusing on the tasks means asking what kinds of knowledge structures and more general cognitive preconditions have to be accessible in order for certain tasks to be mastered. Switching to the students' perspective leads to the question of how the learners' existing knowledge can be modified, extended, cross-linked, hierarchically ordered, or how new knowledge can be generated, in order to master the tasks. The teacher's role is to mediate between the tasks and the students. By selecting learning materials, giving appropriate feedback, and involving students in meaningful learning activities, teachers can support learners in closing the gap between prior knowledge and the knowledge needed to master the tasks in question.

Insightful Learning: A Challenge be mastered. In so doing, learners for Teachers as well as for have to make use of, and are con- Scientists strained by, the knowledge already In comparison to the acquisition of available to them. Particularly for facts, skills, and routines, insightful science and mathematics, it has conceptual understanding—a central been widely shown that students aim of science and mathematics in- enter classrooms with intuitive construction, in particular—is still a cepts and belief systems which are puzzle, for teachers as well as for partly based on universal conceptual researchers. Nonetheless, scientific primitives. These may have innate progress in modeling and explaining roots, but are also shaped by school- the emergence of insights and con- ing. The negative consequences of ceptual understanding is evident. ignoring this kind of prior knowl- It is now widely accepted that new edge have been demonstrated, par- concepts and insights are not ac- ticularly for physics and mathemat- quired through passive transmission ics education. Students often only of the expert’s knowledge to the adopt the knowledge taught at learner’s mind, but rather that they school at a superficial level and, are the result of the learner’s active therefore, can only use it when process of constructing increasingly faced with problems that have al- complex and elaborated cognitive ready been dealt with at school. structures. Powerful learning envi- Overcoming certain misconceptions ronments stimulate students’ cogni- that are deeply rooted in everyday tive activation, that is, students' experience is the most difficult task mental involvement in the tasks to of science education.

Center for Educational Research 97 To effectively initiate and assist stu- Is the understanding of certain con- dent learning, teachers need to take cepts subject to conscious or uncon- into account students’ specific prior scious processes? At what stage of knowledge and understanding, and the learning process are feedback they need to design and organize and direct instruction helpful? At lessons and classroom discourse in a what age can students make sense way that closely attends to the cur- of certain forms of visual-spatial riculum as well as to the social con- representation? What kind of prac- struction of meaning in classrooms. tice do students need for the appli- Teachers can only do a good job if cation of such tools in new content they know what makes certain tasks domains? Which tool is most appro- particularly difficult, on the one priate for reasoning in a given con- hand, and are aware of the way tent domain? What kinds of miscon- their students learn, on the other. ceptions can arise from using a tool For instance, they have to know that has not yet been fully under- what kinds of mistakes and obsta- stood? cles typically occur during the learning process and whether students The Orchestration of Students’ need special support to overcome Learning Activities these. In order to combine the task Classroom instruction is not the only perspective and the student per- factor that determines the knowl- spective, teachers need pedagogical edge structures and epistemological content knowledge. This means that beliefs acquired by students. It is, teachers have to know how particu- however, the factor that is most lar topics, problems, or issues are or- likely to be affected by the institu- ganized, represented, and adapted to tions of the education system and meet the diverse interests and abili- the professional activity of teachers. ties of learners and how they should Recent findings emphasize that be presented during instruction. classroom instruction, rather than Teachers’ classroom behavior thus the school environment or manage- needs to be based on an under- ment structures, has the main im- standing of how students learn in pact on school effectiveness in the respective academic domains. terms of learning outcomes. As such, In order to provide teachers with the question of what actually deter- appropriate pedagogical content mines good instructional practice is knowledge, research on learning and central to the success of education instruction has to focus on students’ and the functionality of the educa- insightful learning. Important question system. For this question to be tions to be addressed include the addressed, pedagogical concepts of following: What is the structure of instructional quality need to be the knowledge to be acquired? What combined with the analysis of indi- prior knowledge does the learner vidual and collective processes of have to build on? What particular knowledge acquisition in specific tasks, explanations, and interactive domains. discourse will assist students’ construction of intelligent knowledge?

98 Center for Educational Research From Distal to Proximal Factors in In the approach taken by the Center Research on Instructional Quality: for Educational Research, the con- Fostering Cognitive Activation in cept of instructional quality is Powerful Learning Environments extended by adding specific peda- There is a high level of consensus in gogical aspects that (a) describe how the description of “instructional basic elements of instructional quali- quality“ in the international research ty are implemented in the setting of community. High quality instruction tasks and in interaction processes, is typically described by a set of ba- (b) have a more proximal relationship sic properties that combine aspects to the psychological processes of of direct instruction with adaptivity insightful learning, and (c) take and affective quality: domain-specific criteria of knowledge – good classroom management, acquisition into consideration. Link- – appropriate pacing and moderate ing up with the investigations of do- speed of interactional exchange, main-specific knowledge structures, allowing for a high level of stu- we ask the following question: How dent attentiveness and participa- should instruction be shaped to allow tion, students to gain a deep understand- – clear and well-structured presen- ing of domain-specific concepts and tation of material and setting of develop adequate, nonschematic tasks, epistemological beliefs? – adaptivity of task selection and In learning laboratories as well as in feedback given by the teacher, classrooms we mainly focus on based on their diagnostic under- competence acquisition in the fields standing of the ability and learn- of mathematics (COACTIV) and sci- ing progress of individual students, ence (ENTERPRISE). This research – affective quality of the teacher- will be described in detail in the fol- student relations. lowing section. Moreover, as a con- This concept describes the basic re- sequence of the PISA study, which quirements of “instructional quality,” revealed knowledge and effective the conditions that have to be met use of reading strategies to be im- to allow for successful knowledge portant predictors of literacy, Anke acquisition in the classroom. Demmrich is currently evaluating However, this concept of instruc- the Reciprocal Teaching Program by tional quality is limited by that fact Palincsar and Brown (1984) in her that (a) it does not show how doctoral thesis. This program was teachers implement each of its ele- designed to teach students in spe- ments in the structure and delivery cific reading comprehension strate- of their lessons, (b) it has a distal gies. In an experimental training relationship to the students’ actual study, central mechanisms that learning processes, and (c) it over- might cause the large gains in read- looks subject content and, thus, ing comprehension are evaluated, cannot adequately reflect the struc- and key features of the program ture and quality of the knowledge that contribute to its success will be acquired. identified.

Center for Educational Research 99 The Research COACTIV: Cognitive Activation in the Classroom: The Orchestration of Team Learning Opportunities for the Enhancement of Insightful Learning in Mathematics Jürgen Baumert Stefan Krauss Teaching for Understanding: Linking PISA 2003 to Research on Learning and Instruction With mathematics literacy forming the main component of PISA 2003, a more differentiated investigation of the structure of the mathematical competencies acquired by the end of lower secondary Martin Brunner level will be attainable. Moreover, the PISA 2003 study will be extended to a longitudinal study span- (predoctoral ning the period of one academic year, with a sampling design allowing for class and school effects to be separated systematically. The investigation of domain-specific instructional processes as related to fellow) the pedagogical expertise of mathematics teachers will be a main focus of the panel study. By con- ducting a computer-based survey focused on the pedagogical content knowledge of mathematics Associated teachers, the study will break new grounds in the field of research on teaching. Scientists: Werner Blum The COACTIV study, which is funded processes to teachers' expertise and (University of by the German Research Foundation professional beliefs. The study focus- Kassel) (DFG), is based on preliminary work es on the question of how insightful Laura Martignon carried out in the context of BIJU, learning can be facilitated in class- (Teachers College TIMSS, and TIMSS Video (see Re- rooms. An outline of the theoretical of Ludwigsburg) search Area I). In this study, the framework is given in Figure 1. Michael Neubrand three cornerstones of mathematical Despite differences on various de- (University of competence acquisition—the stu- tails in research on learning and in- Flensburg) dents, the teachers, and the tasks to struction, there is a broad consensus be mastered—will be investigated about some central principles of in- Funded by the Ger- in a combined approach. The main sightful learning: man Research focus of interest will be the mathe- • Insightful learning is an active Foundation (DFG) matics teachers, whose role it is to process of construction of mean- in the BIQUA prior- mediate between the tasks and the ing, in the course of which mental ity program students by selecting learning mate- representations are modified, ex- rials, giving appropriate feedback, tended, cross-linked, hierarchically and involving students in meaning- ordered or generated. Even mean- www. ipn.uni-kiel.de/ projekte/biqua/biqua_ ful learning activities. The theo- ingful receptive learning is a con- eng.htm retical framework of the research structive activity in this sense. The project is based on the process- decisive factor in insightful learn- Baumert, J., Blum, W., & mediation-product model, the ing is mental involvement, which Neubrand, M. (in press). (social-)constructivist approach, and occurs in the active engagement Drawing the lessons from PISA 2000—Long-term re- the notion of teacher expertise, and with the social or natural environ- search implications: Gain- integrates these in the context of a ment or with symbolic representa- ing a better understanding of the relationship be- multilevel and multivariate model. tions. The opportunity structure of tween system inputs and On the one hand, the theoretical a learning environment should learning outcomes by as- framework incorporates robust find- thus be evaluated in terms of the sessing instructional and learning processes as me- ings from research on teaching; on extent to which it supports, fos- diating factors. the other hand, it broadens the ters, or impedes this kind of men- scope in the analysis of instructional tal activity. processes and practices by paying • Insightful learning depends on an particular attention to the enhance- individual’s cognitive prerequisites, ment of cognitive activation, and by and particularly on domain-specif- systematically relating instructional ic prior knowledge. The scope and

100 Center for Educational Research organization of the available instruction needs to vary the con- knowledge base determines the texts of acquisition and applica- quality and ease of further learn- tion. ing. The more demanding a task or • Insightful learning is also regulat- problem, the more important a ed by motivation and the meta- student’s prior knowledge be- cognitive processes of planning, comes. monitoring, and evaluation. • Despite its cumulative nature, in- • Insightful learning is supported by sightful learning is always situat- mechanisms that reduce cognitive ed—it inevitably occurs in a given, load. These include chunking and mostly social context. Knowledge the automatization of processes of thus entails a connection with the thought and action. situational context of acquisition. Insightful learning thus evolves To a certain extent, learning is al- through the active and intelligent ways anchored in the life world— use of rich and diverse learning op- be it as artificial as the life world portunities. The horizontal lines in of the school. Because knowledge Figure 1 represent the fundamental is situated in the context of division between the supply and acquisition, there is an inherent usage of such opportunities (Fend, limitation on its transferability. To 2002). The most important aspect of broaden the area of transfer, the learning supply side that can be Figure 1. Multilevel framework of analysis.

Multilevel framework of analysis School/depart- IV ment level School/department

Classroom context Classroom/ III Teacher characteristics Composition of student body teacher level Content knowledge Pedagog. content knowledge General pedagog. knowledge Instructional processes Epistemological beliefs Learning Teacher- Student- opportu- student student nities relations relations

Individual II Individual prerequisites Individual processing student level Cognitive Effort/attentivenes Motivational Volitional action control Social Metacognitive strategies Emotional experience

Level of intra- I Goals of mathematics instruction individual change/ learning Mathematical Epistemo- Self- Motivational Personality competence logical regulation orientations traits beliefs

Center for Educational Research 101 optimized is the structure and quali- on what Lee Shulman (1987) termed ty of learning opportunities. pedagogical content knowledge and Recent research on learning in the related beliefs and attitudes. mathematics draws attention to the In other words, the model focuses significance that demanding and on the expert knowledge instructors open-ended tasks, the structural and need to transform subject matter contextual variation of those tasks, into insightful learning opportuni- the teacher’s response to student er- ties. The most important features rors, and the acquisition and autom- are presented in Figure 2. atization of teaching strategies have This conceptual framework raises for high-quality instruction. These problems of data collection, how- findings highlight the importance of ever, particularly in the context of a teachers’ domain-specific expert large-scale assessment program. To knowledge. Video analyses conduct- date, the results of teacher surveys ed in the framework of TIMSS and on instructional processes and TIMSS-Repeat have revealed consid- practices have been disappointing, erable cross-country differences and there is no reason to believe in the intelligent choreography of that such questionnaires could pro- domain-specific opportunities for vide valid assessments of profes- insightful learning in the classroom. sional expertise. In the context of Based on these findings, a parsimo- the TIMSS Video Study, which was nious model of teacher expertise embedded in a one-year longitudinal distinguishing different facets and study in Germany, we asked stu- types of teachers’ professional dents, teachers, and independent knowledge was developed, focusing observers to rate instruction with

Figure 2. Structure of teachers’ professional Structure of teachers’ professional knowledge: knowledge: Pedagogical pedagogical content knowlegde in mathematics content knowledge in mathematics. Facets of Declarative Procedural expert Beliefs and professional expert knowledge attitudes knowledge knowledge Structure of the Selecting mathematical tasks Goals of Subject mathematics and problems instruction matter curriculum knowledge Handling tasks in classroom Preference Cognitive demands instruction for specific and pedagogical Sequencing tasks in classroom models of potentials of instruction teaching Pedagogical mathematical Responding to unexpected mathematics content problems knowledge student ideas Enthusiasm Student about Responding to student mistakes preconceptions teaching Organizing cognitively mathematics Typical student General demanding practice in classroom Epistemological pedagogical difficulties in Selecting and sequencing tasks beliefs about classroom understanding for homework and tests learning of knowledge mathematical problems Diagnostic competence in the mathematics field of mathematics

102 Center for Educational Research respect to the same theoretical con- to document their professional ex- structs. We ensured that the word- pertise. Therefore, we have decided ing of the items was as uniform to develop a computer-based as- as possible. Nevertheless, the con- sessment instrument that engages current validity of the three rating mathematics teachers in a virtual methods was remarkably low dialogue about their professional (Clausen 2002). The findings suggest activities. This instrument allows us: that teachers, students, and inde- (1) to present and manipulate pendent observers perceive instruc- mathematic tasks on the computer tion from different perspectives and screen, and focus on different facets. Never- (2) to show videos presenting criti- theless, all three approaches were cal situations from mathematics shown to have differential validity lessons or different choreographies where the prediction of learning of mathematics instruction. progress is concerned: In other words, the instrument al- • Students seem to be experts on lows us to generate situations that the general affective quality of require the activation of pedagogical instruction, the efficacy of class- content knowledge and professional room management, and the responses. occurence of infrequent classroom With this method, we will be able to events. explore the following aspects of • Independent observers are distin- mathematics teachers’ pedagogical guished by their relatively reliable content knowledge: evaluation of the overall quality of instruction assessed with high in- Selecting Tasks for Lessons on a ference ratings. Additionally, their Standard Grade 9 or Grade 10 judgments of frequent events Mathematics Topic measured with low inference rat- A series of tasks with differing cog- ings are also reliable. nitive potential are presented on the • Teacher reports on their own in- computer screen (see Fig. 3). Some struction are characterized prima- of these tasks can be solved in mul- rily by a self-serving bias. At the tiple ways, thus allowing teachers to same time, their assessments do take different levels of students’ pri- seem to become informative when or knowledge into account. Teachers focusing on dimensions that can are asked to select tasks appropriate only be evaluated by raters with for introducing a new mathematics the necessary professional expert- Figure 3. Screenshot taken ise and, in particular, the neces- from the computer-based sary pedagogical content knowl- questionnaire, where teachers were asked which edge. Precisely these aspects are 4 of the 12 tasks presented very rarely addressed in traditional they would use in their 9th questionnaires, however. grade classrooms to con- solidate the topic “areas of To elicit professional expertise, a plane figures.“ Teachers teacher survey must involve teachers could click on each of the in a kind of conversation about their 12 symbolic representa- work and give them the opportunity tions of geometry tasks to view them completely.

Center for Educational Research 103 topic as well as for organizing prac- level of cognitive activation will be tice periods, and to give reasons for maintained or the lesson is trivial- their choice. ized. The teachers are asked to describe how they would continue the Handling Selected Tasks in Classroom lesson (see Fig. 4). Instruction The aim here is to determine Responding to Unexpected Student whether the teachers utilize the Ideas cognitively activating potential of Teachers are shown short videos or tasks effectively. descriptions of situations in which students present unexpected mathe- Sequencing of Tasks matical ideas. The teachers are Teachers are asked to select tasks asked to respond to these ideas (see suitable for introducing a new Fig. 5). mathematical topic, to arrange these tasks in the order they would Responding to Student Errors use them on the computer screen, The teachers are confronted with and to give reasons for the chosen student mistakes. These errors repre- sequence. In a second step, they are sent temporary misunderstandings, presented with other sequences, typical misconceptions in the topic each of which represents a different area, as well as more unusual errors instructional approach. They are that can be put to good use in cog- asked to select one of these nitively activating instruction. The sequences for their lessons and to teachers are asked to account for give reasons for their choice. the errors in students’ thinking and to give their reactions to the errors Structuring the Content of (see Fig. 6). Instructional Processes at Critical Points in the Lesson Diagnostic Competence in Teachers are shown short videos of Mathematics mathematics lessons. The videos Four dimensions of the mathematics break off at a point which is critical teachers’ diagnostic competence are for the further development of the examined. The teachers are present- lesson. The decisions teachers make ed with tasks in order to explore at this point determine whether the whether they are able to: (1) identify misconceptions typically Figure 4. A scene from a geometry lesson shown to held by lower secondary school stu- the teachers. dents, (2) distinguish different approaches to open-ended tasks and predict the probability that students will use these approaches, (3) accurately gauge the difficulty of the tasks for the students in their class, and

104 Center for Educational Research (4) diagnose the prior knowledge of have predictive validity. For the individual students. purposes of construct validation, The computer-based instrument for these aspects of instruction are also the assessment of teachers’ expert assessed from the teachers’ per- knowledge is complemented by a spective within traditional teacher random selection of homework questionnaire. assignments and informal tests. This Following initial testing in face-to- material is analyzed from the per- face situations in which teachers spective of its implicit pedagogical commented on the computer pre- conception. Finally, a traditional sentations, a first field trial with 80 questionnaire is used to assess mathematics teachers was complet- socio-demographic teacher variables ed successfully. A revised version of and aspects of the teachers’ occupa- the computer-based instrument is tional career, professional commit- now available in CD-ROM format, ment, and belief systems. and will be implemented in the PISA Parallel to the teacher study, we also 2003 assessment. The study will be tap into students’ perceptions of repeated one academic year later. classroom management and instruc- Hierarchical linear modeling will be tion. A student questionnaire col- used to link its results to student lects data on characteristics of the performance gains and motivational instructional process for which development. students reports are reliable and

Figure 5. One of the situations presented is the Figure 6. One student error presented was the con- following: Imagine that one of your students ceptual error as depicted in this cartoon. comes to class very excited. She explains that she has discovered that, as the perimeter of a closed “If the price of candy bars figure increases, the area also increases. She rose 20% last week and shows you this picture to prove what she is doing. dropped 20% yesterday, candy bars cost the same as before“.

The question to the teacher was: The question to the teacher was: “How would you react to this claim?“ “How do you think this student formed this idea— what was the thought process behind it?“ (According to Liping Ma [1999]. Knowing and teaching elementary mathematics).

Center for Educational Research 105 The Research ENTERPRISE: Cognitive Activation tions has increased markedly over Team in Elementary School Children: the past decades. In view of this The Potential of Diagrammatic trend, cognitive science has put a Elsbeth Stern Tools great deal of effort into researching Ilonca Hardy diagrammatic literacy. Beyond the The ENTERPRISE project (Enhancing KNowl- function of depicting information, edge Transfer and Efficient Reasoning by Anja Felbrich Practicing Representation In Science Educa- however, diagrams and graphs can Michael Schneider tion) aims to explore the conditions under also serve as active reasoning tools. (predoctoral which graphs and diagrams can serve as tools The old adage that one picture can for structuring learning environments and, fellows) thus, foster conceptual understanding in be worth ten thousand words has science as well as other content areas. been confirmed by cognitive science research. Diagrams support a large Key Reference Symbol Systems as Reasoning Tools number of perceptual inferences Haag, L., & Stern, E. It is now widely recognized that which are easy for humans to (2003b). In search of the higher order cognitive activities of process. By grouping together all benefits of learning Latin. Journal of Educational humans, such as learning, reasoning, related information, extensive Psychology, 95, 174–178. and transfer are based on an elabo- searches for elements needed in a rated knowledge rather than on for- problem-solving inference become mal rigor (Haag & Stern, 2003b). superfluous. Indeed, visualization Knowledge dealt with in academic may lead to new insights into the contexts is based on symbolic sys- formal structures of a problem. Understanding tems, such as script, formal mathe- Moreover because the constraints to comes from having matical language, pictures, and dia- be considered when drawing graphs a good represen- grammatic representations. Symbols and diagrams are the same in differ- tation can be understood as mental tools ent domains and content areas, Novick & Hmleo that allow the construction of learners using external representa- meaning in concepts, ideas, or plans. tions may be able to identify previ- Within the mental tool framework, ously imperceptible commonalities understanding can be conceptual- between domains (Stern, 2001b). ized as the ability to use representa- Exploring best ways to implement tions in a flexible manner. While diagrammatic tools in science and pictures, number systems, and writ- mathematics instruction, the ENTER- ten language have a long tradition PRISE project focuses on elementary of use in human culture, visual- school children. Investigations of spatial tools, such as graphs and this age group provide valuable in- diagrams were only devised as tools sights into human development, for knowledge representation about particularly because elementary two centuries ago. Since then, space school children’s cognitive potential has been used to represent nonspa- has long been underestimated (see tial information, particularly in for- also pp. 116–117). (Stern, 2002). 70 60 mal domains, such as science and The ENTERPRISE project has put the 50 economics. Because computers have main emphasis on two topics: First, 40 30 made the construction and modifi- the use of line graphs as powerful 20 cation of graphs and diagrams so reasoning tools and second, ways of 10 easy, the frequency with which indi- improving children´s understanding 0 70605040302010 viduals encounter such representa- of floating and sinking of objects.

106 Center for Educational Research Line Graphs as Powerful Reasoning While 67% of the international The Research Team Tools sample solved the problem, the Line graphs are broadly disseminated achievement in the German sample Ilonca Hardy in learning materials dealing with was much worse. 55% of the stu- Elsbeth Stern topics of formal domains, such as dents of the Gymnasium who had science or economics. They are most chosen mathematics as their major In collaboration appropriate to represent causal as subject found the correct answer with well as incidental relationships “c,” whereas only 44% of the stu- Susanne Koerber between two variables. In Germany, dents from the Gymnasium who had (University of students encounter line graphs as a not specialized in mathematics gave Munich) means for data representation the correct answer. The incorrect already in early secondary school, answer “a” was chosen most while core elements of graphs, such frequently. Most of the students as the slope or the intersection on had encountered distance-time the y-axis, are part of the mathe- graphs, while they probably had Key References matics curriculum in eighth grade, never before seen a velocity-time Stern, E. (2001b). Intelli- when students learn to map linear diagram. For those students who are genz, Wissen, Transfer und der Umgang mit Zeichen- functions on graphs. However, aware of the fact that the slope of systemen. In E. Stern & J. despite the value of graphs and dia- a graph represents the rate of Guthke (Eds.), Perspektiven der Intelligenzforschung grams as tools for knowledge change of the y-value in relation- (pp. 163–203). Lengerich: structuring, reasoning, and problem ship to the x-value, it should be Pabst. solving, the competent use of such easy to map the described situation Stern, E. (2002). Wie abstrakt lernt das Grund- tools is not as widespread as would on the graph. In contrast, students schulkind? Neuere be desirable. Stern, Aprea and Ebner who lack this deep understanding of Ergebnisse der entwick- lungspsychologischen (2003) found that active graphical graphs have to rely on information Forschung. In H. Petillon representation—that is, transferring retrieved from memory. Differential (Ed.), Jahrbuch Grund- information given in a table into a item functioning analyses revealed schulforschung: Bd. 5. Indi- viduelles und soziales Ler- graph—helped young adults of dif- special weakness in German stu- nen—Kindperspektive und ferent educational backgrounds to dents for this item (DIF parameter = pädagogische Konzepte (pp. 22–28). Leverkusen: use graphs as reasoning tools in new –.30). Leske + Budrich. contexts. Without practice in active One of the goals of the ENTERPRISE Stern, E., Aprea, C., & graph construction, even university project is to research how the use of Ebner, H. (2003). Improv- ing cross-content transfer students of mathematics and eco- graphs as reasoning and transfer in text processing by nomics were not able to exploit the tools can be fostered already in ele- means of active graphical representation. Learning potential of graphs, which suggests mentary school. and Instruction, 13, that practicing the competent use of In her doctoral dissertation, Susanne 191–203. graphs as reasoning tools is neglect- Koerber showed that the interpreta- ed in the German curriculum. tion of the slope of a graph is within The item following was presented to the realm of third-graders (for a the preuniversity sample of TIMSS III: detailed description of the results, see Research Report 1998–2000). The acceleration of an object moving in a When trained to compare mixtures straight line can be determined from of lemon and orange juice with re- (a) the slope of the distance-time graph (b) the area below the distance-time graph spect to their intensity of taste, with (c) the slope of the velocity-time graph the help of a balance beam or (d) the area below the velocity-time graph graphs, it turned out that third-

Center for Educational Research 107 graders quite easily abandoned the In a follow-up study it was investi- so-called additive misconception, gated whether two years later there that is, taking “6” instead of “8” to was a long-term effect of the short be the result when solving the prob- training on proportional reasoning. lem “2 : 4 = 4 : ?.” At the end of the In order to control for learning ex- two-day training, particularly those perience at school, students who students who had learned to repre- had been trained two years ago sent the juice mixture by moving were compared to untrained class- the pivot of the balance beam mates with similar mathematical showed considerable improvement achievement levels. Figure 1 shows in proportional reasoning. However, achievement in proportional reason- also the students trained with either ing immediately after the training the contextualized or the abstract (red bars) and two years later (blue graph gave up the additive miscon- bars). ception. During those two years, proportional The contextualized graph was artifi- reasoning had improved not only for cially enriched by two elements of trained, but also for untrained par- the juice mixture context: Glasses of ticipants. In fact, untrained students orange and lemon juice were drawn reached the scores of trained stu- on the axes, and the background of dents two years ago. However, dur- the coordinate system continuously ing these two years, students who changed color from light yellow to had been trained with graphs dark orange. achieved a head start due to the short training. Learning to separate-

Figure 1. Mean perform- 8 ance of the three different Immediately after training training groups (abstract 7 Two years later graph, contextualized graph, balance beam) and 6 of a group, that did not 5 receive any training on the proportional reasoning 4 test (maximum score: 8 points) immediately after 3 the training and two years later. 2 Number of correct answers 1

0 Abstract graph Contextualized Balance beam Control graph

4 4 Without training 2 2

12 12

108 Center for Educational Research ly represent two dimensions and to methods of focusing young chil- Key Reference integrate them into a single new dren’s attention on the meaning of Stern, E., Hardy, I., & variable seems to give rise to a the slope of the graph. Koerber, S. (2002). Die Nutzung graphisch- deeper insight into proportional The results of the follow-up study visueller Repräsentations- structures in general. were surprising in two respects. formen im Sachunterricht. In K. Spreckelsen, A. The follow-up study also tested the First, contrary to conclusions drawn Hartinger, & K. Möller extent to which participants could in the Research Report 1998–2000, (Eds.), Ansätze und Metho- den empirischer Forschung make use of graphs as reasoning adding elements of the context to zum Sachunterricht tools in a more general way. The re- the graph seems to particularly sup- (pp. 119–131). Bad sults presented in Figure 2 suggest port a deeper understanding of this Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. that particularly the students who form of representation. Second, had been trained with contextual- long-term effects for the balance ized graphs two years ago had beam were lower than what was ex- achieved a deeper understanding of pected from the promising effects of how to represent information with the training. There may be two rea- the help of graphs. From these re- sons for this. First, the sample of sults we conclude that starting to former participants for the longitu- use graphs already in elementary dinal approach showed a slight school might help students to gain (though not significant) negative deeper insight into the structure and bias for the balance beam group. the potential of these reasoning Second, and probably more impor- tools when, in accordance with the tant, the balance beam was a rather grade 8 mathematics curriculum, complicated construction at that they start to use them for represent- time which may have impeded a ing linear functions. Before students deeper understanding of its func- learn to map formulas on graphs, tioning. In the meantime, a new ver- they should have been familiarized sion of the balance beam has been with their core elements as there developed which will be described in are the slope or the intercept. In an the following section. experimental training study Anja Felbrich is currently investigating

10 9 8 7 6 5 4

Solution score 3 2 1 0 Abstract Contex- Balance Control graph tualized beam graph Figure 2. Understanding graphs in a new context.

Center for Educational Research 109 The Research Team How to Improve Children´s kind of force rather than matter—a Understanding of Floating and misconception which is hard to rule Ilonca Hardy Sinking of Objects out. Elsbeth Stern When elementary school children Learning environments for third- are faced with the item in Figure 3, graders are worked out which sup- In collaboration most of them will answer that the port a basic understanding of the with tree trunk will sink, and a common scientific concepts underlying the Kornelia Möller explanation is that this will happen floating and sinking of objects in Angela Jonen because the tree trunk is very heavy. water, as there are buoyancy force (University of In this case the children only focus and density (Möller, Jonen, Hardy, & Münster) on one dimension—the mass—while Stern, 2002). failing to consider also the volume. Learning environments that intend Funded by the Ger- An alternative explanation often to foster conceptual development man Research heard from children is that the tree have to acknowledge a construc- Foundation (DFG) trunk will sink because water sucks tivist view of learning, which means in the BIQUA priorit to the bottom, which means that that all learning is understood to be ity program an active force is attributed to the dependent on the individual’s own water. Those children who correctly constructive cognitive processes state that the tree trunk will float (Staub & Stern, 2002). mostly give an inappropriate expla- In essence, the constructivist view nation by saying that the air pulls it focuses on the role of the subject’s to the top. This explanation express- prior knowledge, which provides the es an understanding of air as some means to relate stimuli in ways that

Figure 3. An item of the test on floating and sink- 5. Schwimmt ein großer Baumstamm im Wasser? ing. (Does a large tree trunk float in water?)

Fünf starke Männer können ihn nicht hochheben. (Five strong men are not able to lift it.)

Der Baumstamm schwimmt Der Baumstamm geht unter (floats) (sinks)

Warum? (Why?)

110 Center for Educational Research go well beyond registering their is already sequenced and that allows Key References temporal contiguity. The basic prin- teachers to intervene when students Möller, K., Jonen, A., ciples of a cognitive constructivist get stuck or show inappropriate ac- Hardy, I., & Stern, E. (2002). Die Förderung von view of learning do not lend them- tivities. Two studies with third- naturwissenschaftlichem selves to direct practical application. graders dealt with questions of ap- Verständnis bei Grund- schulkindern durch Instead, they should be thought of propriately structuring learning Strukturierung der Ler- as general orienting frameworks environments. numgebung. In M. Prenzel & J. Doll (Eds.), Bildungs- within which to address pedagogical qualität von Schule. issues and develop instructional ap- The Experimental School Study Schulische und außer- schulische Bedingungen proaches. Cognitive constructivist In a classroom-based curriculum di- mathematischer, naturwis- beliefs need to be interpreted in vided into eight 90-minute sessions, senschaftlicher und über- terms of specific content domains, children had the opportunity to fachlicher Kompetenzen (pp. 176–191). Weinheim: particular learners, and a socially in- engage in several experiments de- Beltz (Zeitschrift für Päda- teractive context. What does it signed to help them understand gogik, 45. Beiheft). mean for teachers to initiate and principles, which can be seen as the Staub, F. C., & Stern, E. (2002). The nature of assist the content-specific construc- precondition for understanding teachers’ pedagogical con- tive processes of particular learners? buoyancy force. For instance, chil- tent beliefs matters for students’ achievement How can teachers proactively initi- dren learned that objects dunked gains: Quasi-experimental ate, prompt, and assist students’ into water will displace water, or evidence from elementary mathematics. Journal of constructions of rigorous knowl- they felt that water will press Educational Psychology, edge? against objects when putting their 94, 344–355. A crucial aspect in this respect is plastic-gloved hands into a box of Hardy, I. (2002). Reprä- the degree to which students’ activ- water. sentationsaktivitäten zur Förderung proportionalen ities should be structured in a learn- Three instructional groups were und graphisch-visuellen ing environment. From a rather compared: (1) some structuring (N = Verständnisses im Grund- schulalter. In H. Petillon extreme constructivist point of view, 71), (2) open inquiry (N = 70), and (Ed.), Individuelles und one might argue that teachers have (3) without intervention (N = 41). soziales Lernen in der Grundschule. Kindperspek- to provide the learning material, but Achievement measures were applied tive und pädagogische that the students themselves have one week after instruction and one Konzepte (pp. 43–49). Leverkusen: Leske + to decide when and how they will year later. Conceptual understanding Budrich (Jahrbuch make use of it. From a more moder- was assessed with a test of objects Grundschulforschung, 5). ate constructivist view, one would floating and sinking considering Jonen, A., Hardy, I., & argue that learners can best make both the correct rejection of mis- Möller, K. (2003). Schwimmt ein Holzbrett use of a learning environment that conceptions and the adoption of mit Löchern? Erklärungen von Kindern zum Schwim- men und Sinken verschiedener Gegenstände vor und nach dem Unter- If you put a piece of metal wire into water, it richt. In H. Brügelmann (Ed.), Jahrbuch Grund- will sink will rise to the surface schulforschung. Lever- kusen: Leske + Budrich. because it holds on. because the displaced water weighs less than the metal wire. because it is so long and so thin. because the displaced water weighs more than the metal wire. because it is not pushed up hard enough by the water. because it is so light. Figure 4. An item of the test on floating and sinking.

Center for Educational Research 111 scientific explanations, which con- after instruction showed a persisting tained items such as shown in gain for both instructional groups Figure 4. We hypothesized that ele- concerning misconceptions, scientif- ments of structured learning envi- ic explanations, and specific materi- ronments, such as focused discus- als, whereas the baseline group sions and sequencing of instruction- merely intensified their understand- al content, would support students’ ing of specific materials. integrated conceptual understanding The study shows that complex because of a direct confrontation physics topics are already accessible with existing preconceptions and to elementary school children on a their resolution during discussions lasting conceptual basis, especially if and experimenting. structured instruction allows for an Results as represented in Figure 5 integration of students’ pre-existing showed a significantly greater gain and new concepts. At the same in conceptual understanding of the time, the study revealed some group with structured instruction deficits in the understanding of the compared to the other groups one concept of density. Many students week after the instruction had been still focused on weight and neglect- finished. Detailed analyses of stu- ed the volume, which became par- dents’ answers showed that com- ticularly apparent when answering pared to the baseline group, both items such as shown in Figure 6. We instructional groups gave up more hypothesize that integrating tools misconceptions and adopted more for representing two-dimensional scientific explanations, while the concepts into the curriculum may baseline group developed a basic help to foster the understanding of understanding with regard to the density. In a laboratory study this different qualities of specific materi- question was addressed. als equally well. Effects one year

Figure 5: Achievement in 80 the test on floating and sinking. 75

65 Total score 60

50 Pretest Post-test Follow-up (1 year later) Structured learning environment Less structured learning environment Baseline group

112 Center for Educational Research Block 1: 12 kg initial conceptions, for example, their consideration of only one quantity when describing objects. Representations may also support students’ construction of new expla- Block 2: 12 kg nations by allowing the prediction of objects’ floating and sinking based on a comparison of densities. Which block is heavier? Representations differ in the way Block 1 Block 2 Both are the same they afford the integration of two Which block is bigger? quantities. In this study, two forms Block 1 Block 2 Both are the same of representation for the concept of density were compared. On the bal- Which block is of the heavier material? Block 1 Block 2 Both are the same ance beam, weights representing mass and volume can be put on Figure 6. An item of the test on floating and both ends of a beam. An adjustable sinking. pivot allows the comparison of two ratios by observing the behavior of the beam when putting on weights An Experimental Laboratory Study for the second ratio. Since balancing on Structuring the Learning a beam is dependent on students’ Environment With the Help of multiplicative additions on either Cognitive Tools end of the beam, both numerical Using tools for representation fits and visual comparisons are support- into a moderate constructivist learned. With the cardboard matrix, vol- ing environment because, on the ume is represented by large squares one hand, they constrain students’ of cardboard while mass is repre- activities and, on the other hand, sented by small squares placed on they provide opportunities for self- them. Students’ comparison of the regulated learning (Stern, Möller, densities of two objects is thus Hardy, & Jonen, 2002). assumed to be supported especially If learners meaningfully connect the on a qualitative level, judging the structures of a representation to the relative crowdedness of volume situational variables represented and cardboard squares. the phenomenon to be explained, The effects of training with the the use of a representation may en- cardboard matrix and the balance hance conceptual change by build- beam on an understanding of the ing on, refocusing, and extending floating and sinking of objects as initial conceptions. Representations well as on a proportional under- focusing on the proportional rela- standing of density were compared tionship between two quantities will to the effects of a training with thus lead learners to attend to both numbers rather than with visual quantities simultaneously. In an in- representations. The material used in structional unit on floating and this study is depicted in Figure 7. sinking, representations may thus Three dimensions of cognitive show the inadequacy of students’ progress were investigated: First, do

Center for Educational Research 113 Material used by all participants

Material used in the three training groups

Balance beam Cardboard matrix Numbers

Figure 7. Material used in the experimental laboratory study. participants adopt appropriate ex- tions, such as “objects sink because planations for the floating and sink- they are not pushed up hard enough ing of objects, such as “an object by the water.” The third aspect floats if the water displaced by the concerned proportional reasoning, immersed object is heavier than the such as tested in the item in object itself.” Second, do partici- Figure 6. Results revealed that only pants reject inappropriate explana- the group trained with the balance

Figure 8. Decrease of inap- 16 propriate explanations for the floating and sinking of 14 objects. 12

Total score 6 4 Balance beam group

Inappropriate explanations Matrix group 2 Numeric group 0 Pretest Post-test

114 Center for Educational Research beam improved on all three dimen- Current Directions sions. Together with our colleagues in The group trained with numbers im- Münster we are currently working proved with respect to adequate ex- out projects of how to integrate the planations, but they also kept inap- balance beam into the curricula on propriate explanations; although floating and sinking in third-grade trained with numbers, they did not classrooms. For this purpose we de- improve in proportional reasoning. veloped a balance beam (see Fig. 9) The group trained with the card- which is easier to handle than the board matrix, on the other hand, ex- old one. Moreover, students can actly showed the inverse pattern of operate this balance beam with learning gains. Figure 8 depicts the their hands and they can use the decrease of inappropiate explana- familiar Lego bricks as weights. tions after the trainings. As can be seen from Figure 10, this Working with the balance beam new balance beam is already used at helped children to realize the inade- school. quacy of their preconceptions as well as to integrate mass and volume to form the proportional concept of density.

Figure 9. The new balance beam. Figure 10. The new balance beam at school.

Center for Educational Research 115 „Unabhängig von den Elementary School in Focus: Why Mathematics and Science Education Has to Become More unterschiedlichen Challenging Fähigkeiten und Talen- In the domain-specific perspective of research on cognitive development, children’s competencies as ten der Schüler muss well as deficits in mastering mathematics and science problems are explained by their lack of prior alles gelernt werden, knowledge in the respective areas. Results from longitudinal studies suggest that within-age-level was später gewusst und differences in mathematics achievement are, to a remarkable extent, determined by prior domain- gekonnt wird. Lernen ist specific knowledge acquired in earlier grades. Stern (2002, in press-a, in press-b), for instance, found der mächtigste Mecha- that achievement variance in grade 11 mathematics could be much better accounted for by mathe- nismus der kognitiven matics achievement in grade 2 than by mental abilities measured in grade 11. Detailed analyses re- Entwicklung. Das gilt vealed that only students who, as second-graders, had been able to solve problems which required an uneingeschränkt sowohl advanced understanding of numbers and mathematical operations showed high mathematical für hochbegabte Kinder achievement in secondary and high school. Advanced mathematical understanding in elementary als auch für schwächer school, for instance, goes along with an understanding of the function of numbers beyond mere begabte Schüler. In vie- counting, and with being aware of the inverse relationship between addition and subtraction as well len Fällen ist dabei as between multiplication and division. Achievement in arithmetic word problem solving has proven didaktische Unterstüt- to be a good indicator of advanced mathematical understanding. In current mathematics classes in zung notwendig und German elementary school, most of the time is dedicated to practicing algorithms and number facts wirksam. Noch so gut rather than to solving challenging word problems. Therefore, elementary school children often do not gemeinte motivations- acquire the kind of mathematical knowledge they need to build on when the curriculum requires psychologische oder them to deal with fractions, algebra, or trigonometry. sozialpädagogische In science education, German elementary school teachers mainly deal with geographical or biological Maßnahmen können für topics rather than with physics or chemistry. Children, nonetheless, are interested in how the physical den eigentlichen Lern- world works. They construct their own explanations of why some objects will float in water while akt kein Ersatz, sondern others will not or why balloons will pop when inflated beyond their capacity. Often, children’s own nur eine oft sehr wirk- explanations are not compatible with the adequate scientific theories. If young children would be same Voraussetzung confronted with alternative explanations that can be integrated into scientific theories, they might in sein.“ later years have less difficulties in understanding physics. F. E. Weinert, Leistungs- From a domain-specific constructivist perspective of cognitive development, it can be concluded that messungen in Schulen, chances for students to leave school as competent mathematics and science learners would be better 2001, p. 85. if they started to acquire and restructure elaborate knowledge in these domains at an early age.

Translation: Four Widespread Objections to a More Challenging Elementary School Education and How They Regardless of differ- Can be Ruled Out ences in students’ skills The call for more challenging science and mathematics classes in elementary school is not undisput- and talents, everything ed. Four objections are frequently raised: they later know or are Objection 1: Children are not little adults, therefore, they have the right to grow up in environments able to do has to be which are suitable for them. learned. Learning is the Response: It is definitely true that children differ from adults in the way they process information most powerful mecha- about the world and in the way they are emotionally affected by certain events and situations. How- nism of cognitive devel- ever, it is also true that from a very early age children want to know how the world works and ask opment. This is true, adults for explanations. Environments which help children to find an answer to their overwhelming without exception, for number of “Why“ questions are, therefore, child-appropriate. high achievers as well as for children with Objection 2: Early training means unnecessary efforts—children will anyhow achieve the same level poorer preconditions. In much easier when they are older. many cases, didactic Response: This is true for the emergence of competencies supported by genetically determined uni- support is necessary versal programs of neuronal development, for instance, language acquisition or cleanliness. In these and effective in this cases, the environmental and instructional input which, at a certain period of maturation, is neces- process. Steps taken in sary and sufficient to prompt developmental progress is comparatively small in terms of time and ef- terms of motivational fort. Evolution has prepared human beings for the acquisition of many competencies even if they psychology or social grow up in adverse environments. However, the use of writing systems, mathematical tools, or scien- pedagogy, however well tific explanations is not among them, since these are the result of cultural development. Only sys- meant, can never take tematic support given in professionally organized learning environments allows human beings to ac- the place of the actual quire, within a few years, competencies which took mankind centuries or millenniums to develop. learning act, but only Acquiring such competencies is time-consuming for all human beings—even the most competent constitute the—often ones—because the underlying knowledge has to be restructured repeatedly by applying it to different highly effective—pre- contexts. There is good reason to assume that the earlier knowledge acquisition in science and math- requisites for it. ematics sets in, the higher will be the level students will have reached at the end of school.

116 Center for Educational Research Objection 3: In more demanding learning environments children with poor cognitive preconditions “It seems to be widely will be overtaxed and frustrated from the very beginning of schooling. believed that children Response: Many people involved in education think that students with poor cognitive preconditions must not be told the will benefit more from learning environments which primarily focus on associanist and rote learning truth about the system rather than on deeper understanding. The assumption is that only the more intelligent students can to begin with because profit from stimulating learning environments. There is, however, no empirical evidence for this as- they could not cope sumption. Rather, for elementary school children’s learning of mathematics, Staub and Stern (2002) with such complexities. showed that regardless of students´ intelligence level, larger achievement gains were obtained in I believe this to be classrooms with teachers who held a cognitive constructivist rather than a direct transmission view quite mistaken. What of learning. Classroom observations revealed that although teachers with a direct transmission view underlies the mistake is, spent more time practicing factual knowledge and arithmetic procedures, they were not more suc- I think, a failure to cessful in fostering computational proficiency in students with poor preconditions. Hasemann and make a crucial distinc- Stern (2002) compared effects of two trainings on arithmetic word problem solving in second- tion—a failure to see graders. One training focused on the use of visual-spatial representations, while the other training the difference between referred to the everyday experience of the children. It turned out that particularly students with poor understanding the na- prior knowledge gained from the more challenging training dealing with representations. ture of the system and Möller, Jonen, Hardy, and Stern (2002) showed that particularly students with poor preconditions mastering all the indi- gained from structured learning environments, which support children in acquiring scientifically ap- vidual patterns of rela- propriate explanations for why certain objects will float in water while others will sink. tionship. It will in- There is good reason to believe that stimulating learning environments, which take into account the evitably take a child learner’s prior knowledge as something to be extended and restructured, will help all students to some time to learn all achieve their personal optimum. the sets of correspon- Objection 4: If young students are confronted with content they cannot fully understand, this will dences. The question is necessarily result in misconceptions which will make further learning more difficult. simply whether he will Response: It is true that if teachers would talk to younger children about scientific concepts in the do this better if he is same way as they talk to older students, this would necessarily result in severe misunderstandings. correctly informed According to a constructivist view of learning, incoming information is always connected to knowl- about the kind of thing edge already existing in the mind. Misunderstandings occur if students do not access the knowledge to expect.“ necessary for storing the incoming information in the way expected by the teacher. There are, how- Margaret Donaldson, ever, other ways of talking to children about scientific concepts, which consist in adapting these con- Children’s minds, 1978, cepts to children’s prior knowledge. For instance, one can focus on the meaning of the slope of a p. 105. graph in a context of speed, density, or juice concentration without referring to the mathematical formula. There is nothing wrong about saying that objects, which are put into water, will push against the water while at the same time the water will push against them. This explanation is com- “We begin with the hy- patible with the scientific concept of buoyancy. What might cause misconceptions is the use of defi- pothesis that any sub- nitions based on technical terms unfamiliar to children. Presenting elementary school students with ject can be taught ef- the definition of density as the quotient of mass and volume will clearly overtax them. Young Chil- fectively in some intel- dren will hardly understand the theoretical context which makes it necessary to distinguish between lectually honest form to weight and mass, and they are unfamiliar with the term “volume.” Defining density as the quotient any child at any stage of weight and size, however, is definitely incorrect. Therefore, an elementary school curriculum on the of development.“ floating and sinking of objects in water will have to operate without the definition of density. In fact, Jerome Bruner, The no such definition is necessary for directing young children’s attention to the relevant aspects of process of education, floating and sinking. The major challenge of appropriate elementary school education is to find ways 1979, p. 33. to connect new information to existing knowledge that can be extended in the desired direction.

Key References Lernen und Denken. Werk und schung. In H. Petillon (Ed.), In- Schule. Schulische und außer- Stern, E. (2003). Kompetenz- Vermächtnis von Franz E. dividuelles und soziales Lernen schulische Bedingungen mathe- erwerb in anspruchsvollen Weinert. Göttingen: Hogrefe. in der Grundschule. Kindper- matischer, naturwissenschaft- Inhaltsgebieten bei Grund- Hasemann, K., & Stern, E. spektive und pädagogische licher und überfachlicher Kom- schulkindern. In D. Cech & H. J. (2002). Die Förderung des Konzepte (pp. 27–42). Lever- petenzen (pp. 176–191). Schwier (Eds.), Lernwege und mathematischen Verständnisses kusen: Leske + Budrich (Jahr- Weinheim: Beltz (Zeitschrift für Aneignungsformen im Sach- anhand von Textaufgaben. buch Grundschulforschung, 5). Pädagogik, 45. Beiheft). unterricht (pp. 37–58). Bad Ergebnisse einer Interventions- Möller, K., Jonen, A., Hardy, I., Staub, F. C., & Stern, E. (2002). Heilbrunn: Klinkhardt. studie in Klassen des 2. Schul- & Stern, E. (2002). Die The nature of teachers’ peda- Stern, E. (in press-c). Lernen jahres. Journal für Mathematik- Förderung von naturwissen- gogical content beliefs matters ist der mächtigste Mechanis- didaktik, 23 (3/4), 222–242. schaftlichem Verständnis bei for students’ achievement mus der kognitiven Entwick- Stern, E. (2002b). Wie abstrakt Grundschulkindern durch gains: Quasi-experimental evi- lung. Der Erwerb mathema- lernt das Grundschulkind? Strukturierung der Lernumge- dence from elementary mathe- tischer Kompetenzen. In W. Neuere Ergebnisse der entwick- bung. In M. Prenzel & J. Doll matics. Journal of Educational Schneider & M. Knopf (Eds.), lungspsychologischen For- (Eds.), Bildungsqualität von Psychology, 94, 344–355.

Center for Educational Research 117 Research Projects of W. Edelstein, Director Emeritus

Experiential Learning and the Lifeworld of the School Until the 1990s, the basic fit between the educational system and the manpower needs of the economic system was never called into question. How- ever problematic their relationship, in a fairweather society with an expand- ing economy schools continued to “prepare for life” and to guarantee the social inclusion of their graduates.

Key References In the last decade of the 20th cen- olence. The experience of alienation Bromba, M., & Edelstein, tury the balanced relationship in secondary schools thus appears W. (2001). Das anti- between school and life was being to be a major reason for adolescent demokratische und rechtsextreme Potenzial unter upset. An imbalance in the relation anomie (Bromba & Edelstein, 2001; Jugendlichen und jungen between the school and the global- Edelstein, 2002a; Edelstein, in press- Erwachsenen in Deutsch- land. Expertise für das izing economy would lead to the b). The transformation of the econo- Bundesministerium für Bil- potential exclusion of a sizeable my in the globalization process, the dung und Forschung (BMBF). Bonn: BMFT segment of young people of school- imbalances created by unification, (56 p.). leaving age. Simultaneously, the and the extent of unemployment re- Edelstein, W. (2002a). Die unification of Germany produced a sulting from these processes have Ausbreitung einer rechten Jugendkultur in Deutsch- set of problems more specifically produced a fiscal crisis that threat- land. Mit einigen felt in the Eastern provinces of the ens the welfare system, tends to Vorschlägen zur Präven- country. The unitary school system deprive the school system both in tion. In F. Büchel, J. Glück, U. Hoffrage, P. Stanat, & J. of the GDR had been abolished and the old and the new German states Wirth (Eds.), Fremden- a system akin to the three-track of essential funds, and restricts the feindlichkeit und Rechts- extremismus. Dokumenta- Western system introduced; the job number of available teaching position einer multidiszi- security of the graduates, which had tions and thus the access of younger plinären Vortragsreihe (pp. 11–62). Opladen: been part of an institutional patron- teachers to schools. This fact has Leske + Budrich. age system linking schools to indus- led to diminishing expectations and Edelstein, W. (in press-b). tries and workplaces, was dissolved. decreasing professional aspirations The rise of a right-wing culture in German youth: of teachers as well as to increasing A study of effects of the The Rise of a Right-Wing Culture burnout, as the average age of the intersection of long in German Youth teaching force continues to rise. On processes of social transformation, identity con- A review of right-wing activities the local level this may result in struction, and contextual among German youth conducted for growing numbers of cancelled les- factors. In D. B. Pillemer & S. H. White (Eds.), Devel- the Federal Ministry of Education sons and underserved extra-curricu- opmental psychology and and Science (Bromba & Edelstein, lar projects, with the consequence the social changes of our time. Cambridge: Cam- 2001) disclosed that groups of of diminishing discipline and in- bridge University Press. young people who are dissatisfied creasing pressure for achievement. with school and complain about the These stresses, of course, vary across meaninglessness of their learning states, hitting the poorest like Berlin experience, in particular in the non- or Mecklenburg-Pomerania harder academic tracks of secondary than some wealthier ones. schools in the Eastern provinces, On the background of this picture of turn out to be the major breeding widespread dysfunction, the results ground for antidemocratic attitudes, of the PISA study caused a major right-wing postures, racism, and vi- stir. Contrary to expectation, Ger-

118 Center for Educational Research man schools, on average, performed achievement and self-worth of stu- Key Reference in the lower third internationally, far dents in the age range of 12 to 18 Edelstein, W. (2002c). below the top Scandinavian systems, years as a consequence of increased Selbstwirksamkeit, Innova- tion und Schulreform. Zur Canada, Japan and New Zealand, all self-efficacy among them. A major Diagnose der Situation. In in fact either unitary or comprehen- objective of the program was to M. Jerusalem & D. Hopf (Eds.), Selbstwirksamkeit sive school systems. These findings change instructional modes and und Motivationsprozesse started a new educational debate in evaluation strategies of teachers. in Bildungsinstitutionen (pp. 13–27). Weinheim: the country. Although the debate These teacher characteristics re- Beltz (Zeitschrift für Päda- tended to shy away from central mained rather resistant to change in gogik, 44. Beiheft). structural questions raised by the spite of the intervention, whereas PISA results, such as the restriction major effects were seen in readiness of the elementary school to a mere to change in most participating four years or the selective tracking schools regarding organizational de- of secondary school students from velopment and collegial cooperation the fifth-grade onwards, the debate among teachers. A training program raised questions as to the quality for teachers was developed in the of instruction, teacher performance, course of the project and refined on school change as well as various the basis of the project’s evaluation questions concerning the quality in the past years by educational psy- and development of the schools. In chologist Matthias Jerusalem of the the context of renewed educational Humboldt University in Berlin. The debate it seemed both reasonable training program has proven suc- and necessary to give increased at- cessful in recent pilot runs and will tention to social psychological be used intensively to train teachers processes in the schools, such as the in the new federal program for dem- quality of teacher-student interac- ocratic schools (cf. below). Prelimi- tions, the meaningfulness of learn- nary evidence has shown that the ing experiences for students, and change potential of the program is the quality of the school as a setting considerable. It is a sign of organiza- for life experience and moral growth tional self-efficacy that has emerged in childhood and adolescence. The from the program that a new “coali- state of youth in Germany and the tion of self-efficacious schools” re- dissatisfaction with schools have mains active (Edelstein, 2002). become the targets of various programs and projects in which the Youth Take Responsibility Institute has a share. The foundation-funded program “Youth Take Responsibility” (“Jugend Self-Efficacious Schools übernimmt Verantwortung”) of the Already in the mid-nineties we had Brandenburger Tor Foundation of been instrumental in launching a the Berlin Bank Company is another federal pilot program of “self-effica- attempt to respond to the social and cious schools” supported by private psychological situation of youth, funds from the Jacobs and the especially in the lower tracks of Freudenberg foundations. The pro- secondary schools. gram targeted the self-organization Whereas the “self-efficacious of teachers and the enhanced schools” program was specifically

Center for Educational Research 119 Key Reference designed to enhance student opti- for five years, is yet another attack Edelstein, W., & Fauser, P. mism and effort and to decrease on the same set of problems. Origi- (2001). Demokratie lernen teacher burnout through student- nally developed as a measure of und leben. Gutachten für ein Modellversuchspro- oriented instruction, collegial com- prevention of right-wing radicalism gramm der Bund-Länder- munication and organizational among adolescents, the program Kommission für Bildungs- planung und Forschungs- processes, the focus of the youth deploys a broad strategy designed to förderung (BLK). Bonn: responsibility program is both more enhance competence, meaningful BLK (Materialien zur Bil- dungsplanung und zur limited and more precise. The aim is learning in projects, students’ demo- Forschungsförderung, 96) to fuse the abstract characteristics cratic participation at all levels of (99 p.). of self-efficacy beliefs with the con- the school, service learning and, crete experience of responsibility for more generally, the school as a pro- cooperative action in projects based ductive community (Edelstein & in a school or in a community. Fauser, 2001). Elements of this Again, the basic idea is to counter- program have been adopted by 12 act the sense of helplessness, het- of the 16 federal states establishing eronomy, and alienation affecting networks that encompass between many, especially low-achieving stu- 6 and 24 schools each. The networks dents, in the secondary schools and engage in program-related organi- to activate them through a sense of zational development, providing achievement with a self-chosen task counsel for schools and teachers undertaken in cooperation with and in-service training specific to others. Projects in the program rep- the program, for example, teaching resent an experience of cooperation for understanding, sociomoral com- and democratic exercise of control petence, civic learning, project in- in the context of cooperative struction, and self-efficacy training. goalsetting and decision making Transfer of competence beyond about a common task. It implies the program schools and the five responsibility taken for action and years of the program’s operation is responsibility shared with others. warranted by training modules and A first expert workshop on responsi- summer academies for expert school bility learning was held in May developers and training officers who 2000. A conference on the learning earn credits for the courses they of responsibility in various domains attend. (schools, ecological projects, inter- The program, thus, is both more am- national youth programs, reeduca- bitious and more encompassing than tion of adolescent delinquents) took most previous programs targeted on place in May 2001 and a summer civic commitment and relying on an school for teachers on responsibility extensive public-private partnership learning in projects took place in initiative involving federal and state July of that year. authorities together with various private foundations. It is designed to Learning and Living Democracy offer assistance to schools prepared The new federal program “Learning to invest effort in change and the and Living Democracy” (“Demokratie development of teaching for compe- lernen und leben”), which started in tence and commitment as well as Fall 2002 and will remain operative democratic governance.

120 Center for Educational Research Publications 2001–2002

Artelt, C., Baumert, J., Julius- P. Stanat, K.-J. Tillmann, & Baumert, J., & Artelt, C. Baumert, J., Artelt, C., McElvany, N., & Peschar, J. (in M. Weiß (Eds.), PISA 2000. Ba- (2002). Bereichsübergreifende Klieme, E., & Stanat, P. press). Approaches to learning: siskompetenzen von Schülerin- Perspektiven. In J. Baumert, C. (2001). PISA—Programme for Strategies and motivation. A nen und Schülern im interna- Artelt, E. Klieme, M. Neubrand, International Student Assess- thematic report for the OECD tionalen Vergleich (pp. 69–137). M. Prenzel, U. Schiefele, ment. Zielsetzung, theoretische Programme for International Opladen: Leske + Budrich. W. Schneider, K.-J. Tillmann, & Konzeption und Entwicklung Student Assessment. Paris: OECD. M. Weiß (Eds.), PISA 2000. Die von Messverfahren. In F. E. Baumert, J. (2002a). Deutsch- Länder der Bundesrepublik Weinert (Ed.), Leistungsmes- Artelt, C., Baumert, J., land im internationalen Deutschland im Vergleich sungen in Schulen (pp. 285– Klieme, E., Neubrand, M., Bildungsvergleich. In N. Killius, (pp. 219–235). Opladen: Leske 310). Weinheim: Beltz. Prenzel, M., Schiefele, U., et al. J. Kluge, & L. Reisch (Eds.), Die + Budrich. (2001). PISA 2000. Zusammen- Zukunft der Bildung (pp. 100– Baumert, J., & Blossfeld, H.-P. fassung zentraler Befunde. 150). Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. Baumert, J., Artelt, C., (2002). Schwerpunkt: Interna- Berlin: Max-Planck-Institut für – (2002b). Deutschland im Carstensen, C. H., Sibberns, H., tionaler Leistungsvergleich— Bildungsforschung (49 p.). internationalen Bildungsver- & Stanat, P. (2002). Unter- PISA. Editorial. Zeitschrift für gleich: Teil 2. Fachleistungen in suchungsgegenstand, Erziehungswissenschaft, 5, 3–5. Artelt, C., Demmrich, A., & der gymnasialen Oberstufe. Fragestellungen und technische Baumert, J. (2001). Selbstre- Universitas, 57, 570–586. Grundlagen der Studie. In J. Baumert, J., & Demmrich, A. guliertes Lernen. In J. Baumert, – (2002c). Deutschland im Baumert, C. Artelt, E. Klieme, (2001). Test motivation in the E. Klieme, M. Neubrand, M. internationalen Bildungsver- M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, assessment of student skills: Prenzel, U. Schiefele, W. gleich. Universitas, 57, 114–135. U. Schiefele, W. Schneider, The effects of incentives on Schneider, P. Stanat, K.-J. – (2001a). Das allgemein- K.-J. Tillmann, & M. Weiß motivation and performance. Tillmann, & M. Weiß (Eds.), bildende Schulwesen der Bun- (Eds.), PISA 2000. Die Länder European Journal of Psychology PISA 2000. Basiskompetenzen desrepublik Deutschland. In der Bundesrepublik Deutschland of Education, 16, 441–462. von Schülerinnen und Schülern L. Roth (Ed.), Pädagogik. Hand- im Vergleich (pp. 11–38). im internationalen Vergleich buch für Studium und Praxis Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Baumert, J., Fried, J., Joas, H., (pp. 271–298). Opladen: Leske (2nd ed., pp. 1251–1284). Mittelstraß, J., & Singer, W. + Budrich. München: Ehrenwirth. Baumert, J., Artelt, C., (2002). Manifest. In N. Killius, Klieme, E., Neubrand, M., J. Kluge, & L. Reisch (Eds.), Die Artelt, C., Schiefele, U., & Prenzel, M., Schiefele, U., Zukunft der Bildung (pp. 171– Schneider, W. (2001). Predictors Schneider, W., Tillmann, K.-J., & 225). Frankfurt a.M.: Suhrkamp. of reading literacy. European Weiß, M. (Eds.). (2003). PISA Journal of Psychology of Educa- 2000. Ein differenzierter Blick Baumert, J., Klieme, E., & Bos, tion, 16, 363–383. auf die Länder der Bundes- W. (2001). Mathematische und republik Deutschland. Opladen: naturwissenschaftliche Bildung Artelt, C., Schiefele, U., Leske + Budrich (432 p.) am Ende der Schullaufbahn. Schneider, W., & Stanat, P. Die Herausforderung von TIMSS (2002). Leseleistungen deut- für die Weiterentwicklung des scher Schülerinnen und Schüler mathematischen und naturwis- im internationalen Vergleich senschaftlichen Unterrichts. In (PISA). Ergebnisse und Erklär- E. Klieme & J. Baumert (Eds.), ungsansätze. Zeitschrift für Er- TIMSS. Impulse für Schule und ziehungswissenschaft, 5, 6–27. Unterricht (pp. 11–41). Bonn: Bundesministerium für Bildung Artelt, C., Schneider, W., & und Forschung. Schiefele, U. (2002). Länderver- – (2001b). Comparative per- gleich zur Lesekompetenz. In formance measurement in the J. Baumert, C. Artelt, E. Klieme, education sector. In J. Oelkers M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, U. (Ed.), Futures of education Schiefele, W. Schneider, K.-J. (pp. 19–46). Bern: Lang. Tillmann, & M. Weiß (Eds.), – (2001c). Internationale PISA 2000. Die Länder der Bun- Schulleistungsvergleiche. In D. desrepublik Deutschland im H. Rost (Ed.), Handwörterbuch Vergleich (pp. 55–94). Opladen: Pädagogische Psychologie (2nd Leske + Budrich. ed., pp. 294–303). Weinheim: Baumert, J., Artelt, C., Psychologie Verlags Union. Klieme, E., Neubrand, M., Artelt, C., Stanat, P., – (2001d). Vergleichende Leis- Prenzel, M., Schiefele, U., Schneider, W., & Schiefele, U. tungsmessung im Bildungs- Schneider, W., Tillmann, K.-J., & (2001). Lesekompetenz: bereich. In J. Oelkers (Ed.), Weiß, M. (Eds.). (2002). PISA Testkonzeption und Ergebnisse. Zukunftsfragen der Bildung 2000. Die Länder der Bundes- In J. Baumert, E. Klieme, (pp. 13–36). Weinheim: Beltz republik Deutschland im M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, (Zeitschrift für Pädagogik, Vergleich. Opladen: Leske + U. Schiefele, W. Schneider, 43. Beiheft). Budrich (254 p.).

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U., & Gruehn, I. Hillerich, B. Kirsch, A. und Kompetenzerwerb im M. Weiß (Eds.), PISA 2000. Ein Trommer, L. (Eds.). (in press). Leschinsky, H. J. Lott, & F. Oser nationalen Vergleich. In J. differenzierter Blick auf die Das Bildungswesen in der (Eds.), Lebensgestaltung— Baumert, C. Artelt, E. Klieme, Länder der Bundesrepublik Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Ethik—Religionskunde. Zur M. Neubrand, M. Prenzel, Deutschland (pp. 259–330). Reinbek: Rowohlt. Grundlegung eines neuen U. Schiefele, W. Schneider, Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Schulfachs (pp. 13–18). K.-J. Tillmann, & M. Weiß Weinheim: Beltz. (Eds.), PISA 2000. Die Länder Baumert, J., Watermann, R., – (2001b). Die Entwicklung der Bundesrepublik Deutschland & Schümer, G. (in press). Dis- einer rechtsextremen Jugend- im Vergleich (pp. 159–202). paritäten der Bildungsbeteili- kultur und mögliche Antworten Opladen: Leske + Budrich. gung und des Kompetenz- der Schule. In Für Demokratie— – (2001a). 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122 Center for Educational Research leben. Gutachten für ein Moralische Erziehung in der B. Koch-Priebe, & J. Wildt rungen von Kindern zum Modellversuchsprogramm der Schule. Entwicklungspsycho- (Eds.), Didaktik der Bildung von Schwimmen und Sinken ver- Bund-Länder-Kommission für logie und pädagogische Praxis. Lehrerinnen und Lehrern. schiedener Gegenstände vor Bildungsplanung und For- Weinheim: Beltz (268 p.). Opladen: Leske + Budrich. und nach dem Unterricht. In schungsförderung (BLK). Bonn: – (in press-b). Lehrerinnen im H. Brügelmann (Ed.), Jahrbuch BLK (Materialien zur Bildungs- Transformationsprozess. In Grundschulforschung. Lever- planung und zur Forschungs- W. Keim & C. Uhlig (Eds.), Kritik kusen: Leske + Budrich. förderung, 96) (99 p.). der Transformation. Frankfurt a.M.: Lang. Jonen, A., Möller, K., Blumberg, Edelstein, W., Grözinger, K. E., – (in press-c). Schulpartner- E., Hardy, I., & Stern, E. (in Gruehn, S., Hillerich, I., Kirsch, schaften als zusätzliche Auf- press-a). 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Center for Educational Research 127

Center for Lifespan Psychology Contents

Introductory Overview ...... 131 Lifespan Psychology: Implications for Conceptions of Intelligence and Cognition ...... 134 The Mastery of Life: Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC) . . . . 140 Research Project 1 Parent-Adolescent Relationships: Family and Differential Perspectives ...... 143 Research Project 2 Trends and Profiles of Psychological Aging ...... 147 Research Project 3 Wisdom: The Integration of Mind and Virtue ...... 156 Research Project 4 Personal Goals in Lifespan Development: One Research Application of the SOC-Model ...... 162 Research Project 5 Toward a Psychological and Developmental Theory of Sehnsucht (Life-Longing) ...... 168 Research Project 6 The Interplay of Sensorimotor and Cognitive Functioning ...... 170 Research Project 7 Dynamics of Intraindividual Variability and Interindividual Differences in Development ...... 176 International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences ...... 180 Publications 2001–2002 ...... 182

Scientific Staff (2001–2002)

Paul B. Baltes, Julia Delius, Alexandra Freund (as of 2003: Northwestern Univer- sity, Evanston), Ralf T. Krampe, Kurt Kreppner, Ute Kunzmann, Shu-Chen Li, Tania Singer, Jacqui Smith Postdoctoral Research Fellows Paolo Ghisletta (as of 2001: University of Geneva), Judith Glück (as of 2002: University of Vienna), Michaela Riediger, Lixia Yang (as of 2003: University of Toronto) Predoctoral Research Fellows Albina Bondar, Natalie C. Ebner (LIFE), Susanne Ehrhorn, Denis Gerstorf, Daniel Grühn, Oliver Huxhold (LIFE), Michael Rapp (as of 2002: Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York), Christina Röcke (LIFE), Sabine Schäfer (LIFE), Susanne Scheibe, Florian Schmiedek, Antje Stange

130 Center for Lifespan Psychology Introductory Overview

The Center for Lifespan Psychology was created in 1981 when Paul B. Baltes was appointed Director. Research and theory in the Center is conducted primarily from the perspectives of the field of developmental psychology. Its special focus is on the study of psychological change during adulthood and old age. The choice of these age periods is guided by the fact that the second half of life, though one of the major themes and issues of modernity and the aging of the population, is underresearched and offers unique opportunities for innovation, both in theory and practice. In fact, it seems fair to argue that the Center has been a major player in advancing the fields of lifespan psychology and the study of aging.

Conceptual Orientation management take center stage Key References What is developmental psychology, when psychologists attempt to un- Baltes, P. B. (1987). Theo- retical propositions of life- the field that is the disciplinary derstand the course of life, including span developmental psy- home of most researchers in the its many variations and faces. chology: On the dynamics Center for Lifespan Psychology? The As illustrated by the foregoing ob- between growth and decline. Developmental Psy- psychology of the ages of life, from servations on the general sources of chology, 23, 611–626. childhood to old age and their inter- human development, developmental Baltes, P. B. (1990). Ent- connections, is the substantive psychologists concern themselves wicklungspsychologie der Lebensspanne. Theoreti- scope of this field. To this end, de- primarily with the more proximal sche Leitsätze. Psychologi- velopmental psychologists aspire to sources of individual behavior during sche Rundschau, 41, 1–24. understand the behavioral, mental, the lifespan. However, to achieve a Baltes, P. B. (1997). On the incomplete architec- social, motivational, and interper- fuller understanding of individual ture of human ontogeny: sonal characteristics and processes development it is necessary for de- Selection, optimization, and compensation as that constitute, accompany, and velopmental psychologists to engage foundation of develop- modify lifetime development. The themselves in collaborative efforts mental theory. American major sources for the nature of with the biological and the social Psychologist, 52, 366–380. lifespan development include (a) the sciences. This is the special opportu- Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, U., & Staudinger, U. M. long-term (distal) consequences of nity of the transdisciplinary concept (1998). Life-span theory in biocultural evolution as expressed, of human development that guides developmental psychology. In W. Damon & R. M. for instance, in genome-driven brain work in the four centers of the Max Lerner (Eds.), Handbook of plasticity and (b) the ongoing op- Planck Institute for Human Develop- child psychology: Vol. 1. Theoretical models of hu- portunity and inequality structures ment. In this vein, there has been man development (5th ed., of society at large, and especially considerable interaction of scientists pp. 1029–1143). New York: the more proximal microenviron- in the Center for Lifespan Psycholo- Wiley. Baltes, P. B., & Singer, T. ments, such as families, friendships, gy with researchers in the other (2001). Plasticity and the schools, universities, firms, senior centers or from other institutions. ageing mind: An exemplar homes, and residential locations A good example is the Berlin Aging of the bio-cultural orchestration of brain and be- within which individuals live. In ad- Study in which medical researchers haviour. European Review, dition, the role of individual factors and behavioral and social scientists 9, 59–76. and processes, such as individual collaborate in the pursuit of knowl- differences in learning histories, edge about human aging in a mental capacities, motivation, self- changing society. During the recent regulation, and strategies of life decade, lifespan and life-course re-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 131 Key References search have become a major focus by biology and culture and, there- Staudinger, U. M., of the Institute’s research profile. fore, they are deeply committed to Marsiske, M., & Baltes, This emerging focus has led to an understanding individuality and the P. B. (1995). Resilience and reserve capacity in increased cooperation between all role of personal and non-normative later adulthood: Potentials centers. The shared overall frame- (idiosyncratic) choices in develop- and limits of development across the life span. In work is the coordination of several ment. In this spirit, additional topics D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen lines of inquiry (psychological, soci- of great concern to developmental (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 2. Risk, ological, educational) to understand psychologists are questions of disorder, and adaptation the evolution and ontogeny of hu- commonalities and differences in (pp. 801–847). New York: Wiley. man behavior. development and the ways by which Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, A sample of questions that develop- individuals and their close partners P. B. (1999). Die Entwick- mental psychologists typically study can improve their own development lungspsychologie der are the following: as well as that of others. Lebensspanne (Lifespan- Psychologie). Johann • How do nature and nurture inter- What is special about the general Nicolaus Tetens (1736– act in determining development, research orientation that scientists 1807) zu Ehren. Zeitschrift für Psychologie, 207, such as the emergence of the in the Center for Lifespan Psycholo- 299–323. mind? gy display and use as mental Smith, J., & Baltes, P. B. • How and why do such functions scripts? The theoretical and method- (1999). Life-span perspectives on development. In as intelligence and memory ological perspectives and research M. H. Bornstein & M. E. change with age? agenda of the Center are summa- Lamb (Eds.), Developmen- tal psychology: An ad- • How and to what end do individu- rized below in seven propositions. vanced textbook (pp. 47– als acquire and maintain a sense These propositions reflect what may 72). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. of personal control? be considered the theoretical frame- Li, S.-C. (2003). Biocultur- • How do persons plan and manage work of lifespan psychology (Baltes, al orchestration of developmental plasticity across their lives? 1987, 1990, 1997; Baltes, Linden- levels: The interplay of bi- • What are the special bodies of berger, & Staudinger, 1998; Baltes & ology and culture in shaping the mind and behavior knowledge and dispositions, such Singer, 2001). across the lifespan. Psy- as life skills and wisdom that (1) Human development is viewed chological Bulletin, 129, 171–194. make for successful aging? as occurring throughout the life- • How do aging individuals cope span, implying cumulative- with illness or rapid technological continuous as well as innovative- change? discontinuous developmental • How do parent-child relationships processes and outcomes. change with time as children be- (2) The process of human develop- come adults and parents turn into ment from childhood into old age seniors? is considered to be an age-related • How do individuals maintain a change in adaptive capacity, in sense of life satisfaction as they which there is a continuous inter- navigate the many transitions of play between growth (gains) and life with their unique gains and decline (losses). losses? (3) Understanding psychological These and similar questions are not development requires theoretical only pursued in the search for uni- models that are often identified as versal laws. On the contrary, devel- contextual, interactive, or dialecti- opmental psychologists treat the cal. For example, ontogenetic devel- human condition as coconstructed opment occurs in the context of

132 Center for Lifespan Psychology biosocial systems that exert biocul- integrated whole, that is, the indi- tural influences. Three macrostruc- vidual. To this end, the search for tural components are particularly general models of successful devel- relevant: (a) social change, (b) the opment and aging is a leitmotif of system context provided by familial research in the Center. One such and/or generational transmission, model currently under investigation and (c) the lifespan ecologies asso- postulates that selection, optimiza- ciated with social settings, such as tion, and compensation constitute the family, school, work, leisure, the functional elements of the de- health care, and retirement. velopmental process. It is argued (4) The plasticity or basic potential that their dynamic coordination and of development (i.e., its range and orchestration results in successful constraints) is a central focus of in- development, that is, the maximiza- vestigation. Of major concern are tion of gains and minimization of studies exploring the functional losses across the lifespan. range within which individual devel- The following summary of the re- opmental processes can be influ- search programs of the Center is enced. Objective and subjective selective rather than comprehensive. knowledge about developmental Its purpose is to highlight samples plasticity (in either a positive or a and illustrate the lines of inquiry negative direction) is essential for that Center scientists pursue in the formulation of strategies opti- making a contribution to research mizing human development. and theory in lifespan psychology as (5) Human activity and goal orien- well as its implications for social tation during lifespan development policy and the future of humankind. are other conceptual emphases that guide the Center’s studies. Such an emphasis makes explicit the role that individuals play as producers of development—both their own as well as that of others. (6) Another conceptual orientation is the notion of interactive minds. This orientation, an orientation that has much in common with the field of cultural psychology, reflects the notion that the psychological nature of the social context of human development is essentially collective and involves internal as well as external mechanisms of social transactions and collaborations. (7) Understanding the nature of human development is facilitated by a perspective that attempts to link components of functioning into an

Center for Lifespan Psychology 133 Lifespan Psychology: Implications for Conceptions of Intelligence and Cognition Background Lifespan conceptions of intelligence provide a first general theoretical orientation of the research conducted at the Center. One domain of psychological research that has undergone major changes in theoretical orientation during the last decades is the psychology of intelligence. Research on lifespan intelligence was one of the contributory sources for this change. To illustrate, the psychometric tradition of intelligence testing pioneered, for instance, by Stern and especially Binet close to 100 years ago is very much ingrained in people’s everyday thinking of intelligence. In the minds of the general public, being smart and having a high IQ (Intelligence Quotient) is synonymous. In contrast, over the last couple of decades the climates of the scientific inquiry about intelligence have shifted from the IQ-based tradition—usually measured with respect to limited sets of abilities associated primarily with academic performance and work productivity—to broader inquiries about the contextual and functional aspects of intelligence and its underlying cognitive resources. A new and productive integration of the psychometric, cognitive-psychological, and ecological traditions is in the making.

Implicit in the psychometric ap- We pursued several lines of inquiry proach is a focus of measuring in- in our search for a dynamic view of tellectual abilities, as opposed to intelligence that is both contextually understanding the causes, contexts, and lifespan sensitive. Originally, our and functions of intelligence. approach was guided by cognitive Specifically, this approach views in- training research demonstrating telligence as reflecting a collection more plasticity of the aging mind of static abilities that characterizes than is commonly assumed and sub- a person, as opposed to a dynamic sequently by age comparative re- system of contextualized and adap- search on limits of functioning that tive cognitive functions that the showed the existence of a lifespan individuals continue to acquire function of cognitive plasticity throughout their life course. One (Baltes, Lindenberger, & Staudinger, aspect of the Center’s research pro- 1998). Meanwhile, we have broad- gram focuses on the theoretical and ened this approach by adding new empirical investigations of lifespan theoretical orientations, if not new intellectual development. This pro- conceptions, that stem from efforts gram has contributed to the con- to further integrate cognitive exper- ceptual shift in intelligence research imental and contextual thinking by reconceptualizing intelligence with the psychometric traditions of with new insights into its nature as intelligence testing. a system of contextualized and on- A key characteristic defining intelli- togenetically driven adaptive cogni- gence and intelligent behavior is its tive functions. adaptive value in novel situations.

134 Center for Lifespan Psychology Lifespan contexts include continuity mary substrate of cognitive prag- Key References and change in contexts of adapta- matics, on the other hand, is Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, tion. In old age, for instance, an in- culture-based knowledge that is U. M., & Lindenberger, U. (1999). Lifespan psycholo- creasingly larger share of cognitive acquired through cultural learning gy: Theory and application resources is invested into maintain- and life experiences. Prototypical ex- to intellectual functioning. Annual Review of Psychol- ing bodily functions, rather than amples of cognitive pragmatics are ogy, 50, 471–507. “academic” pursuits. Seen from this being able to speak and understand Krampe, R. T., & Baltes, perspective, intelligence is intrinsi- the social implications of language P. B. (in press). Intelli- gence as adaptive resource cally related to a lifespan perspec- and to solve practical daily problems development and resource tive of human development that involving formal-logical reasoning, allocation: A new look through the lenses of SOC considers development as a process to acquire the knowledge and skills and expertise. In R. J. within which individuals continue related to professional expertise or Sternberg & E. L. to adapt their bodies of factual and the kind of life skills that are neces- Grigorenko (Eds.), Perspec- tives on the psychology of procedural knowledge to changes sary to navigate the modern world. abilities, competencies, and transformations in biological, In the following, we describe three and expertise. New York: Cambridge University environmental, and cultural con- general lines of our ongoing research Press. straints that inevitably take place aimed at extending conventional Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U., throughout their life course. models of intelligence from the per- Hommel, B., Aschersleben, G., Prinz, W., & Baltes, P. In this spirit, and by extending the spective of lifespan psychology. The B. (in press). Lifespan Cattell-Horn theory of fluid-crystal- first line of research focuses on the transformations in the couplings between intel- lized intelligence (Cattell, 1973), we relations between cognitive mechan- lectual abilities and con- have presented a new dual-process ics and pragmatics with biological stituent cognitive process- model of intelligence (Baltes, and cultural factors and their differ- es. Psychological Science. Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999; ential lifespan trajectories. A second Krampe & Baltes, in press) that line of research that has been moti- highlights two distinct, but interact- vated by our concept of the cogni- ing dimensions of intellectual func- tive mechanics is the investigation tioning (see Fig. 1): the biologically of resource management in sensori- (or neurophysiologically) driven cog- motor functioning. The third line, the nitive mechanics and the culture- study of wisdom, is rooted in our based cognitive pragmatics of the work on the cognitive pragmatics. mind. On the one hand, the cognitive mechanics are basic information-processing primitives for the Basic information processing memorizing and learning that people Mechanics – content-poor are capable of. They are predomi- – biology-dependent nately preprogrammed by the neuro- – genetically predisposed physiological architecture of the mind as it has evolved during bio- Factual and procedural knowledge logical evolution and unfold under a Pragmatics – content-rich – culture-dependent minimum level of environmental – experience-based support during individual ontogenesis. The speed, accuracy, robustness, and coordination of elementary in- Figure 1. The dual-process model of lifespan intellectual development distinguishes between the cognitive mechanics and formation-processing mechanisms pragmatics of intellectual functioning (adapted from Baltes, index cognitive mechanics. The pri- Staudinger, & Lindenberger, 1999).

Center for Lifespan Psychology 135 Sources of Age Differences gy-based sensory-sensorimotor in Cognitive Mechanics versus processes and cognitive mechanics Pragmatics is a robust phenomenon that gener- To test the dual-process model of alizes to measures other than the lifespan intellectual development, average level of performance. For our research, thus far, directly ex- instance, within-person week-to- amined the relations between these week fluctuations in old people’s two aspects of intellectual function- sensorimotor performance also cor- ing and biological and cultural fac- relate highly with the cognitive tors, and their differential lifespan mechanics. Accordingly, old people trajectories. In our view, sensory and who varied more in their walking intellectual functions are closely performance from week to week related when cognitive primitives showed worse episodic and spatial (mechanics) are operative in the memory (S.-C. Li, Aggen, Nessel- task at hand. Congruent with this roade, & Baltes, 2001). expectation, our empirical findings Given that biology and culture co- show that among old adults basic contribute differentially to the sensory processing is much more mechanics and pragmatics of intelli- highly correlated with the cognitive gence, investigations of how these mechanics than with cognitive prag- two aspects of intellectual function- matics (see Fig. 2). In contrast, ing develop, maintain, and decline socio-biographical predictors corre- throughout life could offer insights late more with cognitive pragmatics into the complex and coconstructive than with cognitive mechanics interplay between the individual’s (Lindenberger & Baltes, 1997). The biological and cultural “inherit- association between the more biolo- ances” in development (Baltes &

Figure 2. Differential cor- 35 relational links of perceptual speed (a marker of Perceptual speed 30 the mechanics) and verbal Knowledge knowledge (a marker of the pragmatics) to biologi- 25 cal and socio-biographical indicators in old age 20 (adapted from Linden- berger & Baltes, 1997). 15

Shared variance (%) 10

Class Vision Hearing Income Bal./Gait Prestige Education Sensory-sensorimotor Socio-biographical correlates correlates

136 Center for Lifespan Psychology 70 65 60 55 50

T-Score 45 Cognitive pragmatics 40 (culture-/knowledge-based facet of intelligence) 35 Information-processing speed Cognitive mechanics 30 (biology-/process-based facet of intelligence) 25 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 Age Figure 3. Lifespan age gradients of cognitive pragmatics, cognitive mechanics, and processing speed (adapted from S.-C. Li, Lindenberger, Hommel, Aschersleben, Prinz, & Baltes, in press).

Singer, 2001; S.-C. Li, 2003). Com- ever, the role of biology-based cog- bining our research on cognitive nitive mechanics in regulating the aging and concurrent work drawing cognitive pragmatics increases. De- data from a lifespan sample cover- tails in our evidence have provided ing the first to the eighth decades further empirical support for the of life, we found differential lifespan neurobiology versus acculturation trajectories for cognitive mechanics distinction between these two and pragmatics in line with our the- domains of intelligence (S.-C. Li, oretical expectations. As is true for Lindenberger, Hommel, Aschersleben, research on the fluid-crystallized Prinz, & Baltes, in press). The life- distinction, cognitive mechanics dis- span age gradients of information- play an earlier growth pattern up to processing speed correspond very early adulthood. The growth of cog- well with the age gradient of cogni- nitive mechanics primarily driven tive mechanics, but much less so by brain maturation can then be with cognitive pragmatics (Fig. 3). invested into the acquisition and Furthermore, overall information- refinement of culture-based cogni- processing speed correlated more tive pragmatics. However, because highly with cognitive mechanics of their close ties to biology and than with cognitive pragmatics and genome-based determinants, con- especially at both ends of the life- tinuous loss of cognitive mechanics span (Fig. 4). starts early in adulthood. In contrast, the culture-based pragmatics, represented by the abilities of knowledge and language, have a later onset of decline which is less pronounced. In old age, how-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 137 Key References Correlation with Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, processing speed P. B. (1997). Intellectual functioning in old and 0.8 very old age: Cross- sectional results from 0.7 the Berlin Aging Study. Cognitive mechanics Psychology and Aging, 0.6 12, 410–432. 0.5 Lindenberger, U., Marsiske, M., & Baltes, P. B. (2000). 0.4 Memorizing while walking: Increase in dual-task costs 0.3 from young adulthood to old age. Psychology and 0.2 Aging, 15, 417–436. Li, K. Z. H., Lindenberger, 0.1 Cognitive pragmatics U., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). Walk- 0.0 ing while memorizing: 6–11 12–17 18–35 36–55 56–69 70–89 Age-related differences in Age group compensatory behavior. Psychological Science, 12, Figure 4. Correlations between processing speed, cognitive mechanics, and cognitive pragmatics across 230–237. six continuous age groups (adapted from S.-C. Li et al., in press). Krampe, R. T., Rapp, M. A., Bondar, A., & Baltes, P. B. (2003). Selektion, Lifespan Differences in the Alloca- corollary, we argue that such Optimierung und Kompen- tion of Cognitive Resources emerging deficits in the coordina- sation in Doppelaufgaben. Nervenarzt, 3, 204–210. In addition to the efficiency of basic tion of bodily functions require more information processes, the category and more cognitive resources. To of cognitive mechanics also encom- illustrate: In our studies we system- passes the optimal allocation of atically combined sensorimotor tasks cognitive resources. Flexible re- of varying difficulties (i.e., walking source allocation is especially im- with or without obstacles, balancing portant whenever the individual is on a stable or moving platform) faced with multiple tasks or situa- with cognitively demanding tasks tional constraints. An example of (memorization) (K. Z. H. Li, Linden- these tasks or situational demands berger, Freund, & Baltes, 2001; comprises of basic sensorimotor Lindenberger, Marsiske, & Baltes, functions such as maintaining bal- 2000). Using dual-task and training ance or walking while talking to a research paradigms, the results sug- friend. Everyday life, for the most gest that older adults invest consid- part, consists of such multi-task sit- erable cognitive resources to com- uations. In the context of lifespan pensate for the decreased efficacy development, age brings with it dif- of their sensorimotor functions. On ferent adaptive demands for individ- a larger scale, we assume that in uals at different parts of their life later adulthood a considerable course. Basic sensorimotor functions amount of the available cognitive such as postural stability and walk- resources is permanently captured ing accuracy lose efficiency in later by sensorimotor functions that are adulthood because of decreased virtually automatized in younger muscular strength and reduced pe- adults. These cognitive resources, in ripheral vision, as examples. As a turn, are no longer available for

138 Center for Lifespan Psychology other cognitively demanding tasks integrative knowledge about the Key References (such as reading, writing, and con- world of human affairs; and it in- Baltes, P. B., Smith, J., & versing) or the acquisition of new volves an orientation toward the Staudinger, U. M. (1992). Wisdom and successful skills. Because the conventional as- common good defined as individual aging. In T. B. Sonderegger sessment of intelligence does not and collective well-being (Baltes, (Ed.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation 1991: Psy- even touch on interindividual differ- Glück, & Kunzmann, 2002; Baltes & chology and aging. Current ences in resource allocation capabil- Staudinger, 2000; Kunzmann & theory and research in motivation (Vol. 39, pp. 123– ities, standard IQ assessment most Baltes, in press). Both features sig- 167). Lincoln, NE: Univer- likely misses important dimensions nal that wisdom may have different sity of Nebraska Press. of adaptive intelligent behavior functions for successful lifespan de- Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, U. M. (2000). (Krampe & Baltes, in press). We aim velopment than more limited abili- Wisdom: A metaheuristic at developing tasks and paradigms ties typically considered in conven- (pragmatic) to orchestrate that reflect the contexts of the tional models of intelligence. mind and virtue toward excellence. American Psy- second half of life and permit the Although knowledge and insight are chologist, 55, 122–136. assessment of these characteristics. important characteristics of wisdom, Baltes, P. B., Glück, J., & in our more recent work, we have Kunzmann, U. (2002). Wisdom: Its structure and The Psychology of Wisdom emphasized that the semantic function in regulating suc- Our research on wisdom is the meaning of this concept encompass- cessful lifespan development. In C. R. Snyder & S. counterpart of the two other lines of es more (e.g., Baltes & Staudinger, J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook research on cognitive mechanics and 2000; Kunzmann & Baltes, 2003). of positive psychology (pp. 327–347). New York: focuses primarily on the cognitive Wisdom extends beyond “intellectu- Oxford University Press. pragmatics. The original raison al” subject matters to include no- Kunzmann, U., & Baltes, d’être for this work was the conclu- tions of virtues versus vices. In this P. B. (2003). Beyond the sion that wisdom might be a posi- sense, wisdom can be seen as a traditional scope of intelligence: Wisdom in action. tive marker of aging; a marker that body of knowledge, skills, and In R. J. Sternberg, J. Lautry, cannot be found empirically because motives that function as a meta- & T. I. Lubart (Eds.), Mod- els of intelligence: Inter- it has not been included in the heuristic to orchestrate human national perspectives traditional tests of intelligence and development toward higher levels of (pp. 329–343). Washing- ton, DC: American Psycho- personality. We have defined wis- functioning (Baltes & Staudinger, logical Association. dom as an “expert knowledge 2000). To be sure, memory, analyti- system about the meaning and con- cal, creative, social, and emotional duct of life” (e.g., Baltes & Smith, skills are all important for living a 1990; Baltes & Staudinger, 1993; good life as an individual, but they Staudinger & Baltes, 1996). In our are not enough if the goal is a bal- definition, wisdom is thought to in- ance between individual well-being clude knowledge about difficult and and social well-being. In our view, uncertain questions concerning life the special strength of wisdom is planning, review, and management. that it selects and orchestrates more This definition of wisdom expands specific abilities and bodies of conventional models of intelligence knowledge toward maximizing the in that it involves general and spe- individual and common good. For cific knowledge about ill-defined life instance, when guided by wisdom, dilemmas that have no clear-cut so- individuals would consider only lutions. Moreover, two core features those goals and means as ways of set wisdom apart from other cogni- self-development that do not violate tive abilities: Wisdom is holistic and the rights of others and, in addition,

Center for Lifespan Psychology 139 coproduce resources for others to is pursued in Susanne Scheibe’s dis- develop. It is in this sense that we sertation project which is supervised have considered wisdom as the inte- by Paul Baltes, Alexandra Freund, gration of mind and virtue. and Ute Kunzmann. So far, a theo- Since 2001, we have invested effort retical conception of life-longing into the search of an additional sub- has been articulated, and a first stantive construct that we consider method using a self-report ques- salient for understanding the prag- tionnnaire to assess lifespan matics of life. It is the concept of changes in life-longing is being life-longing (Sehnsucht). This topic tested.

The Mastery of Life: Selection, Optimization, and Compensation (SOC)

Key References A second general theoretical orientation of research in the Center for Life- Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. span Psychology is motivated by the question of how people develop suc- M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful cessfully and avoid negative outcomes. To gain a better understanding of aging: The model of selec- the factors contributing to successful development, that is, the simultane- tive optimization with compensation. In P. B. ous maximization of gains and minimization of losses, we attempt to speci- Baltes & M. M. Baltes fy the behavioral and cognitive strategies by which people, individually and (Eds.), Successful aging: Perspectives from the be- collectively, master their lives. The focus of our theory is on the orchestra- havioral sciences (pp. 1– tion of selection, optimization, and compensation. 34). Cambridge, UK: Cam- bridge University Press. Freund, A. M., & Baltes, According to the model of selection, main of functioning, as well as on P. B. (2000). The orches- optimization, and compensation characteristics of the system or unit tration of selection, opti- (SOC), originally articulated by Paul of interest (e.g., person, group, soci- mization, and compensation: An action-theoretical and Margret Baltes (1990; Baltes, ety). The meta-theory of SOC needs conceptualization of a 1997) and now developed further to be embedded in a specific theo- theory of developmental regulation. In W. J. Perrig primarily with Alexandra Freund retical framework for applying it to & A. Grob (Eds.), Control of (Freund & Baltes, 2000) and Ralf various domains of functioning (e.g., human behavior, mental processes, and conscious- Krampe (Krampe & Baltes, in press), identity formation and maintenance, ness (pp. 35–58). Mahwah, successful development encompass- social relations, athletic perform- NJ: Erlbaum. es the selection of functional do- ance) and to different levels of Li, K. Z. H., Lindenberger, U., Freund, A. M.,& mains on which to focus one’s re- analysis (e.g., societal, group, or in- Baltes, P. B. (2001). Walk- sources, optimizing developmental dividual level). ing while memorizing: potential (maximization of gains) On a macro-analytical level, it is Age-related differences in compensatory behavior. and compensating for losses, there- possible to apply SOC-related per- Psychological Science, 12, by, ensuring the maintenance of spectives to questions of societal 230–237. functioning (minimization of losses). functioning. How do the American, Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2002b). Life-man- The SOC-model constitutes a gener- German, and Japanese cultures dif- agement strategies of se- al model of development defining fer in goals, ways to optimize, and lection, optimization, and compensation: Measure- universal processes of developmen- strategies of compensation? This ment by self-report and tal regulation. These processes vary would be one example for a macro- construct validity. Journal of Personality & Social phenotypically depending on socio- analytic comparative study. An Psychology, 82, 642–662. historical and cultural context, do- example of a micro-analytic level

140 Center for Lifespan Psychology approach to the study of SOC would refined, coordinated, and applied in Key References be the investigation of cognitive and the selected goal domains. We call (cont’d) motor performance in dual-task the acquisition and orchestration of Krampe, R. T., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). Intelli- conditions and the way people of such means of goal attainment opti- gence as adaptive resource varying ages allocate resources dif- mization. An example of optimiza- development and resource allocation: A new look ferentially to memory and walking tion is practicing scales when start- through the lenses of SOC (K. Z. H. Li, Lindenberger, Freund, & ing to learn to play the piano. By and expertise. In R. J. Sternberg & E. L. Baltes, 2001). practicing scales, one can acquire Grigorenko (Eds.), Perspec- flexibility in finger movements and tives on the psychology of abilities, competencies, (1) Selection stroke techniques, both important and expertise. New York: Throughout the lifespan, biological, skills for playing the piano. Of Cambridge University social, and individual opportunities course, which means are best suited Press. and constraints specify a range of for achieving one’s goals depends on alternative domains of functioning. the goal domain (e.g., sports, friend- From this large number of options, ships), the social and cultural con- individuals, in collaboration with text providing opportunity structures other forces, such as norms and that make certain means more ac- parental expectations, select a sub- cessible than others, and personal set on which to focus their re- characteristics such as age or gen- sources. Selection of personal goals der. We also need to recognize that gives direction to development by in most cases there are different focusing resources on specific life pathways of optimization; consis- domains and by guiding behavior tent with the saying ”There are across situations and time. The many ways to Rome.” function of selection is nicely illustrated by the saying “Those who (3) Compensation follow every path, never reach any When transient or permanent losses destination.“ Selectivity can also or decline in goal-relevant means be an adaptive response to losses threaten one’s level of functioning, threatening one’s goals. We call this it is necessary to invest resources loss-based selection, in contrast to into counteracting the losses in elective selection. An example of order to maintain a given level of loss-based selection is concentrating functioning. We call the process of on one’s most important goals (e.g., activating or finding such alterna- enjoying being with one’s family) tive means compensation. For in- and giving up less important person- stance, when knee problems do not al goals (e.g., cultural activities) allow going for walks any longer, when an illness constrains the level using a wheelchair as a compensa- of energy one can devote to various tory means of transportation can activities. help to maintain one’s routine of spending an hour in the park every (2) Optimization day. As is true in the case of opti- To achieve higher levels of function- mization, which means are best ing, goal-relevant means, that is, suited for compensating transient means that are conducive to goal or permanent losses depends on the attainment, need to be acquired, domain of functioning, the social

Center for Lifespan Psychology 141 Integrating research on wisdom and and cultural context, and personal selective optimization with compensation characteristics. More recently, we have explored the nature of the interrelationship be- Optimal human tween wisdom and the theory of se- development lective optimization with compensation (Baltes & Freund, 2003a, 2003b). The argument advanced is that wisdom defines the general WISDOM SOC space of desirable goals and means. Effective life management SOC, on the other hand, is value- Defining the meta-range of and goal pursuit: desirable goals Orchestration of neutral. It specifies the conditions desirable means selection under which outcomes are achieved, optimization compensation irrespective of their moral or ethical valence. We suggest that their joint Figure 5. A model integrating SOC-strategies and wisdom to achieve successful application represents a powerful human development (Baltes & Freund, 2003b). strategy to create a good life (Fig. 5).

The Center for Lifespan Psychology 2002

Left to right: (front row) Oliver Huxhold, Albina Bondar, Denis Gerstorf, Florian Schmiedek, Daniel Grühn; (middle row) Lixia Yang, Shu- Chen Li, Susanne Ehrhorn, Natalie C. Ebner, Alexandra M. Freund, Jacqui Smith; (back row) Sabine Schäfer, Antje Stange, Ralf T. Krampe, Julia Delius, Christina Röcke, Kurt Kreppner, Ute Kunzmann, Susanne Scheibe, Michaela Riediger, Paul B. Baltes.

142 Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 1 Scientific Parent–Adolescent Relationships: Family and Differential Investigator Perspectives Kurt Kreppner Adolescence in the Family, an Unavoidable Clash? When the oldest child brings home strange new friends for the first time, tries to dye his or her hair green, drives telephone costs up to unprecedent- ed amounts, and wants to quit school, parents sometimes really feel helpless. How does one negotiate with a 12- or 13-year-old child? How should parents react to an outburst of rebellion in their home? How should they handle this sudden threat to their common lifestyle? Doors are banged and tears flow, parents get angry and, at the same time, have the feeling that they have become strangers to their own child. Will this situation worsen or can they gain control after some time? If there are younger children in the family, what do the younger siblings make of it?

Not in all, but in many families the The situation becomes even more beginning of a child's puberty repre- complex when there is a second, sents a “difficult time“ for each of younger child in the family. The the family members involved. This is question can be raised whether a time of rapid change. Transition parental adaptation to the first child from childhood to adolescence is a has a kind of “spill-over effect” for unique period in an individual's life the parents‘ behavior and communi- where major shifts in both body and cation modes with the younger ego development occur. At the same child. Do parents cope with the first time, parents must be students of child‘s demands and new capacities effective parenthood as well, they and keep their communication mode have to learn to be effective and unchanged with regard to the sec- adaptive with their child. Parents ond child? Similarities or dissimilari- who experience this transition with ties in parental treatment of the their first child for the first time first and second child during marked have to cope with developmental transition periods such as adoles- shifts in body growth, cognitive cence was a central topic in this capabilities, demands for more au- study. A detailed analysis of conti- tonomy, and an increase in peer nuities and changes in family com- orientation. munication during the first child‘s

On Systems Theory in Family Research Systems theory contributed to a new understanding of family functioning. The study of families focuses on the dynamics among family members, such as those between parents and children, mother and father, or siblings. Communication among family members and its quality is believed to be a central characteristic of family dynamics. Therefore, the analysis of communication patterns has become a central aspect in family research. When researchers interested in developmental changes operate exclusively from an individual perspective (e.g., focusing on the parent’s personality type or on the child’s temperament), they miss normative changes in parent-child communication modes associated with the family developmental process by overlooking a crucial part of individual development related to the family’s competence in mastering transitions.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 143 Key References Multimethod Approach: Use of Questionnaires for Obtaining Self-Reports and Videotechniques Kreppner, K., & Ullrich, M. for Recording Communication Inside the Family (1998). Talk to mom and In this study, 67 families with at least two children were followed in eight waves of data collection dad, and listen to what is for three-and-a-half years. The age of the first child was eleven-and-a-half years at the beginning in between. In M. Hofer, P. Noack, & J. Youniss of the study and 15 years at the end. The second child was about two years younger. In order to ex- (Eds.), Verbal interaction plore divergent types of families and their ways of dealing with children’s developmental changes, and development in fami- various sources of information were included in the longitudinal investigation. One source consisted lies with adolescents of adolescents’ self-reports about the quality of self-esteem or judgments about the relationship (pp. 83–108). Greenwich, quality within the family; another source encompassed concrete communication behavior between CT: Ablex. family members, including not only parent-child dyads, but also parent-parent and sibling-sibling Kreppner, K., & Ullrich, M. dyads or triadic constellations. (1999). Ablöseprozesse in Naturalistic and semi-structured observations of family discussions (a total of 715 hours on video- Trennungs- und Nicht- tape) provided a rich record of the families’ patterns of interaction and communication during the Trennungsfamilien: Eine oldest child’s passage from childhood to adolescence. Applying a family-developmental and systems- Betrachtung von konkre- oriented perspective, the study was designed to analyze continuities and changes in communication tem Kommunikations- patterns within families and to explore differences in families’ modes of fostering or impeding chil- verhalten in Familien mit dren’s development. Kindern im frühen bis mittleren Jugendalter. In S. Walper & B. Schwarz (Eds.), Was wird aus den transition from childhood to adoles- relationship with their parents and Kindern? Chancen und cence was used as a means to gain self-reports were used as a criterion Risiken für die Entwicklung von Kindern aus Tren- insight into family dynamics. A to differentiate among dissimilar nungs- und Stieffamilien unique strength of the study is that types of family contexts. Three (pp. 91–120). München: Juventa. extensive observations of communi- groups were distinguished on the Kreppner, K. (2000). Ent- cation were conducted in the fami- basis of adolescents‘ consistent re- wicklung von Eltern-Kind- lies‘ own homes and served as our sponses over time on three relation- Beziehungen: Normative main data base. ship scales. Adolescents in these Aspekte im Rahmen der Familienentwicklung. In K. Of special significance is how par- three groups characterized the rela- A. Schneewind (Eds.), ents and children communicate with tionship quality with their parents Familienpsychologie im Aufwind (pp. 174–195). each other. Analyzing the process of as being (a) secure, (b) habitual, or Göttingen: Hogrefe. communication over time was made (c) ambivalent. Kreppner, K. (2001d). possible by the use of video tapes. The most striking changes in family Variations in children's perceived relationship General trends of changes in com- communication were found for quality and changes in munication patterns were found in groups in which adolescents had communication behaviors within the family during parent-adolescent discussions over rated the quality of the relationship the child's transition to time. Communication formats indi- with the parents as being consis- adolescence: A differential cating parental modes of talking to tently “secure“ or “ambivalent.“ For approach. In J. R. M. Gerris (Ed.), Dynamics of parent- the child as a child, such as “teach- example, in the families of “secure“ ing (pp. 33–52). Leuven: ing“ or “giving attention,“ decreased adolescents, fathers' integrative Garant. during the three-and-a-half year modes of communication, on the Kreppner, K. (2002a). Ret- rospect and prospect in period, whereas frequencies of be- one hand, and the use of “state- the psychological study of haviors such as “negotiation“ or ments“ in discussions (exchange of families as systems. In J. McHale & W. Grolnick “exchange of statements“ (signifying different opinions without a com- (Eds.), Retrospect and affirmation of one’s own position) mon solution) changed considerably prospect in the psychological study of families increased in both mothers' and over time. The adolescents from the (pp. 225–257). Mahwah, fathers’ communication modes secure group, for their part, experi- NJ: Erlbaum. (Kreppner, 2002a; see Fig. 1). enced these changes in a climate of Did all families behave identically? emotional closeness. In contrast, in This was not the case. Adolescents' families of “ambivalent“ adolescents, assessments of the quality of the fathers did not show such time-

144 Center for Lifespan Psychology Communication style over time: Figure 1. Variations in Mothers with adolescents parental communication with adolescent children. Statement Attention Teaching Negotiation

10 Percent of frequencies 11.5 years 15 years Age of adolescents

Communication style over time: Fathers with adolescents

Statement Attention Teaching Negotiation

10 Percent of frequencies 11.5 years 15 years Age of adolescents specific variations in discussing dif- patterns between mothers and ado- ferent opinions and adolescents did lescents in divorced and non- not experience a comparable degree divorced families. Results indicate of closeness during discussions with that negotiations between mothers their fathers (Kreppner, 2001d, and their children concerning the 2002b; Kreppner & Ullrich, 1998). reorganization of an extant relation- When adolescents from the secure ship result, more frequently, in a and the ambivalent group were more egalitarian and partner-orient- compared, major differences were ed communication than is the case found in various aspects of self- in non-divorced families, where esteem, pointing to a continuously rule- and principle-oriented con- higher level of self-esteem in ado- troversial communication between lescents from the secure group as mother and adolescent prevail compared to adolescents from the (Kreppner & Ullrich, 1999). ambivalent group (Kreppner, 1996). What about the differences in com- Another series of data analyses dealt munication patterns when parents with differences in communication interact with their younger, second

Center for Lifespan Psychology 145 Key Reference children? Contrary to many expecta- The degree of closeness, for exam- Kreppner, K., & Ullrich, M. tions, there was much similarity. Re- ple, decreases over time not only for (2003). Untersuchung zur sults show a high degree of family the first, but also for the second Qualität der Beziehungen und Kommunikationsfor- consistency in the quality of close- child; and the frequency of discus- men in der Familie beim ness across all family relationships sions in the parent-child triad which Übergang von der Kindheit zur Jugend. Zeitschrift für (Kreppner & Ullrich, 2003). Parent- end with a consensual solution also Familienforschung, 15 (1). child communication patterns are sharply decreases for the second changed over time and adapted to child (see Fig. 2). the first child’s needs, but parents In sum, our multi-method approach also seem to apply the newly adopt- to data collection in families which ed communication format they use included observation of communica- with their first child when they talk tion behavior was successful. We to their second child. Thus, the sec- were able to show how families ond child is confronted with a more adapt to the changing needs of their adult-like exchange pattern in the children during major developmental family earlier than the first child. transitions. Families differ in their flexibility in producing new commu- Changes in triad with first and second child nication patterns appropriate to Closeness: High meet their children’s changing de- 60 mands for more autonomy and adult Parents’ first child formats of communication. Further- 50 Parents’ second child more, we found in our longitudinal study that families do not only adapt their present repertoires of 40 communication skills while dealing with transition problems with their 30 first child, but also change commu- Percent of frequencies nication modes with the younger 20 sibling. Future research centering on 12 13 14 15 the detailed description of differen- Age of first child in years tial communication modes inside the family may slowly reveal not Changes in triad with first and second child only the diversity of families’ com- Result: Common solution munication patterns and their 60 impact on individual developmental Parents’ first child pathways, but also the variety of modes by which families master 50 Parents’ second child developmental transitions during the lifespan. 40

30 Percent of frequencies

20 12 13 14 15 Figure 2. Changes in triadic familiy Age of first child in years communication over time.

146 Center for Lifespan Psychology Research Project 2 Scientific Trends and Profiles of Psychological Aging Investigators For lifespan researchers, the period of old and very old age is a new and ex- Jacqui Smith citing area of study. During the 20th century, average life expectancy nearly Alexandra M. doubled. More and more individuals in current cohorts of older individuals Freund experience additional years of life between the ages of 70 and 100+. What Ute Kunzmann do these added years mean in terms of levels of functioning and life quality Shu-Chen Li for most people? Are there constraints on aging successfully in the last Julia Delius years of life? Compared to early phases of the lifespan, relatively little is Paul B. Baltes known about advanced old age. Our research in the Center of Lifespan Psychology on the oldest old is acknowledged by many in the field as being Paolo Ghisletta at the leading edge. (postdoctoral fellow until 2001) Since 1989, members of the Center As outlined below, our research in of Lifespan Psychology have investi- the period 2000 to 2002 has fo- Susanne Ehrhorn gated age- and death-related cused on mapping individual differ- Denis Gerstorf changes in psychological functioning ences and age-related changes in Florian Schmiedek from age 70 to 100+ in the context intellectual functioning (e.g., Singer, (predoctoral of the Berlin Aging Study (BASE); Verhaeghen, Ghisletta, Lindenberger, fellows) Baltes & Mayer, 1999, 2001; Mayer & & Baltes, in press), self and person- Baltes, 1996, 1999; Smith & Delius, ality (e.g., Kunzmann, Little, & Daniela Jopp 2003; Smith, Maas, Mayer, Helm- Smith, 2002; Smith & Freund, 2002), Ilka Lißmann chen, Steinhagen-Thiessen, & Baltes, and well-being (Kunzman, Little, & (predoctoral 2002). This multidisciplinary study is Smith, 2000; Smith, 2001c; Smith, fellows, one of the few projects worldwide Borchelt, Maier, & Jopp, 2002) in the Free University of that includes extensive data for a young old and oldest old. In addi- Berlin) heterogeneous sample. This means tion, we examine the role of differ- that we can begin to distinguish nor- ent aspects of health (illness, physi- mative trajectories of psychological cal and sensory impairments, frailty) functioning from pathological and life-history factors (e.g., social change. Over the last years, we have advantage, education) in predicting focused increasingly on the portrayal change and the systemic nature of of the two-sides of old age: the Third cross-domain associations in in- (young old) Age associated with rela- traindividual change patterns. tive functional stability and mainte- Longitudinal data in BASE are avail- nance of well-being and the Fourth able over five measurement occa- (oldest old) Age during which indi- sions. The last follow-up of the psy- viduals appear to be more at risk for chology battery was collected in impairment and functional decline 2000. At this time, 70% of the base- (Baltes & Smith, 2003; Smith, line sample of 516 were deceased. 2002b). It is in essence an open Of the 159 survivors, 52% complet- question whether the advances that ed all of our tests and interviews. have contributed to life quality in the Lindenberger, Singer, and Baltes Third Age extend to the oldest old, (2002) have undertaken analyses to especially beyond age 85. determine the extent to which dif-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 147 www.base-berlin.mpg.de Overview of the Berlin Aging Study (BASE) The multidisciplinary Berlin Aging Study (BASE), directed by Paul B. Baltes and Karl Ulrich Mayer, was initiated in 1989 under the sponsorship of the former West Berlin Academy of Sciences and Technol- ogy and its Committee on Age and Societal Development. Subsequently, and in connection with the reestablishment of the Prussian Academy, the study came under the auspices of the Berlin-Branden- burg Academy of Sciences. As of 2002, the study involves five measurement occasions spaced over Key References 10 years. In addition, subsamples have been recruited for intensive study. The distinguishing features of BASE include: (1) a focus on the very old (70–100+ years), (2) a locally Baltes, P. B., & Mayer, K. U. (Eds.). (1999, 2001). representative sample, stratified by age and sex, and (3) a broad-based interdisciplinarity (involving The Berlin Aging Study: two research groups from the Free University of Berlin, Internal Medicine and Psychiatry, and two Aging from 70 to 100. New from this Institute, Sociology and Psychology). In addition to discipline-specific topics, four integra- York: Cambridge University tive theoretical orientations guide the study: (1) differential aging, (2) continuity versus discontinuity Press. of aging, (3) range and limits of plasticity and reserve capacity, and (4) aging as a systemic phenom- Mayer, K. U., & Baltes, enon. P. B. (Eds.). (1999). Die The initial focus of BASE (1990–1993) was to obtain an age by sex stratified heterogeneous sample Berliner Altersstudie (2nd of 70- to 100+-year-olds who completed a 14-session Intensive Protocol (involving detailed meas- ed.). Berlin: Akademie Ver- ures from the four disciplines). 516 men and women from the western districts of Berlin participated. lag. Four longitudinal follow-ups involving different amounts of assessment of the survivors from this Lindenberger, U., Singer, initial sample have been completed at approximately two-year intervals. A single-session multidisci- T., & Baltes, P. B. (2002). plinary assessment was collected in 1993–1994 (N = 361), reduced versions of the Intensive Protocol Longitudinal selectivity in (six sessions) were collected in the periods 1995–1996 (N = 206) and 1997–1998 (N = 132), and a aging populations: Sepa- repeat of parts of the Psychology Battery together with multidisciplinary outcome variables in 2000 rating mortality-associat- (e.g., screening for dementia, assessment of well-being: N = 82). In addition, we also follow the mor- ed versus experimental tality of the entire BASE sample. components in the Berlin The initial sample of 516 individuals formed the basis of the cross-sectional analyses reported in a Aging Study (BASE). Jour- nals of Gerontology: Psy- German monograph first published in 1996 (Mayer & Baltes, 1996, 1999), in a featured section of chological Sciences, 57B, Psychology and Aging (1997), and an English monograph published with Cambridge University Press P474–P482. (Baltes & Mayer, 1999, 2001). Six papers reporting six-year longitudinal findings were published in November 2002, in a Special Section of the Journals of Gerontology: Psychological Sciences (57B, Smith, J., Maas, I., Mayer, K. U., Helmchen, H., P471–P517). Specific interests of the Psychology Unit of BASE include: issues of sample selectivity Steinhagen-Thiessen, E., & and representativeness, cognitive aging, subgroup profiles of psychological functioning, the Fourth Baltes, P. B. (2002). Two- Age, gender differences, mortality prediction, self-definition, well-being, and models of successful wave longitudinal findings aging, such as selective optimization with compensation. from the Berlin Aging Study: Introduction to a Doctoral Training Program (Graduiertenkolleg) in Neuropsychiatry and Psychology of Aging collection of papers. jointly with the Free University of Berlin Journal of Gerontology: Since 1998, the research findings and data of BASE have provided a primary foundation for a DFG- Psychological Sciences, funded graduate research training program (Graduiertenkolleg). The focus of this Kolleg is on the 57B, P471–P473 (see also P474–P517). "Neuropsychiatry and Psychology of Old Age." Initiated by the late Margret M. Baltes, the doctoral training program is currently codirected by psychiatrist Isabella Heuser and psychologist Paul B. Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. Baltes. Other key psychologists involved are Ralf Schwarzer (Free University of Berlin) and Jacqui (2003). New frontiers in Smith. In the period 2001–2002, the program included 20 fellows. the future of aging: From successful aging of the young old to the dilemmas of the fourth age. Geron- ferent selection mechanisms (selec- health, social status, cognitive func- tology, 49, 123–135. tive mortality, selective dropout tioning, openness to new experi- Smith, J., & Delius, J. among survivors, and the initial ences, outgoingness (extraversion), (2003). Die längsschnitt- lichen Erhebungen der BASE sample selectivity) may bias or age, and distance from death. For Berliner Altersstudie confound our longitudinal findings example, at baseline, participants in (BASE): Design, Stich- about change. the six-year longitudinal sample proben und Schwerpunkte 1990–2002. In F. Karl (Ed.), In general, participants in the vari- (N = 132) were on average younger, Sozial- und verhaltens- ous BASE longitudinal samples (fol- had better functional health (e.g., wissenschaftliche Geron- tologie: Alter und Altern lowed over four, six, and eight years) vision and hearing), higher socio- als gesellschaftliches Prob- have been a positive selection of the economic status and, in terms of lem und individuelles Thema (pp. 225–249). initial cross-sectional sample in psychological functioning, they were Weinheim: Juventa. terms of physical and functional cognitively fitter, more extraverted,

148 Center for Lifespan Psychology less anxious, and more open for new of decline already in middle adult- experiences than the core initial hood (30–50 years) and exhibit ro- BASE sample. bust and more general decline in old age. In contrast, the crystallized Changes in Intellectual Function- pragmatics, understood as the cul- ing from Age 70 to 100+ ture- and knowledge-based soft- Intellectual functioning in BASE ware of the mind, is generally was assessed using a computerized maintained at least into the 60s battery of 14 subtests covering five and 70s. abilities (perceptual speed, memory, Cross-sectional analyses of BASE reasoning, fluency, and knowledge). data revealed substantial negative Up to age 80, previous research has age differences in indicators of both shown that performance on two the fluid mechanics and crystallized broad categories of intellectual pragmatics of intelligence between abilities, the fluid-like mechanics 70 and 100+ years (representing a and crystallized pragmatics of intel- 1.8 SD difference in performance ligence, exhibit different patterns of level and 35% of the interindividual maintenance and decline. The fluid variance: e.g., Lindenberger & Baltes, mechanics, thought to reflect the 1997). These findings have now neurophysiological architecture of been extended by several longitudi- the human brain, display instances nal analyses. Singer, Verhaeghen,

Perceptual speed Memory 65 65 60 60 55 55 50 50 T-Score T-Score 45 45 40 40 35 35 70 80 90 100 Age 70 80 90 100 Age Fluency Knowledge 65 65 60 60 55 55 50 50 T-Score 45 T-Score 45 40 40 35 35 70 80 90 100 Age 70 80 90 100 Age

Figure 1. Cognitive change over six years in old age (BASE): Cohort groups older than 80 years demonstrated cognitive fitness (stability) in tests of knowledge despite decline in measures of perceptual speed, memory, and fluency (adapted from Singer, Verhaeghen, Ghisletta, Lindenberger, & Baltes, in press). Dashed lines indicate change estimated from two cross-sectional samples.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 149 Key References Ghisletta, Lindenberger, and Baltes openness to experience, and every- Ghisletta, P., & Linden- (in press), for example, reported day competency. berger, U. (in press-a). change trajectories for a longitudi- Using the six-year longitudinal data Age-based structural dynamics between perceptu- nal sample (N = 132) examined over (N = 132), Ghisletta and Linden- al speed and knowledge in six years. This longitudinal sample berger (in press-a) examined links the Berlin Aging Study: Direct evidence for ability represented a positive selection of between cognitive and sensorimotor dedifferentiation with age. the original cross-sectional BASE functioning in old age. Lindenberger Psychology and Aging. sample. Their performance level was and Baltes were responsible in earli- Singer, T., Lindenberger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (in generally higher (see Fig. 1). Over er publications for introducing the press). Plasticity of memo- time, considerable decline was ob- strong cross-sectional connection ry for new learning in very old age: A story of major served in markers of the fluid me- between sensorimotor functioning loss? Psychology and chanics (perceptual speed, memory, and cognition in old age as an area Aging. fluency) whereas the strongest of research in the field. Ghisletta Singer, T., Verhaeghen, P., marker of pragmatic intelligence and Lindenberger have now related Ghisletta, P., Linden- berger, U., & Baltes, P. B. (knowledge) remained relatively individual differences in change in (in press). The fate of cog- stable for all participants, except perceptual speed and knowledge to nition in very old age: Six- year longitudinal findings those over age 95. The rate of close and distant visual acuity over in the Berlin Aging Study change in intellectual efficacy over time. Whereas distant visual acuity (BASE). Psychology and Aging. time was similar for persons above remained relatively stable, close vi- Verhaeghen, P., Borchelt, or below the mean on life-history sual acuity declined, indicating the M., & Smith, J. (in press). variables, such as education, pres- importance of keeping these indica- The relation between cardiovascular and metabolic tige, social class, or income. tors separate in analyses. The initial disease and cognition in Lindenberger and Baltes (1997) re- level of perceptual speed was found very old age: Cross-sec- ported that individual differences in to be the strongest predictor of tional and longitudinal findings from the Berlin intellectual performance in very old change in all other dimensions. Aging Study. Health Psy- age were explained in part by bio- Knowledge displayed the highest chology. logical indicators, such as vision, degree of dynamic independence. hearing, and gait/balance. The ex- Although change within domains tent to which these findings reflect was not coupled (i.e., each cognitive shared influences of aging in differ- variable was not fundamental in ent systems is a question that was determining change in the other addressed in the doctoral research cognitive variable, and each vision of Florian Schmiedek. He proposed a variable was not fundamental in statistical modeling technique to determining change in the other examine both shared and specific vision variable), change across predictors of aging in different in- domains was found to be coupled. tellectual abilities. Using these mod- Changes in the cognitive variables els, he found similar amounts of affected changes in vision and vice age-related variance in the general versa. These longitudinal findings ability factor and the specific ability are consistent with the BASE cross- factors (i.e., memory, reasoning, per- sectional correlations between sen- ceptual speed, fluency, and knowl- sorimotor functioning and cognition edge). Furthermore, aging in these reported earlier by Baltes and specific ability factors showed Lindenberger (1997). meaningful relations to external cri- Health, in general, plays a role in terion variables, such as education, the maintenance of cognitive func-

150 Center for Lifespan Psychology tioning in old age. New analyses of little potential for the new learning Key References BASE data have related performance of a complex cognitive skill. Smith, J. (2001c). Well- to cardiovascular and metabolic dis- being and health from age 70 to 100: Findings from ease and various risk factors (e.g., Change and Stability in Self and the Berlin Aging Study. smoking). Verhaeghen, Borchelt, and Well-Being in Very Old Age European Review, 9, 461–477. Smith (in press) found that five di- Whereas we find robust declines in Kunzmann, U., Little, T. D., agnoses were negatively correlated cognitive functioning during old age, & Smith, J. (2002). Per- with cognition: congestive heart our findings in other areas of psy- ceiving control: A double- edged sword in old age. failure, stroke, coronary heart dis- chological functioning, such as the Journal of Gerontology: ease, myocardial infarction, and dia- motivational aspects of the self (e.g., Psychological Sciences, betes mellitus. The presence of one control beliefs, future-oriented 57B, P484–P491. Smith, J., Borchelt, M., or more of these diagnoses was goals) and overall subjective well- Maier, H., & Jopp, D. linked to lower performance in gen- being (e.g., life satisfaction, a sense (2002). Health and well- eral, but there was no differential of happiness and contentment), in- being in the young old and oldest old. Journal of So- cognitive decline over four years. dicate less decline in functionality cial Issues, 58, 715–732. This suggests that the impact of at least in the young old and a posi- Smith, J., & Freund, A. these diseases on cognitive decline tive selection of the oldest old (see M. (2002). The dynamics of possible selves in old in very old age may be smaller than Textbox). Self-related functioning age. Journals of Gerontol- in younger adults, not because of may be more resilient against de- ogy: Psychological Sci- decreased vulnerability, but because cline, especially during the Third ences, 57B, P492–P500. the disease process adds little to the Age, than is true for the cognitive cumulative changes in brain physiol- system. It is generally expected that ogy that have occurred over the regulatory processes operate to pro- course of a very long life. Selected tect or “immunize” the self against a cardiovascular risk factors (smoking, loss of efficacy and well-being, even alcohol consumption, HDL-choles- under conditions of poor health and terol levels) were associated with chronic impairment. For example, both starting level and decline in individuals adjust their aspiration cognition. levels and comparison targets in or- A central question in research on der to achieve and maintain a sense the aging mind concerns the potential range of plasticity of function- Characteristics of the Third and the Fourth Age (adapted from Baltes & ing, especially in the capacity to Smith, 2003) learn and apply new memory strate- The Third Age (young old) gies. Dissertation research by Tania – Increase in life expectancy: More older people live longer Singer (2000; Singer, Lindenberger, – Substantial latent potential for better fitness (physical, mental) in old age & Baltes, in press) on a subsample – Successive cohorts (generations) show gains in physical and mental fitness – Evidence of cognitive-emotional reserves of the aging mind of the oldest-old participating in – More and more people who age successfully BASE demonstrated that the quanti- – High levels of emotional and personal well-being (self-plasticity) ty and quality of cognitive plasticity – Effective strategies to master the gains and losses of late life show a sizeable loss in very old age The Fourth Age (oldest old) – Sizeable losses in cognitive potential and ability to learn as compared to younger age groups. – Increase in chronic stress syndrome Using a cognitive training paradigm – Sizeable prevalence of dementia (about 50% in 90-year-olds) and instruction in a memory tech- – High levels of frailty, dysfunctionality, and multimorbidity nique (the Method of Loci), partici- – Dying at older ages: With human dignity? pants aged 70 to 100+ years evinced The 21st Century: The Era of Chronic Incompleteness of Mind and Body?

Center for Lifespan Psychology 151 of control over their life. These psy- period and 27% added highly elabo- chological processes contribute to a rated possible self-images (i.e., ideas positive aura of well-being and to about the future self that were both seemingly paradoxical observations positive and negative). that, after a period of adjustment, Much research on self-regulation individuals report satisfaction even focuses on issues of personal (inter- in contexts of chronic stress. nal) control. Control beliefs influence One way in which we have exam- how people think, feel, and act. In ined the motivational system of the particular, believing that one’s own self in old age is by asking individu- efforts can influence an outcome als about their hopes and fears (i.e., a belief in internal or personal about the future self (possible control) increases the likelihood of selves; Smith & Freund, 2002). Pos- selecting goals to act upon, invest- sible selves are images of the self ing time and energy in the goals that function as incentives for selected, and experiencing subjec- action. We found that the possible tive well-being in association with selves of adults aged 70 to 103 the positive outcome of one’s years were highly personalized and efforts. varied. Contrary to suggestions that A scale assessing general beliefs late adulthood is a period of disen- about control over the good and bad gagement from future planning in things in life was included in BASE. favor of life review and a focus on Kunzmann, Little, and Smith (2002) the present, participants in BASE examined longitudinal changes in reported desires to achieve new as- personal and external other control pects of hoped-for selves, especially beliefs and their relation to emo- in relation to identity (personal tional well-being. Whereas beliefs characteristics), health, and rela- about personal (internal) control tionships with others (friends and over positive and negative aspects family). Furthermore, the profile of of life were stable over time, the possible selves was dynamic over belief that others play a significant time: For example, 72% of the par- role in determining the events in ticipants added new hopes about one’s life (external control) in- personal projects over a four-year creased. Stability in perceived per- Foto: K. Groß. sonal control over desirable outcomes was associated with high emotional well-being. Perceiving that other people have control over one’s personal affairs, in contrast, was shown to be associated with high negative affect and low positive affect. Although the aspects of possible selves and control beliefs appear to be maintained during old age, we have also found some evidence to suggest that the functioning of the

152 Center for Lifespan Psychology Extraversion Neuroticism 60 60 J None Minimal 55 J J 55 Moderate J J Severe J J J 50 J 50 J J T-Score T-Score J J J Hearing impairment J J 45 45 J None J Minimal J Moderate 40 40 J Severe 0123456 0123456 Time in study (years) Time in study (years)

Figure 2. On average, extraversion decreased over time whereas neuroticism remained stable (estimates from latent growth curve modeling; Lißmann, 2002). Severity of hearing impairment predicted average levels over time for both dimensions. In addition, hearing impairment predicted individual differences in the change in neuroticism (not depicted here): Some individuals with moderate to severe impairment increased in neuroticism (p < .001). self system is vulnerable over time, accounted for by physical illness and especially in the Fourth Age. To the functional impairment (e.g., vision, extent that an older individual be- hearing, mobility, strength). On aver- comes physically dependent on oth- age, reported satisfaction with ag- ers and experiences accumulated ing, life satisfaction and experience chronic health and life strains, their of positive emotions decreased after sense of well-being is compromised. age 80. In particular, we observe a reduction We have also found that reported in the potential to experience the personal well-being is associated positive side of life (Isaacowitz & with an increased mortality risk Smith, in press; Kunzmann, Little, & after statistical controls for age, Smith, 2000; Smith, 2001c; Smith, socio-demographic characteristics, Borchelt, Maier, & Jopp, 2002). Al- and health measures (e.g., Maier & though the majority of BASE partici- Smith, 1999). Every one standard pants were typically satisfied with deviation decrease in personal well- their present life conditions, those in being was associated with a 1.36 the Third Age (70 to 84 years) re- times higher relative risk of death. ported significantly higher positive The multimorbid life contexts of the well-being, and higher satisfaction oldest old highlight the salience of with life in general compared with issues of physical dependency and those in the Fourth Age (85 to the psychological “cost” of aging. 100+). Considerable individual-dif- Three doctoral research projects ference variance in well-being was have also pointed to the gradual

Center for Lifespan Psychology 153 Dissertations loss of well-being in late life. Ilka old age. Susanne Ehrhorn is investi- Jopp, D. (2003). Erfolg- Lißmann examined individual differ- gating the role that these losses reiches Altern: Zum funk- ences in change over six years in play in a sense of loneliness. She has tionalen Zusammenspiel von personalen Ressourcen two personality dimensions, extra- found that both social and emotion- und adaptiven Strategien version and neuroticism. Extraver- al loneliness increases on average des Lebensmanagements. Doctoral thesis, Free Uni- sion indicates personal outgoingness over eight years in the BASE longi- versity of Berlin (Super- and preferences for social contact tudinal sample. Daniela Jopp’s dis- visors: J. Smith & P. B. Baltes). Available online: and activity, whereas neuroticism sertation examined the interactive www.diss.fu-berlin.de/ indicates general anxiety, apprehen- role of resources and life-manage- 2003/50. sion, and inability to deal with ment strategies in the maintenance Lißmann, I. (2002, submitted). Intraindividuelle stress. Over time, the more positive- of well-being over time in the ALLEE Veränderungen von Extra- ly valued dimension of extraversion sample (a heterogeneous sample version und Neurotizismus declined on average whereas neu- aged 70 to 90 years). High levels of im hohen Alter: Die Bedeu- tung sensorischer Beein- roticism remained stable (see Fig. 2). resources and greater use of SOC- trächtigung. Doctoral Lower average levels of extraversion life-management strategies (e.g., thesis, Free University of Berlin (Supervisors: over time and higher levels of selection, optimization, compensa- J. Smith & P. B. Baltes). neuroticism were associated signifi- tion) predicted higher well-being. Schmiedek, F. (2003). The cantly with severity of vision and However, of great interest was her structure of cognitive abilities in old and very old hearing impairment. Individuals finding that individuals with re- age: On the importance of with severe hearing loss which con- duced resources who used SOC-life- specific group factors in a dedifferentiated factor strains communication with others management strategies (especially space. Doctoral thesis, showed increases in neuroticism elective selection and optimization) Free University of Berlin over time. were able to maintain a stable level (Supervisors: S.-C. Li & P. B. Baltes). Resources, such as cognitive fitness, of well-being over one year. good vision, hearing, physical mobil- Habilitation ity, and support from a well-func- Profiles of Psychological Smith, J. (1999, Decem- ber). Differential psycho- tioning social network, contribute Functioning in the Young Old logical aging: Towards greatly to a sense of well-being in and Oldest Old clarifying a longstanding concept. Habilitation old age. These resources, however, Psychologically speaking, the chronic thesis (Psychology), Free are likely to be reduced and in some life stressors associated with ad- University of Berlin. instances lost in later life. Losses of vanced old age represent a context close partners are inevitable during that appear to “test the limits” of

Living and Dying in the Fourth Age: Findings from BASE (adapted from Baltes & Smith, 2003) Behavioral Observations – Chronic life strains accumulate in the Fourth Age: 80% experience losses in 3–6 areas (multimorbidity): e.g., vision, hearing, strength, functional capacity (IADL-ADL), illness, cognition – Increased systemic breakdown in psychological adaptivity – Increased losses in the positive side of life (happiness, social contacts) – Profile of functioning 2 years prior to death is increasingly negative from age 85 to 100+: – Losses in cognitive functions – Losses in identity (greater loneliness and psychological dependence) Social Context – The oldest old are mostly female – Majority of women are widowed and live alone (if not institutionalized) – Majority are hospitalized at some time in the last years of life – Majority die alone in a hospital or institution

154 Center for Lifespan Psychology psychological resilience and adapta- the dissertation project of Denis tion and may contribute to systemic Gerstorf. He asks whether some breakdown and death (Baltes & overall psychological profiles are less Smith, 2003; see Textbox). This vulnerable to change over time than proposition is being examined in others, and whether cluster mem- BASE in several ways. On the one bership identified at baseline is sta- hand, we analyze age-related ble over time. This perspective at- changes in functional level in differ- tempts to capture the systemic ent domains and examine whether interdependencies across psycholog- different rates and correlates of ical domains. Gerontological and change characterize the young old lifespan theories have long recog- and the oldest old (Smith & Baltes, nized that there are many pathways 1997; see Fig. 3). In addition, we use to old age and that the processes of cluster analysis to identify subgroups aging are multifaceted. Our research with functional psychological pro- in BASE on the different trajectories files indicative of distress and sys- of change in psychological domains temic breakdown. These subgroups and subgroup profile differences ad- have subsequently been followed dresses questions about potential over time to observe changes in sources of different pathways of ag- functioning, adaptation, and survival. ing as well as the limits to achieving The longitudinal follow-up of the personal variations in aging (Habili- cluster subgroups is the focus of tation, Smith, 1999).

100 100 90 90

80 80 Women 70 90–100+ years 70 60 60 50 50

40 80–89 years Percent 40 30 30 Percent of age group Men 20 70–79 years 20 10 10 0 0 Good Average Poor Very poor Good Average Poor Very poor Level of functioning Level of functioning

Figure 3. Age and gender are risk factors for belonging to groups with poor and very poor functional status. Groups’ profiles were classified by a joint consideration of 23 physical, mental health, psychosocial, and social indicators (Baltes, 1997; Mayer & Baltes, 1996, 1999; Smith & Baltes, 1998).

Center for Lifespan Psychology 155 Scientific Research Project 3 Investigators Wisdom: The Integration of Mind and Virtue Paul B. Baltes Wisdom has been thought to be an ideal endpoint of human development. Ute Kunzmann The view of wisdom as something that is prized has been with us since antiquity: “Happy is the man who finds wisdom,” we read in the Proverbs Antje Stange of the Old Testament. Plato called wisdom “the highest of human things.” (predoctoral fellow) Historically, wisdom is the peak of human excellence, the perfect integration of knowledge and character.

During the last decade, members of life management (e.g., How can we our project have developed a psy- deal with severe problems such as chological conceptualization of wis- suicide, violence, or family conflict?), dom (for a review of this work see and life interpretation (e.g., How can Baltes & Staudinger, 2000). Consis- we make sense of our past, present, tent with historical and philosophi- and anticipated experiences?). cal conceptions and based on theo- Wisdom is not necessarily only a ries and methods developed in life- property of individuals. It can also span developmental and cognitive be found in written material, such psychology, we have defined wisdom as religious or legal texts. Our past as an “expert knowledge system in research, however, has focused on the fundamental pragmatics of life” wisdom-related knowledge as ex- (Baltes & Smith, 1990; Baltes & pressed in a person’s thoughts and Staudinger, 2000; Staudinger & judgments. To assess wisdom on the Baltes, 1996). The term “fundamen- individual level, we present partici- tal pragmatics of life“ refers to pants with short vignettes describ- knowledge about significant aspects ing difficult life problems of ficti- concerning the meaning and con- tious people and ask them to think duct of life, and includes knowledge aloud about these problems (see about life planning (e.g., What life Fig. 1). For example, a problem con- goals should we pursue and how?), cerning life management reads:

Figure 1. Wisdom interview in the MPI-Wisdom & Emotion Laboratory.

156 Center for Lifespan Psychology Factual knowledge Procedural knowledge responses to a Key References in the fundamental in the fundamental wisdom task are Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. pragmatics of life pragmatics of life depicted in Fig- (1990). The psychology of wisdom and its ontogene- ures 2 and 3. sis. In R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Wisdom Past research in Wisdom: Its nature, origins, Knowledge about as expert Knowledge about and development (pp. 87– the wisdom pro- 120). New York: the complexity of knowledge the relativity of life human life priorities and values ject (for review Cambridge University see Baltes & Press. Baltes, P. B., & Staudinger, Staudinger, U. M. (2000). Knowledge about 2000) was con- Wisdom: A metaheuristic life’s uncertainties (pragmatic) to orchestrate cerned primarily mind and virtue toward with testing the excellence. American Psy- Definition of wisdom: validity and reli- chologist, 55, 122–136. Excellent judgment and advice ability of our Baltes, P. B., Glück, J., & Kunzmann, U. (2002). Figure 2. Wisdom: Expert knowledge about fundamental problems of life psychological Wisdom: Its structure and meaning and life conduct. approach to the function in regulating successful lifespan develop- concept of wis- ment. In C. R. Snyder & “A 15-year-old girl wants to get dom, studying age-related changes, S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Hand- book of positive psycholo- married right away. What could and exploring the antecedents and gy (pp. 327–347). New one/she consider and do?“ A panel plasticity of wisdom-related knowl- York: Oxford University of trained raters evaluates our par- edge. In this context, we were able Press. Baltes, P. B., & Freund, A. ticipants’ responses for wisdom- to show that the activation of wis- M. (2003a). Human related knowledge as determined by dom-related knowledge is facilitated strengths as the orches- the following five criteria: rich fac- by social discourse and the use of tration of wisdom and selective optimization with tual and procedural knowledge “inner voices“ (Staudinger & Baltes, compensation. In L. G. about the fundamental pragmatics 1996). Much of our work on age- Aspinwall & U. M. Staudinger (Eds.), A psy- of life, lifespan contextualism, value related changes in wisdom was mo- chology of human relativism and tolerance, and aware- tivated by the idea that wisdom strengths: Perspectives on an emerging field (pp. 23– ness and management of uncertain- might be one of the few gains asso- 35). Washington, DC: ty. These criteria and two extreme ciated with aging and, thus, may American Psychological Association. Baltes, P. B., & Freund, A. Task: A 15-year-old girl wants to get married right away. M. (2003b). The intermarriage of wisdom and se- What could one/she consider and do? lective optimization with compensation (SOC): Two Low Wisdom Score meta-heuristics guiding the conduct of life. In C. L. A 15-year-old girl wants to get married? No, no way, marrying at age 15 would be utterly M. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.), wrong. One has to tell the girl that marriage is not possible. (After further probing) It would Flourishing: Positive psy- be irresponsible to support such an idea. No, this is just a crazy idea. chology and the life well- lived (pp. 249–273). Washington, DC: American High Wisdom Score Psychological Association. Well, on the surface, this seems like an easy problem. On average, marriage for 15-year-old girls is not a good thing. I guess many girls might think about it, however, when they fall in love for the first time. And, then, there are situations where the average case does not fit. Perhaps in this instance, special life circumstances are involved, such that the girl has a terminal illness. Or the girl has just lost her parents. And also, this girl may not be from this Figure 3. Illustration of two extreme responses to country. Perhaps she lives in another culture and historical period. wisdom tasks.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 157 Key References Wisdom-related knowledge Wisdom-related knowledge High Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. B. (1996). Inter- active minds: A facilitative setting for wisdom-related performance? Journal of Personality and Social Psy- chology, 71, 746–762. Staudinger, U. M., Lopez, D., & Baltes, P. B. (1997). The psychometric location of wisdom-related performance: Intelligence, personality, and more? Low Personality and Social Psy- 13 18 23 28 33 38 9080706050403020 100 chology Bulletin, 23, Age in years Age in years 1200–1214. Pasupathi, M., Staudinger, Figure 4. Cross-sectional age gradients and scatter plots for wisdom-related performance. The left panel U. M., & Baltes, P. B. show data from Pasupathi, Staudinger, and Baltes (2001) including outcomes of a spline analysis. The (2001). Seeds of wisdom: right panel summarizes results from several studies with adult samples (see also Baltes & Staudinger, Adolescents' knowledge 2000). and judgment about difficult life problems. Devel- opmental Psychology, 37, show improvement over the entire supportive conditions and processes 351–361. lifespan. What have we found? As related to an individual’s personality, Kunzmann, U., & Baltes, P. B. (2003). Beyond the seen in Figure 4, wisdom-related cognitive capacities, environment, traditional scope of intelli- knowledge seems to increase during and life history (e.g., Baltes & gence: Wisdom in action. In R. J. Sternberg, J. Lautry, adolescence and young adulthood Staudinger, 2000). & T. I. Lubart (Eds.), Mod- (Pasupathi, Staudinger, & Baltes, In our present work, we are interest- els of intelligence: Interna- 2001) and then remains stable, at ed in broadening our definition of tional perspectives (pp. 329–343). Washing- least up to age 75. At first sight, the wisdom as expert knowledge about ton, DC: American Psycho- stability of wisdom across most of life meaning and conduct to also in- logical Association. adulthood is at odds with the idea clude interpersonal, motivational, Kunzmann, U., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). Wisdom- that wisdom is a positive aspect of and emotional competencies. Relat- related knowledge: Affec- aging. However, given that basic ed to this research focus is our work tive, motivational, and interpersonal correlates. cognitive functions lose efficiency on the consequences of wisdom- Personality and Social Psy- relatively early in the lifespan, for related knowledge for a person’s chology Bulletin. most people the maintenance of behavior in a given situation, such wisdom-related knowledge might as advising others or being involved be the best possible outcome that in a social conflict. Does wisdom- adulthood and old age can bring related knowledge make a difference about. That many adults do not ex- in people‘s social behavior, emotional perience an increase in wisdom- life, or the values that they pursue? related knowledge during the second To begin to address this question, half of life is also consistent with we investigated the relations be- our theoretical model of the ontoge- tween wisdom-related knowledge nesis of wisdom. In this model, wis- and multiple indicators of affective, dom-related knowledge is not strict- motivational, and interpersonal ly tied to the aging process; rather, functioning in a correlational field we have argued that the acquisition study (Kunzmann & Baltes, in press). and optimization of wisdom-related In this study, people with relatively knowledge requires a wide range of high levels of wisdom-related

158 Center for Lifespan Psychology Figure 5. This figure de- Wisdom-related knowledge: picts findings from a study Not compatible with a pleasurable and self-centered life? with adults on wisdom- related knowledge and its relations to dimensions of Pleasant affect affect, motivation, and interpersonal behavior. Affective involvement –.17 Negative affect –.13 Central to our theoretical +.28 conceptualization is the finding that wisdom- Pleasurable life +.20 Well-being of friends related knowledge was –.42 negatively related to values revolving around a +.17 pleasurable life and pleas- Personal growth Wisdom-related Societal engagement urable feelings. Wisdom +.20 knowledge may involve a complex +.17 and modulated affective Insight into life Environmental protection life or what has been +.23 called constructive melan- –.27 choly. Our findings are consistent with the idea Submission –.26 –.20 +.16 Dominance that wisdom involves a commitment to develop Avoidance Cooperation one’s own and others’ potential simultaneously (Kunzmann & Baltes, in press). knowledge reported (a) a value ori- cognitive and social competencies in entation that focused conjointly on laypersons’ theories of wise people. other-enhancing values and person- In past studies, wise persons have al growth combined with a lesser been described as possessing cogni- tendency toward values revolving tive (knowledgeable, reflective, around a pleasurable life, (b) higher thoughtful, farseeing) and social affective involvement, but lower lev- (e.g., empathic, kind, friendly, com- els of pleasant affect, and (c) a pref- passionate) abilities. Stimulated by erence for cooperative conflict man- this work, in her dissertation project agement strategies combined with a Antje Stange is investigating the lower tendency to adopt submissive, degree to which certain social be- avoidant, or dominant strategies haviors (i.e., listening behavior) and (see Fig. 5). Together, these findings wisdom-related knowledge about are consistent with the theoretical life meaning and conduct make a idea that wisdom involves affective concrete person appear to be wise complexity and modulation rather and to be sought out as an adviser. than a predominance of self-cen- Specifically, she presents partici- tered pleasure and happiness. Our pants with silent film clips involving findings suggest that, from a moti- two parts. In the first part, an advis- vational perspective, wisdom in- er listens to a young woman who volves a commitment to develop talks about a serious personal prob- one’s own and others’ potential lem. During the second part, the ad- simultaneously. viser’s written response to the young In related work, we are currently in- woman is presented. The film clips vestigating the relative salience of vary in the advisers’ nonverbal lis-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 159 tening behavior (attentive/positive ings more often and with greater in- vs. distracted/negative), age (young tensity, given their awareness of the vs. old), and quality of verbal advice complexities of life? (reflecting high vs. low levels of wis- To investigate these and similar dom-related knowledge). After they questions, we have begun to study have watched a clip, participants are the links between wisdom-related asked to make several judgments knowledge and a wide range of pos- concerning the adviser, including itive and negative emotions (e.g., whether they thought the adviser interest, happiness, sadness, anxiety) was a wise person. This study will as they are experienced in concrete allow us to explore the relative im- situations or over longer periods of portance of social behaviors (i.e., time and manifested in self-reported listening behavior), wisdom-related feelings, facial expressions, and knowledge (as reflected in the ad- activity of the autonomous nervous vice given), and age in people’s system. judgments of others as being more In an ongoing laboratory study, for or less wise. instance, adults with high versus In another line of research, we in- low levels of wisdom-related knowl- vestigate the interplay of wisdom as edge, as determined by our standard knowledge about life meaning and procedure, watch short films that conduct and emotion. Wisdom and were developed in our laboratory to emotion have been linked through- elicit strong positive (happiness) and out history, but it remains unclear negative (sadness) emotions. Partici- just how they are connected to one pants’ emotional reactions, that is, another. For example, do people their subjective feelings, behavioral with higher levels of wisdom-related expressions, and activity of the knowledge experience fewer nega- autonomous nervous system are tive emotions and more positive assessed online during each film clip emotions than people with lower (see Fig. 6). In addition, we evaluate levels of such knowledge? Do wiser our participants’ cognitive reactions persons experience fewer and milder by having them say out loud every- forms of any feeling, be they posi- thing that crosses their minds after tive or negative? Or could it be that they have watched a clip. This study people higher on wisdom-related will allow us to test whether wis- knowledge experience negative feel- dom-related knowledge makes a dif-

Figure 6. Young and older adults watching film clips about positive or negative life events in the MPI- Wisdom & Emotion Labo- ratory.

160 Center for Lifespan Psychology ference in adults’ emotional and the integration of mind and virtue cognitive reactions to emotionally as the optimum of human function- highly negative or positive events. ing (Baltes, Glück, & Kunzmann, We will also be in a position to ex- 2002; Kunzmann & Baltes, 2003). plore whether people with high lev- This work also permits us to spell els of wisdom-related knowledge out the relationship between the will have cognitive strategies avail- theories of wisdom and the theory able that render serious and uncer- of selective optimization with com- tain life problems less disturbing, for pensation (SOC). In this context, we instance, by placing a particular argue that, whereas wisdom defines problem into a larger context. the general range of acceptable In the long run, our goal is to move means and goals, SOC offers the toward a more comprehensive con- pragmatic techniques necessary to ceptualization of wisdom that high- reach whatever goals are delineated lights its special strength, namely, (Baltes & Freund, 2003a, 2003b).

Center for Lifespan Psychology 161 Scientific Research Project 4 Investigators Personal Goals in Lifespan Development: One Research Application of the SOC-Model Alexandra M. Freund How do people manage their lives successfully? Is it better to wait and see Paul B. Baltes what life has to offer, not wanting too much, appreciating what is there without aiming to accomplish something? Or is it better to set clear goals Michaela Riediger and pursue them persistently even in the face of setbacks and losses? (postdoctoral Although the first suggestion might appear to some people as the more fellow) attractive kind of life-style, the research conducted in this project suggests that setting and pursuing goals contributes to positive well-being across Natalie C. Ebner adulthood. (predoctoral fellow) More specifically, the purpose of this (1) a self-report method, (2) a project is the investigation of cogni- proverb method, and (3) process-ori- tive-motivational processes regulat- ented approaches. ing human development across the lifespan. We adopted the meta- (1) Self-Report Measure of SOC model of selection, optimization, One methodological line of inquiry and compensation (SOC) as a theo- focuses on what people report about retical framework. In the SOC-meta- their SOC-related behaviors. For this model, successful development, de- purpose, and together with the FU fined as simultaneous maximization Berlin research group of the late of gains and minimization of losses Margret Baltes, we constructed a over time, results from an interplay questionnaire (Baltes, Baltes, Freund, of three processes: selection, opti- & Lang, 1999). In this questionnaire, mization, and compensation (Baltes study participants are asked to indi- & Baltes, 1990; Freund & Baltes, cate whether they engage in behav- 2000). iors that we categorize as selection, The project focuses on the action- optimization, and compensation or theoretical study of SOC-related in alternative, that is, non-SOC- processes in the structure and func- related behaviors. Such alternatives tion of personal goals. In this line are, for instance, keeping one’s op- of inquiry, we assume that people tions open rather than committing actively shape their development oneself to a set of goals (selection), through (1) the selection of personal being content with results of first goals, (2) the optimization of func- trials rather than trying to maximize tioning in selected goal domains, one’s performance (optimization) or and (3) the compensation of losses waiting for solutions and betterment in goal relevant means. of a loss situation rather than en- We have investigated the role of gaging in compensatory behaviors. personal goals for life management Table 1 lists sample items for each in several studies. For purposes of of the processes. illustration and the use of varying The psychometric properties of this methodology, we highlight three questionnaire are highly satisfactory. different kinds of approaches: One finding consistent with our

162 Center for Lifespan Psychology Table 1 Key References Sample items for elective selection, loss-based selection, optimization, and Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological compensation (Baltes, Baltes, Freund, & Lang, 1999). Items in right column perspectives on successful indicate alternative (non-SOC) behaviors that serve as distractors aging: The model of selective optimization with compensation. In P. B. 1a. Elective Selection Baltes & M. M. Baltes I always focus on the most important goal I am always working on several goals at once. (Eds.), Successful aging: at a given time. Perspectives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 1– I have set my goals clearly and stick to I often adapt my goals to small changes. 34). New York: Cambridge them. University Press. Baltes, P. B., Baltes, M. 1b. Loss-Based Selection M., Freund, A. M., & When I can't carry on as I used to, I direct When I can't carry on as I used to, I direct my Lang, F. R. (1999). The my attention to my most important goal. attention, like usual, to all my goals. measurement of selection, optimization, and compen- When something becomes increasingly When something becomes increasingly difficult sation (SOC) by self report: Technical Report 1999. difficult for me, I consider which goals I for me, I accept it. Berlin: Max-Planck-Insti- could achieve under the circumstances. tut für Bildungsforschung, (Materialien aus der Bil- 2. Optimization dungsforschung). I make every effort to achieve a given I prefer to wait for a while and see if things Baltes, P. B., & Freund, A. goal. will work out by themselves. M. (2003a). Human strengths as the orches- When I want to get ahead, I take a When I want to get ahead, only I myself know tration of wisdom and se- successful person as a model. the best way to do it. lective optimization with compensation. In L. G. 3. Compensation Aspinwall & U. M. When things don't go as well as they used When things don't go as well as they used to, Staudinger (Eds.), A psy- to, I keep trying other ways until I can I accept it. chology of human strengths: Perspectives on achieve the same result I used to. an emerging field (pp. 23– 35). Washington, DC: When something in my life isn't working When something in my life isn't working as American Psychological as well as it used to, I ask others for help well as it used to, I decide what to do about it Association. or advice. myself, without involving other people. Baltes, P. B., & Freund, A. M. (2003b). The intermarriage of wisdom and selective optimization with lifespan framework is that it is dur- need to investigate more directly compensation (SOC): Two ing midlife that individuals express the role of resources for the acquisi- meta-heuristics guiding the strongest preference for SOC- tion and implementation of goal- the conduct of life. In C. L. M. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.), related behaviors (see Fig. 1). Older related life-management strategies. Flourishing: Positive psy- adults report less engagement in A second pattern of findings demon- chology and the life well- lived (pp. 249–273). goal pursuit (i.e., optimizing and strates the substantial predictive Washington, DC: American compensatory behaviors). We inter- validity of SOC involving a variety of Psychological Association. pret this lower level of self-reported subjective indicators of successful optimization and compensation as development. Examples for such being due to an age-associated limi- subjective indicators of successful tation of resources that constrains development are positive emotions, the implementation of goal-pursuit life-satisfaction, and feelings of strategies. Engaging in strategies of having a purpose in life. Table 2 goal pursuit is itself effortful and re- summarizes some of the findings. quires more resources than might be Note that these results are based on available in old age. Future studies samples varying in age and on dif-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 163 Figure 1. Life-management Middle-aged adults report more SOC-related behavior than younger and older adults. strategies of SOC: Cross- There is one exception: Elective selection increases throughout adulthood sectional age differences in adulthood (N = 181) (adapted from Freund & 54 Compen- Optimi- Loss-based Elective Baltes, 2000). sation zation selection selection 53 52 51 50 49 SOC (T-Scores) 48 47 46 Age x SOC-component: F (6,352) = 6.01, p = .000, Eta2 = .06 45 Young Middle Older (18–43 years) (43–67 years) (67–89 years)

ferent outcome criteria (Freund & a rather different methodology, Baltes, 1998, 2002b; Wiese, Freund, namely, the use of proverbs. We & Baltes, 2000). People who report argued that if personal goals are higher levels of selection, optimiza- important for development, there tion, and compensation also report should also be some implicit folk higher levels of subjective well- knowledge about this fact. Proverbs being (e.g., frequency of experienc- can be considered as condensed ing positive emotions, having a pur- forms of folk knowledge reflecting pose in life, life-satisfaction). Being cultural knowledge about funda- committed to personal goals, pursu- mental aspects of life. Often, ing these goals, and investing into proverbs are expected to give advice their maintenance in the face of about how to manage one’s life. Are losses appears to contribute to posi- there proverbs reflecting the impor- tive subjective well-being across tance of selecting, pursuing, and adulthood. The importance of selec- maintaining personal goals for life- tion in young adulthood was also management? highlighted by the finding that Using comprehensive collections of young adults who set clear priorities German proverbs as sources, we instead of pursuing work- and fami- were able to identify a substantial ly/partnership-related goals at the number of proverbs reflecting the same time report more goal progress importance of personal goals in at the present and three years later. terms of selection, optimization, and compensation. This can be seen as (2) Proverb Method evidence of cultural knowledge To check on method artifacts and about the role of personal goals for provide multi-method evidence, we managing one’s life (see Tab. 3 for explored evidence about goals and examples of S-, O-, and C-related SOC-related behaviors gathered with proverbs). In a series of studies we

164 Center for Lifespan Psychology Table 2 Key References Overview: SOC (self-report) predicts successful development (outcomes) Freund, A. M. & Baltes P. B. (2000). The orchestration of selection, opti- Outcome SOC-prediction (correlation) mization, and compensation: An action-theoretical Berlin Aging Study (72–102 years; N = 200) (Freund & Baltes, 1998) conceptualization of a theory of developmental Satisfaction with age .33** regulation. In W. J. Perrig Positive emotions .47** & A. Grob (Eds.), Control of Emotional loneliness –.31** human behaviour, mental processes, and conscious- Adulthood and Well-Being (14–89 years; N = 395) (Freund & Baltes, 2000a) ness (pp. 35–58). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Positive emotions .32** Freund, A. M., & Environmental mastery .35** Riediger, M. (2001). What Personal growth .37** I have and what I do: The Purpose in life .44** role of resource loss and gain throughout life. Work and Family in Young Adulthood (25–36 years; N = 206) Applied Psychology, 50, (Wiese, Freund, & Baltes, 2000) 370–380. Lerner, R. M., Freund, A. Overall well-being .49** M., De Stefanis, I., & Emotional balance .37** Habermas, T. (2001). Un- Self-esteem .21** derstanding developmental regulation in adolescence: ** p < .01. The use of the selection, optimization, and compensation model. Human showed that individuals also make other characteristics, such as famil- Development, 44, 29–50. use of these proverbs (Freund & iarity. Young and old adults judged Wiese, B. S., & Freund, A. Baltes, 2002a). We presented indi- proverbs reflecting selection, opti- M. (2001). Zum Einfluss persönlicher Prioritäten- viduals with life problems and asked mization, and compensation to be setzungen auf Maße der them to identify proverbs that more adaptive in the life-problem Stimuluspräferenz. Zeit- schrift für Experimentelle would match these situations. The situations presented than alternative Psychologie, 48, 57–73. proverbs they could select were proverbs (see Fig. 2). In a different Freund, A. M., & Baltes, either SOC-related or not. The con- life-context, however, in which the P. B. (2002a). The adaptiveness of selection, opti- trasted proverbs did not differ in focus is on relaxation, such as dur- mization, and compensation as strategies of life management: Evidence from a preference study Table 3 on proverbs. Journals of Gerontology: Psychological English examples of proverbs reflecting selection, optimization, compensation, Sciences, 57B, P426–P434. or alternative strategies of life-management Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2002b). Life-man- Strategy Proverb agement strategies of selection, optimization, and Selection Jack of all trades, master of none. compensation: Measure- Those who follow every path never reach any destination. ment by self-report and construct validity. Journal Optimization Practice makes perfect. of Personality and Social Psychology, 82, 642–662. Make hay while the sun is shining.

Compensation Those without a horse walk. When there‘s no wind, grab the oars.

Alternatives Everything comes to he who waits. Time heals all wounds.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 165 Key References ing a vacation, study participants personal goals. For instance, we (cont’d) preferred the alternative proverbs have studied how important setting Wiese, B. S., Freund, A. over those that reflected SOC-relat- priorities in managing the multiple M., & Baltes, P. B. (2002). Subjective career success ed strategies (see Fig. 3). Thus, folk demands of work and family life in and emotional well-being: knowledge about the role of person- young adulthood is for general- and Longitudinal predictive power of selection, opti- al goals is not only reflected in domain-specific well-being (Wiese & mization and compensa- proverbs, but also used by individu- Freund, 2001). tion. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 60, 321–335. als when judging how to manage Even if people are selective, how- Freund, A. M., & one’s life in terms of proverbs in a ever, most do hold multiple goals at Riediger, M. (2003). Suc- context-specific way. the same time. Whether or not such cessful aging. In R. M. Lerner, A. Easterbrooks, & multiple goals can be pursued suc- J. Mistry (Eds.), Compre- (3) Process-Oriented Studies cessfully is, among other character- hensive handbook of psy- A third line of inquiry aims at a istics, dependent on their interrela- chology: Vol. 6. Develop- mental psychology closer measurement of behavioral tions. Results of a diary study sug- (pp. 601–628). Hoboken, indicators of selection of goals. In gest that goals that facilitate each NJ: Wiley. this set of studies, we investigate other are more likely to be pursued Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). Entwick- the mechanisms and functions of in everyday life. Goal conflict, on the lungsaufgaben als Organi- setting, pursuing, and maintaining other hand, is primarily associated sationsstrukturen von Ent- wicklung und Entwick- lungsoptimierung. In S.-H. Filipp & U. M. Staudinger Preference scores (Eds.), Enzyklopädie der Psychologie. Göttingen: Hogrefe. Selection Optimization Compensation 0.9

0.8

0.7

0.6 No 0.5 differential preference 0.4

0.3

0.2

0.1

0.0 Young adults Older adults (n = 99, 19–32 years) (n = 96, 59–85 years) Figure 2. Young and older adults choose SOC-related proverbs more often as adaptive in dealing with life problems than alternative (non-SOC), but equally familiar and meaningful proverbs.

166 Center for Lifespan Psychology with the experience of positive and Preference scores Dissertation negative emotions. Interestingly, Riediger, M. (2001). On older adults reported less conflicting Selection the dynamic relations 0.9 among multiple goals: In- and more facilitative goal interrela- Optimization tergoal conflict and inter- tions than younger adults (Riediger, 0.8 goal facilitation in younger Compensation and older adulthood. Doc- 2001). This result could be interpret- 0.7 toral thesis, Free Universi- ed as reflecting that older adults ty of Berlin. Available online: http://www.diss.fu- have more freedom to select their 0.6 berlin.de/2001/266. personal goals compared to younger No differential preference adults who face more social con- 0.5 Habilitation Freund, A. M. (2002). Die straints. In addition, due to their life 0.4 Rolle von Zielen für die experience older adults may have Entwicklung. Habilitation developed more adaptive life- 0.3 thesis, Free University of Berlin. management skills, including the 0.2 selection of goals that facilitate and do not conflict with each other 0.1 (Riediger, Freund, & Baltes, 2002). In a set of studies on persistence, 0.0 we investigated age-differential Figure 3. Adults flexibly adjust to the specific life- effects of framing goals either in context when asked about the best life-manage- terms of optimization (i.e., achieving ment strategies. When the life-context is related to relexation and “going with the flow,“ adults maximum gains) or compensation more frequently choose proverbs that do not re- (i.e., counteracting a loss in goal- flect SOC-related behaviors such as goal orienta- relevant means). In these studies, we tion (e.g., “Everything comes to he who waits“). found that younger adults are more motivated and persistent when trying to achieve higher levels of tation. This age-related difference performance than when trying to seems to be at least partly driven by counteract a loss. Conversely, older the awareness of resource limita- adults show higher persistence when tions. engaged in compensation for a loss Taken together, the studies of this than when aiming at maximum per- project highlight the importance of formance. A second set of studies personal goals for individual devel- using self-report and behavioral opment across the lifespan. Using measures explores whether an age- different approaches to study how associated preference for goals personal goals impact on develop- geared at growth or at maintenance mental outcomes (well-being, goal- also holds for the selection of per- related performance), we consistent- sonally relevant goals in younger ly find that selection of goals, opti- and older adults (Natalie Ebner’s mization of goal attainment, and dissertation project). The results of compensation of losses in goal do- these studies suggest that younger mains help to understand how indi- adults orient their goals more to- viduals actively shape the direction ward growth and gains, whereas the and level of their development. goal focus of older adults reflects a preference for a maintenance orien-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 167 Scientific Research Project 5 Investigators Toward a Psychological and Developmental Theory of Sehnsucht (Life-Longing) Paul B. Baltes Alexandra M. Sehnsucht (life-longing) is a very powerful and complex experience. Who Freund has not longed for a loved one who is not here? Or for professional success? Or for a special friendship, a wonderful experience of nature? Or for feelings Susanne E. Scheibe of the ease of childhood that are lost for the adult? Most adults are quite (predoctoral fellow) familiar with the bittersweet feeling, the aching of the heart, the vague feeling that something is missing in one’s life. At the same time, positive emotions and thoughts can result if one is able to transform the experience of Sehnsucht into a positive view of one’s past, present, and future. Aston- ishingly, Sehnsucht has been largely neglected in psychology (but see Boesch, 1998). In this new project, we attempt to advance an empirically and experimentally grounded developmental-psychological theory of Sehn- sucht (life-longing).

Definition: Sehnsucht is an enduring mental ful for coping with losses. In con- representation and expression of desirable, idealized, and alternative life situations and life trajectories. trast, the Sehnsucht of a younger person might be adaptive primarily Six core aspects in outlining possible developmental pathways. One central emphasis of Personal this new project is the investigation utopia of life of age differences in the content, Feeling Ambiva- structure, and function of Sehnsucht of lent emotions, incompleteness reflective and across adulthood. and imperfection evaluative processes In general, we define Sehnsucht as Self- Ontogenetic enduring cognitive representations regulation tri-time and expressions of desirable, ideal- function focus ized, and alternative life situations Symbolic and trajectories. In our preliminary nature definition of Sehnsucht, we distinguish six key aspects (see Fig. 1). Figure 1. A developmental conceptualization of (1) Sehnsucht evolves out of a sense Sehnsucht. of imperfection and incompleteness. It deals, however, with personal Sehnsucht (there is no fully equiva- utopias of life. lent English translation; the closest (2) Sehnsucht is accompanied ini- term is life-longing) is a complex tially by strong and bittersweet phenomenon, comprising of emo- emotions, and reflective and evalua- tional, cognitive, and motivational tive processes. These can be trans- aspects. We view Sehnsucht as a de- formed, however, into a positive developmental construct that evolves velopment-enhancing view. and changes over time. For instance, (3) Sehnsucht refers to the personal we propose that the Sehnsucht of past, present, and future (ontoge- an older person might be more help- netic tri-time-phenomenon).

168 Center for Lifespan Psychology (4) Sehnsucht carries diverse mean- report a stronger focus on the past ings and symbolically rich ideas of than do younger adults, whose one’s personal life trajectory. Sehnsüchte are related to the past, (5) Sehnsucht arises from the ne- the present, and the future equally cessity of restricting one’s life op- strongly. As to the emotions associ- tions (of having to select more spe- ated with Sehnsucht, older adults’ cific developmental goals) and from positive and negative emotions were the irreversibility of the lifetime. largely unrelated, whereas there was (6) Sehnsucht can have an adaptive a strong negative correlation of pos- function for development and self- itive and negative emotions in regulation. In its mature form, Sehn- younger adults. We interpret this sucht helps to cope with the in- finding as indicating a more com- evitable losses and unrealized plex emotional structure in older as utopias people encounter in life. In compared to younger adults. this sense, Sehnsucht can also moti- Younger adults experience either vate the formulation of goals and positive or negative emotions asso- life-planning and help to generate ciated with their Sehnsucht. For meaning at two levels: behavioral older adults, however, Sehnsucht and imaginary. appears to have a more bittersweet To empirically address this complex emotional quality. This indicates that phenomenon, we will use a multi- the function of Sehnsucht might not method approach, comprising of ex- lie primarily in evoking positive perimental, experiential, and self- emotions. Rather, as our psychologi- report measures. In the context of cal conception of Sehnsucht sug- Susanne Scheibe’s dissertation, we gests, Sehnsucht might help to inte- are currently developing a self- grate positive and negative aspects report instrument for assessing the of life and the conduct and interpre- content, structure, and function of tation of life in different forms of Sehnsucht. A pilot study has re- realization (e.g., behavioral vs. imag- vealed interesting age-related dif- inary). Such questions will be ad- ferences in some aspects of Sehn- dressed in future studies of this new sucht. For instance, older people project.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 169 Scientific Research Project 6 Investigators The Interplay of Sensorimotor and Cognitive Functioning Ralf T. Krampe Let us begin with two backgrounds, one from everyday observations, the Paul B. Baltes other from past research. Everyday observations suggest that older individuals invest much attention into the control of their motor behavior. For in- Lixia Yang stance, when hiking in the mountains and facing an obstacle, such as a rock (postdoctoral in the path, they stop talking and resume their conversations after the ob- fellow until stacle has been navigated. Younger people seem to show a lesser effect of November 2002) this kind. This is an example of the role of declining cognitive resources and of the greater need of cognitive resources for motor behavior with advanc- Albina Bondar ing age. Michael Rapp (until June 2002) There is a long tradition of research adapt to these multiple demands Sabine Schäfer with dual-task paradigms—research and their changes across situational (predoctoral models investigating simultaneous contexts? Do individuals from differ- fellows) performance of two (or more) tasks. ent age groups differ in their effi- These dual-performance conditions ciency in coping with related per- are compared with the separate formance constraints? Is under- execution of each of the two task standing development in children or performances, that is, a single-task aging changes in adults enhanced performance. Numerous experimen- by considering the question of si- tal studies have demonstrated that multaneous versus sequential multi- people find it hard to attend to tasking? Children learn how to do more than one task at a time or to such multi-tasks, whereas older integrate sensory input from more adults face the challenge of contin- than one source. It has also been uing to be effective multi-task shown that dual-task costs, that is, problem solvers despite decline in the reduction in performance levels various functional domains. when two rather than one task is In this project we investigate the executed, are often greater in old efficiency of basic information persons than in younger ones. Older processes and the allocation of cog- adults lose more in performance nitive resources in a lifespan devel- when required to do two things at opmental context. Related phenom- once. ena are referred to as aspects of At the same time, everyday life, for cognitive mechanics in the litera- the most part, consists of settings in ture. Examples of basic information which multiple sensory inputs are processes are the perception of visu- relevant to behavior or in which al and auditory stimuli, their memo- concurrent tasks must be coordinat- rization, and their later retrieval ed: Examples are walking while try- from memory. In addition, this cate- ing to memorize a shopping list or gory includes sensory information- maintaining one’s balance on a bus processing serving motor functions while trying to read an advertise- like walking, maintaining an upright ment on the other side of the road. posture (balance), or the temporal How is it possible for individuals to coordination of movements. Our ba-

170 Center for Lifespan Psychology sic assumption is that all of these ble strategy is to prioritize (select) Key References processes tax an individual’s pool of one task over another or to carefully Li, K. Z. H., Lindenberger, limited cognitive resources. In a way, schedule the processing of con- U., Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). Walk- they require “intelligence.“ current tasks. The focus of our inves- ing while memorizing: This project existed in an earlier tigations is on the age-related Age-related differences in compensatory behavior. form with Ulman Lindenberger, developmental changes in resource Psychological Science, 12, Michael Marsiske, and Karen Li allocation in multiple-task settings 230–237. as investigators (e.g., K. Z. H. Li, (such as walking and thinking) that Krampe, R. T. (2002). Ag- ing, expertise, and fine Lindenberger, Freund, & Baltes, have a high degree of everyday motor movement. Neuro- 2001; Lindenberger, Marsiske, & validity. Vast literature exists on the science and Biobehavioral Baltes, 2000) and is based on sever- simultaneous performance of multi- Reviews, 26, 769–776. Krampe, R. T., Rapp, M., al conceptual foundations within ple movements or the perceptual Bondar, A., & Baltes, P. B. the research framework of the Cen- integration from different input (2003). Selektion, Opti- ter for Lifespan Psychology. First, it channels. Thus, we are mainly inter- mierung und Kompensa- tion in Doppelaufgaben. addresses the question of changing ested in the interplay of sensorimotor Nervenarzt, 3, 204–210. resource allocations across the life- functions and cognition in settings Krampe, R. T., & Baltes, span and the use of selection, opti- that matter in everyday life. P. B. (in press). Intelli- gence as adaptive resource mization, and compensation to mas- Individuals from different age groups development and resource ter the changing demands and con- differ in the amount of cognitive allocation: A new look through the lenses of SOC texts of lifespan development. resources that they have available and expertise. In R. J. Second, it illustrates how intelli- for a given task. The relation be- Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), Perspec- gence—or cognitive resources in the tween age and available processing tives on the psychology of broader sense—is constituted and resources takes a U-shape function. abilities, competencies, applied to varying domains as life In young children the processing and expertise. New York: Cambridge University unfolds. Intelligence is not only a resources are still developing and Press. subject matter of logical reasoning growing. Older adulthood is charac- or academic-cultural knowledge, it terized by decrements in available is also involved in such matters as cognitive resources. Many cognitive the coordination of bodily move- tasks have been demonstrated to ments. Third, the project is an out- exert higher resource demands on growth of the Berlin Aging Study older than on young adults. In the (BASE) finding that intelligence and light of reduced capacity and in- sensorimotor functioning are increased task demands, the necessity creasingly highly correlated as peo- to optimize the allocation of avail- ple reach old age. We attempt to able processing resources must be understand this systemic connection even higher in older than in young and see it “in action.“ adults. Optimal resource allocation When more than one task or sensory as a means to adapt overall per- input channel is relevant to the formance is a critical marker of suc- concurrent behavior, the cognitive cessful aging as described by the system must allocate the resources SOC-theory (Baltes & Baltes, 1990; available at any given time. In line Freund, Li, & Baltes, 1999). One with the theory of Selection, Opti- central question in our project is mization, and Compensation (SOC) whether individuals from different (but also other theoretical accounts age groups differ only in terms of such as executive control), one possi- their available resources or whether

Center for Lifespan Psychology 171 the efficiency of resource allocation, found that speed and accuracy of as such, is subject to developmental walking were reduced when partici- changes (Fig. 1). pants had to simultaneously walk Completed and ongoing work on and memorize, particularly in older this topic includes the study of adults. K. Z. H. Li, Lindenberger, walking and the investigation of Freund, and Baltes (2001) then sys- postural stability. To this end, we tematically combined sensorimotor developed a new laboratory in 2000 tasks of varying difficulties with a with two balance machines that cognitively demanding memorization permit dynamic posturography and a task and offered compensatory ex- parcours that allows the assessment ternal aids (a handrail to optimize of walking accuracy. In both experi- walking and a button-box that de- mental settings, participants per- layed the presentation of auditory form the sensorimotor task (walking stimuli). Whereas young adults opti- or balancing) either solely or in mized their memorization perform- combination with cognitive tasks. ances, older adults focused on the Two earlier studies from our lab optimization of their walking by demonstrated that older adults more frequently using the handrail. invest considerable cognitive In our interpretation, older adults resources to compensate for the selected walking efficiency over decreased efficiencies of their sen- memory efficiency when their cog- sorimotor functions. Specifically, nitive resources were challenged. Lindenberger, Marsiske, and Baltes Two recently completed studies in (2000) had participants from three this project added a third sensori- age groups walk different tracks motor component, namely balance, while memorizing word lists. They by using dynamic posturography.

Figure 1. SOC: Overview of the central questions Are there age differences in resource allocation? examined in the Dual- Task Thinking & Walking Do young and older adults differ in overall resources available? Project. Are there age differences in the symmetry of attentional allocation between two concurrent tasks?

Walking Walking

Thinking Thinking

Young adults Older adults (20–30 years) (60–70 years) Note. The young group shows equal emphasis between memorizing and walking tasks. In contrast, older adults have lower overall resources to devote to each task (smaller circle), and allocate more to walking than to memorizing (selection).

172 Center for Lifespan Psychology Participants stand on a platform differential ecological relevance of that can tilt at different angular ve- tasks for young and older adults and locities (Fig. 2). The platform con- its effects on resource allocation: tains sensors that measure partici- Walking or maintaining balance is pants’ stability (i.e., the distribution more critical for older than for of their weights) at any given point young adults. Consequentially, older in time. Bondar, Krampe, and Baltes adults prioritize sensorimotor over (in prep.) had young and older cognitive functioning, especially adults perform choice reaction time when tested at their limits. tasks while maintaining upright The findings by Bondar, Krampe, and stance despite unpredictable pertur- Baltes imply that the observed prior- bations during trials. Older adults itization in older adults reflects were found to have larger dual-task overlearned response tendencies re- costs than younger adults. At the sulting from long-term everyday same time, they showed increased experiences. This assumption was neglect of the cognitive task when further supported in another study the experimentally induced pertur- using the balance-cognition dual- bations were increased. In specific task paradigm. Rapp, Krampe, and experimental conditions, partici- Baltes (in prep.) studied young and pants were asked to emphasize per- older adults along with a group formance in either the cognitive that is assumed to have deficits in task, the balance task, or to place attentional control or resource allo- equal emphasis on both conditions. Older and young adults revealed similar flexibilities in resource allocation in the cognitive task. During trials with stronger perturbations, however, only young, but not older adults were capable of a flexible allocation of resources to stance maintenance. Again, these results can be interpreted in the context of the SOC- model, both as differences in overall resources and as older adults’ specific selection of attentional emphasis on walking or maintaining a stable posture over simultaneous cognitive tasks. In older age, sensorimotor functions require more and more cognitive resources. Be- cause of their allocation to the sensorimotor domain, these cognitive resources are then no longer Figure 2. The new laboratory, which has been developed to examine dual-task performance includes apparatus to test dynamic posturography. In one of our studies available for competing mental ac- we assess balance performance while the participant simultaneously memorizes tivities. Our results highlight the digits presented on a computer monitor.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 173 Young Older Alzheimer cation: Alzheimer patients. Older adults adults patients adults showed a reliable reduction Stable 0 in sensorimotor dual-task costs when conditions of stable and mov- 200 ing platforms were compared, again suggesting that they protected their balance at the cost of cognitive 400 performance. Alzheimer patients’ dual-task costs were significantly increased relative to healthy age- 600 matched individuals. However, the Alzheimer group showed the same 800 prioritization when limits were challenged: When the platform was moving, Alzheimer patients invested 1000 most of their cognitive resources into the sensorimotor task, thereby Sway area maintaining almost the same stabili- Instable 1200 ty as under single-task conditions Figure 3a. Stability on a moving platform during (Fig. 3a, 3b). A subsequent inclusion a single-task performance. Sway (measured as the area of Center of Pressure Movement) increases of another group of non-demented with age and dementia. This implies that older older adults that was more similar adults and most notably Alzheimer patients must to the Alzheimer patients with re- already invest more of their cognitive resources into bodily stability under single-task conditions. spect to their cognitive status (fluid intelligence) revealed that the exag- gerated Alzheimer pattern was spe-

Level of cognitive Estimated Level of balance functioning maintained cognitive stability maintained under dual-task conditions capacity under dual-task conditions

57% Alzheimers 91% Figure 3b. Resource investment into cognitive and in % of Young bodily functions under dual-task conditions. Com- pared to young adults, older adults and most notably Alzheimer patients exhibit smaller levels of cognitive functioning when their balance is chal- 87% Older 77% lenged through the moving platform. Under these in % of Young circumstances Alzheimer patients invest most of their cognitive resources into balance, thereby maintaining their stability. Groups differ in baseline balance performance (Fig. 3a) and also in the estimated cognitive resources. The sizes of center circles reflect the assumed group differences in 99% 85% Young cognitive capacity (shown for Alzheimer patients and older adults in percent of cognitive resources available to young participants). Individual baseline Individual baseline performance under performance under single-task single-task conditions = 100% conditions = 100%

174 Center for Lifespan Psychology cific to dementia. These findings higher costs in walking than young Dissertations demonstrate how Alzheimer patients adults did and they also demonstrat- Bondar, A. (2003). Balance “know how to survive“ in situations ed considerable costs in the cogni- and cognition: Resource allocation and its control where memory and motor behavior tive task. These findings illustrate in young and older adults. are required at the same time. that the age-differential “protection“ Doctoral thesis, Free Uni- versity of Berlin. Available How about the other end of the of gait and balance is not a result of online: www.diss.fu- lifespan, childhood? In an ongoing the amount of available cognitive berlin.de/2003/48. project we (Krampe, Schäfer, & resources alone. Rather, ecological Rapp, M. (2003). Dual- task performance in mem- Baltes, in prep.) investigate resource considerations are important: The ory and balance: The role allocation in children (9 or 11 years consequences of withdrawing atten- of aging and Alzheimer’s disease. Doctoral thesis, old). To this end we use the walking tion from gait or balance are far Free University of Berlin. parcours in combination with a more serious for older adults than for semantic fluency task (Fig. 4). In line young adults or children. Future with our earlier results, we found projects will study older adults who that young adults maintain their have presumably optimized their level of performance in the cognitive sensorimotor functioning through task and “accept“ reductions in walk- long-term practice in balance- ing speed. Children, however, showed related forms of expertise.

Figure 4. Dual-task experiment with walking parcours. Participants (9- or 11-year-old children, young and older adults) walk along a narrow parcours at their maximum speed while simultaneously performing a cognitive task, for instance, memorization of a list of words presented over headphones or generating exemplars for semantic categories like animals (recorded from wireless microphone transmissions).

Center for Lifespan Psychology 175 Scientific Research Project 7 Investigators Dynamics of Intraindividual Variability and Interindividual Differences in Development Shu-Chen Li Jacqui Smith ”Nothing is permanent except change.” For developmental researchers, the Paul B. Baltes statement of the Greek philosopher, Heraclitus, is not a rhetoric, but a veridical expression of the nature of human behavior and its development. Florian Schmiedek Variations within and between individuals are fundamental to all living or- (postdoctoral ganisms. When asked to describe a person (e.g., a friend, a family member, fellow) or even oneself), in general we can characterize the person in terms of how this person usually thinks, behaves, and feels, as well as how this person Oliver Huxhold differs from others. However, besides these ”usual,” ”characteristic” patterns Christina Röcke in thoughts, acts, or emotions, we also know that the person does not al- (predoctoral ways think, behave, or feel exactly the same way; rather, the person ”varies fellows) from the usual” under some circumstances. Put differently, whereas, on the one hand, people show stable characteristics, on the other hand, people also change as they develop throughout life and deviate from their own characteristics from time-to-time as internal and external life conditions vary.

This new research project com- person variations in these functions menced in 2002 in close collabora- and systems could serve as indica- tion with two external scientists: tors of their developmental status Ulman Lindenberger and John and of resource allocation across Nesselroade. Taking the joint con- different domains of functioning. cern of developmental psychology Let us consider a few concrete with describing, explaining, and examples. When children acquire modifying intraindividual change arithmetic skills, they tend to go and interindividual differences in through periods when they try out such change (Baltes, Lindenberger, different problem-solving strategies & Staudinger, 1998) as a starting as they get closer to acquiring the point, we focus on investigating new concepts (Siegler, 1994). In old within-person variations. Within- people, within-person variations in person variations (i.e., intraindivid- walking speed tend to increase with ual variability) are intrinsic to all age and indicate a lack of process- aspects of human functioning, ing robustness that is not only ranging from neurobiological, sen- related to poor sensorimotor sory, perceptual, cognitive, and performance, but also to poor mem- emotional to social processes. ory performance (S.-C. Li, Aggen, Specifically, we examine intraindi- Nesselroade, & Baltes, 2001). Week- vidual variability in intellectual abil- to-week fluctuations in the percep- ities, postural control, and emotion- tion of control over one’s life condi- al and physical well-being as a tions indicate the resilience of psy- means to describe individual and chological and physical systems and age-related differences in the psy- predict mortality in old age (Eizen- chological and physical systems as man, Nesselroade, Featherman, & well as their interactions. Within- Rowe, 1997).

176 Center for Lifespan Psychology Although issues of average levels of Specifically, we define intraindivid- Key References functioning and how individuals dif- ual variability as variations and Baltes, P. B., Lindenberger, fer from each other have been the transformations in an individual’s U., & Staudinger, U. M. (1998). Life-span theory in focus of different research orienta- processes or performances over dif- developmental psychology. tions, very little is known about in- ferent time scales that are produced In W. Damon (Series Ed.) & M. Lerner (Vol. Ed.), Hand- traindividual variability in different by endogenous factors (e.g., neuro- book of child psychology: domains of psychological function- biological and cognitive processes) Vol. 1. Theoretical models of human development ing because traditionally most and their interactions with environ- (5th ed., pp. 1029–1143). researchers have viewed within- mental and experiential influences. New York: Wiley. person variations as ”noise” or ”er- Baltes, P. B., & Singer, T. (2001). Plasticity and the rors” in the measurement. Motivated Types of Intraindividual Variability aging mind: An exemplar by lifespan conceptions (Baltes, Lin- Fiske (1955) once distinguished be- of the biocultural orches- denberger, & Staudinger, 1998), bio- tween different types of intraindi- tration of brain and behavior. European Review, 9, cultural coconstructivism (Baltes & vidual variability, some adaptive and 59–76. Singer, 2001; S.-C. Li, 2003), and re- some nonadaptive, that unfold with Li, S.-C., Aggen, S. H., search on psychological profiles of different degrees of reversibility on Nesselroade, J., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). Short-term aging (Baltes & Smith, 2002; Smith different time scales and involve fluctuations in elderly & Baltes, 2000), four related notions single or multiple functions (e.g., people’s sensorimotor functioning predict text are central to the research on life- S.-C. Li, Huxhold, & Schmiedek, in and spatial memory per- span dynamics of intraindividual press). It is important to differenti- formance: The MacArthur Successful Aging Studies. variability: ate between short-term relatively Gerontology, 47, 100–116. • Humans are self-constructing liv- reversible variations in functioning Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U., ing systems, biologically endowed and progressive long-term relatively Sikström, S. (2001). Aging to develop by both adapting to as permanent developmental changes cognition: From neuromodulation to representa- well as influencing external condi- (Nesselroade, 1991). Apart from in- tion. Trends in Cognitive tions of life. traindividual changes occurring Sciences, 5, 479–486. • Human behaviors are results of across months, years, or decades Li, S.-C., & Dinse, H. R. (Eds.). (2002). Aging of the dynamic exchanges between (e.g., physical growth and cognitive brain, sensorimotor, and processes that are internal (e.g., development), there are other types cognitive processes. Neu- roscience and Biobehav- neurobiological, cognitive, emo- of progressive, but relatively more ioral Reviews, 26, Special tional) and external (e.g., social, reversible intraindividual variability Issue. cultural, environmental) to an in- that unfold on the time scales of Li, S.-C. (2003). Biocultur- al orchestration of devel- dividual. short testing trials, training sessions, opmental plasticity across • As individuals develop, situated in or weeks. Ford (1987) termed these levels: The interplay of bi- and confronted with different life the ”being” type of intraindividual ology and culture in shaping the mind and behavior conditions, the patterns and com- variability in functioning, and pri- across the lifespan. Psy- plexities of dynamic resource allo- marily emphasized cyclic variations chological Bulletin, 129, 171–194. cations between different psycho- within limits that were character- Li, S.-C., Huxhold, O., & logical processes and systems ized as the steady metabolic Schmiedek, F. (in press). transform throughout life. rhythms of the individual. Besides Aging and attenuated processing robustness: Evi- • Changes and variations in both in- such cyclic variations, there could dence from cognitive and ternal and external processes un- also be random processing fluctua- sensorimotor functioning. fold on different time scales, from tion—or lack of processing robust- Gerontology. moment-to-moment experiences, ness (e.g., S.-C. Li, Aggen, Nessel- day-to-day activities, to lifespan roade, & Baltes, 2001)—around ontogeny. maximum functioning, as well as

Center for Lifespan Psychology 177 Key References functional plasticity, diversity, and rather, it also applies to transforma- (cont’d) adaptability. Functional plasticity tions in the functional organization Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U., refers to the training benefit indi- of related functions. Hommel, B., Aschersleben, G., Prinz, W., & Baltes, P. viduals gain from relatively short- B. (in press). Lifespan term, but intensive training on a First-Stage Research Foci transformations in the couplings between intel- given task. Most cognitive training Among the various types of intrain- lectual abilities and con- research has found that, even in old dividual variability, the first-stage stituent cognitive processes. Psychological Science. age, individuals are still able to focus of this new project is on dif- benefit from intensive training (e.g., ferent aspects of short-term, rela- Baltes & Kliegl, 1992; Kliegl, Smith, tively reversible variations in func- & Baltes, 1989). Functional diversity tioning and their roles as pointers for signifies digressions of functioning examining transformations in the in- during the initial acquisition of teractions between different psycho- complex new tasks that could be as- logical systems and processes across sociated with exploratory behavior the lifespan. Currently, our research and strategies (e.g., Siegler, 1994). questions address lifespan dynamics Functional adaptability indicates an in intraindividual variability at two individual’s ability to alter function- levels: the interaction between cog- ing when faced with perturbations nitive and sensorimotor system and in the human-task environment— the interaction between objective either due to sudden fluctuations in performance and subjective well- processing (e.g., attention slips) or being. more demanding tasks—in order to regain maximum functioning. More- Intraindividual Variability in over, the concept of intraindividual Cognitive and Sensorimotor variability is not limited to varia- Functioning tions in a given specific function; One aspect of short-term relatively reversible intraindividual variations 70 that we have examined is processing fluctuation or lack of processing ro- 60 bustness. Besides the speed and accuracy of performance, the extent of intraindividual processing robustness 50 reflects another important aspect of information processing and shows T-Score 40 Processing robustness how robust or resilient the processes and systems are. Recently we inves- 30 tigated intraindividual fluctuations of processing speed in a lifespan 0 sample covering the age range from 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 6 to 89 years (S.-C. Li, Lindenberger, Age Hommel, Aschersleben, Prinz, & Figure 1. Lifespan age gradients of processing robustness. The extent of within- Baltes, in press). Our results show person fluctuations indicates the robustness of elementary information-processing that during child development and mechanisms supporting intellectual function. The evidence shows that processing robustness increases during childhood, but decreases during aging (adapted from aging, individuals exhibit less robust S.-C. Li, Lindenberger, Hommel, Aschersleben, Prinz, & Baltes, in press). processing (see Fig. 1). Moreover, in

178 Center for Lifespan Psychology old age the extent of an individual’s ty in the cognitive and postural con- processing robustness predicts how trol systems and their interactions. well basic mental operations can be performed. Besides attenuated pro- Intraindividual Variability in cessing robustness in cognitive Performance and Subjective functioning, we also investigated Well-Being short-term fluctuations in elderly Although there are stable individual people’s sensorimotor performance differences in average levels of sub- by taking biweekly measures of their jective well-being, various compo- walking and turning performance for nents of well-being, such as mood, seven months. Across the age range vitality, physical energy, and subjec- from 64 to 86 years, we found that tive health vary day-to-day. Our in- increased biweekly intraindividual terest focuses on the dialectical re- fluctuation in sensorimotor perform- lationships between these factors ance, indicating less robust sensori- and performance on cognitive and motor functioning, was related to sensorimotor tasks. Doctoral re- increasing age and a lower level of search by Christina Röcke will ex- sensorimotor functioning. Moreover, amine the extent to which day-to- there was a cross-domain associa- day fluctuations in emotional and tion: Independent of their mean per- physical well-being are associated formances, the individuals who with performance variability in lacked processing robustness in sen- young, middle-aged, and older sorimotor functioning also showed adults. Previous studies of intraindi- poorer text and spatial memory vidual variability of mood, especially (S.-C. Li, Aggen, Nesselroade, & in college students, suggest that Baltes, 2001). emotional regulation is dynamic and Taken together, our initial results are complex, and that individuals can be consistent with other recent find- characterized by their patterns of ings suggesting that decreased pro- fluctuation. Whereas issues of phys- cessing robustness in old age may ical and emotional well-being have reflect attenuated brain integrity been central to aging research due to aging (e.g., Hultsch et al., (Smith, 2001c; Kunzmann, Little, & 2000; S.-C. Li et al., 2001; Rabbitt et Smith, 2000), few studies have al., 2001). Together, these findings linked variability in well-being to lend support to the processing noise performance and few have com- hypothesis of cognitive aging, be it pared the patterns across age conceptualized at either the infor- groups. Is a sense of well-being mation-processing or the neurobio- closely associated with performance logical level, or both (see S.-C. Li, in all age groups? In addition to a Lindenberger, & Sikström, 2001, for focus on well-being, we will also review). Building on these findings, examine the relationships between we currently plan to more closely performance variability and daily investigate, in the context of Oliver fluctuations in such factors as sleep Huxhold’s dissertation research and and task motivation. other parallel projects, the influence of aging on intraindividual variabili-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 179 International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences Together with Neil Smelser, Director emeritus of the Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences, Stanford, USA, Paul B. Baltes is the coeditor-in-chief of the new International Encyclopedia of the Behavioral and Social Sciences. It was published by Elsevier Science in November 2001 and Scientific comprises 3,842 alphabetically organized entries in 26 volumes. Julia Delius Investigators served as Scientific Editorial Assistant. The online version of the Encyclope- dia (made available in Fall 2002) enables electronic browsing, searching, Paul B. Baltes and linking. Julia Delius Work on this project began in 1997 The authors came from more than Key Reference and was completed in Fall 2001. 50 countries. About 79% were men, Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. Working closely with the two edi- 21% women. Regarding continents, B. (Eds.-in-Chief). (2001). International encyclopedia tors-in-chief, 52 section editors about 57% were affiliated with in- of the social and behav- were responsible for a wide range of stitutions in North America (more ioral sciences. Oxford: Elsevier Science. areas (from evolutionary sciences to than 2,000 were located in the the behavioral and social sciences to USA), 35% were located in Europe www.iesbs.com philosophy, see Table). All entries (more than 400 in Germany and the underwent an extensive review UK respectively, and over 100 in process involving two stages: a first France and the Netherlands), and review by the responsible section 8% in other regions of the world editor and then a review by the edi- (e.g., more than 50 in Japan, 40 in tors-in-chief who were assisted by a Israel, and 25 in India). team of expert readers.

180 Center for Lifespan Psychology Sections, Section Editors, and Number of Articles

Overarching Topics Disciplines Intersecting Fields Applications

1.1 Institutions and 30 3.1 Anthropology 178 1.5 Integrative Concepts 34 5.1 Organizational and 78 Infrastructure U. Hannerz, Sweden and Issues Management Studies D. L. Featherman, USA 3.2 Archaeology 44 R. Scott & R. M. Lerner, A. Martinelli, Italy 1.2 History of the Social 80 M. Conkey & P. Kirch, USA 5.2 Media and 84 & Behavioral Sciences USA 4.1 Evolutionary Sciences 48 Commercial Appli- P. Wagner, Italy 3.3 Demography 122 W. Durham & cations 1.3 Ethics of Research 39 J. Hoem, Sweden M. W. Feldman, USA M. Schudson, USA and Applications 3.4 Economics 70 4.2 Genetics, Behavior, 37 5.3 Urban Studies and 49 R. McC. Adams, USA, & O. Ashenfelter, USA and Society Planning J. Mittelstraß, Germany M. W. Feldman, USA, & E. Birch, USA 3.5 Education 127 1.4 Biographies 147 R. Wehner, Switzerland 5.4 Public Policy 46 F. E. Weinert, K. U. Mayer, Germany Germany 4.3 Behavioral and 190 K. Prewitt & 2.1 Statistics 134 Cognitive I. Katznelson, USA 3.6 Geography 120 Neuroscience S. Fienberg & S. Hanson, USA 5.5 Modern Cultural 45 J. B. Kadane, USA R. F. Thompson & Concerns (Essays) 3.7 History 150 J. L. McClelland, USA R. A. Shweder, USA 2.2 Mathematics and 120 J. Kocka, Germany Computer Sciences 4.4 Psychiatry 73 A. A. J. Marley, Canada 3.8 Law 149 M. Sabshin, USA, & M. Galanter & F. Holsboer, Germany 2.3 Logic of Inquiry and 80 L. Edelman, USA Research Design 4.5 Health 140 T. Cook & C. Ragin, USA 3.9 Linguistics 99 R. Schwarzer, B. Comrie, Germany Germany, & J. House, USA 3.10 Philosophy 94 P. Pettit, Australia, & 4.6 Gender Studies 78 A. Honneth, Germany P. England, USA 3.11 Political Science 174 4.7 Religious Studies 53 N. W. Polsby, USA D. Martin, UK 3.12 Clinical and Applied 139 4.8 Expressive Forms 30 Psychology W. Griswold, USA G. T. Wilson, USA 4.9 Environmental/ 74 3.13 Cognitive Psychology 161 Ecological Sciences & Cognitive Science B. L. Turner II, USA W. Kintsch, USA 4.10 Science and 66 3.14 Developmental, 173 Technology Studies Social, Personality, S. Jasanoff, USA & Motivational 4.11 Area and 90 Psychology International N. Eisenberg, USA Studies 3.15 Sociology 197 M. Byrne McDonnell & R. Boudon, France C. Calhoun, USA

Note. Encyclopedia is arranged alphabetically by titles of articles.

Center for Lifespan Psychology 181 Publications 2001–2002

Antonucci, T. C., Lansford, J. E., – (2001b). Boesch at 85 on Baltes, P. B., & Smith, J. Delius, J. D., & Delius, J. A. Akiyama, H., Smith, J., Baltes, cultural psychology: Foreword. (2003). New frontiers in the fu- (2002). Biopsychologie des M. M., Takahashi, K., et al. Culture and Psychology, 7, ture of aging: From successful Lernens. In T. Elbert & N. (2002). Differences between 477–478. aging of the young old to the Birbaumer (Eds.), Enzyklopädie men and women in social rela- – (2001c). Das Zeitalter des dilemmas of the fourth age. der Psychologie: CI, Vol. 6. tions, resource deficits, and permanent unfertigen Men- Gerontology, 49, 123–135. Biologische Grundlagen der depressive symptomatology schen. Lebenslanges Lernen – (2001a). Developmental psy- Psychologie (pp. 445–518). during later life in four nations. nonstop? Aus Politik und Zeit- chology. In G. L. Maddox (Ed.), Göttingen: Hogrefe. Journal of Social Issues, 58, geschichte, 51, 24–32. The encyclopedia of aging (3rd 767–783. – (2001d). Der unfertige ed., pp. 289–291). New York: Engbert, R., Krampe, R. T., Mensch. Impact, 1, 1–4. Springer. Kurths, J., & Kliegl, R. (2002). Antonucci, T. C., Lansford, J. E., – (2001e). Recent trends and – (2001b). Learned helpless- Synchronizing movements with Schaberg, L., Smith, J., Baltes opportunities in the social ness. In G. L. Maddox (Ed.), The the metronome: Nonlinear M. M., Akiyama, H., et al. sciences and humanities. In encyclopedia of aging (3rd ed., error correction and unstable (2001). Widowhood and illness: Q. Schiermeier & J. Ockenden pp. 585–586). New York: periodic orbits. Brain and Cog- A comparison of social network (Eds.), Perspectives of science in Springer. nition, 48, 107–116. characteristics in France, Ger- Central and Eastern Europe: many, Japan, and the United Emerging directions from the Baltes, P. B., Staudinger, U. M., Eye, A. von, Schuster, C., & States. Psychology and Aging, past ten years (pp. 143–157). & Lindenberger, U. (2002). Kreppner, K. (2001). Sampling 16, 655–665. Amsterdam: IOS Press. Lifespan psychology: Theory schemes and the selection of and application to intellectual log-linear models for longitudi- Baltes, P. B. (in press). Meet Baltes, P. B., & Freund, A. M. functioning. In D. L. Infeld (Ed.), nal data. Journal of Adolescent the researcher: Paul B. Baltes. (2003a). Human strengths as Disciplinary approaches to ag- Research, 16, 221–234. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Adoles- the orchestration of wisdom ing: Vol. 2. Psychology of aging cence: Development, diversity, and selective optimization with (pp. 31–67). New York: Freund, A. M. (2002a). Selec- context, and application. compensation. In L. G. Routledge. tion, optimization, and com- Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Aspinwall & U. M. Staudinger pensation. In D. J. Ekerdt, Hall. (Eds.), A psychology of human Bluck, S., & Glück, J. (in press). R. A. Applebaum, K. C. Holden, – (2003). On the incomplete strengths: Perspectives on an Making things better and S. G. Post, K. Rockwood, architecture of human ontoge- emerging field (pp. 23–35). learning a lesson: “Wisdom of R. Schulz, R. L. Sprott, & P. ny: Selection, optimization, and Washington, DC: American Psy- experience“ narratives across Uhlenberg (Eds.), Encyclopedia compensation as foundation of chological Association. the lifespan. Journal of Person- of aging (Vol. 4, pp. 1257– developmental theory. In – (2003b). The intermarriage of ality. 1260). New York: Macmillan. U. M. Staudinger & U. Linden- wisdom and selective optimiza- – (2002b). Selektion, Optimie- berger (Eds.), Understanding tion with compensation: Two Bluck, S., & Habermas, T. rung und Kompensation. In human development: Dialogues meta-heuristics guiding the (2001a). Extending the study of R. Schwarzer, M. Jerusalem, & with lifespan psychology conduct of life. In C. L. M. autobiographical memory: H. Weber (Eds.), Gesundheits- (pp. 17–43). Boston, MA: Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.), Flour- Thinking back about life across psychologie von A bis Z. Ein Kluwer. ishing: Positive psychology and the lifespan. Review of General Handwörterbuch (pp. 524– – (2002a, March 27). Altern hat the life well-lived (pp. 249– Psychology, 5, 135–147. 527). Göttingen: Hogrefe. Zukunft. Unsere Gesellschaft 273). Washington, DC: Ameri- – (2001b). The life story – (2001). Developmental psy- kommt in die Jahre, frönt aber can Psychological Association. schema. Motivation and Emo- chology of life management. dem Jugendkult—und verpasst tion, 24, 121–147. In N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes eine Chance. Die Zeit, p. 13. Baltes, P. B., Glück, J., & (Eds.-in-Chief), International – (2002b). Das Jahrhundert des Kunzmann, U. (2002). Wisdom: Bluck, S., & Li, K. Z. H. (2001). encyclopedia of the social and Alters. In Biomolecular aspects Its structure and function in Predicting memory complete- behavioral sciences (Vol. 13, of aging: The social and ethical regulating successful lifespan ness and accuracy: Emotion pp. 8827–8832). Oxford: implications (pp. 17–19). development. In C. R. Snyder and exposure in repeated auto- Elsevier Science. München: Max-Planck-Gesell- & S. J. Lopez (Eds.), Handbook biographical recall. Applied schaft (Max-Planck-Forum, 4). of positive psychology Cognitive Psychology, 15, Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. – (2002c). On the incomplete (pp. 327–347). Oxford: Oxford 145–158. (in press). Entwicklungsauf- architecture of human onto- University Press. gaben als Organisationsstruk- geny [in Greek]. Psychology: Böhmig-Krumhaar, S. A., turen von Entwicklung und Journal of the Hellenic Psycho- Baltes, P. B., & Kunzmann, U. Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. Entwicklungsoptimierung. In logical Society, 9, 252–279. (2003). Wisdom. The Psycholo- B. (2002). Mehr Toleranz tut S.-H. Filipp & U. M. Staudinger – (2001a). Alter und Altern gist, 16, 131–132. Not: Lässt sich wert-relati- (Eds.), Enzyklopädie der Psy- als unvollendete Architektur vierendes Wissen und Urteilen chologie: CV, Vol. 6. Entwick- der Humanontogenese. Baltes, P. B., & Singer, T. mit Hilfe einer wissensaktivie- lungspsychologie des mittleren In M. Friedenthal-Haase, (2001). Plasticity and the age- renden Gedächtnisstrategie und höheren Erwachsenen- G. Meinhold, K. Schneider, & ing mind: An exemplar of the verbessern? Zeitschrift für Ent- alters. Göttingen: Hogrefe. U. Zwiener (Eds.), Alt werden— bio-cultural orchestration of wicklungspsychologie und Päd- – (2002a). The adaptiveness of alt sein (pp. 327–357). Frank- brain and behaviour. European agogische Psychologie, 34, selection, optimization, and furt a.M.: Lang. Review, 9, 59–76. 30–43. compensation as strategies of

182 Center for Lifespan Psychology life management: Evidence der Lebensspanne. Allgemeine N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes Krampe, R. T., & Baltes, P. B. from a preference study on Prinzipien und aktuelle (Eds.-in-Chief), International (in press). Intelligence as adap- proverbs. Journals of Gerontol- Theorien. In W. Schneider & encyclopedia of the social and tive resource development and ogy: Psychological Sciences, F. Wilkening (Eds.), behavioral sciences (Vol. 4, resource allocation: A new look 57B, P426–P434. Enzyklopädie der Psychologie: pp. 2719–2724). Oxford: through the lenses of SOC and – (2002b). Life-management CV, Vol. 1. Theorie, Modelle und Elsevier Science. expertise. In R. J. Sternberg & strategies of selection, opti- Methoden der Entwicklungs- E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.), Perspec- mization, and compensation: psychologie. Göttingen: Heckhausen, J., & Singer, T. tives on the psychology of Measurement by self-report Hogrefe. (2001). Plasticity in human be- abilities, competencies, and and construct validity. Journal – (2001). Kognitives Training im havior across the lifespan. In expertise. New York: Cambridge of Personality and Social Psy- Alter. Potential und Grenzen N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes University Press. chology, 82, 642–662. der Plastizität. In K. J. Klauer (Eds.-in-Chief), International (Ed.), Handbuch kognitives encyclopedia of the social and Krampe, R. T., & Bondar, A. Freund, A. M., & Riediger, M. Training (pp. 431–466). behavioral sciences (Vol. 17, (2002). Das Zusammenspiel (2003). Successful aging. In Göttingen: Hogrefe. pp. 11497–11501). Oxford: kognitiver und sensomoto- R. M. Lerner, M. A. Easterbrooks Elsevier Science. rischer Funktionen. Selektion, & J. Mistry (Eds.), Handbook Glück, J., & Indurkhya, A. Optimierung und Kompensation of psychology: Developmental (2001). Assessing changes in Heckhausen, J., & Tomasik, M. bei der Allokation kognitiver psychology (pp. 601–628). the longitudinal salience of (2002). Get an apprenticeship Ressourcen als intelligentes Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. items within constructs. before school is out: How Ger- Verhalten. In Jahrbuch der – (2001). What I have and what Journal of Adolescent Research, man adolescents adjust voca- Max-Planck-Gesellschaft I do: The role of resource loss 16, 169–188. tional aspirations when getting (pp. 715–721). Göttingen: and gain throughout life. Ap- close to a developmental dead- Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. plied Psychology, 50, 370–380. Glück, J., Machat, R., Jirasko, line. Journal of Vocational Be- M., & Rollett, B. (2001). Train- havior, 60, 199–219. Krampe, R. T., & Engbert, R. (in Freund, A. M., & Staudinger, ing-related changes in solution press). Produktion und Synchro- U. M. (2001). Lifespan psychol- strategy in a spatial test: An Heckhausen, J., Wrosch, C., & nisation von Rhythmen. In T. H. ogy: Illustrations from adult- application of item response Fleeson, W. (2001). Develop- Stoffer & R. Oerter (Eds.), Enzy- hood and old age. In G. M. models. Learning and Individual mental regulation before and klopädie der Psychologie: DVII, Gelder, J. J. López-Ibor, & Differences, 13, 1–22. after a developmental deadline: Vol. 1. Allgemeine Musikpsy- N. Andreasen (Eds.), New The sample case of “biological chologie. Göttingen: Hogrefe. Oxford textbook of psychiatry Gutzmann, H., Kühl, K.-P., clock“ for child-bearing. (Vol. 1, pp. 267–271). Oxford: Hadler, D., & Rapp, M. A. Psychology and Aging, 16, Krampe, R. T., Engbert, R., & Oxford University Press. (2002). Safety and efficacy of 400–413. Kliegl, R. (2002a). The effects Idebenone versus Tacrine in of expertise and age on rhythm Ghisletta, P., & Lindenberger, patients with Alzheimer’s dis- Isaacowitz, D. M., & Smith, J. production: Adaptations to U. (in press-a). Age-based ease: Results of randomized, (in press). Positive and negative timing and sequencing con- structural dynamics between double-blind, parallel-group affect in very old age. Journals straints. Brain and Cognition, perceptual speed and knowl- multicenter study. Pharmaco- of Gerontology: Psychological 48, 179–194. edge in the Berlin Aging Study: psychiatry, 35, 12–18. Sciences. – (2002b). Representational Direct evidence for ability models and nonlinear dynam- dedifferentiation with age. Habermas, T. (2001). Objects: Kliegl, R., Krampe, R. T., & ics: Irreconcilable approaches Psychology and Aging. Material. In N. J. Smelser & Mayr, U. (2003). Formal models to human movement timing – (in press-b). Static and dy- P. B. Baltes (Eds.-in-Chief), In- of age differences in task- and coordination or two sides namic longitudinal structural ternational encyclopedia of the complexity effects. In U. M. of the same coin? Introduction. analyses of cognitive changes social and behavioral sciences Staudinger & U. Lindenberger Brain and Cognition, 48, 1–6. in old age. Gerontology. (Vol. 16, pp. 10797–10801). (Eds.), Understanding human – (2001). Age-specific problems Oxford: Elsevier Science. development: Dialogues with in rhythmic timing. Psychology Glück, J. (2001). Die Entwick- lifespan psychology (pp. 289– and Aging, 16, 12–46. lung des Landkartenverständ- Heckhausen, J. (2003). The 313). Boston, MA: Kluwer. nisses bei Kindern. Forschungs- future of lifespan developmen- Krampe, R. T., Rapp, M. A., stand, methodische Über- tal psychology: Perspectives Kliegl, R., Philipp, D., Luckner, Bondar, A., & Baltes, P. B. legungen und ein neuer from control theory. In U. M. M., & Krampe, R. T. (2001). (2003). Selektion, Optimierung Untersuchungsansatz. Psy- Staudinger & U. Lindenberger Face memory skill acquisition. und Kompensation in Doppel- chologie in Erziehung und (Eds.), Understanding human In N. Charness, D. C. Parks & aufgaben. Nervenarzt, 3, Unterricht, 48, 298–313. development: Dialogues with B. A. Sabel (Eds.), Communi- 204–210. lifespan psychology (pp. 383– cation, technology and aging: Glück, J., Ernst, R., & Unger, F. 400). Boston, MA: Kluwer. Opportunities and challenges Kray, J., Li, K. Z. H., & Linden- (2002). How creatives define – (Ed.). (2002). Transition from for the future (pp. 169–186). berger, U. (2002). Age-related creativity: Definitions reflect school to work: Societal oppor- New York: Springer. changes in task-switching different types of creativity. tunities and the potential for components: The role of task Creativity Research Journal, 14, individual agency. Journal Krampe, R. T. (2002). Aging, uncertainty. Brain and Cogni- 55–67. of Vocational Behavior, 60 (2), expertise, and fine motor tion, 49, 363–381. Special Issue. movement. Neuroscience and Glück, J., & Heckhausen, J. (in – (2001). Control behavior: Biobehavioral Reviews, 26, Kreppner, K. (2003). Social press). 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Center for Lifespan Psychology 183 ment in the first two years in (Ed.), Kindheit 2001: Das LBS- Li, K. Z. H., & Lindenberger, U. nitive and sensorimotor func- family contexts. In J. Valsiner & Kinderbarometer. Was Kinder (2002). Relations between tioning. Gerontology. K. Conolly (Eds.), Handbook of wünschen, hoffen und be- aging sensory/sensorimotor developmental psychology fürchten (pp. 211–236). and cognitive functions. Li, S.-C., & Kunzmann, U. (in (pp. 194–214). London: Sage. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral press). Research of intelligence – (2002a). Retrospect and Reviews, 26, 777–783. in German-speaking nations. In prospect in the psychological Kreppner, K., & Ullrich, M. R. J. Sternberg (Ed.), Interna- study of families as systems. In (2003). Untersuchung zur Qua- Li, K. Z. H, Lindenberger, U., tional handbook of the psychol- J. P. McHale & W. S. Grolnick lität der Beziehungen und Freund, A. M., & Baltes, P. B. ogy of human intelligence. (Eds.), Retrospect and prospect Kommunikationsformen in der (2001). Walking while memo- New York: Cambridge Univer- in the psychological study of Familie beim Übergang von der rizing: Age-related differences sity Press. families (pp. 225–257). Kindheit zur Jugend. Zeitschrift in compensatory behavior. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. für Familienforschung, 15 (1). Psychological Science, 12, Li, S.-C., & Li, K. Z. H. (2001). – (2002b). Väter in ihren Fami- 230–237. Aging and intelligence. In lien. Differentielle Aspekte für Kunzmann, U., & Baltes, P. B. W. E. Craighead & C. B. die Sozialisation. In H. Walter (in press). Wisdom-related Li, S.-C. (in press). Neurotrans- Nemeroff (Eds.), The Corsini (Ed.), Männer als Väter. Sozial- knowledge: Affective, motiva- mitters, neural noise, and cog- encyclopedia of psychology and wissenschaftliche Theorie und tional, and interpersonal cor- nitive aging: A computational behavioral science (pp. 51–54). Empirie (pp. 345–380). Gießen: relates. Personality and Social model. In R. Cabeza, L. Nyberg, New York: Wiley. Psychosozial-Verlag. Psychology Bulletin. & D. C. Park (Eds.), Cognitive – (2002c). Zur Bedeutung der – (2003). Beyond the tradition- neuroscience of aging: Linking Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U., Transitionskompetenz in Fami- al scope of intelligence: Wis- cognitive and cerebral aging. Hommel, B., Aschersleben, G., lien für das Vermeiden oder dom in action. In R. J. Stern- New York: Oxford University Prinz, W., & Baltes, P. B. (in das Entstehen von Pathologien berg, J. Lautry, & T. I. Lubart Press. press). Lifespan transformations im Verlauf der individuellen (Eds.), Models of intelligence: – (2003). Biocultural orchestra- in the couplings between Entwicklung. In B. Rollett & International perspectives tion of developmental plasticity intellectual abilities and con- H. Werneck (Eds.), Klinische (pp. 329–343). Washington, DC: across levels: The interplay of stituent cognitive processes. Entwicklungspsychologie der American Psychological biology and culture in shaping Psychological Science. Familie (pp. 32–45). Göttingen: Association. the mind and behavior across Hogrefe. the lifespan. Psychological Li, S.-C., Lindenberger, U., & – (2001a). Eltern-Kind-Bezie- Kunzmann, U., Little, T. D., & Bulletin, 129, 171–194. Sikström, S. (2001). Aging hung: Forschungsbefunde. In Smith, J. (2002). Perceiving – (2002). Connecting the many cognition: From neuromodula- W. E. Fthenakis & M. R. Textor control: A double-edged sword levels and facets of cognitive tion to representation. Trends (Eds.), Das Online-Familien- in old age. Journals of Geron- aging. Current Directions in in Cognitive Sciences, 5, handbuch: www.familienhand- tology: Psychological Sciences, Psychological Science, 11, 479–486. buch.de. München: Staats- 57B, P484–P491. 38–43. institut für Frühpädagogik – (2001). Aging mind: Facets Li, S.-C., & Schmiedek, F. (Available online: http://www. Lange-Küttner, C., Kerzmann, and levels of analysis. In (2002). Age is not necessarily familienhandbuch.de/cms/ A., & Heckhausen, J. (2002). N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes aging: Another step towards Familienforschung-Eltern-Kind- The emergence of visually real- (Eds.-in-Chief), International understanding the “clocks“ that Beziehung. pdf). istic contour in the drawing encyclopedia of the social and time aging. Gerontology, 48, – (2001b). Infant education. In of the human figure. British behavioral sciences (Vol. 1, 5–12. N. J. Smelser & P. B. Baltes Journal of Developmental Psy- pp. 310–317). Oxford: Elsevier – (2001). Intelligence: Central (Eds.-in-Chief), International chology, 20, 439–463. Science. conceptions and psychometric encyclopedia of the social and models. In N. J. Smelser & behavioral sciences (Vol. 11, Lerner, R. M., Freund, A. M., Li, S.-C., Aggen, S. H., Nessel- P. B. Baltes (Eds.-in-Chief), pp. 7414–7419). Oxford: De Stefanis, I., & Habermas, T. roade, J. R., & Baltes, P. B. International encyclopedia of Elsevier Science. (2001). Understanding develop- (2001). Short-term fluctuations the social and behavioral – (2001c). On the generation of mental regulation in adoles- in elderly people’s sensorimotor sciences (Vol. 11, pp. 7635– data in the study of social cence: The use of the selection, functioning predict text and 7641). Oxford: Elsevier Science. interaction. Psicologia: Teoria e optimization, and compensa- spatial memory performance: Pesquisa, 17, 109– tion model. Human Develop- The MacArthur Successful Li, S.-C., & Sikström, S. (2002). 118. ment, 44, 29–50. Aging Studies. Gerontology, 47, Integrative neurocomputational – (2001d). Variations in chil- 100–116. perspectives on cognitive dren’s perceived relationship Li, K. Z. H., Krampe, R. T., & aging, neuromodulation, and quality and changes in commu- Bondar, A. (in press). An eco- Li, S.-C., & Dinse, H. R. (Eds.). representation. Neuroscience nication behaviors within the logical approach to studying (2002). Aging of the brain, and Biobehavioral Reviews, 26, family during the child’s transi- aging and dual-task per- sensorimotor, and cognitive 795–808. tion to adolescence: A differen- formance. In R. W. Engle, processes. Neuroscience and tial approach. In J. R. M. Gerris G. Sedek, U. von Hecker, & Biobehavioral Reviews, 26, Lindenberger, U., & Ghisletta, (Ed.), Dynamics of parenting D. N. McIntosh (Eds.), Cognitive Special Issue. P. (in press). Modeling longitu- (pp. 33–52). Leuven: Garant. limitations in aging and dinal changes in old age: From psychopathology: Attention, Li, S.-C., Huxhold, O., & covariance structures to dy- Kreppner, K., & Klöckner, C. working memory, and executive Schmiedek, F. (in press). Aging namic systems. In R. A. Dixon, (2002). Kinder in ihrer Familie. functions. New York: and attenuated processing L. Bäckman, & L.-G. Nilsson In LBS-Initiative Junge Familie Cambridge University Press. robustness: Evidence from cog- (Eds.), New frontiers in cogni-

184 Center for Lifespan Psychology tive aging. Oxford: Oxford Röcke, C., & Cherry, K. E. Smith, J. (2003). The gain-loss Thema (pp. 225–249). Wein- University Press. (2002). Death at the end of the dynamic in lifespan develop- heim: Juventa. 20th century: Individual ment: Implications for change Lindenberger, U., Scherer, H., & processes and developmental in self and personality during Smith, J., & Freund, A. M. Baltes, P. B. (2001). The strong tasks in old age. The Interna- old and very old age. In U. M. (2002). The dynamics of possi- connection between sensory tional Journal of Aging and Staudinger & U. Lindenberger ble selves in old age. Journals and cognitive performance in Human Development, 54, 315– (Eds.), Understanding human of Gerontology: Psychological old age: Not due to sensory 333. development: Dialogues with Sciences, 57B, P492–P500. acuity reductions operating lifespan psychology (pp. 215– during cognitive assessment. Salisch, M., & Kunzmann, U. 241). Boston, MA: Kluwer. Smith, J., & Jopp, D. (in press). Psychology and Aging, 16, (in press). Entwicklung der – (2002a). Developmental Geschlechterdifferenzen im 196–205. Emotionsregulation über die psychology. In D. J. Ekerdt, Alter(n). In S.-H. Fillip & U. M. Lebensspanne. In J. Asendorpf R. A. Applebaum, K. C. Holden, Staudinger (Eds.), Enzyklopädie Lindenberger, U., Singer, T., & & T. H. Rauh (Eds.), Enzyklo- S. G. Post, K. Rockwood, der Psychologie: CV, Vol. 6. Baltes, P. B. (2002). Longitudi- pädie der Psychologie: CI, Vol. 3. R. Schulz, R. L. Sprott, & Entwicklungspsychologie des nal selectivity in aging popula- Soziale, emotionale und P. Uhlenberg (Eds.), Encyclope- mittleren und höheren tions: Separating mortality- Persönlichkeitsentwicklung. dia of aging (Vol. 1, pp. 339– Erwachsenenalters. Göttingen: associated versus experimental Göttingen: Hogrefe. 341). New York: Macmillan. Hogrefe. components in the Berlin Aging – (2002b). The fourth age: A Study (BASE). Journals of Scheibe, S., Preuschhof, C., period of psychological mortal- Smith, J., Maas, I., Mayer, K. Gerontology: Psychological Cristi, C., & Bagby, R. M. (in ity? In Biomolecular aspects of U., Helmchen, H., Steinhagen- Sciences, 57B, P474–P482. press). Are there gender differ- aging: The social and ethical Thiessen, E., & Baltes P. B. ences in major depression and implications (pp. 75–88). (2002). Two-wave longitudinal Little, T. D., Lopez, D. F., its response to antidepressants. München: Max-Planck-Gesell- findings from the Berlin Aging Oettingen, G., & Baltes, P. B. Journal of Affective Disorders. schaft (Max-Planck-Forum, 4). Study: Introduction to a collec- (2001). A comparative-longitu- – (2002c). Life contexts and tion of articles. Journals of dinal study of action-control Schmiedek, F., & Li, S.-C. (in social relationships from age Gerontology: Psychological beliefs and school perform- press). Towards an alternative 70 to 100+. Newsletter of the Sciences, 57B, P471–P473. ance: On the role of context. representation for disentan- International Society for the International Journal of gling age-associated differ- Study of Behavioural Develop- Smith, J., & Zank, S. (2002). Behavioral Development, 25, ences in general and specific ment, 41, 6–8. Forschungsaktivitäten im 237–245. cognitive abilities. Psychology – (2001a). Life experience and Themenfeld Hochaltrigkeit. In and Aging. longevity: Findings from the Deutsches Zentrum für Alters- Little, T. D., Miyashita, T., Berlin Aging Study. Zeitschrift fragen (Ed.), Expertisen zum Karasawa, M., Mashima, M., Singer, T., Lindenberger, U., & für Erziehungswissenschaft, 4, Vierten Altenbericht der Bun- Oettingen, G., Azuma, H., & Baltes, P. B. (in press). Plastici- 577–599. desregierung: Vol. 1. Das hohe Baltes, P. B. (2003). The links ty of memory for new learning – (2001b). Old age and cente- Alter (pp. 97–227). Hannover: among action-control beliefs, in very old age: A story of ma- narians. In N. J. Smelser & Vincentz. intellective skill, and school jor loss? Psychology and Aging. P. B. Baltes (Eds.-in-Chief), performance in Japanese, US, International encyclopedia of Spiel, C., Glück, J., & Gössler, and German school children. Singer, T., Verhaegen, P., the social and behavioral H. (2001). Stability and change International Journal of Behav- Ghisletta, P., Lindenberger, U., sciences (Vol. 16, pp. 10843– of unidimensionality: The ioral Development, 27, 41–48. & Baltes, P. B. (in press). The 10847). Oxford: Elsevier sample case of deductive rea- fate of cognition in very old Science. soning. Journal of Adolescent Neher, K. M., & Nuthmann, R. age: Six-year longitudinal find- – (2001c). Well-being and Research, 16, 150–168. (2001). Berlin Aging Study. In ings in the Berlin Aging Study health from age 70 to 100: G. Maddox (Ed.), Encyclopedia (BASE). Psychology and Aging. Findings from the Berlin Aging Staudinger, U. M., & Baltes, P. of aging (3rd ed., pp. 119–122). Study. European Review, 9, B. (2001). Entwicklungs- New York: Springer. Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. 461–477. psychologie der Lebensspanne. (Eds.-in-Chief) (2001a). Inter- In H. Helmchen, F. A. Henn, Pasupathi, M., & Staudinger, U. national encyclopedia of the Smith, J., Borchelt, M., Maier, H. Lauter, & N. Sartorius (Eds.), M. (2001). Do advanced moral social and behavioral sciences. H., & Jopp, D. (2002). Health Psychiatrie der Gegenwart: reasoners also show wisdom? Oxford: Elsevier Science and well-being in the young Vol. 3. Psychiatrie spezieller Linking moral reasoning and (16695 p.). old and oldest old. Journal of Lebenssituationen (pp. 3–17). wisdom-related knowledge and – (2001b). Introduction. In N. J. Social Issues, 58, 715–732. Berlin: Springer. judgement. International Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.-in- Journal of Behavioral Develop- Chief), International encyclope- Smith, J., & Delius, J. (2003). Staudinger, U. M., & Bluck, S. ment, 25, 401–415. dia of the social and behavioral Die längsschnittlichen Erhe- (2001). Lifespan psychology sciences (Vol. 1, pp. XXXI–XLVI- bungen der Berliner Alters- and midlife development. In Pasupathi, M., Staudinger, U. II). Oxford: Elsevier Science. studie (BASE): Design, Stich- M. E. Lachman (Ed.), Handbook M., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). – (2001c). Preface. In N. J. proben und Schwerpunkte of midlife development (pp. 3– Seeds of wisdom: Adolescents’ Smelser & P. B. Baltes (Eds.-in- 1990–2002. In F. Karl (Ed.), 39). New York: Wiley. knowledge and judgment about Chief), International encyclope- Sozial- und verhaltenswissen- difficult life problems. Develop- dia of the social and behavioral schaftliche Gerontologie: Alter Staudinger, U. M., Bluck, S., & mental Psychology, 37, sciences (Vol. 1, pp. XXVII– und Altern als gesellschaftliches Herzberg, Y. (in press). Looking 351–361. XXIX). Oxford: Elsevier Science. Problem und individuelles back and looking ahead: Di-

Center for Lifespan Psychology 185 achronous correlates of subjec- Wiese, B. S., Freund, A. M., & ment control strategies. Health ing of Chinese words [in Chi- tive well-being across the adult Baltes, P. B. (2002). Subjective Psychology, 21, 340–348. nese]. Acta Psychologica Sinica, life span. Psychology and Aging. career success and emotional 34, 10–15. well-being: Longitudinal Yang, L., & Chen, Y. (2002). In- – (2001). The advances in the Thiel, T., & Kreppner, K. (2002). predictive power of selection, hibition mechanism in self- research on cognitive processes Uses of the film-technique for optimization, and compen- paced sentence processing [in of multi-mode information [in a thorough study of growth sation. Journal of Vocational Chinese]. Acta Psychologica Chinese]. Psychological Science, and development. From Past to Behavior, 60, 321–335. Sinica, 34, 553–560. 24, 465–467. Future: Clark Papers on the History of Psychology, 3, 32–44. Wrosch, C., & Freund, A. M. Yang, L., Chen, Y. M., Cui, Y., & Zhou, Z., Chen, Y., Cui, Y., Yang, (2001). Self-regulation of Zhou, Z. J. (2002). The inhibi- L., & Chen, H.-C. (2001). The Verhaeghen, P., Borchelt, M., & normative and non-normative tion mechanism of different effects of anaphors on accessi- Smith, J. (in press). The rela- developmental challenges. skilled language comprehen- bility of antecedants in Chinese tion between cardiovascular Human Development, 44, 264– ders [in Chinese]. Acta Psycho- [in Chinese]. Acta Psychologica and metabolic disease and cog- 283. logica Sinica, 34, 120–125. Sinica, 33, 198– nition in very old age: Cross- 203. sectional and longitudinal find- Wrosch, C., & Heckhausen, J. Yang, L., Chen, Y., & Zhou, Z. J. ings from the Berlin Aging (2002). Perceived control of life (2001). The inhibition mecha- Zhou, Z., Chen, Y., Yang, L., & Study. Health Psychology. regrets: Good for young and nism of different skilled lan- Chen, H.-C. (2003). The inhibi- bad for old adults. Psychology guage comprehenders in self- tion mechanism for resolving Wiese, B. S., & Freund, A. M. and Aging, 17, 340–350. paced lexical processing [in lexical ambiguity of two- (2001). Zum Einfluss persön- Chinese]. Acta Psychologica syllable homophones in Chi- licher Prioritätensetzungen auf Wrosch, C., Schulz, R., & Sinica, 33, 294–299. nese [in Chinese]. Acta Psycho- Maße der Stimuluspräferenz. Heckhausen, J. (2002). Health logica Sinica, 35, 1–8. Erste empirische Befunde. stresses and depressive symp- Yang, L., & Fu, X. L. (2002). The Zeitschrift für Experimentelle tomatology in the elderly: The inhibitory mechanism in visual- Psychologie, 48, 57–73. importance of health engage- auditory cross-modal process-

186 Center for Lifespan Psychology Center for Lifespan Psychology 187

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Contents

Research Program and Research Projects ...... 191 Education, Training, and Occupational Careers ...... 198 East and West German Life Courses in the 1990s ...... 206 Political Economy and the Life Course in Advanced Societies (POLIS) . . . . . 215 Education and Mismatch in the Labor Market ...... 218 Further Projects ...... 226 Publications 2001–2002 ...... 228

Scientific Staff (2001–2002)

Felix Büchel, Michael Corsten (as of 2001: University of Jena), Anne Goedicke, Steffen Hillmert, Erika M. Hoerning, Gero Lenhardt, Ineke Maas (on leave; as of 2002: University of Utrecht), Britta Matthes, Karl Ulrich Mayer, Antje Mertens, Heike Trappe, Helga Zeiher (retired in 2002) Postdoctoral Research Fellows Pascal Dorenlot (as of 2001: INSERM), Frances McGinnity, Juan Rafael Morillas Martinéz Predoctoral Research Fellows Anke Höhne, Marita Jacob, Matthias Pollmann-Schult, Maike Reimer, Alessandra Rusconi, Holger Seibert

190 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Research Program and Research Projects

Sociological Research at the Max Planck Institute for Human Key References Development Mayer, K. U. (Ed.). (1990). Sociology as a scientific discipline is interested in the formation of institu- Lebensverläufe und sozialer Wandel. Opladen: tions and in the social behavior and actions of individuals embedded in in- Westdeutscher Verlag stitutions. Within the specific context of an interdisciplinary institute for (Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsy- human development, sociology can make two kinds of contributions. First, it chologie, Special Issue 31) examines the roles that the family, the educational and training system, the (467 p.). occupational structure, and the welfare state play in the development and Mayer, K. U. (2001d). Lebensverlauf. In B. life courses of individuals. Second, it examines the way in which specific Schäfers & W. Zapf (Eds.), life-course patterns express and affect the distribution of life chances. Handwörterbuch zur Gesellschaft Deutschlands (2nd ed., pp. 446–460). We share substantive topics, theo- behavior. Although our primary goal Opladen: Leske + Budrich. retical perspectives, and method- is to find and use appropriate indi- Mayer, K. U. (2003). The ological approaches with other cen- sociology of the life course vidual-level assumptions in models and lifespan psychology: ters of the Institute, for example, of institutions, we also maintain an Diverging or converging the interest in the conditions of at- interest in the ways social structures pathways? In U. M. Staudinger & U. Linden- tainment in education and training shape and bound rationality. berger (Eds.), Understand- with the Center for Educational ing human development: Dialogues with lifespan Research. We are also interested in Goals of the Research Program psychology (pp. 463–481). both the individual and social con- The research program is oriented Boston, MA: Kluwer. sequences of differential educational toward answering three sets of attainment. The longitudinal surveys questions: of the two centers overlap in the life (1) The first set of questions focuses phase which occurs at the comple- on the relationships between the tion of schooling and commence- macrolevel structure of societies and ment of early labor market experi- patterns of the life course. In what ence. We are currently cooperating manner and with which outcomes with the Center for Educational Re- do institutions shape the patterns search with the new version of the and distributions of individual life German Education Report. Together courses? We look at life courses with the Center for Lifespan Psy- generated by social norms, by insti- chology we share an interest in the tutional configurations, and by op- full life course from birth to death, portunity structures, all of which particularly the interplay between vary across social groups as well as social environments and individual specific national and historical con- development. These common inter- texts. Life courses are a summary ests resulted in the joint Berlin concept for the intertwined proc- Aging Study and joint research on esses of residential migration, family psychological covariates of employ- history, education and training tra- ment trajectories in East Germany jectories, employment, and occupa- during the unification process. Also, tional careers, as well as the tempo- with the Center for Adaptive Behav- ral patterns of relationships to the ior and Cognition we share an inter- social insurance systems. Therefore, est in assumptions about rational with respect to institutions, we are

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 191 primarily interested in schools and sis for macrosocial change and for training institutions, the occupa- collective political decision-making. tional structure and labor market, Accordingly, the empirical and de- the family, and the welfare state. scriptive social accounting of life- The relevant time dimension, here, is course patterns is an important re- the historical time of socioeconomic search task. change. We use four perspectives in investi- (2) The second set of questions fo- gating life courses. cuses on the levels of individual and First, we see individual life courses group action. How do individuals as a part and a product of social and families actively construct their and historical processes operating lives? How do they experience their on different levels. Individual life individual and collective life histo- courses are linked to the life courses ries under the given conditions of of other persons (parents, partners, their own prior biography, their children, colleagues, friends) and are immediate family and work environ- embedded in the dynamics of small ments, and the generational con- groups, especially the family. But, texts of their peer birth cohorts? life courses are also subject to the Here, we are primarily interested in influences of social organization and the proximate influences of the the macroinstitutions of society, mesolevel of informal groups, formal including their development over organizations, and local opportunity time. structures, as well as microlevel en- Second, the life course is a multi- dogenous processes of the individual dimensional process. On the one life course. The relevant time dimen- hand, it unfolds in the different, but sions, here, are chronological age mutually related life domains (e.g., and the individual aging process, the family cycle and working life), on duration of membership in families, the other hand, it is dependent on households, and firms, as well as the intraindividual processes of organic time dimension of cohort and gen- and psychological development. erational succession. Third, the life course is a self- (3) The third set of questions fo- referential process. The individual cuses on feedback processes from behaves and acts self-reflectively the microlevel of individual action on the basis of past experiences and to the macrolevel of structural and resources, making the life course, to institutional constraints. How do some extent, an endogenous causal changes in life-course patterns process. This is also partially true shape distributional and aggregative for the collective life history of features of social structure and in- birth cohorts. The past and initial stitutional arrangements? What are conditions and characteristics of a the implications of such processes cohort impact both on their later for social policies? Irrespective of collective life history (e.g., in the how they arise, life-course patterns relationship between working lives are powerful contexts for individual and life in old age) and on the and group action. Life courses form adjacent cohorts. The different age the qualitative and quantitative ba- groups live together in the same

192 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course time period, but they bring to the courses, they reproduce and trans- present their distinctive past histo- form the social structure. This can ries. happen via ”simple” processes of ag- Fourth, through the manner in gregation or in the form of institu- which persons shape their own life tional feedback.

Research Areas The Center’s research program is currently organized into the following areas:

Education, Training, and transition period, and about the in- Research Area 1 Employment creasing polarization of the oppor- The transition between education, tunities for skill acquisition and ear- training, and employment is a major ly occupational careers. Other topics topic of investigation in the Center of research interest include the fol- for Sociology and the Study of the lowing: What are the consequences Life Course. This life phase is crucial of educational expansion for work- for both intergenerational status al- ing lives? Is there a crisis in the dual location and the later life history. In system of vocational training and reconstructing the collective transi- how can this be accounted for? How tion experiences of successive co- widespread and serious are the horts, we gain empirical insights in problems of mismatch between ac- the changing institutional linkages quired and required skills in the la- between the school and training bor market? Our guiding hypothesis systems, on the one hand, and be- in this research area is that despite tween the labor market and the oc- massive distributional shifts and in- cupational structure, on the other. tense pressure for labor market flex- Moreover, we can examine contro- ibilization, the close linkage be- versial hypotheses about the length- tween education, training, and oc- ening and fragmentation of this cupation persists.

Büchel, F. (2002a). The Büchel, F., de Grip, A., Mayer, K. U., & Hillmert, S., & Mayer, Key References effects of overeducation & Mertens, A. (in Hillmert, S. (in press). K. U. (Eds.). (in press). on productivity in Ger- press). Overeducation in New ways of life or old Geboren 1964 und 1971. many: The firms’ view- Europe: Current issues in rigidities? Changes in Neuere Untersuchungen point. Economics of theory and policy. social structures and zu Ausbildungs- und Education Review, 21 Cheltenham, UK: life courses in Germany Berufschancen in West- (3), 263–275. Edward Elgar. and their political im- deutschland. pacts. In H. Kitschelt & Wiesbaden: West- W. Streeck (Eds.), Ger- deutscher Verlag. many beyond the stable state: A house united cannot stand? (Western European Politics, Spe- cial Issue).

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 193 Research Area 2 Life Courses in the Transformation of formation process. In addition, we Former Socialist Societies have intensified research coopera- The fall of the Berlin Wall and the tion with Polish social scientists for unification of Germany not only the purposes of comparative study. provided a major challenge for the Our current investigations concen- social sciences to understand and trate on the micromechanisms of guide this transition, it also provided individual adjustment, adaptation in unique opportunities for theory- the domains of family and work, the guided research. On the one hand, life-course consequences of institu- the transformation allowed the tional transfer from West to East functioning and nonviability of the Germany, and individual-level former socialist society to be exam- processes in the transformation of ined. On the other hand, it provided the system of social stratification ample opportunities for the investi- and class. Our studies have revealed gation of life courses under the some rather surprising findings: De- impact of such a sudden dramatic spite a rapid increase in labor mar- institutional change. We have ket mobility and considerable breaks collected selected cohort and life- in individual careers, the pattern of course data on both the German social stratification has remained Democratic Republic and the trans- very stable.

Key References Goedicke, A. (2002). Huinink, J., Mayer, K. Matthes, B. (2002). Mayer, K. U., Diewald, Beschäftigungschancen U. et al. (1995). Kollek- Brücken und Stolper- M., & Solga, H. (2000). und Betriebszugehörig- tiv und Eigensinn. steine auf dem Weg ins Arbeitsmarktmobilität keit. Die Folgen betrieb- Lebensverläufe in der Erwerbsleben. Die Fol- und die Umstrukturie- lichen Wandels für ost- DDR und danach. Berlin: gen der Transformation rung des ostdeutschen deutsche Erwerbstätige Akademie Verlag für den Erwerbseinstieg Beschäftigungssystems. nach 1989. Wiesbaden: (414 p.). ostdeutscher Jugend- Mitteilungen aus der Westdeutscher Verlag licher. Dissertation, Arbeitsmarkt- und (290 p.). Freie Universität Berlin. Berufsforschung, 33, 242–260.

194 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Welfare State, Life Courses, and to be especially important in current Research Area 3 Social Inequalities societal adaptations to global com- In this research area we focus on petition and decreasing public conceptual and empirical studies on finances. Microanalytic and cross- the impact of various national insti- national studies are required to tutional configurations on life- unravel the mechanisms and conse- course outcomes. The macroinstitu- quences of different welfare state tions of the modern welfare state regimes and policies. Our guiding and the specific provisions and rules hypothesis for Germany holds that of the social insurance systems are life courses are still relatively pro- among the major determining fac- tected from pressures of flexibility, tors in the life course and in the and that stability and continuity distribution of life opportunities. The prevail. role of the welfare state may prove

Hillmert, S. (2001a). Mayer, K. U. (2001f). Mayer, K. U. (2001b). McGinnity, F. (in press). Key References Ausbildungssysteme und The paradox of global Die beste aller Welten? Unemployment and Arbeitsmarkt. Lebens- social change and Marktliberalismus oder welfare policies: A com- verläufe in Großbritan- national path depend- Wohlfahrtsstaat. In K. parison of Britain and nien und Deutschland encies: Life course U. Mayer (Ed.), Die beste Germany. Cheltenham, im Kohortenvergleich. patterns in advanced aller Welten? Markt- UK: Edward Elgar. Wiesbaden: West- societies. In A. E. liberalismus versus deutscher Verlag Woodward & M. Kohli Wohlfahrtsstaat. Eine (290 p.). (Eds.), Inclusions and Kontroverse (pp. 7–12). Hillmert, S. (2002d). exclusions in European Frankfurt a.M.: Campus. Labour market integra- societies (pp. 89–110). tion and institutions: London: Routledge. An Anglo-German comparison. Work, Employ- ment & Society, 19, 675–701.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 195 Research Area 4 Life-Course Research and Analysis: spective studies. We also carried out Theory, Methods, and Synthesis a panel study in 1996/97, reinter- This research area focuses on over- viewing our East German respon- arching topics and tasks: the provi- dents from 1991/92. Data editing, sion of the empirical database for the development and maintenance our studies, methodological prob- of the database, and data documen- lems of measurement, analysis, tation form an important part of our modeling, issues of general theory ongoing research work. In the com- and empirical work on the full set of ing years our efforts will concentrate cohort studies. on establishing a more user-friendly The Center’s research program is database containing these cohort empirically based on a series of six studies and putting the data docu- retrospective surveys. These surveys mentation into an electronic format. rely on population probability sam- The Research Center’s own data-sets ples and were conducted from the are complemented with other Ger- early 1980s up to the present day. man and non-German longitudinal They now comprise quantified of the studies, including the German Socio- life histories of 5,591 West German Economic Panel (GSOEP), the Micro- women and men (the cohorts born census, the 1% sample of the 1919–21, 1929–31, 1939–41, Employment Register, the BIBB/ IAB 1949–51, 1954–56, and 1959–61) (Federal Institute for Vocational and 2,923 East German women and Training and the Institute for Labor men (the cohorts born 1929–31, Market and Employment Research) 1939–41, 1951–53, 1959–61, and in Employment Survey, and the British 1971). Moreover, fieldwork has been Household Panel Study (BHPS). Our concluded and data editing is in major methodological tools consist progress for an additional 2,911 of dynamic models of discrete women and men born in West Ger- change in continuous time. Ongoing many in 1964 and 1971. Detailed life tasks include maintaining expertise histories were also obtained for the and updating statistical software in 516 participants of the Berlin Aging this area, as well as improving prac- Study, who were born between 1887 tices of exploratory data analysis and 1922. These surveys are retro- and representation.

Key References Brückner, E., & Mayer, Mayer K. U. (2002a). Reimer, M. (2001). Die K. U. (1998). Collecting Zur Biografie der Zuverlässigkeit des life history data: Expe- Lebensverlaufs- autobiographischen riences from the Ger- forschung. Ein Rück- Gedächtnisses und die man Life History Study. blick auf die letzten Validität retrospektiv In J. Z. Giele & G. H. zwei Jahrzehnte. In erhobener Lebens- Elder, Jr. (Eds.), Meth- G. Burkhart & J. Wolf verlaufsdaten. Kogni- ods of life course re- (Eds.), Lebenszeiten. tive und erhebungs- search: Qualitative and Erkundungen zur Sozi- pragmatische Aspekte. quantitative approach- ologie der Genera- Berlin: Max Planck es (pp. 152–181). tionen (pp. 41–61). Institute for Human Thousand Oaks, CA: Opladen: Leske + Development (Materi- Sage. Budrich. alien aus der Bildungs- forschung, 71) (184 p.).

196 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Current Research Projects and Research Associates of the Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course

Research Area 1 Research Area 2 Education, Training, and Employment Life Courses in the Transformation of Former Socialist Countries

Education, Training, and Steffen Hillmert, Transformation of the East Anne Goedicke, Occupation: Life Courses of Karl Ulrich Mayer, German Labor Market Britta Matthes, the 1964 and 1971 Birth Antje Mertens, Heike Trappe; Heike Trappe Cohorts in West Germany Stefan Bender (IAB), • Dissertation Project Anke Höhne (MPIB/IAB)—Cooperative Project Hans Dietrich (IAB) Working Lives in Family Contexts with the German Institute for Labor Market Research Transformation Processes in Anne Goedicke, • Dissertation Project Marita Jacob Poland and East Germany Britta Matthes, Patchwork or Career? Causes and Bogdan Mach, Consequences of Multiple Educational Karl Ulrich Mayer Episodes

• Dissertation Project Holger Seibert Bourgeois and Non-Bourgeois Erika M. Hoerning The Career Start of Young Foreigners Intelligentsia in the German Who have Finished a Vocational Training in the “Dual System“ in Germany Democratic Republic: A Study between 1975 and 1995 of Biographical Upheaval

Education and Mismatch in Felix Büchel the Labor Market

• Dissertation Project Matthias Pollmann-Schult School Performance, Occupational Choice, and Labor Market Outcomes

Research Area 3 Research Area 4 Welfare State, Life Courses, and Life-Course Research and Analysis: Social Inequalities Theory, Methods, and Synthesis

Political Economy and the Life Frances McGinnity, Steffen Post-War Social Development as Karl Ulrich Mayer Course in Advanced Societies Hillmert, Karl Ulrich Mayer a History of Cohorts (POLIS) • Dissertation Project Maike Reimer Psychology of Autobiographical Higher Education: Karl Ulrich Mayer Memory and the Reliability of Expansion, Institutional Forms Retrospective Measurements and Equality of Opportunity (International Comparative Project)

Higher Education in Germany Gero Lenhardt and the U.S.

Projects Concluded in 2001–2002 Children in the Family: Helga Zeiher International Encyclopedia for Karl Ulrich Mayer Division of Labor the Social and Behavioral Sciences (Section on Education Report: Karl Ulrich Mayer Biographies)—Editorial Project Higher Education

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 197 Education, Training, and Occupational Careers

Key Reference The 1964 and 1971 Birth Cohorts Hillmert, S. (2002b). Edi- The 1980s and 1990s were a period of considerable social and economic tion von Lebensverlaufs- change. Among the crucial factors that have shaped life courses during daten. Zur Relevanz einer systematischen Einzelfall- these two decades were educational expansion, occupational changes bearbeitung bei standar- induced by shifts in labor demand, and demographic changes, such as disierten Befragungen. ZUMA-Nachrichten, 26 increasing female labor force participation, and the entry of baby boom (51), 120–140. cohorts into the labor market. The research project Education, Training and Occupation: Life Courses of the 1964 and 1971 Birth Cohorts in West Germany looks at the consequences of these developments for individual life courses. The project focuses on the links between education and the employment system during this period.

The 1964 and 1971 birth cohorts constitute the most recent part of the German Life History Study and adds up-to-date information to our life-course database, which now includes information on eight birth cohorts in West Germany and three birth cohorts in East Germany. Our life-course data give a detailed picture of the patterns of transition from general education to vocational or academic training, and from there into employment. In reconstructing the collective transition experiences of successive cohorts, we gain empirical access to the historical development of educational and occupational patterns for Germany from the 1930s onwards. The latest survey on the West German 1964 and 1971 birth cohorts includes nearly 3,000 interviews, the majority of which were conducted as computer-assisted telephone interviews. The main focus of this most recent study is on education, training, and occupation and is conducted collaboratively with the Institute of Employment Research (IAB) in Nuremberg.

We have made several analyses us- cohort in the history of the Federal ing preliminary versions of the data- Republic of Germany) with the much set, but over the last three years, smaller 1971 birth cohort (Hillmert, this data has also gone through a 2001c). process of careful checking and ed- At first glance, it might be surprising iting (Hillmert, 2002b). Where nec- that analyses with secondary data essary, respondents were even rein- show that the relatively large 1964 terviewed (approximately 35%). In birth cohort was not disadvantaged the meantime, we have also been in quantitative terms with regard to involved with supplementary work: access to firm-based training. The This has included, in particular, a situation when having completed closer look at the historical context vocational training, however, was of the life courses we are observing, different. The 1964 birth cohort ex- and the determinants of the collec- perienced a significantly more prob- tive opportunities of training and lematic entry into the labor market employment of whole cohorts. Obvi- after completing vocational training: ously, the size of the birth cohort Those who left training, from this can be regarded as one crucial de- birth cohort, were unemployed al- terminant. Therefore, it is interesting most twice as often as those of the to compare the experiences of the 1971 birth cohort. When we take 1964 birth cohort (the largest birth labor demand considerations into

198 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course account this picture can be better research will be the question of Key Reference understood: The labor market entry whether the links between institu- Hillmert, S., & Jacob, M. of the 1964 birth cohort was nega- tions and individual life courses had (in press). Social inequality in higher education: Is vo- tively affected in three respects: by become weaker during the 1980s cational training a path- a relatively large cohort size, by rel- and 1990s. This so-called “de- way leading to or away from university? European atively bad conditions in the labor standardization,” although some- Sociological Review. market at this point of time, but times taken for granted in public probably also by relatively good debates, has barely been empirically conditions when beginning voca- evaluated. tional training. Contrasting the two birth cohorts, one can see that all The Early Decisions: Vocational three factors have arisen concur- Training or University Degree? rently, but in opposite configura- This and the following sections will tions: The 1964 birth cohort was a show the variety of life-course large cohort, but as unemployment stages that can be analyzed with rates were low when people left our data. Starting with the begin- school a large proportion of the ning of a career, a major issue is to birth cohort could enter training. investigate, theoretically and empiri- When they completed their training, cally, the educational decisions at however, the general labor market various ages. situation had worsened considerably. Hillmert and Jacob (2002, in press) Therefore, all three factors led to theoretically model the decision of major problems of the vocational school-leavers to enrol in university trainees when entering employment. in different educational systems. In The 1971 birth cohort was a small particular, the impact of an institu- cohort, but as unemployment was tional alternative of vocational high when they left school a rather training (as in Germany) and the smaller proportion of the birth co- possibility to combine vocational hort entered training. When these and academic training have been people completed their training, examined. The comparative ap- labor market conditions were rela- proach shows how different educa- tively good. Therefore, in this case, tional systems may increase social all three factors led to minor prob- class differences with the participa- lems for those completing vocation in higher education. tional training successfully. We use a model of utility maximiza- Future analyses with the new life- tion, where the decision to enrol in course data will investigate how one of the several offered educa- different pathways into the labor tional tracks is determined by the market have performed and how expected returns of different enrol- persistent advantages or disadvan- ment alternatives. In a first step, we tages for these birth cohorts have model the investment in higher occurred. They will look at the long- education in an educational system term consequences of these differ- that offers only the choice between ent experiences, that is, longer academic training and employment. sequences in individual life courses. Then, we extend the model for a Another related topic for our future more differentiated educational sys-

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 199 tem that ceteris paribus offers an graphical representations (not alternative to the academic track in shown here) for any educational the form of (shorter) vocational track, areas indicate what kind of training. In the model, crucial para- school-leaver, characterized by all meters are the time-horizon of possible combinations of the param- expected returns to education and eters, will opt for this particular the expected probability of success- alternative. Finally, these two “deci- fully passing vocational training, sion maps“ of a system with and a thereby, attaining an academic system without a vocational track degree. The major empirical infor- can be compared. This indicates who mation that is entered into the (again, characterized by time- simulation is about wage differences horizon and expectation of success) between different qualification may decide to study in one system, groups. We further assume that but not in the other (see Fig. 1). successful completion of vocational By introducing social differences as training also increases the expecta- parameter differences, we question tion of academic success. why the youth of lower social class

Figure 1. Given the sub- 45 jective expectation of a success p and time-hori- 40 zon t—who is attending university? A theoretical 35 comparison of a system offering vocational training to an educational 30 system without vocational training (a = additional 25 entrants; b = detoured b entrants). 20

Time-horizon (years) 15

0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Probability of completing a university degree

For any of the two systems, which origin might opt for vocational educational track a person will training instead of entering universi- choose, can be calculated depending ty after leaving school and why on their subjective time-horizon and some of these apprentices may enter subjective academic success if they university at a later date. In this react rationally: no training at all, vo- spect, the model offers an explana- cational training, academic training, tion why school-leavers of different or a combination of vocational and social origin(s) have incentives to academic training. Therefore, in choose different educational paths,

200 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course even if they have the same level of ed workforce, which is, to a great Key References school qualification. There is also extent, responsible for the economic Mertens, A. (1998). Labor evidence that the populations in the success of a country. mobility and wage dynamics: An empirical analysis different tracks may be different In a recent project we combined our for Germany in comparison with respect to average achieve- data with Swedish data to question with the United States. Aachen: Shaker Verlag. ment. Such insights are also impor- which vocational training systems Mertens, A. (2002). Re- tant for public policy, for example, are best to facilitate the mobility of gional and industrial wage for targeted financial support to in- workers. Does it matter how voca- dynamics in West Ger- many and the United crease enrolment rates of students tional training is acquired? In par- States. Jahrbücher für Na- with lower social class background. ticular, should vocational training tionalökonomie und Sta- tistik—Journal of Econom- Theoretical considerations, such as also be offered within the general ics and Statistics, 222 (5), these, will help us to focus our em- educational system or just within 584–608. pirical research on specific analytical the (still) standard apprenticeship Korpi, T., & Mertens, A. (in problems. system? To answer this question, we press). Training systems and labor mobility. A com- looked whether the mobility of parison between German The Influence of Training on Labor those with firm-based vocational and Sweden. Scandinavien Journal of Economics. Mobility training differed from those who The mobility of labor plays a major received their vocational training in role both for individual work careers school. This would appear to be an and for the functioning of labor important prerequisite for educa- markets (Mertens, 1998; Mertens, tional reform that attempts to facil- 2002). From the individual point of itate structural change. view, mobility may be an important One of the arguments in favor of an means for the workers to improve apprenticeship system is that this their own economic position. This facilitates labor market entry. Due to has frequently been proven especial- the higher proportion of firm and ly in the U.S., where job-changing occupational specific training, it is decisions account for at least one- believed that apprenticeship systems third of the early career wage reduce job shopping at the begin- growth. Moreover, mobility is also a ning of the working life. However, prerequisite for a functioning econ- while it is usually assumed that a omy under structural change. On the greater proportion of school-based other hand, excessive mobility is training is transferable between dif- often said to be undesirable for the ferent jobs, firms, and employers, economy as a whole and the indi- recent research on mobility among vidual in particular during the early apprenticeship-trained workers in stages of their career. We know that Germany suggests that the links too many job switches and inter- between vocational training and rupting unemployment periods may mobility are more complicated. After lead to losses in human capital, completion of an apprenticeship, decreasing earning potentials and mobility is relatively high, both limited capability to obtain employ- between firms and occupations. ment due to disadvantage signals. Hence, it has been suggested that a Furthermore, economy wide, long- nonnegligible percentage of the term labor relationships might be training is general. If this is the one prerequisite for a highly educat- case, it becomes more uncertain

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 201 Key Reference that the mobility outcomes of an These comparisons show first of all Korpi, T., & Mertens, A. (in apprenticeship system differ from that overall mobility rates, not at- press). Training systems those of a system in which voca- tributable to any measurable covari- and labor mobility. A comparison between German tional training is provided in schools, ate, are higher in Sweden than in and Sweden. Scandinavien rather than in firms. Germany. Looking deeper into the Journal of Economics. In Korpi and Mertens (in press), we mobility patterns, we find that no therefore, examine the link between stable differences in inter-firm mo- the different types of human capital bility can be discerned with regard and labor market mobility. Specifi- to the type of vocational training. cally, we focus on whether the im- Figure 2 shows that the German pact of apprenticeship training on survivor function for a typical voca- firm, occupation, and industry mo- tionally trained worker lies slightly bility differs from that of vocational above the Swedish curve, however, training in schools. We compare the difference is not significant. This mobility patterns of apprenticeship- suggests that the proportion of truly trained workers in Germany with firm-specific skills acquired during a that of vocationally trained workers German apprenticeship is rather low in Sweden, who received their train- in relation to the transferable skills ing in full-time schools. Since the obtained. It also implies that there is apprenticeship system in Germany little evidence for one of the pur- and the system of school-based vo- ported advantages of an apprentice- cational training in Sweden are the ship system in relation to a system standard routes to vocational quali- with school-based vocational train- fications in the two countries, the ing: It does not eliminate unneces- two groups could be expected to be sary and detrimental job shopping relatively similar. during the early stages of the career

Figure 2. Employer 1.0 changes: Baseline survivor Germany functions for representa- Sweden tive individuals. 0.8

0.6 Survival rate

0.4

0.2

0 100 200 Months

202 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 1.0 Figure 3. Occupational Germany changes: Baseline survivor functions for representa- Sweden tive individuals. 0.8

0.6 Survival rate

0.4

0.2 0 100 200 Months

Note. Based on Cox proportional hazard rate models with stratified baseline hazards. The reference person has one-year working experience, vocational training, works in the metal industry in a large firm, and has parents with lower secondary education. Unemployment and industry employment growth are evaluated at the mean. and does not simplify labor market industrial mobility are found (Korpi entrance. & Mertens, 2002). We therefore On the other hand, the results on conclude that although apprentice- inter-occupational mobility suggest ship training would appear to re- that the German labor market, induce occupational flexibility over deed, is more structured around the work career, with regard to eco- training occupations than in Sweden nomic adjustment, the choice be- where vocational training is school- tween vocational training systems based. Former apprentices have low- would seem rather inconsequential. er inter-occupational mobility indi- In future work by Mayer and cating that the skills obtained are Mertens, the relationship between less general than those gained training type and labor mobility will through vocational schools (see be looked at in more detail using Fig. 3). This would seem to contra- six West German birth cohorts from dict claims that the completion of 1940 to 1971. Bergemann and an apprenticeship is a signaling de- Mertens (2002) have already shown vice of worker quality rather than of that there seems to be a tendency occupational skill acquisition. for a decline in job stability during It is undoubtedly disadvantageous if the 1980s and 1990s. Our new individual careers require occupa- project will enable us to observe tional mobility. Negative side effects whether this is indeed a long-term can also be expected if occupational trend. We will ask whether it has flexibility is a necessary component really become more difficult to find for structural change. However, both a lifelong job since the late 1950s educational systems seem equally and, moreover, whether any differ- conducive to industrial relocation, ences between distinct educational as no country differences in inter- groups can be found.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 203 Fixed-Term Contracts, Wages, and will use the new life-course data to Transitions Between Different supplement these results. Overall, Labor Market States we find that temporary employment Another research area is also related in Germany is not as disadvanta- to the question of how to facilitate geous as many people believe, but economic adjustment and mobility. that temporary employees are a het- In McGinnity and Mertens (2002), erogeneous group. In fact, it seems we investigate whether the use of to make sense to speak of a “two- fixed-term contracts, intended to tier” market for temporary employ- facilitate mobility, has significant ment. Building on previous research (negative) effects on individual ca- on the wages of temporary employ- reer paths. These contracts are often ees that had found negative wage also called temporary contracts, differentials for employees on fixed- although temporary work can addi- term contracts compared to perma- tionally include agency or casual nent employees (Germany, Spain, and seasonal work. This research, France, UK), we show that ignoring however, focuses on those contracts unobserved differences between in- that are, by definition, not open- dividuals somewhat overestimated ended, but fixed to a maximum the wage differentials between per- duration from the start. manent and temporary workers. Labor market theories differ in their However, the wages of temporary perspectives on temporary employ- workers are still lower on average, ment. For some approaches, tempo- which seems to indicate some dis- rary employment is perceived to be crimination or segmentation of the disadvantageous for the labor mar- labor market. Controlling for endo- ket situation, resulting in low wages, geneity of the contract type vari- bad employment conditions, and able, on the other hand, makes the poor future prospects, in other wage differential become insignifi- words, a “trap.” In favor of this hy- cant. This indicates that workers on pothesis is evidence from a number fixed-term contracts tend to be of European countries showing that those who earn lower wages. Look- workers on a fixed-term contract ing at wage growth for two-year, tend to earn less than comparable five-year and ten-year intervals, we coworkers. For others, temporary further show that, on average, West employment is seen as a stepping- German male workers with fixed- stone to permanent employment, term contracts in the base year have often facilitating the transition into higher wage growth. West German working life from outside the labor women experience higher wage market, in other words, a “bridge.” growth at least in the short-run and In our work, we give some intriguing East German men in the long-run. new insights into wage differentials However, splitting up the sample by and wage dynamics, and the transi- quintiles we found that fixed-term tion behavior of fixed-term contract contract workers are only overrepre- workers using the German Socio- sented in the top quintile and higher Economic Panel (GSOEP) for East wage growth is not at all an overall and West Germans. Later studies phenomenon of fixed-term con-

204 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course tracts. This indicates that the an insecure labor market position. screening hypothesis may only be Workers falling into what is ar- relevant for some (better educated) guably the “middle-tier” in Ger- temporary workers. Results for East many—those with apprenticeship and West Germany are rather simi- training—are less likely to obtain a lar, though if anything overall differ- fixed-term contract. We argue that ences between temporary workers the period of apprenticeship training and permanent workers are not as already allows employers to screen marked in East Germany, at least in workers, reducing the requirement terms of wages. for fixed-term contracts. Indeed, in The screening hypothesis is further further research it would be inter- supported by the transitions analy- esting to investigate, in more depth, sis: We find that approximately 40% how the consequences of fixed-term of all temporary workers are in a employment are influenced by the permanent job in the following year. existence of a widespread and high- Most of these permanent jobs are ly developed system of apprentice- with the same employer. However, ship training, such as the system ex- since 12% to 18% of the temporary isting in Germany. employees are unemployed the fol- The question of what proportion of lowing year, temporary employment temporary employees falls into each could also be seen as a risky labor of the categories is more difficult to market situation. Multivariate mod- quantify. The wage growth estimates eling reveals to whom these rather indicate rapid growth for a smaller different scenarios apply: At least in group of temporary employees. the medium term, workers with However, the transition analysis more education tend to find perma- suggests that, at least in terms of nent employment. the move to permanent employ- These findings indicate considerable ment, a significant proportion of heterogeneity of outcomes for tem- temporary employees achieve per- porary employees, which supports manence, even in the very short the idea of a two-tier market for term (if we exclude ABM contracts, temporary employment in Germany. i.e., East German workers in employ- For highly skilled jobs temporary ment programs). On balance, we employment functions more as a conclude that the findings lend screening contract, a probation peri- more credence to the probation per- od, after which the employee is of- spective, with temporary employ- fered a permanent job and experiment providing a “bridge” for many ences rapid wage growth. For other into permanent employment. Cer- jobs, that is, low-skilled jobs with tainly, outcomes for temporary em- low qualification requirements, employees seem much more favorable ployers use temporary workers to in Germany than in Spain, where regulate fluctuations in demand. For conclusions on temporary employ- the individual employee in this kind ment are much more pessimistic. of temporary job, a permanent job is not guaranteed afterwards and, therefore, temporary employment is

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 205 East and West German Life Courses in the 1990s

Since the beginning of the political, economic, and social changes that took place in the former German Democratic Republic (GDR) after 1989, we have developed a unique database that includes quantitative life-course studies on five East German birth cohorts as well as qualitative accounts of institution (re)building and individual biographies. These data allow us to study the societal transformation in East Germany in a dynamic, longitudinal, and cross-national perspective. During the last decade, our research concentrated on a reconstruction of the GDR-society as well as on the consequences of the societal changes after 1989 for the occupational careers and family histories of East German women and men. The last two years were characterized by an increasing attention on the labor market entry of young persons. We studied, from an East German as well as from a comparative East- West German perspective, both how young women and men who received their schooling and, in most cases, an occupational training in the GDR managed the first steps into their occupational careers in unified Germany. Their life histories are obviously marked by occupational reorientation and a considerable postponement of childbirth. While many features of the early employment histories in East and West Germany are shaped by common traditions of education and occupational training, for example, the strong emphasis on “dual” firm- and school-based forms of training, the different economic circumstances of labor market entry and diverging employment traditions are responsible for a number of continuing differences.

Our main data come from two surveys carried out in 1991/92 and 1996/97 that collected life history information for the birth cohorts 1929–31, 1939–41, 1951–53, and 1959–62. While the first interviews captured the lives of these women and men in the GDR and the immediate unification period, the second survey allowed following the same people through the time of societal transformation. Approximately 60% of the more than 2,300 women and men, who participated in 1991/92, could be reinterviewed in 1996/97. A fifth cohort, with more than 700 persons born in 1971, was added in the second survey. The design of the questionnaire allows comparisons of this cohort with (a) the older East German cohorts, (b) the West German 1971 birth cohort, and (c) a Polish 1971 birth cohort which was surveyed by Bogdan Mach from the Polish Academy of Sciences in Warsaw. Our data are complemented by a cross-sectional postal questionnaire from 1993 which provides information on social networks, control beliefs, and self-effectiveness estimates, thus, allowing us to study these issues over time, and by a nonresponse survey carried out in 1996/97 with persons who were in the original sample, but did not participate in 1991/92.

Consequences of the East German tinuous employment, predictable Transformation on Labor Market occupational career, and family for- Entry mation were superseded by uncer- During the system transformation in tain educational and occupational East Germany, the close linkages options. What consequences did the between the educational and the transfer of the educational and employment system were weakened. training system from West to East Regulated labor market entry, con- Germany, the loss of guaranteed

206 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course future employment in the training complish a definitive (labor market Key Reference firm, the huge economic restructur- entrance) event earlier, later, or not Matthes, B. (2002). ing, extensive occupational change, at all? Brücken und Stolpersteine auf dem Weg ins Erwerb- and the rising mass unemployment In Matthes (2002) we look at these sleben. Die Folgen der have for the labor market entry? questions based on our retrospective Transformation für den Er- werbseinstieg ostdeutscher Research on changing labor market longitudinal data collected in the Jugendlicher. Dissertation, entry during East German transfor- project “East German life courses Freie Universität Berlin. mation documented a continuous after the Unification.” Starting from structural deficiency of the system the analysis of the institutional link- of transition from school to employ- age between the educational and ment (Konietzka, 2001). But, even employment system before and after up to now, it is unclear what mech- transformation, the transition from anisms determined labor market school to employment of people entry during transformation. born in 1971 in East Germany is The investigation of labor market compared with those of the 1959– entry during East German transfor- 61 cohort. It is apparant that the mation is confronted with a partic- time of labor market entry of young ular theoretical challenge. The tran- people starting vocational training sition from school to work and the or extended secondary schooling changing linkage between the edu- before 1989 was delayed compared cational and employment system to the time of labor market entry in need to be conceptualized as inter- the GDR. The completion of the first dependent processes. An analysis of vocational training was already de- present approaches shows that con- layed as a result of the increase in ventional methods and instruments numbers of young people who had obviously cannot manage this prob- to leave vocational training without lem. In her doctoral thesis, Matthes certificate (due to closures of estab- (2002) argued that the adequate lishments, terminations of branches investigation of labor market en- of study, and closures of educational trance procedure during processes institutes). Further, it was delayed of institutional change might be by the clearly extended duration of safeguarded by a combination of gaining a university degree. More- different analytical perspectives. On over, many labor market entrants the one hand, if we find labor mar- who were unable to find a job after ket entry to be highly standardized their apprenticeship moved on to a and unchanged, we will only look at second vocational training. However, the investigation of the average the difficulties of the transition labor market entrance patterns. On from vocational training into the the other hand, if a large or in- first employment, during East creasing number of destandardized German transformation, were less labor market entrance patterns dramatic than expected. Apparently, exists, this procedure tends to result these were prevented during the in misleading interpretations. There- early 1990s because apprentices fore, it is necessary to take the were still employed by their appren- tendencies of destandardization ticeship firms and due to generous into account: What conditions ac- retraining measures.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 207 Connectivity of Occupational tainty about the further economic Certificates structure—provided a possibility to The training occupation certainly is avoid unemployment temporarily. a major determinant for an uninter- However, this additionally did not rupted and unproblematic labor necessarily have the expected market entry. For those who started effects on later employment careers. vocational training before 1989, many certificates proved to be ap- Gender Differences propriate for the rapidly changing In comparison to young men, labor market and there were strong women’s labor market entry length- links between vocational training, ened to a greater extent. Conversely, the first job taken, and the early oc- if they were able to find employ- cupational career even during East ment after finishing vocational German transformation. In the 1971 training, women and men were cohort, a large percentage of the equally likely to find a job matching occupational certificates have, how- their vocational training (see Fig. 5).

Figure 4. Congruence of 90 occupational activity and 1960s all certificates 1960s first certificate certificate. 80 1971s all certificates 1971s first certificate

Percent 60

40 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 5.5 6 Years after starting first employment

ever, been devaluated during the Particularly women, who attended a East German transformation as can vocational training in social services be seen from Figure 4. or education, were employed more Young people trained in occupations frequently and also remained longer that proved to be nonappropriate to in the occupation and position for the changing labor market were which they were trained. The gen- faced with the question of whether der-specific segregation of the ap- they should attend another voca- prenticeships in the GDR simultane- tional training. In general, vocation- ously aggravated and weakened the al retraining may be interpreted as inequality between women and men. an arrangement to readjust the Obviously, during East German employee’s qualifications to the transformation, employment possi- requirements of the labor market. bilities were more strongly differen- But, in the case of the East German tiated between women with differ- transformation, vocational retrain- ent educational levels and occupa- ing—due to the substantial uncer- tional certificates than between

208 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course men. Additionally, the incorporated the labor market. Cohabitation—an West German institutions of family almost irrelevant criteria in the policy differentiated stronger be- GDR—became more important for tween women in different family the labor market entry. A young positions than in the GDR. Childbirth cohabiting person was employed and child-care in the GDR did not more often in the same occupation prevent women from being em- continuously, but experienced dis- ployed. During East German trans- continuity more in their further formation, young mothers were educational and employment career. almost completely excluded from

1959–61Women Men Figure 5. Distribution of education and employ- 100 100 O O ment by historical time. 90 ML 90 VS VS MCS 80 80 EMO EMO 70 70 ESO ESO 60 60 50 VT 50 VT Percent Percent 40 40 UPS EFO UPS EFO 30 30 20 ESS 20 ESS US 10 10 US 0 0 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 Years Years

1971 100 O 100 VS ML O 90 90 VS MCS 80 RT 80 RT UE EMO 70 EMO 70 UE ESO 60 60 ESO 50 50 Percent 40 VT EFO Percent 40 VT UPS UPS EFO 30 30 20 20 US US 10 ESS 10 ESS 0 0 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 Years Years

UPS = Unitary Politechnical School (POS); ESS = Extended Secondary School; VT = Vocational Training; VS = Vocational Stream of extended secondary school; US = University Study; EFO = Employment in First Occupation; ESO = Employment in Second Occupation; EMO = Employment in third and further Occupation; UE = Unemployed; RT = Retraining; ML = Maternity Leave; MCS = Military or Civilian Service; O = Others.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 209 Occupational Sex Segregation high degree of occupational segre- The division of labor markets into gation. For the year 1991, the Dun- jobs for women and jobs for men is can Index of dissimilarity shows that analyzed in another project. This is more than 61% of all employed especially interesting because two women (or men) in the East and highly sex-segregated, but distinct almost 57% in the West would have employment systems have begun to to change their occupations to merge since unification in 1990. An reach an even distribution. extraordinary opportunity is provid- However, the patterns of occupa- ed, therefore, to study how sudden tional segregation behind these rel- changes in institutions and econom- atively similar levels of segregation ic conditions in a society shape were rather different. In both parts mechanisms of gender inequality. In of Germany, male occupations (with a series of papers, Trappe and more than 70% men) outnumbered Goedicke analyze whether East and female occupations (at least 70% West Germany showed convergence women). Conversely 23% of all or continuing differences of female occupations in East Germany, com- and male work domains in the pared to only 14% in West Germany, course of the 1990s. Levels, pat- were female. terns, and trends of occupational An examination of the distribution segregation by sex at the macro- of the workforce across gender- level of society have been studied typed occupational fields corrobo- (Goedicke & Trappe, in press) as well rates that the East German employ- as the consequences of gender- ment system was “more female” typed occupations for individual em- than the West German system in the ployment opportunities (Trappe & beginning of the 1990s. This differ- Goedicke, in press). The analyses ence between the distributions was combine two types of data: Longitu- mainly produced by women in East dinal data from the German Life Germany, who concentrated much History Study for the East and West more in gender-typed jobs than in German 1971 birth cohort informs West Germany. While two-thirds of about individual employment ca- all East German women worked in reers. Microcensus data from a 1% female occupations, nearly half of household population survey provide all West German women were occu- information about the distribution pied in a mixed occupational field of women and men across 249 oc- with 30% to 70% men. Some occu- cupational categories and have been pations differed in their gender type available for East and West Germany between the two regions, for exam- since 1991. ple, a clerk was a mixed occupation in the West, but a predominately Levels and Major Differences in female occupation in the East. Patterns of Occupational Sex These patterns were caused by the Segregation different employment traditions of At the beginning of the 1990s, both women in East and West Germany the East and West German labor and result from dissimilarities in the markets were characterized by a industrial structure in the form of

210 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course job queues, gender ideology, labor A closer look at the percentage of Key References requirements, and family policies women and men in certain occupa- Trappe, H., & Rosenfeld, between the GDR and the FRG be- tions (see Fig. 6) reveals that East R. A. (2001a). Geschlechts- spezifische Segregation in fore unification. Throughout the Germany was in an exceptional situ- der DDR und der BRD. Im 1990s, female labor force participa- ation in the 1990s. While women Verlauf der Zeit und im Lebensverlauf. In B. Heintz tion in the East remained more than made inroads into formerly male (Ed.), Geschlechtersoziolo- 10 percentage points higher than in work domains throughout the West- gie (pp. 152–181). Wies- baden: Westdeutscher Ver- the West, despite the fact that it ern world since the 1970s, in East lag (Kölner Zeitschrift für declined rapidly during the first Germany relatively more occupa- Soziologie und Sozialpsy- years after unification. East German tions had a tendency toward “mas- chologie, Special Issue 41). Rosenfeld, R. A., & Trappe, women, even with small children, culinization,” compared to “femi- H. (2002). Occupational regard their employment as a matter nization.” In West Germany the pic- sex segregation in state of course and economic necessity, ture was rather balanced. The work socialist and market economies: Levels, pat- because the men’s jobs are often domains, with increasing percent- terns, and change in East insecure and wages remain lower ages of men in the East, include and West Germany—1980s and 1998. In K. T. Leicht than in the Western part of the occupations from the full range of (Ed.), The future of market country. skill hierarchy, from university pro- transition. Research in social stratification and mo- fessors to warehouse laborers. They bility (Vol. 19, pp. 231– Diverging Trends in Occupational contain many qualified white-collar 267). Oxford: Elsevier Sex Segregation jobs (e.g., bank employee, social Science. During the 1990s, there was basical- worker, tax consultant, librarian) ly no decline in the extent of sepa- that had been woman-dominated at ration of women and men at work unification. Resegregation takes in West Germany. In East Germany, place especially within the industrial occupational segregation even in- sector and in agriculture with occu- creased slightly due to the changing pations that were mixed or male be- occupational structure as well as coming more male. This increasing due to changes in the sex composi- closure of male-dominated occupation within occupations (Rosenfeld tions toward women is largely & Trappe, 2002). responsible for the persisting high

West Germany Figure 6. Changes in the gender composition of oc- Masculinized cupations between 1991 and 1997 (at least 5 percentage point difference). Feminized

East Germany

Masculinized

Feminized

012345678 Occupations (in %) (classified by StabBu92)

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 211 level of segregation in East Germany German women. This was true for while the intrusion of men into every second West German, but only qualified jobs, once dominated by every fourth East German woman. In women, increases competition contrast, two out of three young among women and men within women in East Germany were those occupations that might have trained and employed in a female- been previously less competitive. In typed occupation (e.g., secretary, the West, occupations gaining a rel- nurse, preschool teacher). While it is atively higher percentage of men are well known that women are con- mainly middle-level blue-collar jobs fined to a limited range of occupa- in crafts and industries that had tions, generally not much attention been previously mixed or male-dom- is paid to the fact that men are even inated. Many of the service economy more likely to work in occupations jobs, in which West German women dominated by their own gender. increased their representation, are More than two out of three West located at the middle or upper part German and even four out of five of the qualification spectrum (e.g., East German men of that birth judge, physician, financial official, cohort received their training in a legal representative). male-typed occupation (e.g., electri- To investigate the relationship be- cian, mechanic). Due to the tight tween macro-level patterns of seg- linkage between the training and regation and individual employment the occupational system, gender prospects we will look now at some segregation in the former was large- correlates and outcomes of occupa- ly transmitted to the latter. We find tional sex segregation in East and high levels of occupational segrega- West Germany. By using life-history tion across the early work life, as data, we explore how occupational well as evidence of the “holding- segregation occurs and is main- power” of occupations with a contained. centration of incumbents of the worker’s gender. Mobility between High Levels of Gender-Typed occupations of different gender Occupational Training and Early types is a rare phenomenon and the Careers power of occupational certificates to For young women and men who shape young persons’ employment were born in 1971 in East and West trajectories persists over the early Germany, occupational training and career. labor force entry took place in highly gender-segregated work domains. Different Consequences of Gender- With one exception, women and Typed Training for Women’s Labor men were crowded within occupa- Market Entry in East and West tions that were dominated by their Germany own gender. Due to their high share Investigating consequences of gen- among office clerks, West German der-typed occupational training on women were more likely to be women’s and men’s employment, we trained and employed in a gender- concentrate on two important di- integrated occupation than East mensions: status-adequate and con-

212 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course tent-adequate employment. Follow- German women, who were trained ing their occupational training, at for female-typed occupations, sub- least 87% of young women and men sequently carried higher risks of in both parts of Germany obtained working below their acquired quali- their first job in accordance with the fications than women who received level of their training and at least other types of training. These differ- 79% worked in an occupation for ent results for women in both parts which they were trained. However, of Germany indicate that conse- remarkable differences exist accord- quences of gender-typed training ing to the gender type of training are modified by economic develop- received, especially for women. Ob- ment and occupational change that viously, women’s employment op- varied considerably in East and West portunities are more affected by a Germany in the 1990s. gender-typed occupational prepara- tion than men’s. East German Persisting Inequalities of women with female-typed training Opportunities for Adequate had higher chances to enter the Occupational Placement Over the labor market in a status-adequate Early Employment History occupational position as well as in Further empirical analyses show that the occupation for which they the consequences of gender-typed received training than women who occupational training are not limited completed their training in an inte- to labor force entry, but persist over grated or male-typed occupation. the early employment history. As These effects were largely due to the Figure 7 illustrates, the initial con- lower unemployment risks and more trast between young women in East favorable employment prospects in and West Germany was still evident occupational fields dominated by later. While East German women, women in East Germany or, more who received their first vocational generally, to the relative growth of training or higher education for a the service sector. In contrast, West female-typed occupation, spent

100 Figure 7. Time spent between age 18 and inter- 80 view according to gender type of first occupational training (1971 birth co- 60 hort).

Percent 40

0 Gender Non- Gender Non- Gender Non- Gender Non- typical typical typical typical typical typical typical typical training training training training training training training training East German women East German men West German women West German men School Occupational training Status-adequate employment Overqualification Unemployment Other nonemployment

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 213 relatively more time working at the difference that is prevalent for level for which they were trained women only, makes clear that the and less time working below their relationship between occupational qualification than women who sex segregation and employment received different training or educa- rewards depends on the larger eco- tion, the opposite was true for West nomic development. German women. Here women with At the macro-level, our findings gender-typed training were relative- refuse ideas about fast convergence ly more affected by overqualification of employment divisions between than women who received training women and men in East and West for occupations with a higher share Germany. At the level of individual of men. This difference points to employment histories, we have risks that are often associated with shown that consequences of occu- female-typed occupations, for pational segregation vary between example, fewer opportunities for up- the gender groups as well as be- ward mobility and further education. tween different characteristics of At the same time, the East-West careers.

The Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 2002

Left to right: (front row) Frances McGinnity, Maike Reimer, Marita Jacob, Matthias Pollmann-Schult; (middle row) Erika M. Hoerning, Holger Seibert, Karl Ulrich Mayer, Anke Höhne, Juan Rafael Morillas Martinéz; (back row) Anne Goedicke, Felix Büchel, Antje Mertens, Heike Trappe, Britta Matthes, Steffen Hillmert; not pictured: Helga Zeiher, Alessandra Rusconi, Gero Lenhardt.

214 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Political Economy and the Life Course in Advanced Societies (POLIS) In various studies, we put the empirical results about education and training in Germany into an international context. Especially Britain with its very different system of education and training and its deregulated labor market, has been a particular point of reference for the analyses of educational and employment careers.

Different Welfare State in these dimensions, especially in Key References Regimes and First Labor Market Britain. Hillmert, S. (2001a). Aus- Experiences bildungssysteme und Ar- beitsmarkt. Lebensverläufe Hillmert (2001a, 2002d) compares Welfare State Regimes and in Großbritannien und processes of labor market entry and Unemployment Deutschland im Kohorten- vergleich. Wiesbaden: early career stages in Britain and Comparing Britain and Germany in Westdeutscher Verlag West Germany, starting from the the 1990s, McGinnity (in press) (290 p.). characteristics of the respective looks at how welfare policies affect Hillmert, S. (2002d). Labour market integration institutional structures in which outcomes for individual unemployed and institutions: An human capital is formed and allo- persons. In Germany, unemployment Anglo-German comparison. Work, Employment & cated. The two national systems of is seen to be more of a risk which Society, 19, 675–701. formal institutions can be regarded individuals insure themselves McGinnity, F. (in press). as generating particular modes of against, the insurance being admin- Unemployment and wel- coordination between education istered by the state. In Britain, com- fare policies: A comparison of Britain and Germany. and the labor market, that is, that pensation for the unemployed is pri- Cheltenham, UK: Edward the labor market integration of marily through means-tested bene- Elgar. young people follows different rules fits, paid from tax revenue only to in the two countries. A general those in need. McGinnity studies the model that distinguishes between a implications of these major differ- horizontal, a vertical, and a tempo- ences in welfare provision for the ral dimension of the process of in- lives of the unemployed people. She tegration into the labor market addresses these issues by combining provided a frame of reference. These an in-depth analysis of unemploy- dimensions are also pursued in em- ment policies with a detailed statis- pirical terms: Effects of formal tical analysis of individual outcomes qualifications on the quality of the using large similar nationally repre- first employment are assessed and sentative data sources (BHPS and the multidimensional stability of GSOEP). The principal outcomes entry positions in early careers is considered are (a) income poverty analyzed. In Britain coordination is, rates and income change, (b) dura- to a larger extent, achieved by the tions of unemployment, and (c) the criteria of timing, in addition to the effects of unemployment on the la- hierarchical grading of qualifica- bor market transitions of partners. tions; in Germany the latter, as well In general, relative income poverty as substantive occupational skills, rates and income falls are greater play a major role. There have also for the unemployed in Britain than been important historical changes in Germany, but differences between

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 215 Key Reference types of benefit are greater in Ger- benefit on partners’ employment in McGinnity, F. (2002). The many. The unemployed receiving Britain. These findings suggest that labour force participation Social Assistance (Sozialhilfe) in the effects of the benefit system on of the wives of unemployed men: Comparing Germany are a marginalized group, a partner’s employment should be Britain and West Germany and face a very high risk of poverty considered in both the debates on using longitudinal data. European Sociological as well as unemployed single moth- comparative welfare regimes and Review, 18 (4), 473–488. ers in Germany. Indeed, household the policy discussion of “workless” situation is very important for households. understanding the risk of income Some of the policy implications of poverty among the unemployed—a this research are that while an un- cushioning effect of second earners employment insurance system, such is found in both countries. as in Germany, may be costly, it has McGinnity (in press) then compares the advantage of lower rates of durations of unemployment in income poverty among the unem- Britain and Germany among ployed and fewer disincentives for stronger and weaker labor market partners of the unemployed to work. groups—the weaker groups being A means-tested benefit system with women, youth, and low skilled. Un- low rates of benefit, like the current like in other highly regulated labor British system, does not guarantee markets, only women are signifi- quicker reemployment and may dis- cantly disadvantaged in Germany, courage partners of the unemployed relative to Britain. Comparing the to look for work. effect of unemployment benefit on exit from unemployment, it is Social Class and Unemployment crucial to consider the effect of McGinnity and Hillmert (2002) have benefits not in isolation, but in con- investigated the salience of class junction with the education systems, structures in a comparative perspec- labor market regulations, and family tive. How is the risk of unemploy- structures. In addition, one needs ment distributed among social class- to consider the effect of those who es, and has there been a trend in leave the labor market for unem- recent decades? Some commenta- ployment durations. tors argue that societies are becom- In a closely related paper, McGinnity ing increasingly individualized, with (2002) compares the effect of un- unemployment affecting a large employment and welfare benefits on proportion of the population, while the labor market behavior of other social stratification researchers family members—in this case the claim that significant class inequali- wives of unemployed men. When ty in life prospects persists. Are such one partner in a couple becomes processes similar in all countries? unemployed, one might suppose Differences in education systems, that the other partner will find a job welfare, and labor market institu- to supplement the household in- tions probably have implications for come. While some evidence of the class-related risks. There is a signifi- predicted added worker effect is cant difference between the British found in Germany, results indicate a and German institutions. Therefore, disincentive effect of means-tested the key research questions have

216 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course been: How does the risk of unem- risks, although for most cohorts ployment vary by social class in dif- there has been less difference in ferent cohorts and across the two class-related risks in Germany. There countries? Using life-course data is no evidence of an equalization of spanning nearly 30 years, McGinnity unemployment risks across cohorts. and Hillmert found (see Fig. 8) that Rather, the story is mainly one of in both countries class has been a rising inequality in Britain and per- good predictor of unemployment sisting inequality in Germany.

Britain Figure 8. Class-specific risk 50 of unemployment, by birth cohort, age 25. EGP I/II 40 EGP IIIa/V EGP VI 30 EGP IIIb/VIIa

0 Cohort 50 Cohort 55 Cohort 60 Cohort 64 Cohort 71

Germany 50 EGP I/II 40 EGP IIIa/V EGP VI 30 EGP IIIb/VIIa

0 Cohort 50 Cohort 55 Cohort 60 Cohort 64 Cohort 71

Note. Class-specific risk measured at age 23 for the birth cohorts 1971, due to limited observation periods. Social class was coded according to the Erikson-Goldthorpe-Portocarero (EGP) schema (Erikson & Goldthorpe, 1993). The class position of unemployed people is defined by the social class of the last job. To focus on a more specific part of the employment system, we do not consider self-employed and agricultur- al workers. For reasons of sample size, we aggregate the other classes into four groups, which are theoretically relevant for our investigation, namely (1) Upper service class, EGP I and II, (2) Routine service class and supervisors, EGP IIIa and V, (3) Skilled manual workers, EGP VI, and (4) Unskilled manual and non- manual workers, EGP VIIa and IIIb.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 217 Education and Mismatch in the Labor Market

Key Reference Productivity Losses Caused by Overeducation and Suboptimal Female Büchel, F., de Grip, A., & Labor Supply Mertens, A. (Eds.). (in It is well recognized that unemployment causes great welfare losses and so- press). Overeducation in Europe: Current issues in cial problems in all industrialized societies. However, it is less obvious which theory and policy. losses are generated by the fact that even employees might have unused Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. and, therefore, unproductive skills when working in jobs for which they are overqualified. Skills are also unused when people’s labor supply, here especially the mothers’, is restricted by family constraints. One of the main aims of this project is to draw attention to these facts and to show that the actual loss produced by mismatch in employment considerably exceeds the loss indicated by unemployment statistics, even if analyses of hidden labor reserves are taken into account. An important question within this project is how these hidden labor reserves can be reactivated.

"rSr + "#S# + "uSu + $ · ln W = X! + "rSr + "#S# + "uSu + $ · ln W = X! + "rSr + "uSu + $ · ln W = X! + "rSr + "#S# + "uSu + $ · ln W = X! + "rSr + "#S# + "uSu = X! + "rSr + "#S# + "uSu + $ · ln W = X! + "rSr + "#S# + "uSu + $ · ln W = X! + German research focusing explicitly or Human Development on overeducation is still rare, but P 06-373 F 39 rapidly developing. In terms of pub- pib-berlin.mpg.de w de lication activities, this project is, by far, the most productive in Germany. /roa After the Max Planck Institute for Human Development (MPIB) Mis- match Project was initiated in 1998, it released more than 20 publications. These include an edited volume that gathers selected papers from our November 2002 conference—the first conference that explicitly focused on overeducation, jointly organized by the Research Centre for Education and the Labor Market (ROA) at Maastricht Uni- versity and the Mismatch Project. The program reflected the state of the art in ongoing overeducational research.

218 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Labor Market Entrants and and the more challenging occupa- Key Reference Overeducation tional fields. Büchel, F. (2002c). Suc- An important part of the project in Concerning the type of education, cessful apprenticeship- to-work transitions: On past years focused on the labor we also dealt with the question why the long-term change in market entrants in Germany by overeducation in Germany is much significance of the German school-leaving certificate. using data from our Life History more widespread among nongradu- International Journal of Studies. Although the German ates with vocational qualifications Manpower (Special Issue), school system is characterized by a than among graduates (for a the- 23 (5), 394–410. strong and persistent trend toward matically broad mismatch analysis higher education, most German for the latter group cf., Büchel et al., school-leavers still enter into voca- 2002). Based on the theoretical con- tional training in the form of an siderations of branch-specific train- apprenticeship. We tested whether ing and hiring strategies that are the vocational training system is related to net costs of training, capable of adapting to the changed Neubäumer developes a plausible circumstances, that is, to continue theoretical framework to explain to offer young people a form of this type of mismatch (Neubäumer, training that will protect them from 1999). Branches that offer employ- later unemployment or overeduca- ment with poor working conditions tion (Büchel 2002c). In this paper, are expected to train more appren- the quality of labor market entry tices than required later as skilled achieved by newly qualified appren- workers. This strategy compensates tices in West Germany is analyzed for the above-average rates of an- from 1948 to 1992. A bivariate ticipated dropout, resulting in a probit model, using data from the systematic overproduction of skills BIBB/IAB Employment Survey, is ap- in specific occupations (ironically, plied to simultaneously estimate the mainly in those occupations with a quality of the school-to-apprentice- low market applicability, such as ship transition and that of the later hairdressing). Hence, those trained apprenticeship-to-work transition. in these branches tend to have This shows that school-leavers with above-average rates of overeduca- lower levels of general education tion (and unemployment). Analyzing have been selected into apprentice- data from the BIBB/IAB Employment ships with less favorable employ- Survey, we can empirically support ment prospects in all analyzed time Neubäumer’s theoretical model periods. However, when controlling (Büchel & Neubäumer, 2001, 2002). for this selection effect, it is only in A related research interest motivat- the most recent period that people ed the article by Büchel and Poll- with lower academic achievement mann-Schult (2002), who focus on are further penalized for the short- apprenticeship-trained people comings in their general education employed in low-skilled jobs. The in the apprenticeship-to-work tran- question was whether these over- sition. Furthermore, the crowding- educated workers can achieve an out of trainees with lower levels of “occupational comeback”: Can they general education could have been return to a qualified job that offers observed in both the less demanding a better use of their acquired skills?

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 219 Key References The earlier detected typological sim- their colleagues without any formal Büchel, F. (2001b). ilarity between unemployment and vocational training (see Fig. 9). Overqualification: Reasons, overeducation (Büchel, 2001b) Furthermore, we find that the quali- measurement issues, and typological affinity to un- helped us to adopt standard tech- ty of the school-leaving certificate employment. In P. Descy & niques from unemployment research does have a highly significant influ- M. Tessaring (Eds.), Train- ing in Europe: Second rein longitudinal analyses in the con- ence on the upward mobility from a port on vocational training text of overeducation. For that pur- low-skilled to a qualified job. The research in Europe 2000. (Vol. 2, pp. 453–560). pose, we used data collected by the transition rate for qualified workers Luxembourg: Office for German Life History Study (GLHS) with a lower school certificate and Official Publications of the European Communities. and employed parametric hazard school-dropouts without any school Büchel, F. (2002a). The rate models. Since in this data infor- certificate is significantly lower than effects of overeducation mation about the job demand level for workers with a higher intermedi- on productivity in Ger- is not available, we first had to ate school-leaving certificate (see many: The firms’ view- point. Economics of Edu- develop a tool to generate a proxy Fig. 10). cation Review, 21 (3), variable for the job requirement Further, we analyze transitions from 263–275. level from information on the occu- unemployment to overeducated and pation and occupational position correctly allocated work. We can (Pollmann-Schult & Büchel, 2002b). confirm that accepting an overedu- The phase of work in a low-skilled cated position after a relatively job often proves to be only tempo- short time is a valuable second best rary for overeducated workers who strategy for many unemployed, es- have successfully completed an pecially for those who are not eligi- apprenticeship of intermediate or ble for unemployment benefits (Poll- high quality. In contrast, it often mann-Schult & Büchel, in press). means long-term professional Using Büchel (2001c, 2002a) as a downgrading for overeducated starting point, we wanted to further workers with only a low-quality ap- investigate the question of how prenticeship degree (Pollmann- overeducated workers differ in Schult & Büchel, 2002a). In that personal characteristics from their case, future career prospects are not correctly allocated peers. For that significantly better than those of purpose we made use of the fact

Figure 9. Survivor func- 1.0 tions of an upward move from a low-skilled job to a 0.9 qualified job (by quality of vocational training). 0.8

0.7

0.6

Survivor functions 0.5

0.4 No formal vocational training Intermediate quality of vocational training Low quality of vocational training High quality of vocational training 0.3 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 Months of employment in a low-skilled job

220 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course that the latest data collection of the of the career mobility theory by Key Reference German Life History Study (GLHS) Sicherman and Galor (1990), in the Büchel, F., & Mertens, A. contained information on school context of overeducation. Büchel (in press). Overeducation, undereducation, and the grades, which most German labor and Mertens (in press) estimate ran- theory of career mobility. market data do not provide. Apply- dom effects models to analyze rela- Applied Economics. ing a trivariate probit model, we tive wage growth using data from could confirm that both the type the German Socio-Economic Panel and grade of school-leaving certifi- (GSOEP). We find that overeducated cate has a strong effect on the workers in Germany have markedly overeducation risk later. The quality lower relative wage growth rates of the vocational training chosen, than adequately educated workers. only impacts on that risk when the These results cast serious doubt on strong selectivity effects in certain whether the career mobility model is types of schools and vocational capable of explaining overeducation training remain unconsidered. Con- in Germany. The finding supports the sistent with existing literature, they plausibility of the results that over- find that the risk of overeducation educated workers have less access decreases with increasing traditional to formal and informal on-the-job skill measures, such as experience, training, which is usually found to tenure, on-the-job training, and be positively correlated with wage further education. growth even when controlling for Finally, we replicated Sicherman selectivity effects. (1991), who tested the effectiveness

1.0 Figure 10. Survivor functions of an upward move 0.9 from a low-skilled job to a qualified job (by school- 0.8 leaving certificate).

0.7

0.6

Survivor functions 0.5 Lower or no school-leaving certificate Lower intermediate school-leaving certificate 0.4 Upper intermediate school-leaving certificate 0.3 0 12 24 36 48 60 72 84 Months of employment in a low-skilled job

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 221 Key References Female Labor Supply some mixed support for the differ- Büchel, F., & Battu, H. A growing proportion of the Mis- ential overqualification hypothesis. (2003). The theory of dif- match Project is devoted to analyz- An extended approach was chosen ferential overqualification: Does it work? Scottish ing female labor supply. According by Büchel and van Ham (Büchel & Journal of Political Econo- to the theory of differential van Ham, in press). They argue that my, 50, 1–16. overqualification developed by Frank the analysis of differential overqual- Büchel, F., & van Ham, M. (in press). Overeducation, (1978), married women living in ification in a spatial context should regional labour markets, rural areas run a higher risk of being not only focus on married women in and spatial flexibility. Journal of Urban Econom- employed in jobs for which they small labor markets, but also on ics. are overqualified. This is due to the other risk groups: For most workers, problem of a dual job search being access to suitable employment is much more difficult to optimize severely restricted by the fact that than a single job search. In such a they look for jobs in the regional situation, husbands tend to follow a labor market rather than in the “Male Chauvinist Family Location global one. In their paper, Büchel Decision Rule“ and optimize their and van Ham analyzed how macro- personal job search—possibly by level opportunities (regional market interregional migration. Wives are characteristics) and micro-level “tied movers“ or “tied stayers“ restrictions (the extent to which job (Mincer, 1978) and look for employ- searchers are restricted to the ment only under the condition that regional market) can help to explain their husbands already have found the phenomenon of overeducation. their optimal job—which determines A variant of the Heckman two-step their specific local labor market. procedure is applied to control for Particularly in rural areas with small selective access to employment. The local labor markets, this leads to a results show that the size of the higher risk of mismatch between labor market is an important factor formal qualifications and job rein avoiding overeducation. quirements. Only McGoldrick and Related to this line of research is Robst (1996) and Battu, Seaman, the question of whether day-care and Sloane (2000) have previously provision influences female labor empirically tested this theory, and supply decisions. In a report on their results lead them to reject it. behalf of the Federal Ministry for In contrast, our own findings are Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, and consistent with Frank’s theory Women and Youth, we analyze the (Büchel, 2000). Instead of speculat- relationship between the day-care ing about the factors that produce situation of children and labor mar- this unsatisfactory discrepancy in ket activities of their mothers. Based result patterns, we look for coopera- on the German Socio-Economic tion between the Battu et al. group Panel (GSOEP) data from the year and ours. In this fruitful cooperation 2000, we find that especially for we (Büchel & Battu, 2003) use data West Germany and for children aged from the German Socio-Economic three to six a more intense care Panel (GSOEP). Unlike previous stud- (e.g., full-time instead of part-time ies, these data control for commut- care) is strongly correlated with a ing distances. The results provide better labor supply of mothers and

222 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course better jobs (Büchel & Spieß, 2002a; tion from a representative popula- Key References Spieß, Büchel, & Frick, 2002). Based tion sample, the GSOEP, different Büchel, F., & Spieß, C. K. on the GSOEP data on the provision models were estimated. The results (2002a). Form der Kinder- betreuung und Arbeits- of day-care vacancies on the district indicate that there is no significant marktverhalten von Müt- level, we also estimate multinominal correlation between Kindergarten tern in West- und Ost- deutschland. Report on logit models to analyze the proba- attendance of children of German behalf of the Federal bility of working part-time or full- citizens and children’s later school Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women time, respectively. Our results show placement. However, for children in and Youth. Stuttgart: that a better provision with day- immigrant households the reserve is Kohlhammer (Vol. 220 of the Ministry’s Series) care slots for preschool children of true: Later school placement is sig- (108 p.). three years and older increases the nificantly associated with Kinder- Spieß, C. K., Büchel, F., & probability of working part-time, garten attendance prior to school Wagner, G. G. (in press). while the provision of day-care enrollment. This shows the impor- Children’s school placement in Germany: Does vacancies for younger children up to tance of offering sufficient day-care Kindergarten allendance two-years-old does not show any facilities especilly for working moth- matter? Early Childhood Research Quarterly. significant effect. A higher propor- ers with an immigration background. tion of full-time day-care among all day-care vacancies increases the Family Type and Poverty probability of part-time employment Those people living in “atypical” fa- as well as the one of full-time milial constellations, such as large employment. From a policy perspec- families or single mothers, face a tive, our results are important since higher income risk than others. The there is hardly any German micro- main reason for this is the restricted econometric study that shows a sig- access of mothers to the labor mar- nificant relationship between the ket caused by the higher require- provision of day-care and the moth- ment of mothers taking child-care ers’ employment decision. If the responsibilities. In a first study, we political goal is to increase the pos- analyze trends in the relative in- sibilities to combine work and family come position of large families con- life, our results indicate that an sisting of two parents and three or extension of the provision of full- more children in Germany using the time day-care is needed (Büchel & GSOEP data on equivalent household Spieß, 2002b; Spieß & Büchel, incomes (Büchel & Trappe, 2001). As 2003). expected, our results confirm that The positive effects of day-care pro- the income situation of large fami- vision have also been proved in an- lies is relatively poor compared to other context than in that of female that of other household types. How- labor support. The study by Spieß, ever, a slight improvement over time Büchel and Wagner (in press) exam- can be observed for German families ines the relationship between in West Germany. For large immi- Kindergarten attendance and the grant families in West Germany, at 7th-grade school placement of chil- least no deterioration in relative dren in West Germany, differentiat- income position was observed. In ing associations for the children of contrast, the relative income posi- German citizens as compared to tion of large East German families those of immigrants. Using informa- worsened markedly over the years

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 223 following unification. The results of separated or divorced. To take ac- error component models controlling count of the very different labor for the age, education, and employ- supply behavior of single and mar- ment status of both parents show ried mothers, we reestimated the that in both West and East German multivariate model under considera- households, the mother’s employ- tion of this selectivity using the ment status has a particularly strong Heckman approach. Not controlling impact on the household income for this selectivity problem mainly position. causes an overestimation of the In a second study within the re- mothers’ earnings effect and an search field of atypical household underestimation of the mothers’ structures, we focus on the income educational background on their situation and labor market partici- relative household income position. pation of single mothers (Büchel & Consequently, misinterpreting the Engelhardt, in press). In this study, real dimension of the effects of we try to isolate the income effect these crucial socioeconomic status caused by the nonexistence of a measures could negatively affect the partner in a single parent household, effectiveness of social, labor market, combined with the number of chil- and educational policies to secure dren of each household type. Within the economic well-being of families this approach, we take into account with dependent children. the different labor market participa- The fight against family poverty is a tion behavior of mothers in different central issue for policy makers in all living arrangements. Furthermore, industrialized countries. Apart from we compare the effects of the de- easing the problem by targeted pub- terminants of the relative net equiv- lic transfers to families, another alent household income position in strategy is to support mothers’ em- East and West Germany as well as ployment. In this respect, policy their development in the 1990s due strategies differ substantially across to the exceedingly dynamic labor countries. In cooperation with market. The results from the models Kristian Orsini from Département indicate that a missing male bread- d’Economie Appliquée de l’Université winner causes severe reductions in Libre de Bruxelles (DULBEA) at the the family’s relative income position University of Brussels, we started to in both East and West Germany, analyze the impact of the type of even when controlling for the moth- welfare state on the effectiveness of ers’ social status and earnings. The mothers’ employment as a family results remain surprisingly stable poverty protection strategy. Inspired between West and East Germany by Solera (2001) and based on pre- and over time. Furthermore, the liminary work by Orsini (2001) we family status of single mothers, will analyze income and employ- together with transfer payments, ment structures focusing on families determines the relative income posi- with dependent children in an inter- tion. Among single mothers, those national comparison. We use data that never married are substantially from the Luxembourg Income Study worse off than those who are living (LIS) for the United Kingdom, France,

224 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, participation, children’s nonmaternal Belgium, Finland, and Sweden. First day-care has moved to the forefront results showed that in all countries of German politics, as in several the mothers’ labor supply plays a other industrialized countries. Al- crucial role in poverty reduction though there is substantial, mostly strategies. in the U.S., research on the correla- For the future, we plan to look in tion between the mothers’ employ- more detail at the female labor sup- ment decision and day-care use, ply decisions and, therefore, extend there are only a few studies that fo- the Mismatch Project to other types cus on the effects of day-care avail- of mismatch apart from overeduca- ability on the mothers’ employment tion. A mismatch situation can be decision or for day-care use. The stated in all situations where people question of availability is of special are hindered to make full use of interest if day-care vacancies are their acquired skills in the labor restricted. From a social inequality market. We will, here, focus on and stratification point of view, it is analyzing labor supply constraints of specific relevance whether the caused by specific family circum- employment decision of socioeco- stances, mainly by living together nomically disadvantaged mothers is with children in a suboptimal, insti- affected by the restricted availability tutional, economical, and social of day-care vacancies to a higher environment. degree than the decision of the Given the dramatic changes in fami- socioeconomically better situated ly structure and female labor force mothers.

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 225 Further Projects

Gero Lenhardt A Comparative Study of Higher Education in Germany and the United States

Higher education finds increasing The chapters on American higher public attention, with reform pro- education exist in a raw form. The posals often alluding to the USA. American university, it is shown, This is the background of a compar- developed in close contact with the ative study, which focuses on higher civil society, in contrast to its Ger- education in Germany and the USA. man counterpart, which formed a The secular process of the universal- symbiosis with the feudal absolutist ization of higher learning is the state and the “Obrigkeitsstaat.“ The yardstick for this comparison. Uni- different origins gave rise to institu- versalization is manifest in the ex- tional differences: The expansion of pansion of enrolments and in the enrolments is unanimously support- transformation of academic freedom ed in the USA, but a matter of seri- from a particularistic feudal privi- ous political conflict in Germany lege into a universal human right. and hence has less proceeded. The The idea of universalization stands American graduates found employ- at the center of Humboldt’s concept ment in the private sector of the of a free university for a democratic economy, their German comrades in society. It is presented in the intro- the public sector. Academic freedom duction together with contemporary in Germany was based on the Chair, European concepts of higher educa- which equipped its incumbent with tion (Bologna Process), German and considerable power and prestige. In American perspectives of higher the USA, freedom of thought was education. The first half of the book, part of democracy and, hence, sub- which is concluded. It reconstructs ject to public control. In conse- the development of German higher quence, the social status of the education as a conflict ridden unity professoriate was quite low. It was of feudal, absolutist, and democratic enhanced dramatically only during value orientations, in which demo- the Cold War. University manage- cratic norms finally prevail. Demo- ment, to point at a last distinction, cratic culture allowed for the ex- was oriented to the expectations of pansion of higher education as well the civil society in the USA. In Ger- as for the transformation of aca- many, by contrast, this was state demic freedom into a universal hu- oriented and state run. This differ- man right, which finds institutional ence seems to be withering away expression in the organizational since the end of World War II. transformation of the Chair, the A final chapter deals with higher integration of the university and the education and the technocratic polytechnic, and in the state’s with- culture of the expert in Germany drawal from the management of the (Max Weber) and American profes- university. sionalism (Parsons).

226 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Professions as Frames in Times of Biographical Upheaval: Bourgeois and Erika M. Hoerning Non-Bourgeois Intelligentsia in the GDR and after 1990

The socialist intelligentsia, or the and non-bourgeois members of the educated class, appeared with the intelligentsia. It was then possible to foundation of the GDR in 1949 and observe the reorientation process, was dissolved together with the retrospectively, by examining the state in 1990. The original intention transition to “new“ social, cultural, was for the ranks of the intelli- and political structures, and obtain gentsia to be open to social groups information about how retrospective hitherto unconcerned with educa- assessments change over the course tion (workers and peasantry). But of time and life. Hoerning’s study since the children of the first gener- shows that success (or failure) in ation of graduates demanded the coping with the transformation same level of education as their par- process is not only a function of the ents, the GDR society shifted in- individual biographical capital, but is creasingly toward stratum-specific also highly dependent on the histor- differentiation and a reproduction of ical development of the institutions societal structures. Hoerning looks (professions) to which the individu- at case studies of the “socialist in- als belong. The institutional and telligentsia” that examined the role biographical integration into the of the profession in biographical “new“ Federal Republic is being ex- (re)orientation. The professional and plored in case studies on a number life histories (narratives) of 31 of professional groups: medical, law, women and men born between 1929 media and science professionals, and 1938 (the generation that re- university professors, managers in built Germany after the Second industry and science, and the clergy. World War) and between 1950 and A special chapter will be devoted to 1960 (the children of the “heroes“) the professional careers of women were recorded on repeated occa- in the nomenklatura-cadre/adminis- sions, allowing the description of trative class. These case studies will the social character of the educated be discussed within the framework class (the new socialist intelli- of current theoretical debates on gentsia) and the professional cul- professions in a publication in tures of the former GDR, as well as progress: “Intelligenz, Experten, the life courses of both bourgeois Professionen.“

Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 227 Publications 2001–2002

Bellmann, L., & Büchel, F. Duncker & Humblot (Beihefte verteilung. Zur Leistungsfähig- Auswirkungen zentraler Ab- (2001). Betrieblich finanzierte der Konjunkturpolitik, 52). keit verschiedener Zuwande- schlussprüfungen auf die Weiterbildung und Unterneh- – (2001b). Overqualification: rungsgruppen in Deutschland. Schulleistung. Quasi-experi- menserfolg: Eine Analyse für Reasons, measurement issues, In W. Schmähl (Ed.), Wechsel- mentelle Befunde aus der West- und Ostdeutschland and typological affinity to wirkungen zwischen Arbeits- deutschen TIMSS-Stichprobe. unter besonderer Berücksichti- unemployment. In P. Descy & markt und sozialer Sicherung Vierteljahrshefte zur Wirt- gung von Selektionseffekten. In M. Tessaring (Eds.), Training in (pp. 103–128). Berlin: Duncker schaftsforschung, 72 (2), U. Backes-Gellner & P. Moog Europe: Second report on & Humblot (Schriften des Special Issue on Educational (Eds.), Bildungssystem und vocational training research in Vereins für Socialpolitik, Neue Politics. betriebliche Beschäftigungs- Europe 2000 (Vol. 2, pp. 453– Folge 285). strategien (pp. 75–92). Berlin: 560). Luxembourg: Office Büchel, F., & Mertens, A. (in Duncker & Humblot. for Official Publications of the Büchel, F., Frick, J. D., Krause, press). Overeducation, under- European Communities. P., & Wagner, G. G. (2001). The education, and the theory Below, S. von, & Goedicke, A. – (2001c). Produktivitätseffekte impact of poverty on children’s of career mobility. Applied (2001). Schule und Berufsbil- durch Überqualifikation. Eine school attendance: Evidence Economics. dung im Wandel. Konsequenzen Betrachtung aus der Perspek- from West Germany. In K. – (2001). Aufstiegschancen von für ostdeutsche Jugendliche. In tive der Betriebe. In R. K. von Vleminckx & T. Smeeding (Eds.), Über- und Unterqualifizierten: W. Schluchter & P. E. Quint Weizsäcker (Ed.), Bildung und Child well-being, child poverty Ein Test der Karrieremobilitäts- (Eds.), Der Vereinigungsschock. Beschäftigung (pp. 293–321). and child policy in modern Theorie. In U. Backes-Gellner & Vergleichende Betrachtungen Berlin: Duncker & Humblot nations (pp. 151–173). Bristol: P. Moog (Eds.), Bildungssystem zehn Jahre danach (pp. 366– (Schriften des Vereins für Policy Press. und betriebliche Beschäfti- 391). Weilerswist: Velbrück Socialpolitik, Neue Folge 284). gungsstrategien (pp. 113–123). Wissenschaft. Büchel, F., Frick, J. R., & Witte, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. Büchel, F., & Battu, H. (2003). J. C. (2002). Regionale und Bergemann, A., & Mertens, A. The theory of differential berufliche Mobilität von Hoch- Büchel, F., & Neubäumer, R. (2002). Job stability trends, overqualification: Does it work? qualifizierten. Ein Vergleich (2002). Ausbildungsberuf layoffs and quits: An empirical Scottish Journal of Political Deutschland—USA. In L. Bell- und inadäquate Beschäftigung. analysis for West Germany. Economy, 50, 1–16. mann & J. Velling (Eds.), In U. Backes-Gellner & Berlin: Humboldt University Arbeitsmärkte für Hochquali- C. Schmidtke (Eds.), Bildungs- (German Research Foundation Büchel, F., de Grip, A., & fizierte (pp. 207–244). Nürn- system und betriebliche SFB 373, Working Paper 102). Mertens, A. (Eds.). (in press). berg: Institut für Arbeitsmarkt- Beschäftigungsstrategien in Overeducation in Europe: Cur- und Berufsforschung (Beiträge internationaler Perspektive Büchel, F. (2002a). The effects rent issues in theory and policy. zur Arbeitsmarkt- und Berufs- (pp. 107–137). Berlin: Duncker of overeducation on productivi- Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. forschung, 256). & Humblot (Schriften des ty in Germany: The firms’ view- Vereins für Socialpolitik, Neue point. Economics of Education Büchel, F., & Engelhardt, H. (in Folge 290). Review, 21, 263–275. press). Missing the partner and – (2001). Ausbildungsinadä- – (2002b). Fehlallokation am his earnings: Income situation quate Beschäftigung als Folge Arbeitsmarkt. In Max-Planck- and labour market participation branchenspezifischer Ausbil- Gesellschaft zur Förderung of single mothers in West and dungsstrategien. Mitteilungen der Wissenschaften (Ed.), East Germany. In R. Anker, aus der Arbeitsmarkt- und Jahrbuch 2002 (pp. 709–715). B. Garcia Guzman, & A. Pinnelli Berufsforschung, 34, 269–285. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & (Eds.), Women in the labour Ruprecht. market in changing economies: Büchel, F., & Pannenberg, M. – (2002c). Successful appren- Demographic issues. Oxford: (2002). Bildung und berufliche ticeship-to-work transitions: Oxford University Press. Weiterbildung. In Statistisches On the long-term change in Bundesamt (Ed.), Datenreport significance of the German Büchel, F., & Frick, J. R. 2002. Zahlen und Fakten über school-leaving certificate. (2001a). Immigrants in the UK die Bundesrepublik Deutschland International Journal of Man- and in West Germany: Relative (pp. 483–493). Bonn: Bundes- power (Special Issue), 23 (5), income positions, income port- zentrale für politische Bildung. 394–410. folio, and redistribution effects. – (2001a). Fiskalische Effekte Colchester, UK: Institute for Büchel, F., Glück, J., Büchel, F., & Pollmann- der Zuwanderung nach Social and Economic Research Hoffrage, U., Stanat, P., & Schult, M. (2002). Overcoming Deutschland. Eine Genera- (Working Paper 20). Wirth, J. (2002). Fremden- a period of overeducated work: tionenbilanz. Korreferat zu – (2001b). Income composition feindlichkeit und Rechtsextre- Does the quality of apprentice- Holger Bonin. In Migration in and redistribution in Germany: mismus. Dokumentation einer ship matter? Applied Economics Europa. 64. Wissenschaftliche The role of ethnic origin and multidisziplinären Vortrags- Quarterly (Konjunkturpolitik), Tagung der Arbeitsgemein- assimilation. Vierteljahrshefte reihe. Opladen: Leske + Budrich 48 (3–4). schaft deutscher wirtschafts- zur Wirtschaftsforschung, 70, (191 p.) wissenschaftlicher Forschungs- 135–145. Büchel, F., & Spieß, C. K. institute am 26. und 27. April – (2001c). Markteinkommen, Büchel, F., Jürges, H., & (2002a). Form der Kinderbe- 2001 (pp. 157–161). Berlin: öffentliche Transfers und Um- Schneider, K. (in press). Die treuung und Arbeitsmarkt-

228 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course verhalten von Müttern in West- many. European Societies, 4, L. den Dulk, & A. von Doorne- Anglo-German comparison. und Ostdeutschland. Report on 27–52. Huiskes (Eds.), Flexible working Work, Employment & Society, behalf of the Federal Ministry and the integration of work 19, 675–701. for Family Affairs, Senior Engelhardt, H., Trappe, H., & and personal life in a context – (2002e). Stabilität und Wan- Citizens, Women and Youth. Dronkers, J. (2002). Differences of organizational change. del des “deutschen Modells.“ Stuttgart: Kohlhammer in family policy and the inter- Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar. Lebensverläufe im Übergang (Vol. 220 of the Ministry’s generational transmission of – (2002). Der geschlechts- zwischen Schule und Beruf. In Series) (108 p.). divorce: A comparison between spezifische Wandel des Arbeits- M. Wingens & R. Sackmann – (2002b). 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232 Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course Center for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course 233

Independent Research Group Lack of Training: Employment and Life Chances of the Less Educated Contents

Research Topic Relevance ……………………………………………………………………… 237

Research Agenda …………………………………………………………………………………… 238

Methods/Datasets ………………………………………………………………………………… 240

Research Results …………………………………………………………………………………… 241

Publications 2001–2002 ………………………………………………………………………… 246

Duration: January 2000–December 2004

Head of Research Group: Heike Solga Doctoral Fellows: Justin Powell Sandra Wagner

236 Independent Research Group Research Topic Relevance

The origin of the group of less-educated persons is to be found in the massive educational expansion in most modern societies after the Second World War. Both educational opportunities and attainment have increased for most children. As a consequence, today young persons entering the labor market without the minimum expected certificate—one that is necessary, but not sufficient for labor market success—represent a residual category of shrinking proportion, but one in a serious crisis due to ever higher expectations for completion of upper secondary education (see Fig. 1).

60 56 Figure 1. Proportion of persons 25- to 27/28- 50 years-old with less than 46 1985 upper secondary education. 1995 40 34 32 30 26 Percent 24 22 20 18 13 13 10

0 UK France The Netherlands Sweden Germany

Source: Murray & Steedman (1998). Growing skills in Europe.

Figure 2 presents the proportions of Furthermore, half of those 20–29 different cohorts of youth in West- year-olds without training are not of ern Germany who have not complet- German origin. Among the 26–30 ed any vocational training by age year-olds of non-German ethnic 25. The proportion has declined from background, 40% have no complet- nearly half (47%) in the 1930 cohort ed vocational training certificate to only 7% for the 1971 cohort. (Solga, in press-b). Even among Simultaneously with this decreasing those who have lived in Germany proportion, strengthened selection prior to the age of 10 or were born processes in schools and in the labor here and attended German schools, market are taking place. Our analy- the proportion is one-quarter. In ses show that in comparison with sum, while during the 1950s this past cohorts, the proportion among group was largely female, today it today’s youth who lack training has a high proportion of ethnic mi- coming from socially disadvantaged nority youth (who are furthermore families has increased (Solga, 2002a, over-proportionally often classified 2002b; Solga & Wagner, 2001). in school as having special educa-

Independent Research Group 237 Figure 2. Proportion of 70 persons without completed vocational training up to 60 age 25* (only persons with Female West German origin). Total 50 47 Male

40 32

Percent 30 20 20 14 11 11 10 7 0 1930 1940 1950 1955 1960 1964 1971 (1947) (1957) (1967) (1972) (1977) (1981) (1988) Birth cohorts (year at age 17)

* Persons in training/at university at age 25 are not counted as “untrained.” Data: German Life History Study of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development (MPIB) and MPIB/IAB Cohort Study 1964/71.

tional needs). Our analyses show Research Agenda that the educational and vocational training systems as gatekeeping in- We investigate the causes and con- stitutions play a key role in defining sequences of less education from a this group, determining its social life-course perspective and analyze composition and affecting its public changes over time as well as region- perception and reception. ally and cross-nationally. Our joint Historical changes over time and research questions are: How do less- variations in the proportion of less- educated persons’ disadvantages at educated youth by country indicate multiple status passages cumulate that the “production” of less-edu- over their life courses? What cated persons varies considerably by changes, especially in institutional institutional setting. Moreover, the rules and processes, have occurred almost entire disappearance of gen- over the past several decades and der differences in the (native-Ger- what consequences have these had? man) group of less-educated people, alongside persistent ethnic differ- (1) The Causes of Less-Educated ences, indicate that educational Youth structures translate “ascriptive” We investigate how initial inequali- characteristics of individuals, dis- ties are transformed into exclusion tribute the risk of educational fail- from training and tertiary education, ure differentially, and determine focusing on the educational and who receives educational certifi- training systems and their social cates. mechanisms: sorting and selection

238 Independent Research Group functions, the learning environments cated youth and those without vo- that they provide for children with cational training, constituting different characteristics—given ini- around 40% of all school leavers tial inequalities—and the recruit- without the lower secondary certifi- ment practices of firms for appren- cate (Hauptschulabschluss). Besides ticeships or on-the-job training its proportional importance in opportunities. The two dissertations studying this educational group, primarily address this research “disability” is of particular signifi- question, investigating the societal cance for our research because it and institutional factors responsible highlights the power of institutional for the over-representation of cer- regulations and structures as they tain groups among less-educated “discover” and reify “student disabil- youth. ities,” critically altering individuals’ Sandra Wagner’s dissertation Youth life trajectories. Because the pro- Without Vocational Training: Educa- cesses that affect life-course phases tional Expansion and Institutional and transitions as well as individual Structures in Western Germany Since orientations and aspirations are 1949 investigates the German edu- cumulative, we analyze early oppor- cational and vocational training tunities and differentiation. Compar- system at different stages of its in- ing dramatically variable levels of stitutional development, asking how segregation, integration, and inclu- it has transformed social origin and sion by region and by special-needs ethnicity into disadvantageous category in Germany and the U.S., resources for socialization and com- we show how (special) education petence development, manifested in institutions generate both student low educational attainment. Her disability and social inequality in contribution is to show why the credential societies. label “less-educated” is attributed differentially in these changing (2) Social Consequences of Less institutional contexts and, thus, how Education the social composition of the group The group’s second research focus is of less-educated persons has the social and especially the long- changed over time (see below “c“). term consequences of attaining less Justin Powell’s dissertation Barriers education. Heike Solga addresses to Inclusion: The Institutionalization this research question in her analy- of Special Education in Germany and ses of labor market participation of the United States, 1970-2000 shows less-educated West Germans since how schooling structures categorize the 1950s. We know that in many students, asking how special educa- Western countries, less-educated tional institutional arrangements persons constitute an increasing themselves contribute to reduced share of the long-term unemployed. levels of educational attainment for They are less able to enter into even youth classified as “disabled.” In unskilled jobs. The dominant (mainly Germany today, school leavers from economic) explanation is the so- special schools are significantly called “displacement” argument, over-represented among less-edu- which theorizes that given an over-

Independent Research Group 239 supply of qualified persons, trained settings in educational and training persons out-qualify less-educated systems, as well as under varying persons in job competition. Here, economic circumstances. In our decreasing employment opportuni- comparison of Western Germany ties are seen as being essentially a with the U.S., we examine whether labor market (mis)matching problem. and how the degree of locational Yet that explanation does not in- “segregation” in educational sys- clude the “production process” of tems—a highly differentiated and hi- less education in its analysis. Our erarchical school system in contrast project offers a sociological expla- to tracking or ability grouping with- nation for the increasing labor mar- in comprehensive schools—influ- ket vulnerability of less-educated ences the production of differential youth, emphasizing the conse- educational attainment levels for quences of historically declining ascriptive groups, such as, gender, proportions of less-educated youth. ethnicity, ability. In addition, we This sociological explanation takes have completed comparative anal- into account changes in group size, yses of East and West Germany group composition, and employers’ before unification to discern the perceptions over the course of edu- extent to which “marketization” in cational expansion. This theoretical- modern capitalist countries may be ly-derived hypothesis, which has mainly responsible for less-educated been empirically strengthened by persons’ labor market disadvantages, our work, states that less education besides unemployment. itself has become a social stigma in The Life Course Studies of both West highly credentialized societies (such and East German birth cohorts of as Germany) and is closely related to the Institute’s Center for Sociology the social and psychological pro- and the Study of the Life Course are cesses of self and external selection. the empirical foundation for our We conceptualize analyses of less- analyses of social change in Ger- educated persons’ life chances in many over time. However, two other life domains as the logical step groups are nearly completely miss- following labor market analyses. We ing from this database, namely will explore the extent to which dis- those who are of non-German origin cernible differences in these oppor- and those who attended special tunities can be attributed to either schools. For the former, we use the the status “less educated” itself or German Institute for Economic to labor market exclusion. Research’s German Socio-Economic Panel Study (GSOEP). For the latter, we complement collections of ag- Methods/Datasets gregate statistics with our own life history database (from 105 school- Much of our research compares dif- leavers from schools for “learning ferent West German birth cohorts, disabled” children) derived from a allowing us to investigate the two pilot project on “job coaching” in research questions given changing North Rhine-Westphalia that we educational norms and institutional studied with the organizers at the

240 Independent Research Group University of Cologne, 2000–2002. attempts to school all children to- This study highlights the interrela- gether in regular classrooms. Coun- tionships of ethnicity, social class tries such as Norway and Italy have and disadvantage found in special completely eliminated special schools for pupils with learning dif- schools. In contrast, Germany’s edu- ficulties. This dataset is particularly cational system still segregates the valuable because most large-scale overwhelming majority of its dis- educational studies in Germany, in- abled pupils: Over 90% of children cluding the recent OECD-PISA study, classified as disabled do not attend do not specifically address special regular schools. While schools in the school pupils or graduates. U.S. still separate the majority of pupils classified as having special needs for part of the schooldays, Research Results over 95% of all pupils who have an individualized, special education (a) Differences in the Institutional- plan do attend regular, neighbor- ization of Special Education in the hood schools. German and United States School In Germany, nearly 80% of all pupils Systems and their Consequences for who attend special schools do not Educational Participation and even receive the lower secondary Educational Attainment certificate (Hauptschulabschluss). In For almost two hundred years, but many German Länder, special especially since the 1960s, both schools are not even allowed to of- Germany and the U.S. have increas- fer the higher degrees that are re- ingly provided schooling for children quired for most vocational training classified as disabled—in structures programs or tertiary education. In ranging along a broad continuum the U.S., a quarter of each year’s from special schools to full inclu- exiters from special education pro- sion in regular classrooms. The grams are dropouts or ageouts, a Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) fifth return to regular education, developed one of the most differen- and nearly half graduate with a high tiated special school systems in the school diploma or certificate. world with more than ten separate Historical-institutional case studies school types. In both countries, edu- of special education policy together cation reforms and debates have with aggregate education statistics shifted from whether and how these over time manifest that institution- children can be integrated, to the alization of special education and institutional structures in which classificatory praxis and the result- they should be taught. Despite ing distributions of educational cer- growing consensus that school inte- tificates vary considerably by region gration and inclusion are desirable, and disability category. Variations in institutional inertia, embodied in all indicators, but especially in edu- highly differentiated classification cational attainment rates within systems and (special) education Germany and the U.S. show clearly bureaucracies and represented in that existing institutional structures professional interests, block diverse in (special) education have dramatic

Independent Research Group 241 effects on the risk distribution of clearly overrepresented in special educational failure. schools and the trend is going up, not down (Powell & Wagner, 2002; (b) The Nexus of Ethnicity and Wagner & Powell, in press). In 1999, “Disability” in the German School a full 70% of non-German pupils System attending special schools were clas- Between 1965 and 1994, the num- sified with a “learning disability”; ber of non-German students in Ger- the remaining 30% attended other many increased twenty-fold. In each types of special schools (for German year since 1991, over a million stu- special school pupils the ratio was dents without a German passport 50:50). Furthermore, dramatic vari- attended schools in Germany: one in ance between federal states (Länder) ten students were non-German. At in special school placement rates of the same time, the proportion of non-German students (see Fig. 3) non-German students in segregated and between children of different special schools rose continuously, European nationalities continues (in such that by 1999 almost 15% of all the 1998/99 school year, the place- students in special schools were not ment rate varied between 0.5% and German, although their percentage 13.6%). of all students in the Federal Repub- This regional variance in the distri- lic was only 9.4%, resulting in an bution of non-German youth among overrepresentation factor of 1.56. the nine categories of special Figure 3. Overrepresenta- Our analyses show that children educational needs (as of 1994) tion of non-German pupils in special schools, 1999. without German citizenship are demonstrate state-specific educa- 30 2.5 28.1 2.22 25.8 25.7 25 1.96 1.87 22.8 2.0 1.76 21.2 1.69 1.68 19.9 20 1.60 1.56 1.55 1.49 1.5 16.3 1.41 15.3 15.2 15.3 15 14.7 14.8 14.3 13.1 13.1 13.1 13.2 1.0 0.97 10 9.4 8.2 8.4 Overrepresentation 7.3 7.5 7.8 5.4 0.5 5 Proportion of non-German pupils (in %) 0 0.0 NI BW SL RP HE BY NW D SH HB HH BE

Non-Germans as a percentage of all pupils Non-Germans as a percentage of all special school pupils Overrepresentation (Parity: Proportion of non-Germans in special schools equals their proportion in all schools in the Land) Source: Powell, J. J., & Wagner, S. J. (2002). Data: Kultusministerkonferenz (2001).

242 Independent Research Group tion policies and institutionalized tions—are overrepresented in the educational pathways. Significant Hauptschule. In terms of its educa- differences in the acceptance of in- tional environment, much less now clusion and integrative pedagogical than in the past this lower German concepts, in teacher training and school type today represents a field certification, in the development of of “anticipatory socialization” (H. school systems, and financial con- Fend) providing less advantageous straints resist change. The overrep- role models. These changes in com- resentation of children and youth position of pupil groups point out who belong to ethnic or racial mi- that educational expansion has im- nority groups who are schooled in pacted lower educational groups in segregating or separating special the educational hierarchy just as it educational programs is not only an has the higher: We find long-term important indicator of their individ- increases in participation rates in ual educational and employment higher education, especially for opportunities. Continuously over the younger cohorts. Then as now we past three decades, it has also been find that the majority of youth an indicator of social and institu- without vocational training (in tional discrimination in Germany Western Germany) are school leavers (and the U.S.). from the Hauptschule. Yet these school careers can be seen less as a (c) Changing Learning Environments process of status attainment and in Germany’s “Hauptschulen” increasingly as a process of status Nearly all sociological research on ascription. As our recent analyses the results of educational expansion show (Solga, Independent Research Online publications and focuses on the reduction in social Group Working Paper 2/2002), this Independent Research Group Working Papers: inequality in terms of access to ascriptive process is visible in the http://www.mpib-berlin. higher education institutions. Yet considerably lengthened school mpg.de/en/forschung/ nwg/arbeitsberichte.htm the following question has been careers even of lower educational largely ignored: What consequences groups. In addition, today the has the outflow to higher secondary median age of entry into first em- school types had for pupils in the ployment of these youth has dra- lowest general German school type matically increased to about 21 (Hauptschule)? Explanations for in- (compared to 16 in the 1930 birth dividuals’ school failure are not only cohort). Especially important for found in the individuals’ own fami- these less-educated youth, their lies, but also in their learning envi- educational pathways, and their ronments. Analyses of peer groups’ schooling experiences is that—in social composition by Heike Solga international comparison—the Ger- and Sandra Wagner (2001) for man educational system’s selection native West German children have process is largely irreversible. shown that today children from less-privileged families—children (d) Less Education in State-Socialist with parents employed in low-skill, and Capitalist Societies low-wage jobs, and children grow- In his diploma thesis (2001), Kai ing up in stressful family situa- Maaz compared less-educated per-

Independent Research Group 243 sons’ employment chances in East (e) Stigmatization by Negative and West Germany in the 1980s Selection (Maaz, Independent Research Group In her research on changes over Working Paper 3/2002). Two results time in less-skilled individuals’ em- in particular are worthy of specific ployment chances, Heike Solga mention because for many scholars (2002a, 2002b) shows that the they were empirically and theoreti- general scarcity of available jobs cally unexpected. Firstly, the group and the oversupply of higher- of persons without vocational train- qualified people are not solely re- ing in the FRG—with its much more sponsible for less-skilled people’s highly stratified and multi-tiered dwindling employment opportuni- school system—was less (!) socially ties. Logistic regression analyses homogeneous than the same group instead highlight the increasing risk in the German Democratic Repub- borne by less-qualified people of lic’s (GDR) comprehensive school finding only a low-skilled, dead-end system. In the GDR, the odds of per- job—independent of changes in em- sons without vocational training ployment supply and demand. Co- having parents who also had none hort comparisons show, for example, was six times higher in comparison that the difference between those with their peers who received voca- with and without vocational training tional training. In the FRG, this risk has increased remarkably over time was only three times as high. Thus, a and is largest in the 1960 cohort comprehensive school system that (the youngest cohort she has ana- treats unequal children equally and lyzed thus far, see Fig. 4). continues to label and categorize The fact that despite holding con- children as “educational failures” stant the relationship of employ- (such that they drop out of school ment supply and demand, there before receiving a certificate), will continue to be significant, even in- not necessarily eliminate social increasing, effects of less education, equality in lower educational strata. suggests that there are additional Secondly, Maaz’ analyses show that reasons besides displacement for the the currently highly favored modular lessened opportunities and mobility vocational training programs, which of less-educated people into quali- were routinely used in training low- fied work. We have developed four er performing youth in the GDR, do further explanations for this lapse in not necessarily increase this group’s the displacement hypothesis. Less- employment opportunities. In fact, educated persons’ job opportunities these types of certification in a have worsened due to: highly certificate-oriented mobility (1) the increased discrediting of less- system—as existed in both Germanys qualified persons as “unemploy- and continues to exist today—actu- able” by employers and society; ally lead to their getting stuck in (2) social stigmatization that even- low-skilled jobs for the rest of their tually also leads to self-stigmati- lives. zation;

244 Independent Research Group Birth cohorts Figure 4. Inner-cohort dif- 1959–61 ferences (between persons Upper secondary education with and without com- 1949–51 and no vocational training pleted vocational training) 1939–41 in the risk of being in a 1929–31 low-skilled first job (only people of West German origin, cohorts Only lower secondary education 1929–1961). and no vocational training

50 10 15 20 25 30 Reference group: Odds ratio Persons with completed vocational training or university education at age 25 (regardless of secondary educational certificate)

Note. Persons who were still in training at age 25 are not counted as having no completed vocational training. Controlled for gender: Inner-cohort differences presented can not be attributed to differences in gender distributions. Source: Solga (2002a). Data: German Life History Study, Max Planck Institute for Human Development.

(3) structural risks of exclusion (4) structural risks of exclusion caused by institutional practices caused by increasing social (e.g., in educational and training homogeneity of less-educated systems) that limit the scope of youth’s social background and their action in future; and peer networks that reduce their network resources for finding employment.

Independent Research Group 245 Publications 2001–2002

Krappmann, L., & Powell, J. J. Hamburger Edition HIS Verlag. – (2001). Longitudinal surveys schülern. Zeitschrift für Erzie- (in press). Kinder, die besonde- – (in press-b). Jugendliche and the study of occupational hungswissenschaft, 4, 107–127. rer pädagogischer Förderung ohne Schulabschluss und ihre mobility: Panel and retrospecti- bedürfen. In J. Baumert, K. Wege in den Arbeitsmarkt. In J. ve design in comparison. Quali- Wagner, S. J., & Powell, J. J. Cortina, A. Leschinsky, K. U. Baumert, K. Cortina, A. ty and Quantity, 35, 291–309. (in press). Ethnisch-kulturelle Mayer, & L. Trommer (Eds.), Das Leschinsky, K. U. Mayer, & L. Ungleichheit im deutschen Bil- Bildungswesen in der Bundes- Trommer (Eds.), Das Bildungs- Solga, H., Powell, J. J., & dungssystem. Zur Überreprä- republik Deutschland. Reinbek: wesen in der Bundesrepublik Wagner, S. (in press). Ausbil- sentanz von Migrantenjugend- Rowohlt. Deutschland. Reinbek: Rowohlt. dungslosigkeit: Bedingungen lichen an Sonderschulen. In G. – (2002a). “Ausbildungslosig- und Folgen mangelnder Berufs- Cloerkes (Ed.), Wie man behin- Powell, J. J. (in press-a). Euge- keit“ als soziales Stigma in Bil- ausbildung. Aktuelle For- dert wird. Heidelberg: Universi- nics. In T. Fitzpatrick et al. dungsgesellschaften. Ein sozio- schungsprojekte zur Sozial- tätsverlag C. Winter. (Eds.), International encyclope- logischer Erklärungsbeitrag für struktur und sozialer Ungleich- dia of social policy. London: die wachsenden Arbeitsmarkt- heit. In J. Allmendinger (Ed.), Routledge. probleme von gering qualifi- Entstaatlichung und soziale Si- – (in press-b). Euthanasia. In T. zierten Personen. Kölner Zeit- cherheit. Tagungsband, 31. Kon- Fitzpatrick et al. (Eds.), Interna- schrift für Soziologie und Sozi- gress der DGS in Leipzig. tional encyclopedia of social alpsychologie, 54, 476–505. Opladen: Leske + Budrich. policy. London: Routledge. – (2002b). “Stigmatization by – (in press-c). Grenzen der In- negative selection“: Explaining Solga, H., & Wagner, S. J. (in klusion. Die Institutionalisie- less-educated people’s decreas- press). Die Bildungsexpansion rung von sonderpädagogischem ing employment opportunities. und ihre Konsequenzen für das Förderbedarf in Deutschland European Sociological Review, soziale Kapital der Hauptschu- und den USA, 1970–2000. In J. 18, 159–178. le. In B. Krais (Ed.), Titel-Kämp- Allmendinger (Ed.), Entstaat- – (2001). Jugendliche ohne Be- fe. Bildungssoziologische Bei- lichung und soziale Sicherheit. rufsausbildung. Die neue Qua- träge. Weinheim: Juventa. Tagungsband, 31. Kongress der lität eines alten Problems. Ge- – (2001). Paradoxie der Bil- DGS in Leipzig. Opladen: Leske werkschaftliche Monatshefte, dungsexpansion. Die doppelte + Budrich. 52, 41–48. Benachteiligung von Haupt- – (in press-d). Hochbegabt, behindert oder normal? Klassifi- kationssysteme des sonder- pädagogischen Förderbedarfs in Deutschland und den Vereinig- ten Staaten. In G. Cloerkes (Ed.), Wie man behindert wird. Heidelberg: Universitätsverlag C. Winter. – (in press-e). Special needs. In T. Fitzpatrick et al. (Eds.), Inter- national encyclopedia of social policy. London: Routledge. – (in press-f). Stigma. In T. Fitzpatrick et al. (Eds.), Interna- tional encyclopedia of social policy. London: Routledge.

Powell, J. J., & Wagner, S. J. (2002). Zur Entwicklung der Überrepräsentanz von Migran- tenjugendlichen an Sonder- schulen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland seit 1991. Ge- meinsam leben: Zeitschrift für integrative Erziehung, 10, 65– 70.

Solga, H. (in press-a). Ausbil- dungslose und die Radikalisie- rung ihrer sozialen Ausgren- zung. In H. Bude & A. Willisch (Eds.), Ausgegrenzte, Entbehr- liche, Überflüssige. Hamburg: Left to right: Heike Solga, Justin Powell, Sandra Wagner.

246 Independent Research Group Independent Research Group 247

Service Units Contents

Library and Research Information ………………………………………………………… 251

Information Processing Center ……………………………………………………………… 253

Scientific and Professional Staff (2001–2002)

Library and Research Information: Ursula Flitner, Lydia Lange, Diann Rusch-Feja (until June 2002) Information Processing Center: Wolfgang Assmann, Peter Grund, Jürgen Hess (until September 2001)

250 Service Units Library and Research Information

Rapid access to printed and digital information is a decisive prerequisite for successful studies and internationally renowned research. The Library and Research Information Unit of the Max Planck Institute for Human Development aims to anticipate, determine, and respond to the In- stitute’s needs for information in the areas of sociology, psychology, education, and neighboring disciplines. To support the research, teaching, and publishing activities of the Institute’s researchers, the Library seeks to provide an environment and facilities conducive to efficient and independent use and dissemination of information.

The Library’s collection currently ing user ID or password. Familiar in- comprises around 190,000 volumes, dividual login-features can still be 550 printed periodicals, and elec- used to rerun saved queries and to tronic resources. It offers easy and access databases while traveling. fast access to own materials and in- Personalized table of contents serv- formation worldwide. ices and a monthly electronic list of Comprehensive intranet services in- new acquisitions support researchers clude online access to the major in keeping abreast of the latest pub- bibliographic and abstract databases lications in their fields of interest in the fields of social and behavioral and of immediately available infor- sciences and economics as well as mation. to several hundred electronic jour- Offering facilities for online ordering nals in full text. of books and journal articles and The Library’s web catalog, most making extensive use of fast docu- databases, and all electronic jour- ment delivery services, the library nals can now be accessed from all staff aims at further saving re- personal computers on Institute searchers’ time. The staff of the premises via the newly introduced Library continue to offer regular “institutional login,” without enter- introductions to Library services,

Service Units 251 including training in using data- Subject-oriented information re- bases. trieval across both German and Eng- During 2001, the reference collec- lish language publications at the tion of the Library was brought up same time will be facilitated by in- to date and reorganized in order to troducing the Dewey Decimal Classi- improve user orientation. It is now fication for all future acquisitions classified and shelved according to of the Library. the Dewey Decimal Classification. The range of electronic full texts In this context the last ten years’ available within the context of the volumes of the journals most Max Planck Society-wide library co- frequently used were integrated operation was expanded to include, into the open access area of the among other databases, the Annual Library. Reviews and PsycArticles, two long- New head of the Library, as of July time desiderata of the Institute. 2002, is Ursula Flitner, former head October 2002 the Max Planck Virtu- of the Library at the University of al Library (VLib) was released by the Applied Sciences Stralsund. Diann Heinz Nixdorf Center for Informa- Rusch-Feja, head of the Library for tion Management in the Max Planck the past 13 years, left to take up Society (ZIM), marking a major qual- new challenges. itative step toward up-to-date in- Opportunities for a cut-down in formation management and provi- staff were taken. Efforts to further sion for Max Planck Institutes. Het- optimize workflow efficiency will be erogeneous catalogs of Max Planck intensified. To reduce the labor re- libraries, licensed databases, and quired for cataloging and to speed journals can be selected according up information provision, the Library to individual needs and searched is preparing to make use of cata- simultaneously under a single user loging distribution services. interface. Search results will be

252 Service Units linked to full texts available or doc- dissemination of the intellectual ument delivery services. Additional output of our Institute. information pertaining to identified Although questions of long-term sources is provided via SFX, a con- archiving, authenticity, and copy- text sensitive linking tool. right still need to be dealt with, the The Institute’s Library catalog has Library has started to build up test been integrated via Z 39.50 and can collections on the eDoc Server for thus be cross-searched with other internal evaluation before going live. catalogs and databases. Last, but not least, to be mentioned Also released by ZIM during Fall is the completely reorganized and 2002 was a first version of the cen- redesigned intranet homepage the trally maintained Max Planck eDoc Library offers since December 2002. Server, future portal for all electron- A less hierarchic structure with ac- ic publications of the Max Planck cess to all major services on the top Society. The eDoc Server’s workflow level, short service descriptions and management and search features help texts, unambiguous terminolo- make it a valuable addition to cur- gy, and a clear design make it easy rent means of management and and efficient to use.

Information Processing Center

The Information Processing Center Intel PCs and 150 Apple computers. supports the projects and other Apple computers are running service units at the Institute through MacOS, Intel PCs are operating on its central facilities. Central servers Microsoft’s Windows NT 4.0, Win- are installed with Windows NT or dows 2000, or Windows XP. A cen- Windows 2000 for dedicated pur- tral backup service is provided for all poses: internet/intranet servers, data on cluster disks. A wide array software server, etc. Three NT- and of software is available for the desk- two Windows 2000-cluster systems top systems. with big RAID storage installations To provide the necessary security, a provide the capacity (more than one Cisco-PIX firewall system was in- Tbyte) for the central data manage- stalled which allows the failure of ment. Several powerful NT-terminal certain modules without a complete servers establish a CITRIX server breakdown. Central virus scanner farm. They allow the user to run software—continuously updated via programs (SPSS, SAS, MAT-Lab, EQS, the internet—monitor all Intel and etc.) on the server CPUs from their Apple workstations to avoid data own workstations (Windows or loss caused by viruses. Apple PC). ”Server-based computing“ The Local Area Network (LAN) inte- helps to overcome the constraints of gration of all desktop computers the different workstations concern- provides access to central resources ing CPU power and local storage. and cluster capacity. In 1998 the The decentralized personal comput- traditional standard- and thin-wire ing capacity comprises about 240 Ethernet was substituted by a new

Service Units 253 network based on fiber optic cable. – centralized printing capacity, in- Now the desktop systems are direct- cluding high-speed and color ly connected with a maximum speed printers; of 10 or 100 Mbit/s. Since the – LAN integration of desktop com- Institute has installed a Funk-LAN, puters and the continuous notebook users can connect to the enhancement of LAN facilities; internet wireless. The Institute’s – national and international connec- connectivity to Wide Area Networks tivity (Wide Area Network); (internet, etc.) is provided via the – internet services: Email, WWW, Research Network (WIN) of German NEWS, FTP, and Telnet; Telekom and the German Research – maintenance and webmaster tasks Network Association (Deutsches of the Institute’s internet and Forschungsnetz [DFN]). Late in the intranet servers; year 2000 the GIGA-WIN (1 Gbit/s) – security measures; was installed allowing the Institute – management of the central tele- to increase the use of high-speed phone system, including the voice- connectivity. mail server; – user support and trouble-shooting The Center’s services include for Intel PCs and Apple computers; – operating, optimizing, and devel- – coordination and technical sup- oping the devices of the central port for desktop computers and cluster and network equipment; software; – mending and updating Windows – software acquisition. NT, 2000, and XP operating systems; The Center provides – general design and coordination of the Institute’s information technology equipment; – the documentation of data concerning the existing computer and network equipment; – an overview of market developments; – advice for the Institute’s boards and departments; – the promotion of new concepts for state-of-the-art computer equipment.

254 Service Units Service Units 255 Appendix

Contents

1. Research Colloquia 2001-2002 ………………………………………………………… 259

2. Visiting Scientists 2001-2002 …………………………………………………………… 262

3. Other Professional Activities 2001-2002 …………………………………………… 263

4. Academic Degrees 2001-2002 ………………………………………………………… 267

5. Scientific and Professional Staff 2001-2002 ……………………………………… 269

258 Appendix 1. Research Colloquia 2001-2002

2002

January 8 Steven Ceci, Cornell University, April 30 Joachim Krueger, Brown Univer- Ithaca: sity: Reasoning and remembering in Why I don’t buy self-categorization context: Selected studies in the theory—Yet bioecology of human development April 30 Gabriele Kaiser and Rita Borromeo January 16 Werner Greve, Kriminologisches Ferri, Universität Hamburg: Forschungsinstitut Niedersachsen: Mathematische Denkstile: Erste Adaptivity and norms: Develop- Ergebnisse einer empirischen mental perspectives on legal and Untersuchung illegal action May 3 Asghar Zaidi, London School of January 22 George Loewenstein, Carnegie Economics: Mellon University: Income dynamics within retirement Hot-cold empathy gaps in Germany and Great Britain January 23 Ulman Lindenberger, Universität May 6 Dave F. Bjorklund, Florida Atlantic des Saarlandes, Saarbrücken: University: Lifespan psychology: Co-construc- The adaptive nature of cognitive tion of neural mechanisms and immaturity intelligent environments May 7 Leonard Hayflick, University of January 30 Gerd Antes, Deutsches Cochrane California, San Francisco: Zentrum, Freiburg i.Br.: (1) Human aging, disease, and Evidenz-basierte Medizin: Von longevity determination Studiendaten zur Entscheidung (2) Cellular aging, immortality, and am Krankenbett the telomere replicometer February 1 Andreas Diekmann, Institut für May 13 Volker Müller-Benedict, Metho- Soziologie der Universität Bern: denzentrum Sozialwissenschaft, Irrtümer, Fahrlässigkeiten, Göttingen: Fälschungen. Diagnose von Daten- Ist Akademikermangel unvermeid- fälschung und Möglichkeiten zu bar? Eine Analyse einer Tiefen- ihrer Verhinderung struktur des Bildungssystems February 12 John L. Horn, University of South- May 14 Shinobu Kitayama, Kyoto Uni- ern California: versity: Intelligence peaks in adulthood: Interdependent agency: Cultural Not g but expertise construction of the self March 11 Jerome R. Busemeyer, Indiana May 16 Ivan Szelenyi, Yale University: University: Social determinants of poverty in Individual differences in the deci- transitional societies sion making processes used by May 21 Ian H. Gotlib, Stanford University: drug abusers: A cognitive modeling Cognitive, interpersonal, and analysis biological aspects of depression: March 13 Beno Csapo, University of Szeged: Toward an integration Beyond the teaching material: May 24 Michael Windzio, Universität Contrasting aims and outcomes of Bremen: education Sind die Befunde der organisa- March 22 Jens Förster, Internationale Uni- tionsökologischen Forschung auf versität Bremen: alle Organisationstypen verallge- Accessibility from goals: Mechan- meinerbar? Eine Mehrebenen- isms and consequences for person analyse von Organisationsauf- perception lösungen April 9 Fritz Strack, Universität May 30 Larry Cuban, Stanford University: Würzburg: Technology in the classroom: Reflective and impulsive determi- Recent trends and developments nants of social behavior

Appendix 259 May 30 Sheena Iyengar, Columbia Busi- November 15 David A. Jaeger, College of ness School: William and Mary: Choice and its discontents: Re- Local labor markets, admission thinking the value of choice on criteria, and immigrant location intrinsic motivation choice May 31 Javier Garcia de Polavieja, November 28 Janne O. Jonsson, Swedish Insti- Nuffield College, Oxford: tute for Social Research, Stock- Labour market deregulation and holm University: the employment relationship: Why Merit rules o.k.? Educational quali- standard class theories fail to ex- fications and the allocation to plain the mechanisms of inequality social positions in Sweden amongst Spanish employees 1968–2000 June 4 Sabine Koch, Evaluative Affekt- December 3 Thomas Elbert, Universität displays: Nonverbale Reaktionen Konstanz: auf Männer und Frauen in Neuronale Plastizität und Entwick- Führungspositionen lung June 10 Markus Gangl, Wissenschafts- December 5 Thomas Mussweiler, Universität zentrum Berlin: Würzburg: Two cheers for flexible labour mar- Everything is relative: Comparison kets: Three U.S.-German analyses processes in human judgment of the impact of labour market December 5 Denny Vägerö, CHESS, Stockholm regulation on unemployment dy- University: namics A life-course perspective on health July 17 Ed Elbers, Universiteit Utrecht: inequalities Collaborative learning in a multi- December 6 Sonja Drobnic, Universität Erfurt: cultural classroom The dynamics of retirement: July 26 Patrick Kyllonen, Educational Gender, marital status, household, Testing Service, Princeton: and life-course contingencies Critical thinking and situational December 10 Dan P. McAdams, Northwestern judgment University: July 26 Richard D. Roberts, University of The redemptive self: Life stories Sydney: and generativity, American style Emotional intelligence: What it is December 13 Juan Rafael Morillas Martinéz, and what it isn’t Nuffield College, Oxford: September 27 Christiane Spiel and Dagmar Wealth and economic opportuni- Strohmeier, University of Vienna: ties in imperfect economies Facetten sozialer Beziehungen in Schulklassen: Migrantenkinder als Zielgruppe & Methodenfragen October 29 Anthony G. Greenwald, University of Washington, Seattle: Validity of the implicit association test November 5 Brian R. Little, Harvard University (USA) and Carleton University (Canada): Personal projects and developmental science: Action in context November 8 Francesco Billari, Università Bocconi, Milan: Young adults fuzzily living with their parents: A multilevel analysis of the Italian case November 11 Theo Herrmann, Universität Mannheim: Zur Evolution der Sprache

260 Appendix 2001

January 9 Regina C. Casper, Stanford Uni- June 18 Gad Saad, Concordia University, versity: Montreal: Mood, its relationship to physical Applications of evolutionary psy- activity and nutrition chology in marketing, economic January 16 Friedrich Wilkening, Universität games, and sequential mate choice Zürich: June 25 Michael H. Birnbaum, California Entwicklung der Informationsinte- State University, Fullerton: gration: Konzepte von Zeit, Bewe- A web-based program of research gung und Wahrscheinlichkeit on decision making January 24 Christiane Lange-Küttner, Univer- June 29 John Tooby, University of Califor- sity of North London: nia, Santa Barbara: Entwicklung und Folgen des Über- What is evolutionary psychology? gangs vom impliziten Objektraum July 2 Craig R. M. McKenzie, University zu expliziten Raumachsensystemen of California, San Diego: February 13 Helmut Leder, Freie Universität A Bayesian view of covariation Berlin: assessment When I know you! Features in face September 10 Tatsuya Kameda, Hokkaido Uni- recognition versity: March 12 Malcolm R. Forster, University of Adaptive social decision making: Wisconsin, Madison: Handling uncertainty through a Was the problem of simplicity and collective device unification in science solved in October 11 Andrea Peter-Koop, Institut für 1858? Didaktik der Mathematik, Justus- March 19 Rudolf Wieneke, Zentrum zur Liebig-Universität Gießen: Therapie der Rechenschwäche UNI für Kinder: Begabungsfor- Berlin: schung und Begabungsförderung Rechenschwäche: Phänomenologie, als Teil einer diagnostisch ange- Diagnose und lerntherapeutische reicherten Lehrerausbildung Ansätze October 15 Avraham N. Kluger, Hebrew Uni- March 20 Michael F. Scheier, Carnegie versity, Jerusalem: Mellon University, Pittsburgh: The role of regulatory focus in re- Optimism, coping, and health action to feedback sign, risk taking, April 24 Phyllis B. Mack, Rutgers Univer- and personnel selection sity, New Jersey: October 23 Klaus R. Scherer, Universität Genf: Wisdom and religion: Mind and Affective science in the making: motion From cold to hot cognition May 8 Elke van der Meer, Humboldt- October 25 Uwe Jensen, Universität Kiel: Universität zu Berlin: Robuste Frontierfunktionen zur Gedächtnis für Zeit Messung von Ausbildungsadäquanz May 22 Marjorie H. Woollacott, Univer- November 15 Sir Michael Rutter, King’s College, sity of Oregon: London: Attentional demands of balance Now that we "know" that genes control: Contribute to falls in older are all-important, does education age? still matter? May 28 Damian Läge, Universität Zürich: November 23 Christian Schluter, University of Ähnlichkeitsbasierte Diagnostik von Bristol: Sachwissen Does low income in early child- May 29 Paul Verhaeghen, Syracuse Uni- hood affect adolescent school versity: attainment? Evidence from the Use it and lose it? Aging and the German Socio-Economic Panel myth of executive control December 12 Jens Möller, Universität Bielefeld: June 6 Herbert W. Marsh, University of Zur Wahrnehmung von Stärken Western Sydney: und Schwächen: Das Modell Self-concept: Theory, measure- dimensionaler Vergleichsprozesse ment, research and practice

Appendix 261 2. Visiting Scientists 2001–2002

2002 2001

Richard K. Belew, University of California, San Sherrylin Billger, Union College, Schenectady, NY Diego July–August 2001 May 2002 Denny Borsboom, University of Amsterdam Eduard Brandstätter, University of Linz May–July 2001 May–August 2002 Regina Caspar, Stanford University Eva van den Broek University of Utrecht January–March 2001 May–July 2002 Ping-Huang Chang, National Taiwan Normal Hannah Brückner, Yale University University May–August 2002 June 2001–December 2002 Beno Csapo, University of Szeged Michael Corsten, Universität Jena February–March 2002 September–December 2001 Henryk Domanski, Polish Academy of Sciences Maarten van Ham, Utrecht University June 2002 February–March 2001 Rocío García-Retamero Imedio, Universidad de Joop Hox, University of Amsterdam Granada April 2001 September–Dezember 2002 Tatsuya Kameda, Hokkaido University Maurice Gesthuizen, University of Nijmegen September 2001 February–April 2002 Edith de Leeuw, University College Utrecht Konrad Halupka, University of Wroclaw April 2001 September 2002-Januar 2003 Christine Leuenberger, Cornell University Karen Hooker, University of Virginia January–August 2001 September–December 2002 Yong Fang Liu, East China Normal University Gisela Labouvie-Vief, Wayne State University February 2001–February 2002 November–December 2002 Phyllis Mack, Rutgers University, New Jersey Bogdan Mach, Polish Academy of Sciences January–March 2001 March 2002 and June–July 2002 Herbert W. Marsh, University of Western Sidney Juan Rafael Morillas Martinéz, Nuffield College, June 2001 Oxford Jens Möller, Universität Bielefeld October–December 2002 November–December 2001 Miguel Oliveira, University of Coimbra Ingo Richter, Deutsches Jugendinstitut, München January–June 2002 September–December 2001 Kristian Orsini, Free International University for Lawrence Roche, Queensland University of Social Studies, Rome Technology January–February 2002 July 2001 Andreas Ortmann, Charles University Prague Rachel Rosenfeld, University of North Carolina, Januar, April, June, September Chapel Hill 2002 June 2001 Ivan Szelenyi, Yale University Jorge Simao, Universidade Nova de Lisboa January–June 2002 September 2000–November 2001 Josef Thonhauser, Universität Salzburg May 2001 Paul Verhaeghen, Syracuse University January–June 2001 Annika Wallin, Lund University September 2001–January 2002 Hans N. Weiler, Rector emeritus, Viadrina University, Frankfurt/Oder June 2001 Szymon Wichary, Jagiellonian University, Cracow September 2000–April 2001

262 Appendix 3. Other Professional Activities 2001–2002

Paul B. Baltes – Academia Europaea (Founding Member; Election Committee, Section on Psychology and Behavioral Sciences; Member of Trust). – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Founding Member; Vice-Chair, Working Group on Science History and Psychology History). – Freiberger Stiftung, Berlin (Member of Kuratorium). – US National Academy of Science, Future Research in Cognitive Aging (Member of Committee). – International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (Coedi- tor-in-Chief with Neil Smelser). – International University of Bremen (Member of Board of Governor). – Jacobs Foundation (Member of Board of Trustees and Jacobs Family Council). – Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Vice-President). – IPSEN Foundation, IPSEN Longevity Award (Member of Board).

Jürgen Baumert – Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (Member of Senate and Main Committee; Member of Committee on Research Perspectives). – Wissenschaftsgemeinschaft Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (Senator). – Programm “Steigerung der Effizienz des mathematisch-naturwissenschaftlichen Unterrichts” (Chair of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Deutsches Institut für Internationale Pädagogische Forschung (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Zentrum für Schulforschung und Fragen der Lehrerbildung der Martin- Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Zeitschrift für Erziehungswissenschaft (Coeditor). – Zeitschrift für Unterrichtswissenschaft (Coeditor). – International Journal of Educational Research (Editorial Board). – Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Zeitschrift Psychologie in Erziehung und Unterricht (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Bildungswissenschaften (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Journal für Mathematik-Didaktik (JDM) (Member of Scientific Advisory Committee). – Waxmann Verlag, Reihe Pädagogische Psychologie und Entwicklungs- psychologie, Münster (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – School Effectiveness and School Improvement (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers).

Felix Büchel – Economics of Education Review (Member of Editorial Board). – Verein für Socialpolitik, Sozialpolitischer Ausschuss (Member). – Verein für Socialpolitik, Bildungsökonomischer Ausschuss (Member). – Swiss National Science Foundation, National Research Programme No. 52: “Childhood, Youth and Intergenerational Relationships in a Changing Society” (Member of Steering Committee). – The Berlin-Brandenburg Economics Forum BBEF (Active Member). – Institute for the Study of Labor IZA, Bonn (Research Fellow). – International Conference “Overeducation in Europe,” organized by MPIB Berlin and ROA Maastricht, Berlin 2002 (Coorganizer). – Swiss Household Panel SHP (Member of Scientific Advisory Board).

Appendix 263 Wolfgang Edelstein – Institut für angewandte Familien-, Kindheits- und Jugendforschung e.V., Potsdam (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Stiftung “Brandenburger Tor der Bankgesellschaft Berlin” (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers, responsible for Program “Youth Takes Responsibility”). – Heinrich-Böll-Stiftung (Member of Commission for the Future of Education). – BLK-Programm “Demokratie lernen & leben” (Member of Steering Com- mittee). – Healthy Children Foundation, Luxembourg (Member of International Advisory Council). – Irmgard-Coninx-Stiftung, Internationales Kolloquium Berlin zur Trans- nationalität (Member of Advisory Council). – Beiträge zur Soziogenese der Handlungsfähigkeit, Series with Suhrkamp Verlag, Frankfurt a.M. (Editor). – Social Justice Research, New York (Member of Editorial Board). – New Directions for Youth Development, New York (Member of Editorial Board).

Alexandra M. Freund – “Die Junge Akademie” an der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher Leopol- dina (Member).

Gerd Gigerenzer – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Member). – Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Fellow). – Theory and Psychology (Coeditor). – Journal of Behavioral Decision Making (Editorial Board). – Humboldt Research Awards Committee (Member of Selection Committee). – Latsis Awards on Communications Sciences (Member of Selection Committee). – Evolution and Human Behavior (Editorial Board). – Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Economics (Codirector). – 24th Annual Conference of the Cognitive Science Society (Program Committee).

Christa Händle – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Politische Bildung, Sektion Politische Bildung (Member of Board). – Förderprogramm “Demokratisches Handeln” (Member of Advisory Board). – Landesverband der Gemeinnützigen Gesellschaft Gesamtschulen (Member of Board).

Erika M. Hoerning – International Yearbook of Oral History and Life Stories (Coeditor). – Oral History Association, USA (Corresponding Member). – BIOS, Zeitschrift für Biographieforschung und Oral History (Coeditor).

Ulrich Hoffrage – Memory, Special Issue “Hindsight Bias” (Coeditor). – Zeitschrift für ärztliche Fortbildung und Qualitätssicherung (Advisory Board).

John M. C. Hutchinson – Animal Behavior (Consulting Editor). – Folia Malacologica (Advisory Board).

Konstantinos Katsikopoulos – IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics (Associate Editor).

Monika Keller – Jean Piaget Society for the Development of Knowledge (Member of Board of Directors). – Zeitschrift für Ethik und Sozialwissenschaften (Editorial Board).

264 Appendix Eckhard Klieme – OECD, Center for Educational Research and Information, Network for Student Outcome Indicators (Expert Group). – Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) (Member of the German National Scientific Consortium). – National Center of Education Statistics, Washington, DC (Scientific Adviser for the International Adult Literacy and Life Skills Study).

Olaf Köller – Zeitschrift für Pädagogische Psychologie (Member of Board of Scientific Advisers). – Programme for International Reading Literacy (PIRLS) (Member of the National Board of Scientific Advisers). – Bavarian Program for Math and German Achievement in Primary Schools (Bayerische Orientierungsarbeiten) (Member of the Board of Scientific Advisers).

Kurt Kreppner – From Past to Future. Clark Papers on the History of Psychology (Editorial Board). – Psicologia: Teoria e Pesquisa (Psychology: Theory and Research, Brazil) (Editorial Board).

Stephanie Kurzenhäuser – Max-Planck-Projektgruppe “Recht der Gemeinschaftsgüter” (Project Cooperation).

Gero Lenhardt – Educação & Sociedade (Editorial Board).

Shu-Chen Li – Psychology and Aging (Consulting Editor).

Laura Martignon – Swedish Council for the Development of Science (Member). – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Didaktik der Mathematik, Arbeitskreis Stochastik (Adviser). – International School for Advanced Studies, Neuroscience Section, Trieste (Member of Board of Advisers). – Stochastik in der Schule (Editorial Board). – Matemática Universitária (Associate Editor).

Karl Ulrich Mayer – American Academy of Arts and Sciences (Foreign Honorary Member). – Berlin-Brandenburgische Akademie der Wissenschaften (Committee on “Young Academy“). – Berliner Journal für Sozialforschung (Editorial Board). – British Academy of Sciences (Corresponding Fellow). – Cornell University, Center for the Study of Inequality (Member of External Board). – Das Sozio-ökonomische Panel des Deutschen Instituts für Wirtschafts- forschung (Member of Advisory Board). – Deutsche Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Senator, Speaker of Section on Economics and Empirical Social Science). – Deutsche Gesellschaft für Soziologie (Vice-Chair and Member of the Board). – Deutsches Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung (Member of Advisory Board). – European Academy of Sociology (Founding Member). – Evangelisches Geriatriezentrum Berlin (Member of Advisory Board). – Freie Universität Berlin (External Evaluator, Expert Committee for the Faculty of Sociology). – Gründungsausschuss des Rates für Sozial- und Wirtschaftsdaten (Chair). – Kölner Zeitschrift für Soziologie und Sozialpsychologie (Coeditor). – Kommission der Bundesregierung zur Verbesserung der informationellen Infrastruktur zwischen Wissenschaft und Statistik (Member). – Max-Planck-Institut für demografische Forschung (Chair of Search Committee, Member of Board of Scientific Advisers).

Appendix 265 – Max-Planck-Institut für Gesellschaftsforschung (Chair of Search Committee). – Max-Planck-Projektgruppe “Recht der Gemeinschaftsgüter” (Committee Member). – Max Planck Society (Member of Presidential Working Group on Financing). – Sächsische Hochschulentwicklungskommission (Vice-Chair). – Stiftung Hanse-Wissenschaftskolleg in Delmenhorst (Member of Advisory Board). – Yale University, Center of Comparative Research (Member of Advisory Board of Electors).

Antje Mertens – Research Fellow of the German Science Foundation DFG Sonderfor- schungsbereich 373. – ETLA and LOWER Conference, Helsinki 2002 (Coorganizer). – International Conference “Overeducation in Europe,” organized by MPIB Berlin and ROA Maastricht, Berlin 2002 (Coorganizer).

Justin Powell – National Science Foundation, Review Committee for the Science Resources Studies Division “Women, Minorities, and Persons with Disabilities in Science and Engineering” (Member).

Jacqui Smith – Berlin Aging Study (BASE) (Steering Committee). – Graduate Program Free University of Berlin “Neuropsychiatry and Psychology of Aging” (Steering Committee). – English Longitudinal Study (ELSA) (Member of Advisory Board). – Survey of Older Adults in Germany (Member of Advisory Board). – China Healthy Longevity Study (Research Consultant). – Norwegian Longitudinal and Cohort Study of Aging (Research Consultant). – Expertise commissioned for the 4th Report on Old Age in Germany (Vierter Altenbericht der Bundesregierung) (Research Consultant).

Heike Solga – “Die Junge Akademie” an der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften und der Deutschen Akademie der Naturforscher Leopoldina (Member). – ALLBUS (Member of Scientific Advisory Board). – Max Planck Society (Member of Senate)

Elsbeth Stern – Online Journal “Research Dialogue” (EARLI) (Editor-in-Chief). – TIMS Elementary School Study (Member of Scientific Board). – Max Planck Society, Working Committee for the Advancement of Women in Science (Member).

Peter M. Todd – Adaptive Behavior, MIT Press (Editor-in-Chief). – Animal Cognition, Springer Verlag (Associate Editor). – Workshop on Artificial Life Models for Musical Applications (ALMMA), Prague 2001 (Coorganizer). – Symposium on When Learning Shapes Its Own Environment, Edinburgh 2001 (Coorganizer). – Summer Institute on Bounded Rationality in Psychology and Economics, Berlin 2001 (Coorganizer).

Heike Trappe – Conference “Changing Work and Life Patterns in Western Industrial Societies,” Berlin 2001 (Coorganizer). – Award Committee for the 2002 “Rosabeth Moss Kanter Award for Excellence in Work-Family Research” (Member).

266 Appendix 4. Academic Degrees 2001–2002

Habilitations

Freund, A. (2002). Die Rolle persönlicher Ziele für Wanner, B. (2002). Children’s perceived control die Entwicklung. Freie Universität Berlin. about friendship and action regulation in friend- Glück, J. (2001). "Jenseits des Rohscores": Empi- ship relationships in the context of peer status. rische und konzeptuelle Beiträge zu qualitativen Freie Universität Berlin. Aspekten kognitiver Leistungen. Universität Wien. Watermann, R. (2002). Die Entwicklung von Ge- Hoffrage, U. (2001). Urteilen und Entscheiden. sellschaftsbildern im Jugend- und frühen Erwach- Freie Universität Berlin. senenalter. Freie Universität Berlin. Köller, O. (2001). Leistungsgruppierungen, soziale Vergleiche und selbstbezogene Fähigkeitskognitio- nen in der Schule. Universität Potsdam. Master’s and Diploma Theses Vitouch, O. (2001). Kognitive Musikpsychologie: Von den neuronalen Basisprozessen zum Musik- Atmaca, S. (2002). Has the human mind adapted erleben im Kontext. Universität Wien. to perception and processing of natural frequencies? Freie Universität Berlin. Begehr, A. (2001). Verbale Interaktion im Mathe- Doctoral Dissertations matikunterricht. Analysen von Video-Aufzeichnun- gen in 8. Klassen von Hauptschulen und Gymna- Bondar, A. (2002). Balance and cognition: Resour- sien. Freie Universität Berlin. ce allocation and its control in young and older Behrens, K. (2002). Explorations into the concept adults. Freie Universität Berlin. of wisdom: Structural and content dimensions of Jopp, D. (2002). Erfolgreiches Altern: Zum funk- knowledge in the fundamental pragmatics of life. tionalen Zusammenspiel von personalen Ressour- Freie Universität Berlin. cen und adaptiven Strategien des Lebensmanage- Bolinth, I. (2001). Analyse von Veränderungen der ments. Freie Universität Berlin. Kommunikationsformen in Eltern-Kind-Triaden Krauss, S. (2001). Teaching statistical thinking. beim Übergang zur Jugend. Technische Universität Freie Universität Berlin. Berlin. Lißmann, I. (2002). Intraindividuelle Veränderun- Brakemeier, E.-L. (2002). Social support manage- gen von Extraversion und Neurotizismus im hohen ment in old age: Associations with depressivity Alter: Die Bedeutung sensorischer Beeinträchti- and well-being. Freie Universität Berlin. gung. Freie Universität Berlin. Büchner, C. (2002). Zeitverwendungsmuster und Matthes, B. (2002). Brücken und Stolpersteine auf innerfamiliale Arbeitsteilung in Paarhaushalten. dem Weg ins Erwerbsleben. Die Folgen der Trans- Eine empirische Analyse auf Basis des Sozio- formation für den Erwerbseinstieg ostdeutscher ökonomischen Panels (SOEP). Freie Universität Jugendlicher. Freie Universität Berlin. Berlin. McGinnity, F. (2001). Who benefits? A compari- Chojnowska, M. (2001). Nach Sinn oder nach son of welfare and outcomes for the unemployed Taten streben? Wie beeinflussen die Zielformulie- in Britain and Germany. University of Oxford. rungen die Zielverfolgung? Humboldt-Universtität Rapp, M. (2002). Dual-task performance in zu Berlin. memory and balance: The role of aging and Grühn, D. (2002). Age and emotional reactivity: Alzheimer’s disease. Freie Universität Berlin. Subjective responses to negative film clips. Freie Riediger, M. (2001). On the dynamic relations Universität Berlin. among multiple goals: Intergoal conflict and Gummerum, M. (2001). The development of the intergoal facilitation in younger and older adult- friendship concept in different cultures. A com- hood. Freie Universität Berlin. parison between China, Iceland, the GDR, and Rieskamp, J. (2001). Simple strategies for social Russia. Freie Universität Berlin. interactions: How to generate trust and fairness. Hahn, S. (2001). Die politische Partizipationsbe- Freie Universität Berlin. reitschaft Jugendlicher. Universität Hamburg. Schmiedek, F. (2002). The structure of cognitive Hollube, B. (2001). Funktionalität negativer Emo- abilities in old and very old age: On the importan- tionen für die Handlungsregulation am Beispiel ce of specific group factors in a dedifferentiated des Übergangs von der Schule in den Beruf. Freie factor space. Freie Universität Berlin. Universität Berlin. Trautwein, U. (2002). Die Entwicklung und Be- Holzhausen, M. (2002). Kognitive Beeinträchti- deutung des Selbstwertgefühls Jugendlicher im gung, Demenz und Ängstlichkeit im Alter. Freie schulischen Kontext. Freie Universität Berlin. Universität Berlin.

Appendix 267 Huxhold, O. (2002). Scanning and feature inte- Pachur, T. (2002). Judgements of health risk fre- gration complexity in a visual search task across quencies: On people’s sensitivity to information the lifespan. Freie Universität Berlin. validities, the effect of personal experience, and Karrer, K. (2001). Der Einfluss von sozialer Kom- the plausibility of ecological judgement models. petenz auf die Personenwahrnehmung in Situatio- Freie Universität Berlin. nen mit und ohne Interdependenz. Technische Piperides, C. (2002). Expert witness use of con- Universität Berlin. sistency cues when judging the veracity of adult Karstein, U. (2001). Kulturschaffen als Hand- testimonies. Freie Universität Berlin. lungs- und Bewältigungsstrategie?! Voraussetzun- Radzei, N. (2002). Der Zusammenhang von Kon- gen und Spezifika der Entstehung soziokultureller trollstrategien und der Wahrnehmung eigener Praxis in der DDR. Wirksamkeit im Kontext des Übergangs von schu- Kleinspehn, A. (2002). Subjektives Alterserleben lischer in berufliche Ausbildung. Freie Universität im hohen Erwachsenenalter: Korrelate und Verän- Berlin. derungen über die Zeit. Freie Universität Berlin. Röcke, C. (2002). Behaving and feeling close: A Knecht, A. (2002). Bildung und Partnerwahl: Ein multidimensional perspective on the nature of Vergleich der Geburtsjahrgänge 1939–41 und relationship closeness in old age. Freie Universität 1959–61 in Ost- und Westdeutschland. Universität Berlin. Leipzig. Saalbach, H. (2001). Prozesse der Worterkennung Knigge, M. (2001). Psychologische Determinanten im Chinesischen, Japanischen und Deutschen. der Entscheidung für oder gegen ein Studium in Technische Universität Berlin. der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Technische Uni- Schlesinger, I. (2001). Schulkultur und politische versität Berlin. Bildung. Eine Untersuchung der Einstellungen zur Kröhnert, S. (2002). Karrieren von Hochschulab- Vermittlung von politischer Bildung bei Lehrern solventen unter den Bedingungen fachlich struk- und Schulleitern in den neuen und alten Bundes- turierter Ausbildungs- und Arbeitsmärkte. Hum- ländern. Freie Universität Berlin. boldt-Universität zu Berlin. Schwanzer, A. (2002). Entwicklung und Validie- Kuhl, P. (2002). Was mich betrifft, das merk’ ich rung eines deutschsprachigen Instruments zur mir. Gedächtnis für altersbezogene Informationen. Erfassung des Selbstkonzepts junger Erwachsener. Freie Universität Berlin. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. Lichtwardt, B. (2001). Berufliche Mehrfachausbil- Schwarz, J. (2001). Emotionen im Alter: Der Ein- dung im ostdeutschen Transformationsprozess. fluss spezieller Ereignisse auf die Zufriedenheit mit Eine Untersuchung anhand der Lebensverlaufs- den sozialen Beziehungen. Freie Universität Berlin. daten der Geburtskohorte 1971/Ost. Humboldt- Sokolova, H. (2002). Die Auswirkungen der Lern- Universität zu Berlin. kultur auf die Mathematikleistungen der Grund- Lüdicke, J. (2002). Soziale Netzwerke und sozialer schüler. Technische Universität Berlin. Wandel. Eine Studie über Veränderungen sozialer Steinberg, S. (2001). Die Bedeutung graphischer Beziehungen in Ostdeutschland und deren Funk- Repräsentationen für den Umgang mit einem tion als soziales Kapital auf dem Arbeitsmarkt der komplexen dynamischen Problem. Eine Trainings- ostdeutschen Transformationsgesellschaft. Freie studie. Technische Universität Berlin. Universität Berlin. Traue, B. (2002). Enttäuschungen und Aufbrüche— Maaz, K. (2001). Konsequenzen von Ausbildungs- Erwerbsverläufe, biographische Konstruktionen losigkeit in unterschiedlichen Gesellschaftssyste- und Vertrauen junger Erwachsener in Ostdeutsch- men. Berufszugangschancen von Jugendlichen land. Freie Universität Berlin. ohne Berufsausbildung in der DDR und der BRD in Trautmann, G. (2002). Vergleich triadischer Kom- den 80er Jahren. Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin. munikationen in der Familie. Freie Universität Mannion, S. (2002). Validating a new measure of Berlin. implicit motivation. Freie Universität Berlin. Warneken, F. (2002). Peerinteraktion und Denk- Meilwes, A. (2001). Familienkommunikation in entwicklung. Freie Universität Berlin. Dyaden und Triaden beim Übergang von der Kind- Wehner, S. (2002). Exploring trends and patterns heit zur Jugend. Technische Universität Berlin. of nonresponse: Evidence from the German Life Nagy, G. (2001). Strukturanalyse eines Frage- History Study. University of Essex, Colchester. bogens zur Erfassung primärer und sekundärer Wilke, A. (2001). The rationality of emotions: Kontrollstrategien. Freie Universität Berlin. Emotions as adaptations. Freie Universität Berlin. Ostmann, K. (2001). Die Bedeutung kultureller und sozialer Ressourcen beim Übergang von der Schule in die Berufsausbildung. Freie Universität Berlin.

268 Appendix 5. Scientific and Professional Staff 2001–2002

Artelt, Cordula (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1999, Uni- Freie Universität Berlin): Interpretive sociology; versität Potsdam): Research in learning (learning cultural research on institutions, organizations, strategies and metacognition); reading; cognitive and professions; studies on biographies, genera- development. tional discourse, and youth cultures (as of 2001: University of Jena). Assmann, Wolfgang (Head of Information Proces- sing Center): Service management in research in- Delius, Julia (Dr. med. in Medicine, 1993, Univer- stitutions; information technology in the social sität Frankfurt a.M): Editorial organization of the and behavioral sciences. International Encyclopedia of the Social and Be- havioral Sciences; interdisciplinary gerontology in Baltes, Paul B. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1967, Uni- the context of the Berlin Aging Study (BASE); versität des Saarlandes; Fellow of the Max Planck BASE Website design and management; coordina- Society; Co-director of the Institute; Professor of tion of the International Max Planck Research Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin): Lifespan School (LIFE). human development: evolution and ontogenesis; aging of the mind (intelligence, memory, person- Flitner, Ursula (MA in American Studies and Ger- ality, wisdom); theory of successful development; man Literature, 1991, Freie Universität Berlin; science policy: interdisciplinarity, history, and State Examination in Library and Information internationality. Science, 1995, Senatsverwaltung für Kulturelle Angelegenheiten Berlin/Köln; Head of the Library Baumert, Jürgen (State Examination for Teachers, and Information Research Unit): Information ma- 1968, Hamburg; Dr. phil., 1968, Universität Tübin- nagement; electronic resources and networked in- gen; Habilitation in Educational Sciences, 1982, formation systems; human resources development. Freie Universität Berlin; Fellow of the Max Planck Society; Co-director of the Institute; Professor of Freund, Alexandra M. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, Educational Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin and 1994, Freie Universität Berlin; Habilitation in Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin): Research in Psychology, 2002, Freie Universität Berlin): Proces- teaching and learning; cultural comparisons, ses of developmental regulation; motivation large-scale assessment, cognitive and motivatio- across the life span; development of the self- nal development in adolescence. definition over the life span (as of 2003: North- western University, Evanston). Baumgarten, Jürgen (Dr. phil. in German Langua- ge and Literature, 1973, Freie Universität Berlin; Gigerenzer, Gerd (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1977, Head of the Editorial and Publications Unit): Pre- Universität München; Habilitation in Psychology, history of the Middle East; neolithization; nom- 1982, Universität München; Fellow of the Max adic cultures. Planck Society; Co-director of the Institute; Pro- fessor of Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin): Büchel, Felix (Dr. rer.pol. in Political Science, Models of bounded rationality; social intelligence; 1991, Freie Universität Berlin; Habilitation in ecological rationality; heuristics of scientific Economics, 1998, Technische Universität Berlin; discovery; philosophy, history, and methodology Honorary Professor of Sociology, Freie Universität of social sciences. Berlin; Senior Lecturer of Economics, Technische Universität Berlin; Research Professor, DIW Berlin; Goedicke, Anne (Dipl.-Soz., 1996, Humboldt-Uni- Senior Research Scientist): Economics of educa- versität zu Berlin; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2001, tion; labor market research; social policy research. Freie Universität Berlin): Social stratification and formal organizations; transformation of former Czienskowski, Uwe (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1995, socialist countries; life course; social mobility; Freie Universität Berlin): Scientific software de- labor markets, firms, and occupations. velopment (resource distribution in social networks; feature-pattern-analysis; computer-based Grund, Peter (Dipl.-Inform., 1981, Technische Uni- scientific research); modeling and simulation; self- versität Berlin): Statistical software and data base reference effect; meta-analysis; experimental de- management systems; data protection. sign and analysis; philosophy of psychology (mind & consciousness). Händle, Christa (First and Second State Examina- tion for Teachers, 1961, 1965; Dr. phil. in Sociol- Corsten, Michael (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1991, ogy, 1977, Universität Bremen; Habilitation in Universität Marburg; habil. in Sociology, 1997, Educational Sciences, 2000, Universität Olden-

Appendix 269 burg): The culture of educational institutions; the in biology and the social sciences; daily routines: double socialization of teachers; transformation of the dawn chorus of birds; skylark behavior and the education system in the new federal states; morphology; sexual selection of slug genitalia; civic education. theoretical morphology.

Hardy, Ilonca (PhD in Educational Psychology, Keller, Monika (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1974, Uni- 1998, University of Iowa): Learning environments versität Heidelberg; Habilitation in Psychology, incorporating the social character of cognition 1994, Freie Universität Berlin): Development in (emphasis: collaborative learning); the role of cultural context; social and moral development language in problem solving; effects and uses of and emotions in cultural context; social perspec- external representations. tive taking, theory of mind, and domains of social and moral reasoning; social rationality: Contracts Hartung, Dirk (Dr. rer.pol. in Sociology, 1973, Uni- and emotions in cheating detection; social and versität Bremen): Educational training and em- moral education in nursery school and in school. ployment; Chairperson of the Works Council of the Max Planck Society (on leave from the Center Klieme, Eckhard (Dipl.-Math., 1978, Universität for Sociology and the Study of the Life Course). Bonn; Dipl.-Psych., 1981, Universität Bonn; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1988, Universität Bonn; Habil- Hertwig, Ralph (Dr. rer.soc. in Psychology, 1995, itation in Educational Sciences, 2000, Freie Uni- Universität Konstanz): Decision making under risk versität Berlin): Research on teaching and learn- (which heuristics do people use and how do ing; knowledge structures in mathematics and different representations of probabilities and out- science; cross-curricular competencies; educa- comes affect choices under risk); simple heuristics tional assessment and evaluation (as of 2001: for resource allocation (parental investment), esti- University of Frankfurt a.M. and DIPF). mation, and judgments of risk (e.g., health risks); methodology of social science (i.e., comparison of Köhler, Helmut (Dr. phil. in Educational Econom- the methodological approaches in psychology and ics, 1975, Technische Universität Berlin): Statis- experimental economics). tical analysis of educational development; social background and educational careers; national and Hillmert, Steffen (Dipl.-Soz., 1996, Universität international education indicators; research on Bamberg; Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2000, Freie Uni- school statistics of the GDR. versität Berlin): Life courses and institutional change; comparative studies; education and train- Köller, Olaf (Dipl.-Psych., 1991, Universität Kiel; ing; occupational careers; research methods. Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1997, Universität Kiel; Habilitation in Psychology, 2001, Universität Hoerning, Erika M. (Dr. rer.pol. in Sociology, Potsdam): Empirical methods of social research; 1977, Freie Universität Berlin; Habilitation in So- research in teaching and learning; motivational ciology of Education, 1994, Universität Bremen; psychology (as of 2002: University of Erlangen- Venia legendi in Sociology of Education, 1995, Nuremberg). Freie Universität Berlin): Biographical and life- course research; qualitative methods; historical Körner, Nina (Second State Examination in Law, generations and social change; professions, intelli- 1973, Universität Hamburg; Head Administrator of gentsia, and intellectuals. the Institute).

Hoffrage, Ulrich (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1995, Krampe, Ralf T. (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1992, Universität Salzburg; Habilitation in Psychology, Freie Universität Berlin): Sensory-motor functions 2001, Freie Universität Berlin): Risk communica- and aging; acquisition and maintenance of exper- tion, in particular, Bayesian inference and the im- tise; movement, timing and coordination; cogni- pact of external representations of information; tive aging; interindividual differences in learning models of cognitive processes underlying choices and motivation. and probability judgments; analytical study of simple heuristics; models of cognitive processes in Krappmann, Lothar (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1969, hindsight bias and the reiteration effect, and the Freie Universität Berlin; Honorary Professor of co-occurrence of both effects. Educational Sciences, Freie Universität Berlin; Senior Research Scientist): Socialization theory; Hutchinson, John M. C. (PhD in Biology, 1990, social and moral development of children in University of York): Behavioral ecology and opti- middle childhood; children’s peer interactions, mality modelling; rules of thumb in animals and relationships, and groups; links between family plants (e.g., weather prediction); spatial decisions and peer relationships; day-care institutions.

270 Appendix Krauss, Stefan (First State Examination in Math- tistical inference and machine learning, compared ematics and Physics, 1995, Universität Erlangen- to fast and frugal algorithms for human adaptive Nürnberg; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2001, Freie Uni- behavior; model search in the Bayesian frame- versität Berlin): Research on teaching and learn- work; the didactics of Bayesian reasoning based ing; didactics of mathematics, especially didactics on adequate information formats; stochastics and of statistics; probabilistic reasoning (Bayesian probability in general (as of 2003: Teachers inferences). College of Ludwigsburg).

Kreppner, Kurt (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1969, Matthes, Britta (Dipl.-Soz., 1995, Universität Technische Universität Darmstadt; Habilitation in Leipzig; Dr. phil. in Soziologie, 2002, Freie Univer- Psychology, 1996, Freie Universität Berlin): Fami- sität Berlin): Life courses in transformation lies as developing systems; family communication processes; labor market entry in international during infancy and adolescence; methodological comparisons; methods of life course research. issues in the study of human interaction; history of developmental psychology. Mayer, Karl Ulrich (Dr. rer.soc., 1973, Universität Konstanz; Habilitation in Sociology, 1977, Univer- Kunzmann, Ute (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1998, sität Mannheim; Fellow of the Max Planck Socie- Freie Universität Berlin): Wisdom and other prag- ty; Co-director of the Institute; Professor of So- matic forms of cognition; emotional competencies ciology, Freie Universität Berlin): Social stratifica- (emotional reactivity, regulation, and understand- tion and mobility; comparative analysis of social ing); lifespan developmental psychology. structure; sociology of the life course; occupational structures and labor market processes. Lange, Lydia (Dr. phil. in Social Psychology, 1966, Universität Jena; Dr. sc. phil. [habil.] in Methods Mertens, Antje (Dr. rer.pol. in Economics, 1998, of Empirical Social Research, 1986, Humboldt- Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin): Empirical labor Universität zu Berlin): Bibliometrics; history of economics, especially labor mobility, training, and psychology. wages.

Lenhardt, Gero (Dr. rer.soc. in Sociology, 1974, Müller-Brettel, Marianne (Dipl.-Psych., 1971, Universität Konstanz; Habilitation in Sociology, Freie Universität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1983, Universität Frankfurt a.M.): Sociology of 1995, Freie Universität Berlin): Scientometrics; education, work, and development; sociology of history of psychology; peace psychology. higher education; sociology of minority groups. Oesterreich, Detlef (Dipl.-Psych., 1968, Freie Uni- Li, Shu-Chen (PhD in Psychology, 1994, University versität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1975, Freie of Oklahoma): Cognitive development through the Universität Berlin): Theory of authoritarianism, lifespan with special interest in cognitive aging; authoritarianism and political consciousness; civic intraindividual variability in behavior and cogni- education of adolescents. tion as indicators of aging (and developmental) processes; neurocomputational and cognitive Riediger, Michaela (Dipl.-Psych., 1997, Humboldt- models of cognitive aging (and child cognitive Universität zu Berlin; Dr. phil. 2001, Freie Univer- development); mechanisms and processes for reci- sität Berlin): Development of future-oriented mo- procal interactive biocultural influences on cogni- tivation across the life span; strategies of adaptive tive development throughout the lifespan; theore- life management; lifespan developmental psychol- tical studies of computational complexity. ogy.

Maas, Ineke (Dr. in Sociology, 1990, University of Rieskamp, Jörg (Dipl.-Psych., 1998, Technische Utrecht): Social mobility; social participation Universität Berlin; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2001, in old age; cultural participation (on leave; as of Freie Universität Berlin): Decision strategies for 2002: University of Utrecht). social interactions (the role of trust, reciprocity, and fairness); evolution of behavior (computer Martignon, Laura (Dr. rer.nat. in Mathematics, simulations of evolving strategies for bargaining 1978, Universität Tübingen; Habilitation in Neuro- situations); experimental investigation of people’s informatics, 1998, Universität Ulm): Simple heu- use of simple heuristics for various judgment ristics vs. complex decision machines; analysis of tasks. lexicographic algorithms for comparison, estimation, and categorization tasks; detection and Rötger, Antonia (Dipl.-Phys., 1989, Universität measurement of higher-order correlations in non- Karlsruhe; Docteur ès Sciences de l’Université linear environments; Bayesian strategies for sta- Joseph Fourier de Grenoble, 1993; science com-

Appendix 271 munication): Behavioral sciences; neuroscience search Group Lack of Training: Employment and and mathematical modeling of complex systems. Life Chances of the Less Educated): Social stratification; social mobility; life course; labor market Rusch-Feja, Diann (PhD in German Literature, research. 1986; MLS in Library and Information Science, 1981, State University of New York at Buffalo): Todd, Peter M. (PhD in Psychology, 1992, Stanford Scientific information systems and information University; Senior Research Scientist): Evolution of management; electronic information systems and behavior (computer simulations of populations of networked information resources; digital libraries, simple organisms adapting to different environ- indexing, classification, and metadata; education mental structures, both physical and social); sim- in library and information-oriented professions. ple heuristics for sequential search (including mate choice), categorization (including intention-from- Schooler, Lael (PhD in Cognitive Psychology, motion), and multi-step processes (including pa- 1993, Carnegie Mellon University): Adaptation of rental investment); psychological selection; rhyth- human memory to the statistical structure of past mic and time-based behavior (including music, and present environments; computational models sequence learning/production, and evolution of of human memory; memory’s role in judgment and song); connectionist models of cognition. prediction tasks. Trappe, Heike (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1994, Freie Schümer, Gundel (First and Second State Exami- Universität Berlin): Gender and social inequality; nation for Teachers, 1962, Stuttgart; 1970, Tübin- life course and labor market research; life courses gen; Dr. phil. in Educational Sciences, 1977, Uni- and institutional change; work-family research. versität Hamburg): School systems and instruction; theories of instruction and methods of Trautwein, Ulrich (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Universität instructional research; comparative research on Göttingen; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2002, Freie Uni- schools and instruction; the language of the versität Berlin): Development of self-related cog- classroom. nitions in educational settings; school development and management; effects of homework as- Singer, Tania (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 2000, Freie signment on academic achievement. Universität Berlin): Lifespan psychology; cognition and aging; longitudinal research. Trommer, Luitgard (Dipl.-Kfm. Applied Economics, 1966, Universität München): Civic education; Smith, Jacqui (PhD in Psychology, 1984, Macqua- youth integration into the labor market; statistical rie University, Sydney; Habilitation in Psychology, evaluation and analysis, including that of foreign 1999, Freie Universität Berlin; Senior Research workers in Germany and women’s employment. Scientist): Profiles of psychological functioning in the old and oldest-old; psychological predictors of Vitouch, Oliver (Dr. rer.nat. in Psychology, 1999, longevity; potentials and risks for development Universität Wien; Habilitation in Psychology, 2001, and successful aging; application of intelligence Universität Wien): Robustness (and related proper- and life knowledge during adulthood. ties) of fast and frugal heuristics (vs. optimization/ maximization models); methodological and episte- Stanat, Petra (Dipl.-Psych., 1992, Freie Universität mological issues in psychology (e.g., replicability Berlin; PhD in Psychology, University of Massachu- and cross-validation of findings, problems of setts at Amherst): Conditions of immigrant stu- NHST, research and publication norms); methods dents’ school success; large-scale assessment and and issues in cognitive neuroscience (functional evaluation; internationally comparative research brain imaging); problems of consciousness; cogni- on schooling; gender differences in school per- tive psychology of music (as of 2002: University of formance; social competence. Vienna).

Stern, Elsbeth (Dipl.-Psych., 1982, Universität Watermann, Rainer (Dipl.-Päd., 1996, Universität Hamburg; Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1986, Universität Münster; Dr. phil. in Educational Science, 2002, Hamburg; Habilitation in Psychology, 1994, Uni- Freie Universität Berlin): International and com- versität München; Univ.-Prof. 1994, Universität parative educational research; quantitative me- Leipzig; Senior Research Scientist): Cognitive de- thods of social research; political socialization. velopment; intelligence and knowledge; research in teaching and learning. Zeiher, Helga (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1973, Freie Universität Berlin): Sociology of childhood; shap- Solga, Heike (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 1994, Freie ing daily life; intergenerational relationships. Universität Berlin; Head of the Independent Re-

272 Appendix Emeritus Members of the Max Planck Society

Edding, Friedrich (Dr. phil. in History, 1934, Uni- cational Science, Freie Universität Berlin and Uni- versität Kiel; Dr. rer.pol. h.c. in Economics, 1981, versität Potsdam): Development and socialization; Freie Universität Berlin; Until 1977 Director of the social-cognitive and moral development; develop- Institute; Emeritus Professor of Educational Eco- mental and structural aspects of curriculum and nomics, Technische Universität Berlin): Economics instruction; developmental and school related of the educational system; vocational training; conditions of successful learning; conditions of adult education; relations between institutional- successful school transformation. ized and informal learning. (deceased 11 Septem- ber 2002) Roeder, Peter M. (Dr. phil., 1960, Universität Mar- burg; Habilitation in Educational Sciences, 1966, Edelstein, Wolfgang (Dr. phil. in Medieval Stu- Universität Marburg; Fellow of the Max Planck dies, 1962, Universität Heidelberg; Fellow of the Society; Until 1995 Co-director of the Institute; Max Planck Society; Until 1997 Co-director of the Special Professor of Educational Sciences, Freie Institute; Honorary Doctorate in Social Science, Universität Berlin): Educational sciences; school University of Iceland; Honorary Professor of Edu- research; history of educational science.

Postdoctoral Research Fellows

Barrett, H. Clark (PhD in Anthropology, 1999, Katsikopoulos, Konstantinos (PhD in Human Fa- University of California, Santa Barbara): Human ctors, 1999, University of Massachusetts): Math- cognitive evolution; domain-specific cognition; ematical analyses of the ecological rationality of predator-prey coevolution; South American simple heuristics; simple descriptive models of hunter-horticulturalist societies (Shuar, Achuar, human choice and their relation to normative Shiwiar); folk psychology and folk biology; human models. cognitive development; cognitive neuroscience; biological anthropology; evolutionary psychol- McElreath, Richard (PhD in Anthropology, 2001, ogy (as of 2001: University of California at University of California, Los Angeles): Cultural Los Angeles). evolution and the evolution of cultural capacities in humans; maintenance of cultural differences; Dorenlot, Pascale (Doctorate in Social Psychology, herding economies; human behavioral ecology; Ecole des Hautes Etudes en Sciences Sociales, game theory and population modeling (as of Paris): Identity construction in multicultural 2002: University of California at Davis). contexts; bilingualism; national identities, European identity; multifactorial analysis (physi- McGinnity, Frances (Dr. phil. in Sociology, 2001, cal, psychological, and social factors) of language Oxford University; MSc in Sociology, 1995, London learning, illness, aging processes (as of 2001: School of Economics): Unemployment: Financial INSERM). and psychological consequences; active labor market policy; comparative social research; labor Fasolo, Barbara (PhD, 2002, in Social Psychology, market transitions; temporary employment. University of Colorado, Boulder): Judgment and decision making. Marsh, Barnaby (Dr. phil. in Behavioral Ecology, 2000, University of Oxford; Juliana Cuyler Ghisletta, Paolo (PhD in Psychology, 1999, Uni- Matthews Research Fellow, New College, Oxford): versity of Virgina): Psychometric measurement; Decision making under risk and uncertainty; evo- structural equation modeling in longitudinal lutionary psychology; comparative decision mak- research; cognitive and sensory aging (as of 2001: ing in humans and animals; behavioral ecology; University of Geneva). domain-specific reasoning; experimental economics; applied decision theory; research methodo- Glück, Judith (PhD in Psychology, 1999, Univer- logies and the philosophy of science. sität Wien; Habilitation in Psychology, 2001, Uni- versität Wien): Statistical methods in psychology Morillas Martinéz, Juan Rafael (Dr. phil. in So- (classification methods for longitudinal data; ciology, 2002, Nuffield College, Oxford; PhD in item-response models); wisdom (wisdom as a Social Sciences, 2002, Center for the Advanced metaheuristic; assessment of wisdom); individual Study in the Social Sciences, Juan March Institute, differences in cognitive strategies (as of 2002: Madrid): Social and economic stratification and University of Vienna). mobility.

Appendix 273 Raab, Markus (Dr. phil. in Sport Psychology, 2000, tionary computer simulations and human experi- Universität Heidelberg): Decision making in sports; ments); development and emergence of social decision making under time pressure; motor con- preferences—altruism, reciprocity, egalitarianism trol and motor learning; cognitive neuroscience; and moral punishment (behavioural game experi- simple heuristics in sports; search, stop, and deci- ments with children and adults); social intelligen- sion rules in individual decision making; hot-hand ce in cooperative/competitive situations; human phenomenon in sports; predicting sport results; experiments and computer simulations. judgment of players and team performance (as of 2003: University of Flensburg). Yang, Lixia (PhD in Psychology, 1999, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Peking): Reimer, Torsten (Dr. phil. in Psychology, 1996, Cognitive and sensorimotor functions and aging; Freie Universität Berlin): Cognitive aspects of working memory; wisdom (as of 2003: University group decision making and problem solving. of Toronto).

Takezawa, Masanori (MA in Social Psychology, Wallin, Annika (PhD candidate, Lund University): 1997, Hokkaido University, Japan; PhD in Social How people structure their decision environment; Psychology, 2001, Hokkaido University, Japan): the use of social information in decision making Adaptive heuristic approach in distributive and problem solving). bargaining under incomplete information (evolu-

Predoctoral Research Fellows

Bondar, Albina (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Freie Univer- Dudey, Thomas (Dipl. in Economics, 1998, Univer- sität Berlin): Balance and cognition: Resource sität Bonn): Game theory; experimental econo- allocation and dual-task costs in young and old mics; bounded rationality; sequential search. adults. Ebner, Natalie C. (Dipl.-Psych., 2001, Freie Uni- Brunner, Martin (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Universität versität Berlin): Differential and successful aging; Mannheim): Research in instruction and learning; processes of developmental regulation; future- multivariate methods and measurement theory; oriented motivation across the life span; lifestyle structural equation modeling and item-response across the life span (LIFE). theory. Ehrhorn, Susanne (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Technische Chandrasekharan, Sanjay (MA in Linguistics, Universität Braunschweig): Social relationships 1997, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi; and loneliness in old age. PhD candidate in Cognitive Science, Carleton Uni- versity, Ottawa, Canada): Role of environment Fanselow, Carola (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Universität structure in agent design; trust; social situated- Potsdam): Decision strategies; process-tracing ness; human-computer interaction (as of 2002: methods in decision making; hindsight bias (as Carleton University, Ottawa). of 2002: University of Applied Sciences Ebers- walde). Chang, Ping-Huang (Master of Education, 1998, National Taiwan Normal University): Comparative Felbrich, Anja (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Universität research of school system; educational policy. Potsdam): Research in teaching and learning; development of graphing competencies. Daniels, Zoe (Dipl.-Psych., 1998, Universität Ham- burg): Research in teaching and learning; motiva- Gerstorf, Denis (Dipl.-Psych., 2001, Freie Univer- tional development during adolescence. sität Berlin): Psychological predictors of longevity; profiles of psychological functioning in the old Demmrich, Anke (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Universität and oldest-old; cohort differences in levels of Potsdam): Research in instruction and learning; functioning. cooperative learning; working memory. Grühn, Daniel (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Univer- Dieckmann, Anja (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Universität sität Berlin): Emotion and emotion regulation Würzburg): Experimental investigation of people’s across the life span; cognitive functioning in the use of simple heuristics; animal cognition: Con- old and the oldest-old; cognitive and emotional cept learning and social intelligence. mechanisms of successful aging.

274 Appendix Gummerum, Michaela (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie sentations on statistical thinking, especially Baye- Universität Berlin): Development of perspective- sian reasoning; legal and political implications of taking, theory of mind, and fairness (economic bounded rationality; communication of uncertain- game experiments with children and adolescents); ty and risk in medicine. development of relationship concepts in different cultural contexts; moral development; cultural Lüdtke, Oliver (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Freie Univer- psychology. sität Berlin): Five-factor model of personality.

Gürtler, Christine (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Universität Maaz, Kai (Dipl.-Soz.-Päd. (FH), 1998, Catholic Würzburg): Social inequality among children; so- University of Applied Sciences Berlin; Dipl.-Soz., cial relationships and friendships; forensic psycho- 2002, Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin): Transition logy: measurement of the child’s attachment to from school to university and work; social back- its parents as a basis for custodial decisions (as of ground and educational and vocational chances. 2002: University of Potsdam). Mata, Rui (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, FPCE University of Hanoch, Yaniv (PhD candidate, University of Hai- Lisbon): Adaptation of human memory to the sta- fa, Israel): Emotion theory; bounded rationality; tistical structure of the environment; social cogni- rational decision making (MINERVA Fellowship). tion (the discipline, not ToM) (LIFE).

Höhne, Anke (Dipl.-Soz., 2000, Humboldt-Univer- Nagy, Gabriel (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, FU Berlin): Re- sität zu Berlin): Gender-segregated labor market; search in teaching and learning; developmental coupled careers; political and social transforma- regulation across the life span; transition from tion in East Germany. school to vocational training; quantitative methods of empirical social research (LIFE). Huxhold, Oliver (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Univer- sität Berlin): Lifespan cognitive development and Pachur, Thorsten (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Univer- cognitive aging; intra-individual and inter-indivi- sität Berlin; MSc (Health Psychology), 2002, dual variability in cognitive performance; cognitive Sussex): Risk perception; simple heuristics based processes contributing to balance control (LIFE). on information sampled in the social network for risk judgements; ecological judgement models, Jacob, Marita (Dipl.-Soz., 2000, Universität Gie- especially adaptive decision making and cue ßen): Education and training in Germany in the validity learning; social-cognitive health behavior 1990s; rational choice theory and educational in- models; decision making and attitude formation equality; research methods. in doctor-patient interactions (LIFE).

Johnson, Joseph (BA in Psychology and Econo- Pollmann-Schult, Matthias (Dipl.-Soz., 2000, mics, 1998, University of Toledo, Ohio; Doctoral Freie Universität Berlin): Labor market research; candidate for joint Ph.D in Cognitive Psychology social inequality; social stratification. and Cognitive Science, 1999 to present, Indiana University, Bloomington): Dynamic mathematical Powell, Justin (MA, 1999, Humboldt-Universität models of decision making; agent-based models to zu Berlin; BA, 1992, Swarthmore College): Soci- explore individual differences; experimental eco- ology of education; social stratification; social nomics and consumer behavior; domain-specific policy; disability studies; life course. decision making and expertise; social influences (e.g., accountability, mere presence) (as of 2002: Rapp, Michael (Medical Examination, 1997, Indiana University). Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin, Campus Virchow): Cognition and sensorimotor behavior in older Julius-McElvany, Nele (Dipl.-Psych., 2001, Freie adults and Alzheimer’s disease patients; selective Universität Berlin): Research in instruction and optimization with compensation across the life learning; reading literacy; self-regulated learning; span; behavioral manifestations of normal and socialization in the family. pathological aging (as of 2002: Mount Sinai School of Medicine, New York). Kunter, Mareike (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Julius- Maximilians-Universität Würzburg): Research in Reimer, Maike (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Freie Univer- instruction and learning; social skills; teamwork sität Berlin): Autobiographical memory; cognitive and cooperative learning; instructional quality. aspects of survey methodology; individual biographies in institutional contexts. Kurzenhäuser, Stephanie (Dipl.-Psych., 1999, Uni- versität Heidelberg): The impact of external repre-

Appendix 275 Röcke, Christina (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Univer- Seibert, Holger (MA in Sociology, 2000, Univer- sität Berlin): Intraindividual variability in psychol- sität Rostock): Education, training, and labor ogical functioning as a tool to understand lifespan market entry; unemployment in early adulthood; development; differential perspective on the Third ethnic minorities and migration. versus the Fourth Age; social relationships and closeness in old age (LIFE). Stange, Antje (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Freie Univer- sität Berlin): Wisdom; social perception; nonverbal Rusconi, Alessandra (Dipl.-Pol., 1997, Università expressiveness; lifespan development. degli studi di Firenze): Demographic transformation in East Germany; German–Italian comparison Wagner, Sandra (Dipl.-Soz., 1997, Humboldt-Uni- in the life courses of young adults. versität zu Berlin): Social stratification; sociology of education; life course research; migration and Schäfer, Sabine (Dipl.-Psych., 2001, Freie Univer- ethnic minorities. sität Berlin): Cognitive-sensorimotor coordination across the life span; age differences in the regula- Wassner, Christoph (State Examination 1997 in tion of sequential action (LIFE). Mathematics and Economics, Universität Erlan- gen-Nürnberg; State Examination 1999 in Infor- Scheibe, Susanne (Dipl.-Psych., 2001, Humboldt- matics, Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg): Proba- Universität zu Berlin): The psychology of longing; bilistic reasoning; didactics of mathematics, longing and successful development over the life especially didactics of stochastics; tutorial and course; lifespan development of interindividual simulation software in mathematics; research in differences; the role of interindividual differences teaching and learning in general (as of 2002: for psychopathology. University of Kassel).

Schmiedek, Florian (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Univer- Wilke, Andreas (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Freie Univer- sität Mannheim): Cognitive development in old sität Berlin): Emotions; evolutionary psychology; age: Models of psychometric intelligence and judgment and decision making (LIFE). intraindividual variability in cognitive functioning; multivariate methods and measurement theory: Wirth, Joachim (Dipl.-Psych., 1998, Technische Structural equation modeling and item-response Universität Berlin): Research in teaching and theory. learning; analogical problem solving; cognitive modeling (as of 2002: University of Essen). Schneider, Michael (Dipl.-Psych., 2002, Techni- sche Universität Berlin): Research in teaching and Wolf, Regina (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Technische Uni- learning; visual reasoning. versität Berlin): Control strategies in the life span; coping with finiteness; managing the transition Schrenk, Judith (Dipl.-Psych., 2000, Westfälische from school to work. Wilhelms Universität Münster): Social inequality among children in classrooms; socio-cognitive development; stimulus intensity in cue reactivity research on alcohol addiction (as of 2002: Univer- sity of Potsdam).

276 Appendix Appendix 277