BEYOND GENDER DEVELOPMENT: INTERNAL RESOURCES RECOGNIZED
by
DEBBRA MELODY HAVEN
A dissertation
submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
PSYCHOLOGY
MERIDIAN UNIVERSITY
2009
Copyright by
Debbra Melody Haven 2009
BEYOND GENDER DEVELOPMENT: INTERNAL RESOURCES RECOGNIZED
by
DEBBRA MELODY HAVEN
A dissertation
submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN PSYCHOLOGY
MERIDIAN UNIVERSITY
2009
This dissertation has been accepted for the faculty of the Meridian University by:
______Jürgen Kremer, Ph.D. Dissertation Advisor
______Shoshana Fershtman, Ph.D. Dissertation Chair
______Melissa Schwartz, Ph.D. Academic Dean
iv
ABSTRACT
BEYOND GENDER DEVELOPMENT: INTERNAL RESOURCES RECOGNIZED
by
Debbra Melody Haven
Carl Jung’s theory of contrasexuality is fundamental to this dissertation. This
study’s Research Problem posed the question: What new images, experiences, and
insights arise when women and men imagine and practice contrasexual gender
performances and expressions that are outside of traditional gender roles? The research
hypothesis stated that: Imagining and practicing contrasexual performances will encourage a beginning awareness of contrasexual aspects, gender projections, and a re-imagining of gender for the future.
The literature reviewed addresses psychological, cultural, and sociological perspectives along with imaginal approaches to contrasexual resources and projection. It was found that the literature seems to inadequately address how gender imagery affects individuals.
Evoking experience, expressing, interpreting, and integrating it, constitute the
Four Phases in Imaginal Inquiry, the research methodology used for this study. Guided visualization, Authentic Movement, journal writing, and role-plays were imaginal approaches employed for recognizing internalized images. The primary experiences
v evoked for participants consisted of gender imagery and contrasexuality, and the transcending or seeing beyond gender.
The Cumulative Learning reveals that early, good-enough family support for developing both feminine and masculine capacities allows an individual to explore
contrasexuality throughout their lifetime without severe and restrictive gatekeeping
dynamics, and enables the individual to digest discrepancies between social expectations
related to gender performance and the individual’s core identity. Embodying and
visualizing cross-gender experience enhances empathy both toward others and the
internal other and supports the withdrawal of projections and the increase in capacities.
Four learnings emerged: First, childhood gender identity develops through selective
identification with positive aspects of both genders and disidentification from limiting
aspects, in an atmosphere of sufficient parental support, despite cultural expectations and
stereotypes. Second, the expression and amplification of stereotypical gender roles
evokes disgust, anger, sadness, and surprise for both genders and assists in
disidentification, and withdrawal of projections. Third, the contrasexual performance and
experience brings to awareness the limiting aspects of gender roles, leading either to
further personal insight or increased rigidity resulting from defensive processes. Fourth,
through gatekeeping dynamics, unfamiliar movement and stances are restricted as they
threaten to dislodge familiar and gender adaptive patterns.
In reflecting on these learnings, the mythical characters of Narcissus, Persephone,
and Demeter are drawn on to portray challenges and rewards inherent in the individuation
process.
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First, I am grateful to courageous women and men who model a respect for all
and who defy prejudices of any kind, whether as sexism, racism, ageism, or any of the other wounding isms–or phobias concerning others who live differently–and understand
they are wounding not only to individuals but to the world, and are a barrier to peace.
I am thankful to my friends who I consider my extended family. I also appreciate
my parents who taught me how wrong prejudice is through their own biases that I could
not understand. I saw their struggles and search for meaning in the limiting roles of a
1950s family in a North American suburb. Though they never shed restrictive gender
roles, they did instill a longing in me for a different way of living.
I am particularly grateful to my daughter, Alexandra, who has inspired,
challenged, and taught me much through being her own person. Her lifestyle and choices
help me realize my own struggle with gender roles is my own in a very unique way, as is
hers.
I am grateful to my partner and friend, Michael Welch, who provided support on
many levels throughout the writing of this dissertation. I am also grateful for the support
of soul in psychology that Meridian University upholds.
vii
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ...... iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... vi
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1
Research Topic
Relationship to the Topic
Theory-In-Practice
Research Problem and Hypothesis
Methodology and Research Design
Learnings
Significance and Implications of the Study
2. LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 23
Introduction and Overview
Psychological Perspectives on Gender Development
Cultural and Sociological Perspectives on Gender Development
Imaginal Approaches to Gender Development
Conclusion
3. METHODOLOGY ...... 109
Introduction and Overview
viii Chapter
Participants
Four Phases of Imaginal Inquiry
4. LEARNINGS ...... 135
Introduction and Overview
Learning One: Honoring Increased and Individual Capacities
Learning Two: Amplifying Roles Focuses Insight through Affect
Learning Three: Contrasexual Capacities Engaged in Cross-Gender Rehearsal
Learning Four: The Gatekeeper at the Threshold
Conclusion
5. REFLECTIONS ...... 183
Introduction
Significance of Learnings
Mythic and Archetypal Reflections
Implications of the Study
Conclusion
Appendix
1. ETHICS APPLICATION ...... 213
2. CONCEPTUAL OUTLINE ...... 221
3. CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE ...... 223
4. INFORMED CONSENT ...... 227
5. SCREENING FORM ...... 229
6. FLYER TO RECRUIT PARTICIPANTS ...... 232
ix Appendix
7. GUIDED GENDER VISUALIZATION SCRIPT ...... 233
8. GUIDED CROSS-GENDER VISUALIZATION SCRIPT ...... 236
9. AUTHENTIC MOVEMENT SCRIPT ...... 239
10. GENDER ROLE-PLAYS SCRIPT ...... 242
11. CLOSING JOURNAL QUESTIONNAIRE FORM ...... 244
12. MEETING ONE: INTRODUCTION AND OPENING RITUAL . . . . . 246
13. MEETING ONE: CLOSING RITUAL ...... 247
14. MEETING TWO: ORIENTATION AND RITUAL ...... 248
15. MEETING TWO: CLOSING AND RITUAL ...... 249
16. SUMMARY OF LEARNINGS ...... 250
17. THANK YOU LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS ...... 254
18. SUMMARY OF DATA ...... 255
Samples of Responses: Closing Questionnaire 1
Samples of Responses: Closing Questionnaires 2 and 3
Samples of Responses: Closing Questionnaires 4 and 5
Samples of Responses: Closing Questionnaire 6
Samples of Responses: Closing Questionnaires 7 and 8
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Traditional Role-Play 1
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Traditional Role-Play 2
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Traditional Role-Play 3
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Traditional Role-Play 4
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Cross-Gender Role-Play 1
x Appendix Samples of Responses: Journaling from Cross-Gender Role-Play 2
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Cross-Gender Role-Play 3
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Cross-Gender Role-Play 4
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Cross-Gender Role-Play 5
Samples of Responses: Journaling from First Guided Visualization Traditional Role Activity
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Second Guided Visualization Cross-Gender Activity
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Authentic Movement 1
Samples of Responses: Journaling from Authentic Movement 2
NOTES ...... 274
REFERENCES ...... 307
1
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This qualitative participatory research study on gender development begins by
unfolding theory and concepts to highlight significant points about the research topic. In
this chapter I address my relationship to the development of gender, then continue with a
discussion of Carl Jung’s theory of individuation (drawn from his Analytical
Psychology), which provides a conceptual foundation for the topic and recognition of the
contrasexual archetype. This theoretical understanding provides the context for presenting the Research Problem and Research Hypothesis, as well as the Research
Design and Methodology. This chapter concludes with an overview of the Learnings and their significance.1
The second chapter provides a survey of literature relevant to this research on
gender development. The literature is presented in three clusters. These clusters are
entitled as follows: Psychological Perspectives on Gender Development, Cultural and
Social Perspectives on Gender Development, and Imaginal Approaches to Gender
Development.
The research method utilized for this project was Imaginal Inquiry, a qualitative
research method authored by Aftab Omer.2 In Chapter 3 this research method is described
and the Research Problem and Research Hypothesis are discussed. The Research Design
for this project is then described in detail through presentation of its specific Four Phases
of Imaginal Inquiry.
2 The Learnings are found in Chapter 4, which are discussed through the six steps of Imaginal Inquiry. The Learning sections are: Learning One: Honoring Increased and
Individual Capacities, Learning Two: Amplifying Roles Focuses Insight through Affect,
Learning Three: Contrasexual Capacities Engaged in Cross-Gender Rehearsal, and
Learning Four: The Gatekeeper at the Threshold. Lastly, Chapter 5, Reflections, will
provide contemplation of the strength, breadth, and transmittal of the learnings of this research.3
As this qualitative study opens with a description of theoretical underpinnings and
concepts in gender development I invite the reader to note their own experience of gender, with memories and images that may surface. Holding the significance of imagery in research that both Ann Ulanov and Ben Sells recommend, as well as the importance of memory, I offer the following from William Wordsworth as guidance and inspiration for
this study: “Our birth is but a sleep and a forgetting.” 4
Research Topic
The topic of this study, gender development, is relevant in North America because
it is a preordained social learning for virtually all developing humans. According to Kay
Bussey and Albert Bandura, human development hinges on gender from the time of birth
and is the basis of differentiation; the anatomical sex of the newborn shapes and narrows
its life from the beginning.5 Jill Morawski states that images of gender “structure the
entire process of knowledge seeking.” 6 She notes that gender categories are intrinsic to mainstream Western thinking as every sphere of daily life experience is defined and
ranked according to the two categories of female and male. Rachel Hare-Mustin and
3 Jeanne Marecek agree and state that theories and practices of psychology have used these
two categories to rank and label groups and individuals in a way that is limiting and
segregating.7
These limitations are not necessarily benign. The National Institutes of Health
cites research which depicts the health costs related to the division in gender roles:
Starting in childhood, girls have higher rates of anxiety disorders than boys. Boys have higher rates of autism and attention deficit disorder. After puberty, women have higher rates than men of depression, eating disorders, and anxiety disorders, including post-traumatic stress disorder. Men are more likely to suffer from substance abuse disorders.8
Despite the categorizations based upon gender, Janet Hyde’s meta-analysis research has
found that females and males are more alike than different. In looking at developmental
differences, she discovered that any apparent gap fluctuates with age, and can narrow or
expand throughout the lifespan.9 Sigmund Freud proposed that humans have an innate
bisexuality at birth, and they then proceed through the oral and anal stages to the genital
stage where the child’s gender identity develops according to the identity of their
same-sex parent.10 Given the health costs and the actual similarities between females and
males, further study into the topic of gender development can help build understanding
toward human development that embraces greater human potentials.
As Peggy Young-Eisendrath and Linda Olds observe, in a mainstream
heterosexist culture, where heterosexuals believe that only their sexual lifestyle is valid
and express disdain for alternative lifestyles, there is a tendency to make assumptions.11
One basic assumption is that a person will adopt a traditional gender role by a particular chronological age, keeping their gender identity intact. Experiences and resources outside
4 of the traditional roles in a person’s subculture, and culture at large, are often disowned
or repressed.
Although the terms sex and gender are often used interchangeably, there is a
distinction that is significant for this study. According to the American Psychological
Association, a person’s sex is apparent in most cases by their physical anatomy, except,
as Ann Fausto-Sterling points out, in instances where an infant is born as intersexed with
physical features of more than one sex, or sexually ambiguous.12 The word sex connotes
a person’s physical structure and biology, and the reproductive functions of a female or
male.13 This definition is often extended and blurred with a person’s gender since the
Western heterosexist socialization views a person’s gender as aligned with one’s sexual anatomy.14
The American Psychological Association defines gender as a phenomenon
referring to the attitudes and learned behaviors of one’s sex; sociologists such as Vern
Bullough and Bonnie Bullough, say it is “a function of the differential socialization of the
sexes.” One’s gender is culturally defined.15
According to Michael Kimmel, gender identity has traditionally been an extension
of one’s biology and acceptance of prescribed behaviors that match one’s corresponding
gender role, though he would align more with John Money’s view that gender identity is
one’s own sense of being female or male.16 Money coined the term gender role in 1955,
as he noted social and psychological influences on sexual identity.17 Gender roles are
publicly expressed attitudes and behaviors about being male or female that are congruent
with society’s expectations, and the roles become cultural stereotypes.
5 Theorists, such as Money, have noted that traditional gender identities and roles
are defined by what makes a male a man, and a female a woman, and are referred to as
sexual or gender stereotypes.18 Such stereotypes are assumptions people make about the
behaviors and characteristics a category of people possess. For example, Kay Deaux and
Tim Emswiller note men are seen as succeeding as a consequence of their higher
abilities, but are seen to fail from their lower motivation, whereas women are viewed as
succeeding from their efforts and failing from lower abilities.19 Gender and sexual stereotypes are pertinent to the current study; they are used for the methodology in amplifying and exploring what scripts and stereotypes are currently being viewed and performed in mainstream culture in the United States.
For this study, the definition of gender development is drawn from Bussey and
Bandura, as ongoing knowledge one acquires regarding how society matches what it
means to be female or male with one’s physical anatomy, along with one’s degree of
acceptance with this social construction as part of one’s identity.20 Scott Coltrane states
that there are inherent assumptions about how a child develops according to their sex and
correlating gender.21 The American Psychological Association notes, it is difficult to find
the exact origins for gender development in preverbal children.22 Given this challenge,
some preliminary understandings related to the topic follow.
Cynthia Miller, Barbara Younger, and Dru Fearing are amongst the researchers
who found that infants understand some gender features through discriminating between
female and male voices, as well as habituating to a group of faces.23 Similarly, various
cognitive theorists view gender identity and roles of significant figures in children’s lives
as guiding behavior, and integral to gender development in children.24
6 In contrast, what children do not experience also has an effect upon their gender
development. Citing Jean Piaget’s observation of the human tendency to group similar
and dissimilar things so as to make sense and meaning of the world, Heather Davis states
that evidence is often left out when it does not fit into a particular category; this may be
because it is too complex to fit the category and would change the meaning of it, and so
is omitted. She states, “categories have little to do with reality, but are just
projections.” 25 Robert Hopcke also addresses the basic way human beings organize,
understand, and experience life through the lens of gender.26 Hopcke views the
categories of experience, embodied by male and female, through a Jungian perspective.
He views femininity and masculinity as belonging to both women and men and not fitting neatly into a gender category. He supports Jung’s theory of individuation which he describes as, “The process and result . . . the ability to form for oneself a unified, coherent, and yet uniquely individual personality of depth and richness.” 27
Murray Stein states that according to Jung, individuation describes the necessity
for humans to differentiate and create their own consciousness, apart from culture.28 At first, however, there is an impetus to forge an identity that belongs to the larger group, the collective, which is when a developing child learns to place themselves in cultural categories. Jung recognized the importance of imitation in developing a persona, considered a social mask, but cautioned it can suspend further development.29 Jung states
that people fall into an indistinctive sameness if their individuation stalls.30 According to
Stein, Jung clarifies the next step as separating from the collective and one’s persona to
develop individuality. A person’s contrasexuality is integral to this individuation
7 process.31 Contrasexuality is a term by which Jung refers to the unconscious aspects of a woman or man that has been repressed or not yet accessed.32
It is important to discuss some theory regarding the development of identity since gender is integral in the formation of an individual’s life today in Western societies. A young person’s parents, subculture, and the mainstream society support them in not straying too far from traditional roles.33 Elizabeth Aries maintains that the environmental milieu with the support, assumptions, and expectations for the developing child becomes internalized.34 The expectations and assumptions can become internal dynamics that work to keep the child, and later the adult, from breaching their learned limits and gender roles; Aries cautions it may be a self-fulfilling prophecy when the gender role expectations have been internalized and are then perpetuated.
Omer defines the learned way of thinking and acting which becomes internalized, as gatekeeping dynamics. Gatekeeping dynamics act to restrict new or different experiences. Omer names this internal development the gatekeepers. Gatekeepers
“personify individual and collective dynamics that restrict experience.” 35 From childhood through adulthood, a fear of being different and possibly rejected can motivate compliance with gender expectations due to activation of internal gatekeeping dynamics.
Marion Solomon notes that fear limits the full range of responses and flexibility that is needed for good mental health; Paula Sager suggests that fear can merge with courage in a mature person.36 Solomon cites human flexibility as the key and gauge of mental health. She adds that if rigidity in interactions takes place, there is a restriction in the range of a person’s responsiveness.
8 Relevant to this restriction and rigidity of interaction and responsiveness, Richard
Sennett uses the term purified identity to describe the sense of self that comes about
through attempts to control unknown, disorienting, unpredictable, or painful feelings or
events.37 He views this identity as forming during adolescence in order to defend against
life’s often overwhelming uncertainties. Sennett points to communities who hold purified
beliefs, identify with these as a group, and expel whatever is seen as different. He states that individuals who adhere to a purified identity are really avoiding the unpredictable,
uncertain, and complex parts of themselves. Sennett adds that there is a vigilance
required in keeping parts of the self walled off; this vigilance cuts one off from the
resources which are needed to cope with life’s problems and therefore raises a person’s
level of anxiety.38
Similarly, Omer speaks of the identity that forms as a result of restricting
experience, as adaptive identity, which he defines as follows: “In the course of coping
with environmental impingement, as well as overwhelming events, the developing soul
constellates self-images associated with adaptive patterns of reactivity. These self images
persist as an adaptive identity into subsequent contexts where they are maladaptive and
barriers to the unfolding of being.” 39 Omer defines a person’s core identity as “the
unique endowment of particularities that unfold, mature, and guide transformations of
identity through the life span . . . that makes individuation a possibility.” 40
Omer views the increase in ability to access the core identity as related to the
development of capacities which makes a person’s potentials more available for
increasing awareness, responsiveness, and choice. Omer defines an individual’s capacity
as, “a distinct dimension of human development and human evolution that delineates a
9 specific potential for responding to a domain of life experience.” 41 This potential for responding with capacities learned through facing, rather than shrinking from failures allows one to focus on a broader range of internal images. With regard to gender development, the culturally cloaked and sanctioned images of gender that are handed down to a child are divisive. The separation into two categories, those that are culturally sanctioned in mainstream society and those that are unacceptable and deviant, does not provide a spectrum of images and choices.42
In this current research study, I wanted to discover whether adults could go beyond the familiar organization and categorization of gender roles and increase their awareness of other possible images and ways to express themselves. I assumed that a spectrum of images could provide an impetus to reclaim other parts that have been split off in performing only one gender role.
The recognition and reclamation of internal imagery and resources supports further individuation. In recognizing and amplifying gender stereotypes through the activities in this study’s methodology, as well as cross-gender behaviors of the other sex, further images and resources did emerge.
Relationship to the Topic
My interest in this research topic originates in restrictions I experienced in my own childhood development. The following incidents portray formative moments in my development and entail key influences and turning points in my life.
I was a toddler when I first learned that the safest relationship I could make with my father was to obey him, and become a daddy’s girl. When my father returned home
10 from his service time in the army, he began his relationship with me by demanding that I
behave as he ordered, and he spanked me when I did not oblige. Loyalty to my mother
vanished as I looked to her for protection and she stood motionless. I could not
comprehend my father’s power over my mother, his power to take me from her, and his
power to hurt me. I felt deeply hurt by my mother’s abandonment. I came to realize that
my mother valued men significantly more than me, or at least feared them.
I discovered later that my father had his own early trauma when his mother died a
year after his birth. I watched him yearn for belonging with my mother who herself was
the middle child of seven, searching for someone to take care of her. Neither one of my
parents learned, saw, or experienced how to sufficiently nurture another person. My
father reached out to me for nurturance and consolation while continuing his demands of
obedience. In that initial meeting with my father, when I felt the loss of my mother’s
protection, I began to experience a blocking, or narrowing of who I could be. I wanted to
feel safe; and I wanted to feel loved, or at least get approval when I did what my parents
wanted.
Another formative incident took place when I was four years old. I realized I did
not have to stop playing on the swing set to urinate on the dirt below me. I was having
such a fun time feeling physically free that I got the idea to just pee on the ground as I had seen many boys do. When my mother heard about this from a neighbor, I was restricted to my bedroom the next day. I knew a boy would be disciplined differently, if at all. A boy would be treated with humor, as I had witnessed before, or a remark would be made such as, “he’s just copying the men he sees” or “he’s just a boy.” I learned this male behavior was off limits to me.
11 In hindsight, I understand these early experiences restricted my development. I
was displeasing because I did not follow unspoken rules–and I was female. The main message I heard from my mother was to act like a lady, and not to “be so loud.” I was not to copy the behaviors of my father, brother, or other boys either. I knew this was not right somehow, that boys could have freedoms that girls were not allowed. Yet my parents could punish me and withhold their approval and love. I began to feel guilty for not being all of what they expected from me. My father seemed easier to please, however, because I
was able to satisfy his emotional need for my compliance.
Alice Miller speaks to a source of shame in pointing out that a child experiences
deep shame when parents reject parts of the child and a false self develops.43 I betrayed
myself to please my parents; I experienced a shame from this betrayal. Robert Bly also
discusses an inherited shame that is passed through generations. John Conger writes that
too often accommodations are made in childhood under duress.44 Many minority groups
carry generational duress and this kind of inherited shame, as girls often do when they
learn that their gender, their femaleness, is considered inferior by the mainstream
Western heterosexist culture.
Into my early adult years, my own authority was projected onto men until an
ex-husband threatened my life. When this happened, the myth of finding safety in
pleasing a man fell apart. I could no longer tolerate a man presiding over my ideas, with
the insistence that he somehow knew more. I began to search for alternative models; the
myth of my needing a male partner, simply because I was born female had worn thin. I
learned that my rejection of cross-gender feelings and behaviors created a limiting life for
me. I also felt supported as I discovered and learned that others felt this too.45
12 As I began to search for alternative ways of relating, not only to men, but with myself, I began to reflect on how my childhood experiences impacted my life as an adult.
I realized that rejection and repression of internal resources can narrow one’s options, as
Wendy Bratherton states, and can inhibit identity integration and further development.46
Internal resources were stifled within me, due to energies going toward the search for social support and approval, and what felt like survival beginning in my childhood.
According to Bly and Alice Miller, the shame of self-betrayal when young, and the inherited shame in being female, can curtail a full developmental exploration, which it did for me.47 I learned that the search for the external other can persist into adulthood, draining vitality away from further development; I learned and continue to learn that the internal other is the treasure I seek for reclaiming resources I left behind.48
Theory-In-Practice
The Theory-In-Practice for this Imaginal Inquiry is drawn from Jungian
Analytical Psychology. The individuation process and the awareness and integration of the anima/animus archetypes, the individual’s contrasexuality, are the basic theoretical elements from Jungian Psychology that comprise this study’s Theory-In-Practice.
Individuation transforms consciousness as someone separates out from their persona and confronts challenges from the unconscious as it creates and integrates new imagery. Stein states that the task is difficult; many people shrink from it. There is danger of a person identifying with the emerging imagery and becoming overwhelmed, when it is not assimilated into consciousness; it can remain out of one’s awareness even as they are seized by the emerging energy of an image.49
13 Additional concepts from Jung assist with understanding the theory of
individuation. According to Jolande Jacobi, the psyche in Jung’s theory, consists of the
ego as the conscious mind, the personal unconscious with images and thoughts unknown
or repressed by the ego, and the collective unconscious.50 The collective unconscious
contains universal knowledge and imagery with which humans are born and holds
powerful archetypal imagery. Anthony Stevens states that we are never directly aware of
the knowledge in the collective unconscious, though it influences all human behavior and
experience.51
According to Jung, an archetype is a primitive, universal, and elemental form that
structures the psyche.52 There are other parallel concepts. Jung related the archetypes to
Plato’s concept of ideas that are mental forms imprinted in the soul before birth.
According to Dacher Keltner, Charles Darwin’s use of social instincts demonstrates the capacity for sympathy which carries survival benefits for the individual. Wolfgang
Kohler’s gestalt concept of isomorphs is also similar; an isomorph is an object or
substance identical with or like another object in structure and form.53 Melanie Klein’s
concept of the unconscious phantasy has inherent primitive instincts situated where experience begins.54 The parallel concepts are not the equivalent, but analogous to an archetype.
Jung considered the Self to be the most significant of the archetypes.55 It
represents a unifying principle in one’s personality. As Edward Edinger states, in Jung’s theory, the Self is “the centre and totality of the psyche, which is able to reconcile all opposites, [and] can be considered as the organ of acceptance par excellence.” 56
14 However, both Andrew Samuels and Adolf Guggenbühl-Craig caution that the concept of
a whole or unified self could constitute a cult of perfection.57
Of primary significance for this study is the contrasexual archetype, which Jung
described as the unconscious anima for men and unconscious animus for women
traditionally in Western cultures, including the United States.58 These archetypes hold the potential resources for cross-gender imagery, along with other resources that are not owned in one’s conscious awareness. Stein writes that the anima/animus archetypes can assist one in facing unconscious emerging images.59 He defines the anima/animus as a
psychic structure that does not necessarily connote gender at all; the anima/animus acts to
lead an individual to the images in their unconscious.60 Ann Ulanov writes that the
anima/animus goes back and forth as a mediator between the unconscious and the
consciousness of an individual.61
Stein holds that Jung’s contrasexual theory provides conceptual metaphors which
expand the breadth and depth of meaning beyond the definitions of gender or sex roles.62
However, some feminist theorists as well as other authors disagree that the contrasexual
archetypal theory broadens and deepens the discussion of gender.63 Jung stated that one
cannot know an archetype; hence, any definition of archetypes, and any associations
made to the anima/animus, the contrasexual, are injected and colored by the perspective
of the individuals considering them.64
The contrasexual archetype carries the potential unconscious resources within an individual. Following the division at birth into female or male, the contrasexual holds many internal resources that are left behind as the child develops and begins to integrate
15 cultural messages. The contrasexual is often laden with sexual imagery because of all that has been repressed as it relates to cultural gender roles and identity.65
David Tacey believes that the fusing of gender with anima/animus is a defensive
and backward move that assists in creating a dictionary of symbols.66 He writes, “I have
to conclude that archetypal essentialism (the idea that archetypes are fixed in gender) and
archetypal fluidity (the notion that archetypes cut across gender boundaries) are both entitled to the claim that they represent ‘Jungian’ psychology.” 67 Tacey cites John
Beebe’s view that Jung was duplicitous in his treatment of the anima/animus in its
relationship to gender.68 However, Tacey views the authors who merge gender and
archetypes as catering to people who crave psychological blueprints and gender
certainty, the audiences who desire precise and unchanging guidelines to follow. Tacey
suggests using a lens of archetypal fluidity, which is used in the current study to provide
the flexibility in viewing unknown resource potentials. Anima/animus and contrasexual
imagery can flush out unconscious resources so that individuals have an opportunity to understand their own psyches beyond necessarily gendered categories.69
Jung’s view, in the context of his own heterosexist culture, was that women’s
contrasexuality contains masculine images, feelings, and behaviors, which are normally
outside of traditional gender roles.70 According to Jung, women’s contrasexuality
contains the animus. Men’s contrasexuality consists of feminine images, feelings, and
behaviors within them, which Jung labeled men’s anima. In normative, or typical social
conditioning, the internal masculine resources in women are left behind too often, first as
a girl learning what it means to be female. With the typical mainstream heterosexual
conditioning, the man leaves behind his internal feminine resources, which began when
16 he started learning to be a male in his family and in society. The above generalizations
are simplistic. Not all women express only femininity, nor men only masculinity. The
conscious expression of femininity and masculinity by women and men in their every day
lives is not considered contrasexual. The resources women and men are not aware of as
accessible to them from their adaptive identities, are what comprise their
contrasexuality.71
Representing a common disagreement with Jung, Lyn Cowan does not accept the terms femininity and masculinity as being useful in applying them to both women and men. She views them as culturally predefined and impossible to view apart from the
literal woman or man.72 However, the reader is encouraged to stretch beyond Cowan’s
conclusion as well as Jung’s writings when he does contradict his own definition of
archetypes from the cultural influences of his time. Donald Dyer points out that Jung
stressed that both the masculine and feminine principles are essential to an individual.73
With the word sexuality included in the term contrasexuality, Cowan notes that it could be literalized and refer to the opposite sex.74 People do fill in and color the images
and provide shifting meanings for words over time. People may either reify the term
contrasexual, or they can allow it the breadth and depth that Jung likely intended.
Some theory related to projection will assist in the understanding of
contrasexuality. According to James Hillman, during the individuation process the
reclaiming of internal resources necessitates interaction with archetypal imagery.75 The repressed archetypal energy becomes projected externally onto others when it is not consciously claimed as one’s own.76 Edward Whitmont’s description of archetypal
imagery is
17 analogous to instinctual patterns observed in animal behavior. All psychic energy is channeled and directed into these basic forms of experience, behavior and emotion. Thus, the archetypes constitute the predispositions of the psyche, or the basic motivations and drives around which the conscious personality will subsequently organize itself.77
Kenneth Lambert defines the predispositions of the psyche mentioned by Whitmont as the archetypal predispositions.78 He uses this term along with Donald Winnicott’s
concept of the word object in describing one of the infant’s earliest experiences. Lambert
looks at the archetypal predisposition in the infant as being internally stimulated by
something external, an object. In the process of projective identification the infant’s
overwhelming archetypal experience is then metaphorically thrown out by the infant onto
an external object. The child then relates to the external object by experiencing that
which was thrown out.79
Robert Young views experience as being made out of consequences that occur from the act of projecting out into the world while Wilfred Bion, Hannah Segal, and
Klein view the infant’s experience of projective identification, described above by
Lambert, as “the basic building block for generating thoughts” and the “basis for the earliest form of symbol formation.” 80 Young concludes his query regarding whether the
terms projective identification and projection are the same or different, and recommends
using them similarly.81 For purposes of this study, projection is viewed as a significant
means by which internal resources are disowned and seen in others. In becoming aware
of projections an increased access to contrasexual resources is made available.
Jung’s contrasexual other, the anima/animus, consists of unconscious resources in an individual that move outward and are seen in another person. Young-Eisendrath notes that the unconscious resources are projected out rather than being acknowledged; an
18 individual is not aware that what they see then is a part of their own make-up.82
Projections consist of feelings that are painful, which can be either too powerfully
positive or negative to bear and live out. According to Deldon McNeely, the image and
associated feeling are not tolerated, so are displaced externally and seen in an other; the
denied, split off, and redirected image is then carried by another person unbeknownst to
them.83 Although this discussion regards gender, the intolerable feelings that accompany projection contribute to creation of other divisions; while unexpressed resources in a
person are not always related to gender, they too are contrasexual in nature.84
From Jung’s view, when resources of only one gender are expected to be played
out culturally in mainstream society, some contrasexual resources are expressed
externally through projection as the anima/animus.85 The contrasexual then, the internal
other, too often considered the opposite sex in mainstream society, is seen in another
person. Jung’s quote clarifies this: “Projections change the world into the replica of one’s
own unknown face.” 86 Projections are a necessary part of learning about the world as
described previously with the infant and its object.
As noted above, the individuation process entails the recognition of projections and the retrieving of them. According to Jung, the goal of individuation is the Sacred
Marriage which is depicted in many alchemical illustrations.87 In particular, Jung drew
upon the work of Arnoldo di Villanova, who lived from 1235 to 1315, and wrote the
Rosarium philosophorum.88 It was printed in 1550 with 20 woodcuts that were created by alchemists of the time. Jung, and others such as Marie-Louise von Franz, have pointed to the Rosarium woodcuts as portrayals of the experiences an individual faces in their unfolding development.89
19 This study’s topic of gender development entails going beyond cultural roles and is viewed from a Jungian perspective with his theory of individuation. The individuation process can be seen as represented in the Rosarium woodcuts, particularly the Sacred
Marriage. As Edinger notes, the imagery of the marriage of the King and Queen in the illustrations symbolizes the integration of the masculine and the feminine, depicts the goal of the journey, and represents the image of Jung’s Self archetype.90
Contrasexuality presents a useful blurring of roles where more authenticity, more of one’s internal resources can be expressed. Samuels is an advocate for the blurring, the tension, and confusion felt in gender roles as a way to rethink them, to consider the plurality of roles, rather than the dichotomy.91
The experience of relating authentically, that is expressing oneself from their core identity, instead of an adaptive role, was an important aspect in this research.92 Allowing internal imagery of one’s own to emerge provides the opportunity to experience life with others beyond the development of gender. The YES Institute is a proponent and offers education in stretching human resources beyond concepts of gender through communicating authentically with others.93
Research Problem and Hypothesis
The Research Problem posed the following question: What new images, experiences, and insights arise when women and men imagine and practice contrasexual gender performances and expressions that are outside of traditional gender roles?
The focus was on participants’ experiences and images that emerged from the
Imaginal Inquiry through their verbal sharing and journaling after each activity. The
20 constellation of images, whether from memory, the present, or future, was integral to the
Learnings. I wanted to know if people would recognize emerging imagery that consisted
of their own strengths, values, and desires rather than what is handed down culturally.
The Research Hypothesis follows: Imagining and practicing contrasexual
performances will encourage a beginning awareness of contrasexual aspects, gender
projections, and a re-imagining of gender for the future.
Methodology and Research Design
The qualitative methodology employed in this study used the participatory paradigm of Imaginal Inquiry that Omer developed.94 The four phases consist of
Evoking, Expressing, Interpreting, and Integrating experiences throughout the study’s
two sessions.
The participants for this study consisted of a group of five women and two men
who responded to an invitation to explore the topic of gender. The two sessions were held
on consecutive days to provide participants time to get to know each other and begin to
build some trust in sharing and participating in the activities.
Two role-play activities, two guided visualizations, an Authentic Movement activity, journaling, sharing stories, and a closing questionnaire were implemented in the
sessions. There were brief opening and closing rituals to delineate the beginning and
endings of each meeting. My own journaling before, during, and after the sessions
contributed to the Learnings as well.
21 Learnings
The Cumulative Learning in this study is that early, good-enough family support for developing both feminine and masculine capacities allows an individual to explore contrasexuality throughout their lifetime without severe and restrictive gatekeeping dynamics, and enables the individual to digest discrepancies between social expectations related to gender performance and the individual’s core identity. Embodying and visualizing cross-gender experience enhances empathy both toward others and the internal other and supports the withdrawal of projections and the increase in capacities.
Learning One is: Childhood gender identity develops through selective identification with positive aspects of both genders and disidentification from limiting aspects, in an atmosphere of sufficient parental support, despite cultural expectations and stereotypes. Learning Two is: The expression and amplification of stereotypical gender roles evokes disgust, anger, sadness, and surprise for both genders and assists in disidentification, and withdrawal of projections. Learning Three is: The contrasexual performance and experience brings to awareness the limiting aspects of gender roles, leading either to further personal insight or increased rigidity resulting from defensive processes. The next Learning concludes with the body’s resistance to moving beyond one’s adaptive identity. Learning Four is: Through gatekeeping dynamics, unfamiliar movement and stances are restricted as they threaten to dislodge familiar and gender adaptive patterns.
22 Significance and Implications of the Study
Learnings from the study can significantly contribute to therapists and clients who
are exploring gender issues and images, images that both promote and hinder the client’s
psychological health. Idealizations and disrespect which occur for both genders could be
discovered in the images. Idealizations are often compensated for psychologically
through opposing attitudes, like disrespect and denigration. According to both Robert
Hinshelwood and Demaris Wehr, clients not only project what they cannot see in
themselves, in regard to gender, but to anything that cannot be tolerated, regardless of the feeling tone that is connected to it.95
Therapists, teachers, and all human relations providers can benefit from the
exploration in this study, whether it is to spark curiosity, assist others in withdrawing
projections, or to help inspire and create a new paradigm. The learnings gleaned are being
shared with an academic audience through the completion of the study being accessible in the library at Meridian University. Success in identifying new images and retrieving projections can generalize to other areas in future research as well, where responsibility to be fully human has been disowned and projected onto others.96 Any prejudice can be worked with when people are willing to embody it and begin to view it within themselves, and not externalize it. Future workshops may be offered to expose and educate more adults in regard to their own contrasexual resources, and to support their individuation in hopes of increasing equality between women and men, and girls and boys.
23
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction and Overview
This chapter provides a survey of literature related to the research topic of gender development. Given the extensive sources available, material is organized into three clusters. The clusters that make up this Literature Review are entitled as follows:
Psychological Perspectives on Gender Development, Cultural and Sociological
Perspectives on Gender Development, and Imaginal Approaches to Gender Development.
The first cluster is Psychological Perspectives on Gender Development, wherein the personal, cultural, and archetypal experiences of gender are discussed. It begins with theoretical positions and the research that tests significant components of these theories.
The subclusters within this cluster are as follows: the first is Psychodynamic and Object
Relations Perspectives on Gender Development, the second is Cognitive and Social
Learning Theories of Gender Development, and the third section is Jungian, Archetypal, and Feminist Perspectives on Gender Development.
The second cluster, Cultural and Sociological Perspectives on Gender
Development, focuses on how gender is developed and perpetuated through external images, cultural influences, within one’s own family, and how it shapes female and male identity. This cluster contains three subclusters. The first is entitled Sociological and
Political Perspectives on Gender Development, the second subcluster is Cultural Impacts
24 on Child and Family Related to Gender Development, and the third subcluster is Cultural
Influences of Media and Advertising on Gender Development.
The third cluster, Imaginal Approaches to Gender Development, accesses literature for imaginal concepts, approaches, and studies that can assist in transforming
gender stereotypes and restricted gender identities. The first subcluster is entitled A
General Introduction to Imaginal Approaches, the second is Gender Development in
Imaginal, Archetypal, Jungian, and Feminist Studies, and the third section is Myths and
the Strangeness of Gender. The various approaches in the studies that are discussed offer breadth in gender research and its methodology. The approaches implemented here assist in focusing on Jung’s concept of contrasexuality in the individuation process, which is the central metaphor, or hub, on which this study rests.1 The Literature Review concludes
with a summary of the three clusters.
Psychological Perspectives on Gender Development
This portion of the Literature Review presents an overview of psychological
knowledge and theory pertaining to gender development. Key figures in development of
theory pertaining to sexuality and gender are, of course, Freud and Erikson. Other more
recent theorists who have contributed to the body of knowledge pertaining to gender
development include Sandra Lipsitz-Bem, Nancy Chodorow, Carol Gilligan, William
Pollack, Jacquelynne Eccles, and Giselle Labouvie-Vief. The discussion of gender
development research and theory will proceed in the following order: (1) Psychodynamic
and Object Relations Perspectives on Gender Development; (2) Cognitive and Social
Learning Theories of Gender Development; and lastly, (3) Jungian, Archetypal, and
25 Feminist Perspectives on Gender Development, with critiques of the research and theories.
Psychodynamic and Object Relations Perspectives on Gender Development
As Morton Hunt acknowledges, Freud was one of the most significant theorists of sexual development.2 This review will begin with Freud’s theory because of his impact on our past and current thinking. His psychodynamic theory will be addressed first along with studies that attempt to test his theoretical positions and Freudian reformulation.
Erikson’s psychosocial theory will also be discussed in this section, as well as authors and researchers who utilize Erikson’s theory in regard to gender development. This cluster concludes with review of object relations theory.
Freud contended there are three aspects to personality, and that the ego is what mediates between the id and the superego.3 The ego assists an individual in delaying gratification of their instincts, which are unconscious drives of the libido, or id; the ego perceives reality in the physical and social world and is pressured in varying degrees by the superego. The superego represents the ideals of society and parents’ messages that become internalized within the individual. Sex and gender roles become internalized through a child’s developing ego mediating between the instincts of the id and the ideals of society.4 This mediation by the ego is addressed by the Freudian concept of the reality principle, defining how the ego comes to terms with conflict between the instincts and the external world.
In his psychodynamic theory of sexual development, Freud proposes that identification with the same-sex parent is significant for a child’s development.5 As one
26 of the tasks in development, the child must adopt and internalize the same-sex parent as a
role model. Freud’s developmental stages focus on the areas of the body where the libido
is focused, such as orally as an infant, anally as a toddler being toilet-trained, and then
genitally during the preschool years. The identification with the same-sex parent begins
at the genital stage, whereas before this stage, according to Freud, there is a similar
developmental path for girls and boys. Upon recognition of anatomical differences
between the sexes, however, boys’ love and attachment for their mothers begins to shift.
At this time they begin to fear their father and abandon their mother due to a fear of
castration by the father.
Freud theorized that girls envy boys for something that girls do not have, which is
a penis.6 Furthermore, girls identify with their mothers ambivalently because the mothers
do not have what fathers have, which is the superior physical prowess, represented by the penis. Freud called this stage of child development the Oedipal stage and considered it to be the most important stage to resolve in order to identify with the correct gender.7
Freud’s thinking has evoked much theoretical conversation. Eleanor Maccoby found little evidence that demonstrates that children experience the fear or envy that
Freud postulated.8 There is also minimal evidence to support the psychodynamic theory
that children adopt gender roles because they identify with their same-sex parent,
according to Mavis Hetherington and Jerome Kagan.9 Hetherington studied three groups;
each group contained 36 girls and 36 boys, ages four to eleven years old. She found that
children identify with the dominant parent who exhibits the variables of warmth,
aggression, and power, regardless of the sex of the parent. Kagan similarly found these
variables to be more important to boys’ development in his review of experimental
27 studies with boys. Paul Mussen and Luther Distler, and Donald Payne and Mussen found
that a nurturing father is important for boys’ identifications with their fathers.10
Chodorow’s view was one of many reformulations of the psychodynamic theory
of gender development.11 She stated that all children first identify with their mother in infancy. Girls continue this identification, which allows them a connectedness and mutuality since their mother is the same sex, and they then develop a self-concept that
orients them to a more related image of their gender. Boys, however, are expected to
separate from their mother, which creates a distance. Boys actually begin to denigrate
femininity to further themselves from her and identify with their same-sex models.
Counter to this position, Alan Sroufe states the theory of boys’ loss of attachment with
their mother has not borne out in research and posits that there has been no evidence for
attachment being any stronger for daughters.12
In another commentary upon Freud’s work, Labouvie-Vief views Freud as
continuing a rationalist legacy where ascent of the logos principle is equated with
development, while the nonrational that she defines as mythos, becomes degraded and
displaced.13 Labouvie-Vief believes that differences, previously linked to gender, impact
an individual’s identity. She refers to the assignment of gender differences that have not
been validated, as well as the tendency to look for difference as the mythology of the
gendered mind.14 Labouvie-Vief questions Freud’s belief and shortsightedness.15 She notes that Freud theorized that both the core identification of the girl’s devalued self, associated with femininity, and the boy’s identification with the ruling masculine principle lead to adaptive adult functioning. According to Labouvie-Vief, the maintenance of this duality, this split between what is masculine and feminine, impinges
28 on the development of a self where both the female and the male cannot experience the
breadth of being human.
Erikson writes that there is a crisis to face at each of the eight stages in his human
development model.16 The identity versus role confusion crisis occurs during
adolescence, at a time where there is a move away from parental influence toward peers.
This crisis presents the opportunity for the adolescent to form and stabilize an identity
based on their own experiences and beliefs.17 Erikson held that ego identity formation
occurs as significant identifications and sex roles are gradually integrated, and over time
become increasingly differentiated.18 As identity is formed it becomes more inclusive.
External standards can become threatening to someone with a weak ego though, and then
pressure to conform limits the integration and differentiation of sex roles.
Erikson’s view of women’s identity as derived from an inner space with a
commitment as a care giver, and men’s identity as tied to outer space, which leads to
action, achievement, and a political domination, does appear to dichotomize women’s
and men’s gender roles and identities. His view also depicts the general psychodynamic
view, which underscores differences between women and men.19 Erikson does offer a
blending and integration of these differences in his theory, however, when an individual
has met the later tasks of development.
Erikson also theorized that sex roles are acquired through identification in his ego
identity formation theory.20 Joseph Pleck, William Goode, and other advocates of the role-strain theory also view Erikson’s model of ego identity formation as valid.21
According to this theory, the stress and difficulty involved in performing gender roles are often incompatible or involve high expectations.
29 Eccles and James Bryan point out that the social supports for transitions beyond
the conventional roles are not usually available.22 Eccles and Bryan state that the
vulnerable time of adolescence, in Erikson’s view, is an opportunity to either retreat to
previous, safe roles of identity, or to resolve the inner conflicts and move through this
transition to the next stage of development. Andrew Smiler also notes that social
messages are needed that support increased development.23
While researchers such as Jeanne Block, Daryl Costos, Eccles, Robert Hefner,
Meda Rebecca, and Barbara Oleshansky propose various models of ego development; they agree that gender is involved in this development and that identity as gender is not static, but a process.24 Gender identity, they contend, evolves as one of the components
of ego development along with concepts of femininity and masculinity. These concepts
change with increased ego maturity, and gender roles and stereotypes begin to lose
meaning. Eccles found that conflict, like Erikson’s crises, is important in gender role
change and its actual transcendence; otherwise, this growth or transcendence may not
take place.25
Hefner, Rebecca, and Oleshansky referred to sex-role transcendence as the last
and optimal stage of adult sex-role development.26 If an adult did not reach this stage, the authors believe they remain at the stage of conforming to sex roles prescribed by society.
Their model of sex-role transcendence is intended to go beyond theories and empirical studies that perpetuate gender stereotypes. They liken sex-role transcendence to some concepts of androgyny, though they reject those that propose a model or ideal form of it that can become rigid.
30 Jane Loevinger’s developmental theory of personality also addresses the gradual
process of internalizing societal and parental expectations along with the maturation that
guides identity decisions.27 Loevinger hypothesized three levels of ego development with
two stages in each.28 Although she did not believe higher stages of ego development necessarily meant a more well-adjusted individual, her model indicates that with increased ego development the individual is more comfortable with less traditional gender role behaviors and characteristics.
In another study that explored gender roles, Krisanne Bursik addressed whether maturity, measured by increased ego development, is related to nontraditional roles of gender in two studies.29 Her hypothesis was that women would demonstrate a positive
association between increased ego development and masculinity, and there would be this
association with men between increased ego development and femininity. Bursik realized
that femininity is less valued in the culture, and that men may be more resistant to
expressing cross-sex behaviors. However, she did find preliminary support for cross-sex
characteristics and behaviors being linked to increased ego development.
In parallel studies, researchers Karen Prager and John Bailey, Costos, and Block,
utilized Block’s gender role identity stages, of the preconformist, conformist, and postconformist.30 Their research linked a reduction in gender stereotyped thinking along
with a higher level of ego functioning. An integration of both femininity and masculinity
occurred in Block’s postconformist stage.31 Results of Block’s work showed that an
increase in adaptive functioning is associated with androgynous orientations for both
women and men. Androgyny was defined by the researchers as going beyond gender
conformity and identifying with both traditional concepts of femininity and masculinity.32
31 In his research, Costos studied the relationship of ego development, gender, and
marital status, by adapting Alan Waterman’s role inventory, using Loevinger's Sentence
Completion Test of Ego Development, and utilizing the Bem Sex Role Inventory. The
Bem Sex Role Inventory, referred to as the BSRI, was created by Lipsitz-Bem in her
research and rates a person as masculine if they score high on the masculine items, and
low on the feminine items; the reverse score for feminine identification is when a person
scores high on the feminine items and low on the masculine items.33 A person scoring
high on each category is considered androgynous. Costos found the gender role interview
correlated with ego development in greater maturity, and with nontraditional descriptions
of gender, with 107 women and men, married and single.34
The above studies demonstrate that nontraditional sex roles are associated with
increased ego development, within psychodynamic theories. However, according to
Gilligan, traditional images and models of behavior continue to be conveyed to girls and
boys.35 Gilligan and Lyn Brown interviewed girls in a public school and found that girls
do experience a strong message to be nice; the girls they interviewed are struggling with
how to include societal messages with their own values and interests.36
Gilligan is also critical of Western values of autonomy, independence and
male-dominated thinking, and she states that Erikson’s developmental theory rests on these values.37 She and other feminists believe that connectedness in development is as
important as independence, particularly for women.38 Women have received more
cultural support in the United States for this relational connectedness, Gilligan admits.
She and Eccles note that relational connectedness comes at a high cost for men in the
mainstream heterosexist society, since independence is more highly valued and men can
32 be viewed as less than a man if they stay connected in relationships (assuming this needs
to be an either/or choice).39 Similarly, women who succeed in the work world also pay a
price, either by staying within the spheres recognized as women’s work, or working in
arenas where autonomy and independence are valued over connectedness.40
Focusing upon the experiences of men, Ronald Levant views traumas as inherent
in male socialization. He believes that men are alexithymic, meaning they cannot find
words to express emotion because of their gender-role socialization.41 Pleck updated and
integrated experiences of trauma into his gender role-strain paradigm. He states that the
male gender role-strain consists of contradictions for men. Gender stereotypes have
negative psychological consequences for most men through their development of an
identity as a man. These psychological consequences include trauma-strain; the traumas are a result of male socialization.42
Pollack agrees with the authors above and points to the imposed need for boys
separating from their mothers, which he believes can be traumatic. He states that boys are
supposed to disidentify with their mothers in order to take on the masculinity society
prescribes, and this is experienced as trauma. This is a severe disruption to the previous
holding environment the mother offered. Pollack also describes this disruption as an impingement for male development. This disruption took place preverbally, so it is difficult to conceptualize or articulate. Then, too often men reject physical and emotional intimacy with women out of unconscious fear that they will become retraumatized.43
Pollack states that men do begin to yearn for the mother and treat women as self-objects in transitional relationships, attempting to repair the deep hurt of the significant loss of the mother. He is appreciative for Heinz Kohut’s focus on narcissism
33 and understanding that certain people may need to depend on others as a way to tolerate
and mend early deficits. According to Pollack, in order to make connections with others,
an affective bridge is needed that serves to reconstruct what was lost in the initial
trauma.44
The development of ego strength at each developmental stage and more androgynous choices later in life is not a guarantee. However, Prager and Bailey, and
Eccles and Bryan found that with increased ego development it appears that gender roles become less fixed.45
While the above material draws from psychodynamic theory, the following
focuses in particular upon Object Relations theory which also emphasizes interpersonal
maturity, much as other psychodynamic theorists do. However, Object Relations theory
focuses on the earlier development between the mother and her infant, as exemplified by
the work of Winnicott.46 According to Winnicott, the object in this theory refers to a
significant person, beginning usually with the mother, who the infant experiences as an
object.47 This consideration of Object Relations is important to the topic of gender development because it focuses on the relationship that nourishes it from the beginning.
The theories and research discussed can assist those interested in increasing gender options to focus in on key points in development that may be responsible for narrowing
human expression. The infant’s first relationship is one of the opportune times to observe
how gender may begin to develop.
In the initial phases of grandiosity and being one with the mother, Winnicott
states that the infant has fantasies of destroying the mother.48 He states that when these
destructive desires meet with the external reality of the mother and the infant both
34 surviving it is very satisfying to the infant. Winnicott states that the destruction for the
infant assists in making the internal-fused reality extend outward, by placing the object
external to the self, through the destruction.49 With the experience of fusion for the
infant, the external is not experienced as outside the infant until the internal
mother/breast/object is destroyed (in fantasy). According to Winnicott, the reality
principle, the intersubjective relationship with the mother and the external world, creates a fascination and appreciation for what is outside, separate, and different to the infant.50
Then as intrapsychic experiences are imposed on the infant from the outside, the infant begins to discover the intersubjective relationship.51
When reality and fantasy are not in balance, and there is a lack of what Winnicott
calls good-enough mothering or parenting, the child withdraws.52 The child internalizes
this lack, and may begin to develop a false self. More gender-approved behaviors may be
adapted during early development in order to gain approval from the primary caregiver.
Gender then, can be a part of this false self, or in Jung’s terms, the mask or persona.53
Daniel Stern and Kohut note the mother acts as the reflective mirror, which occurs when the infant sees and senses the intersubjective self via the mother.54 They note that
when the infant experiences disillusionment as the reality principle in relation to its
mother, then the infant begins to develop a sense of self apart from her. This developing
infant begins to learn how to regulate its own affects as the mother fails to meet some of
its needs. The infant is often affirmed for some affects and behaviors, and is distanced or
separated for others. The infant then learns to display more of what is welcomed by the
parent, and develops a false self.55
35 According to Jessica Benjamin, early in life the child learns to disown or oppose
parts of the self through psychological splitting.56 Splitting occurs when two
contradictory thoughts and/or feelings cannot be held at the same time; the conflicting
feelings are experienced as separate and there is focus on only one of them. The infant
disowns parts of their self then, and projects these parts onto the mother, who is seen as
the other, and an object. As noted by Winnicott, aggressive tension can build when the
infant’s needs are not met sufficiently and the infant does not receive good-enough
mothering.57 Then the occurrence of the splitting between the good/bad object takes
place. Benjamin states that the good-enough m/other takes on these opposite splits, from
the infant’s perspective, so that the infant is not overwhelmed by the aggressive tension and the unmet needs.58
Likewise, Klein believes that the most crucial object is the mother and/or breast.59
In the earliest months of a baby’s existence, the infant has two aims according to Klein,
which are to love and to destroy.60 The actions toward these aims take place through the
infant’s splitting of their internal images of object/mother/breast. The good breast is
idealized and experienced as generous, while the bad breast is experienced as the object
of attack and is persecutory.
The term projective identification was first proposed by Klein.61 Her concept of
projective identification not only involves the fantasy of an internal object being seen or
experienced as outside, instead of inside the person, but also involves part of the person’s
own ego being seen as outside in an object, or another person. This fantasy attempts to
either evacuate a very painful experience, or to communicate with another through
identification in some way.62
36 Projection and projective identification are considered basic defense mechanisms
in psychodynamic thought. Through these defenses one comes to see in others what one
is blind to in one’s self, because it has been split off and projected; the other person can then act out feelings of the one who initiated the projection.63 Winnicott states these
mechanisms did defend the child from being overwhelmed originally; however, as any
defense mechanism, they can also rigidify and stultify development.64 Bion clarifies this by stating that projective identification splits off a part of the person’s personality that is projected into another where it becomes set up, sometimes as a tormentor.65 This split
leaves the person’s psyche in an impoverished state because psychological resources are
projected externally and thus given away.
Among theorists, there are some differences in regard to the precise origin of
projection in human development. In reviewing the development of it, Hinshelwood cites
Bion’s definition for projection as the basis for thinking.66 Segal described it as “the
earliest form of empathy” and the very beginnings of symbol formation.67 Regardless of
the exact origin of projection, from these author’s writings, it appears that projection is a
very basic process that significantly impacts development.
Bringing theory about splitting to bear upon gender development, Benjamin cites
Donna Bassin, who coined the phrase genital theory to explain how children, who think in opposition, may be able to resolve this split during adolescence.68 According to Bassin
the duality created through splitting can be transcended through the process of symbol
formation so that symbolic representation links the dualities and interrupts the oscillation that had been occurring between them as good/bad, have/have not. Then the missing half is found by its inclusion in the symbolic representation. According to Lawrence
37 Kohlberg’s theory, this time in adolescence is when post conventional moral and
cognitive development occurs making it possible for adolescents to view a multitude of
perspectives and become more flexible in their thinking.69 Kohlberg’s moral stages will
be defined more fully in the Cognitive Development subcluster below.
While Bassin indicates that increased moral development facilitates transcendence
of dualities, she does not discuss the methods for doing so. However, she notes that to
transcend dualities and develop human gender identities fully, and utilize more internal
resources, projections need to be reclaimed. Otherwise, resources that are projected are
not available and the view of the other person is distorted.70
According to psychodynamic and Jungian theorists, reality becomes distorted
through unconsciously assuming that we know others’ intentions and what their actions mean.71 Then, as Nathan Schwartz-Salant notes, interaction is between projections,
rather than with the other person.72 Qualitative studies with individuals addressing projections by society and projections of their own could uncover possible distortions.
The topic of psychological projection will be discussed further in the Jungian and
Archetypal Perspectives subcluster.
Cognitive and Social Learning Theories of Gender Development
Theories of cognitive development, social learning, and the development of
gender schemas, the theory that children adapt to cultural definitions of being female and
male through the creation of schemas, will be addressed next along with research associated with gender development. According to Susan Cross and Hazel Markus, gender is one of the central organizational components of identity as a result of its
38 emphasis in society.73 Beverly Fagot and Mary Leinbach observe that gender is such a
powerful organizing schema that no society has been without it. They state that cognitive
development theory suggests gender is a distinction that is not necessary.74 They note,
however, that whether gender is necessary may be quite difficult to test when gender
roles change, and are revised, but not eliminated.75
Piaget’s cognitive development theory is a constructivist perspective, which
means that cognitive abilities are formed through actions in the world, rather than innate
abilities that unfold.76 According to Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder, thinking, or thought, occurs from the actions taken by a child, and are internalized through either accommodation or assimilation.77 When the child’s actions do not change the child’s
mental structures, or schemata, assimilation occurs. When the child changes or adapts
because of the actions, accommodation takes place. The two methods of assimilation and accommodation work together first as adaptive behavior, and then become thinking processes.78
Piaget theorized that children develop schemata, the mental structures for
organizing learning, as a way to perceive the world.79 Kohlberg was inspired by Piaget’s
work. Interested in children’s moral development, he proposed six stages, grouped in three levels in his theory of moral development.80 The three levels are the
Pre-Conventional stage, which consists of the child orienting to how they can avoid punishment and find what is rewarding for themselves; the Conventional stage, where the
child orients toward being good or bad according to social norms, and developing an
orientation toward authority; and finally the Post-Conventional stage, where the child
orients themselves socially and develops ethics.81
39 As is common in cognitive development theory, Kohlberg highlights the need for
young children to establish a self-concept and gender identity, noting that the acquisition of gender role information is inherent in the developing child.82 Kohlberg’s cognitive
development theory consists of three stages in the acquisition of the gender concept: (1)
gender identity begins at age two to three when children recognize people are female or
male based on physical appearance; (2) gender stability begins around age four when
children understand that boys grow to be men, and girls grow to be women; and (3)
gender constancy occurs around age six when children understand that gender remains
the same over time and in different situations.83
In contrast, while Carol Martin and Charles Halverson view gender as a
significant category for children in organizing incoming information, the theorists
disagree with Kohlberg’s view that children do not develop gender schema until their
gender identity is stabilized, but believe children begin this as soon as they discover their
own gender identity.84 Martin and Halverson propose that children organize information
about gender as a cognitive structure, a schema, which initially begins with children’s
concerns about where they fit in the dichotomy of an in-group and an out-group, and they
build on that.85 Preschool children have been shown to continue categorizing gender
information according to what they have already mentally structured. If they view
cross-sex behaviors in an adult they will distort what they saw in someway, or they will forget and say they saw what fits their own gender schema. For instance, a woman
viewed as a doctor would be remembered as the man being the doctor instead, or would
not be remembered at all.86
40 Lipsitz-Bem’s research and theory also focuses on gender schemas. Lipsitz-Bem’s
views will be discussed later, but are addressed here briefly since they are integral to
various aspects of gender development. She views self-concept as linked to whether or
not an individual uses gender as a primary way to view themselves. She refers to those
who tend to rely on gender to organize and structure their lives as gender schematic
individuals, and those who rely less on gender as gender aschematic individuals.87
Lipsitz-Bem points out that children as young as three years old understand it is the anatomy of the body, such as the genitalia, that makes a person a girl or boy; however, 50 percent of American children, from age three to five years old, were only able to identify someone as female or male if they were clothed and the hair was pictured in conventionally gendered ways.88 She states that children internalize, not the
anatomical differences of genitalia, but the implicit images and messages society
provides for how sexes look and dress differently; children internalize that being female
or male is something to strive towards and to accomplish. Janet Spence agrees with this
position in her gender identity theory and contends that gender is the earliest organizing
component of self-concept.89
Fagot and Leinbach found a relationship between gender identification and
children’s preference for toys associated with their gender, though they point out that
identification of one’s own gender cannot be seen as causing the preference, and the
preference may include both cognitive and social influences.90 Fagot and Leinbach
conducted a quantitative study utilizing measures and observational data, with 48 boys
and girls, ages 16 to 18 months, and their parents. They found that parents who evaluate
gender conduct in their children have children who begin to label gender at a younger
41 age. The researchers consider that gender identification, and related toy preference, could be due to the impact of the parents’ influence, and gender labeling may influence the child’s developing gender identification. Research studies below may shed some light on how implicit messages are activated.91
Deaux and Lewis found that a gender schema contains organized knowledge
along with associated qualities; there are links or relationships amongst these qualities as
well.92 Behaviors by others can activate gender schemas, already organized identity
clusters, so that when a male or female is seen, those stored qualities become activated.
Deaux and Lewis concluded that a person’s awareness of their own stereotypical beliefs
is not enough to stop them from acting on them because they are accessed merely by
viewing another.93
Deaux and Lewis implemented three experimental studies where participants
were given information regarding gender and then asked about sexual orientation,
occupations, and role behaviors.94 They found that one component of a stereotype implies other aspects of a stereotype such that a sequence of cognitive linkages acts as a network connected to a gender label. They found that physical appearance plays the most
significant role in what is implied and what links to other stereotypical components.95
The cognitive linkages that connect value with behaviors throughout development also connect to components of gender stereotypes as Deaux and Lewis studied.96 The
developing child learns society’s implicit and explicit messages of value, regarding how
people behave according to whether they are female or male. While children are
developing their self image and concept of who they are, they are internalizing these
messages and values as their own.
42 On a similar focus, Dore Butler and Florence Geis’ found that the violation of
stereotypes stimulates negative affect through their quantitative and observational research in mixed-gender discussion groups.97 Likewise, George Mandler points out that
a person can feel threatened internally, when they violate expectations and stereotypes.98
Mandler’s theoretical analysis is based on physiological arousal and studies on cognition.
Mandler views these studies as focusing on the concept of value, which is the personal meaning for an individual that involves feelings, behaviors, and choices.
Otis Duncan and William McBroom found that conscious and unconscious beliefs, including cultural beliefs and stereotypes a person has adopted, do not necessarily match.99 They found that a person can consciously believe in equality for the sexes and
yet act out internalized, unconscious, and conflicting stereotypical beliefs. Similarly,
Patricia Devine and Timothy Wilson found that stored unconscious knowledge can
activate stereotypical perceptions.100 Their finding supports the Deaux and Lewis study
previously cited that even when a person makes a conscious decision, their unconscious,
conflicting beliefs can become activated.101
In a quantitative research study, Natalie Porter, et al. grouped 107 women and 107
men, according to whether they scored as androgynous or they identified as sex-typed
(identify with sex/gender role). They found that when participants were reminded of
conscious beliefs they held about gender, it had the effect of altering their perceptions
and behaviors and the results became more aligned.102 People appear to act on conscious
beliefs rather than conflicting unconscious beliefs they may have, once they are reminded
of these.
43 Research pertaining to workplace beliefs and attitudes has provided further insight
into gender perceptions. Linda Carli found that women who are viewed as competent in
professional roles were more disliked.103 Robert Zajonc found that familiarity with a new
phenomenon however, may provide more likeability and acceptance and demonstrated
this in his experimental study of repetitive exposure.104 Geis noted that as images of
women are seen increasingly in more occupational positions, they can be viewed as
competent employees, leaders, and bosses, from the repeated exposure, and familiarity, of
these images. Geis found that individual women were too often seen as exceptions in
male-dominated occupations.105 Geis also noted that the increase of competent images of
women can lead to creating a social consensus that can shift gender expectations.
Familiarity of multiple women working in professional roles can change both sexes’ view
of what it is to be female.106 Likewise, men taking on increasing responsibility for
nurturing their children also can alter what it means to be male.107
Geis describes gender as socially constructed, and as coming from humans’
tendency to stereotype and categorize people.108 She views this construction of gender as
a self-fulfilling prophecy, the term originating from William James and Robert Merton.109
Geis states that there are two components to the self-fulfilling prophecy. One component
of a self-fulfilling prophecy consists of conscious and unconscious knowing, feelings,
values, and personal goals regarding what is viewed. The second component of the self-
fulfilling prophecy consists of observable actions, body language, facial expressions, and
vocalizations. She states, “The main idea . . . is that beliefs cause behaviors, and
behaviors cause beliefs.” 110 Geis views the expectancy-role theory as a parallel concept, explaining that cognitive and social processes that rely on consistency continue to
44 perpetuate stereotypical beliefs.111 It seems that there is a matching of what is seen externally to what has already been internalized. Geis proposes that a self-fulfilling
prophecy can help shape and perpetuate sexual equality as well, if there is a commitment to equality.112
Returning to the discussion pertaining to child development, Susan Egan and
David Perry found that during adolescence, it is not how dissimilar the adolescent is to
their same-sex friends that creates adolescent confusion regarding gender roles. Rather, it
is the messages they receive about restricting cross-gender behaviors that create the
confusion for the adolescents.113 As Deaux’s and Lewis’ study above suggests, the messages that children receive are laden with value, and they support stereotypes, which do not include cross-gender behaviors.114
Egan and Perry found that adolescents are encouraged and feel pressured to be gender-congruent in their behaviors. This pressure for gender conformity was associated with reduced action for girls; whereas with boys it was associated with decreased communal behaviors.115
A study by Roy Baumeister demonstrates that people still want to be socially
desirable even when their own beliefs might conflict with others’ beliefs, or societal
norms.116 Similar to Geis’ assertion mentioned above, Baumeister’s quantitative research
indicates that subjects’ motivation to present themselves as socially desirable is linked to
the self-fulfilling prophecy that perpetuates stereotypes.117 Lipsitz-Bem also states, “The
basic psychological model . . . is that of the self-fulfilling prophecy,” when she notes the
circularity in the analysis of gender. She exposes a blind spot when she points to the
45 psychological analysis of gender as it occurs in the very same social structure where these
stereotype expectations exist.118
In the late 1970s, Lipsitz-Bem turned her focus to the socialization that perpetuates gender polarization. She considered sex, as the organizer of human experience, to be dichotomous and harmful to women and men.119 She asserted that
gender polarization is internalized in children by the culture’s classification of femininity
and masculinity into conventional sex roles, when another conceptual basis for identity
could work equally as well. Lipsitz-Bem proposed androgyny as a possible alternative.120
Lipsitz-Bem contends that those who can draw on both feminine and masculine behaviors and emotions as androgynous are better able to handle challenges in life.121 If
children learn that both sexes have feminine and masculine qualities and see this
demonstrated, they can internalize this as they develop their identities. According to
Chodorow’s research, children do see both sexes sharing more equal responsibility in the
home and outside it now, but she agrees that significant inequalities still exist and are
quite evident to children developing images of gender.122
Sometime after Lipsitz-Bem created the Bem Sex Role Inventory measure, she
came to the conclusion made by others, such as Marylee Taylor and Judith Hall, and
Bernard Whitley, that people who score higher on androgynous scales and mental health
tend to score higher in masculinity; it is not androgyny then, but psychological
masculinity that demonstrates increased mental health functioning.123 When society
values individuals who demonstrate independence, competition, emotional stoicism,
rationality, and dominance, there is support, reinforcement, and rewards that provide
increased mental health. However, according to Carol Nader, studies have also shown
46 that expressing masculinity predominantly has its own costs.124 Connection to others,
which is vital to well-being and is often viewed as female strength, is not as available to many men. Agreeing with Nader, Pamela Frome and Eccles, and Michael Addis and
James Mahalik, note that too often men attempt to repress feelings and behaviors according to what is expected, rather than present undervalued parts of themselves.125
The studies above, drawn from Loevinger, Erikson, Kohlberg, Chodorow, and others demonstrate the complexity involved in the development of gender identity. The social environment communicates daily images and influences that impact a young child’s developing sexual and gender identity.126 The child grows and experiences further support for identifying with the gender that matches their physical anatomy and often experiences confusion and negative repercussions if cross-sex behaviors or feelings are acted out. According to Devine and Wilson, even when a person believes they do not
succumb to gender stereotypic thinking, the implicit messages can be activated.127
Research utilizing imaginal approaches and involving implicit images could prove useful
as a means to alter these images.
Jungian, Archetypal, and Feminist Perspectives on Gender Development
Jung’s psychoanalytic theory is utilized in this study to depict terms and images
of gender not often used in daily life because they may help clarify aspects of gender
development when viewed as metaphors. Archetypal psychology also offers terms with
varied meanings and assists in elaborating on concepts of gender. Feminist perspectives
provide a brief, critical review of Jung’s thinking and assist in broadening the scope of
the following discussion. This subcluster will address: (1) Jung’s theory, in regard to
47 individuation first, and then his concept of contrasexuality; (2) Archetypal theorists and
feminist critiques; and (3) a revisiting and elaboration of projection’s role in gender development and the related area of affect from a Jungian perspective.
Stein summarizes Jung’s process of individuation and developing consciousness in five stages.128 Jung borrowed the term participation mystique, from Lucien
Levy-Bruhl, to identify the first stage.129 Participation mystique refers to a sense of existing as one with another person, object, or even with the whole of nature, without
separation. The first stage occurs at the beginning of life. To some degree this experience
of oneness with others or nature, will be accessible to a person throughout their life.
Continuing Stein’s description of Jungian theory, the second stage in development
of consciousness involves a more localized use of projections.130 A differentiation begins
to take place between oneself and others. Parents are the first to receive the projections
that take place, with siblings, teachers, and other significant people being the carriers as
well. This allows for the developing child to learn from these important figures in their
lives as they identify through the projections. In the third stage, the individual begins to realize that the people behind the projections are truly separate. These significant people lose the powerful hold on the individual as this person develops more abstract thinking and views others less concretely and more objectively.131
According to Stein, in the fourth stage of the developing consciousness, the
individual’s projections have been withdrawn but life can seem meaningless when heroes, gods, or even enemies no longer contain their previous meanings. Stein states this can lead to the empty center, which Jung related to modernity. Jung views the ego as carrying the projections at this stage. He warned that the ego can become inflated. When
48 this occurs the ego then carries all of what is positive or negative in the previous
projection. Stein adds that there are not many people who can bear the demands of this
stage of development with the despair that can be experienced.132
Stein notes that in the fifth stage of developing consciousness in Jung’s theory,
there is a recognition that the ego has limits and that the unconscious has significant
power. This postmodern stage, beyond what is modern, is where the unconscious and
conscious become less divided and at times unify through Jung’s transcendent or
mediating function.133 Whereas previously the unconscious served to compensate in an
individual life, the person now becomes more aware of the breadth of who they are.
However, Stein states that most people tend to cling to the earlier stages of conscious
development.134 For individuation to proceed, a person is required to face and experience uncomfortable feelings, tensions, and challenges that seem to have a life of their own.
The contrasexual archetypes are purported to have a life of their own, as are other
archetypal images, and are the significant aspects of Jung’s thinking for this review.135
Stevens describes archetypes as innate dispositions.136 Jean Houston offers the following
definition of archetypes:
Quintessentially, archetypes are about relationship. They are the connectiveness for the way things evolve, grow, relate, and become more complex, until they are integrated into the essence of simplicity. It is easier perhaps to understand archetypes in psychological terms. Standard interpretations describe them as the primary forms and constellations of energy that govern the psyche or that inner self we sometimes call the soul.137
Archetypes are the potential energy that allows humans to form images; they are a predisposition. Hillman states that an archetype in itself cannot be known directly. What
we can know and see is the archetypal image, which is usually accompanied by emotion,
and can be experienced as numinous.138
49 Jung states that the innermost core of a person’s psyche is the archetype of the
Self.139 The Self has a numinous, inner light, which Jung recognized in many dream
images. This archetype is seen as the worshipped deity or deities within any particular
culture. The anima/animus, the contrasexual archetypes, act to serve the Self.140 Esther
Harding points to the Self as the center of the psyche that can be accessed through
honoring and recognizing it. Harding and Jung view the quality that exists between a
person and their contrasexual archetype as depicting their relationship with the
unconscious, and the Self. The union with the opposite sex is a very common image of
wholeness, uniting the feminine and the masculine in oneself through individuating, and
symbolizes the Self.141 The Rosarium philosophorum is a series of woodcuts, and
illustrations that depict this process of individuation.
Adam McLean describes the woodcuts of the Rosarium as illustrations of the
anima/animus polarization with which one must work in order to develop a relationship
for the task and process of integration.142 He states there are two cycles of transformation depicted in the Rosarium, each of which involves seven stages. The first cycle can be viewed in woodcuts 4 through 10; the second cycle is contained in the woodcuts 11 through 17. McLean’s analysis of these parallel processes and seven stages follows:
(1) An entry into the vessel of transformation; (2) A conjunction of the two primal archetypal forces; (3) Their merging into an hermaphrodite in a death or nigredo stage; (4) The extraction or ascent of one facet of the soul into the Spiritual realm; (5) The descent of a spiritual dew or essence from above, (6) The return of the extracted soul forces; (7) The final formation of the Stone pictured as the resurrection of the hermaphrodite.143
The union of the female with the male is portrayed in the mature hermaphrodite
image in the Rosarium woodcut 17, which illustrates reconciliation of the previously
fused and then separated hermaphrodite in the individuation process.144 Jung, Edinger,
50 Ann Ulanov and Barry Ulanov, Stein, and Karl Kerényi all discuss the image of the
androgyne or hermaphrodite in the woodcuts.145
Kerényi relates how the term hermaphrodite originated.146 In Greek mythology,
Aphrodite and Hermes produced a child named Hermaphroditus. It was a nymph who
turned Hermaphroditus to an androgynous being with both sexes. The psychological
connotation of the hermaphrodite is used in this study, since the biological or medical
term of the physical anatomy consisting of both sexes is not a focal point. Charles Ponce
views the hermaphrodite as the anima/animus archetypes in humans before the
psychological differentiation; he states that in world literature, the differentiation, the
splitting of the hermaphrodite always precedes an increase in consciousness. Ponce, as
well as Marion Woodman, state that the androgyne then symbolizes the differentiated
feminine and masculine that are consciously embodied.147
According to Olds, androgyny is a mixture of masculine and feminine characteristics.148 A person is considered androgynous if they are comfortable with
expressing behaviors and feelings characteristic to both women and men, but not
necessarily contingent on either. Authors who use the term sexual or gender
transcendence, Hefner, Rebecca, and Oleshansky, liken it to this meaning of androgyny
and state the term is sometimes used as an ideal that can be interpreted too literally, as
half male and half female precisely.149 Citing Samuel Coleridge’s phrasing, “a great mind must be androgynous,” Virginia Woolf pondered over whether there might be two sexes in one person’s mind and whether these needed to be merged for the person’s happiness.150
51 In the sixth Rosarium woodcut, both Jung and Edinger view the hermaphrodite as
a premature fusion of the feminine and masculine; Edinger also views the Rosarium
woodcut 13 as premature. In the tenth woodcut integration is depicted, as well as in woodcut 17 where integration of what has been pulled apart is illustrated.151 According
to McClean, Jung did not address the full 20 illustrations of the Rosarium woodcut with the second series, likely because he did not have all of the pages.152
According to Edinger and Stein the two images of the king and queen
hermaphrodite along with the repeated sequence in the Rosarium portrayals represent the
process from the less mature to a mature development, one with polarities fused, and the
other as integrated after a separation takes place in consecutive depictions to illustrate the
process of differentiation.153 The coniunctio is the ultimate goal of individuation and is the sacred marriage between female and male, which unites spirit and soul within the
body. Stanton Marlin refers to the Gnostic Gospels in stating that the coniunctio
represents the true understanding where the two are made one, which is beyond the
dualistic world view.154
According to Bratherton the hermaphrodite can represent the process of
development, which can assist in elaborating the often simplistic view of the
androgyne.155 While the psychologically androgynous person is viewed as possessing
and utilizing both feminine and masculine capacities, Christopher Perry, Bratherton, and
others state that people have both capacities.156 The capacities that do not match our
physical anatomy are repressed, or as the hermaphrodite analogy above illustrates, are
pulled apart. People are predominantly conscious of only half of who they are or can be.
52 Jung coined the term contrasexuality for the unconscious compensation for human
sexuality whose breadth is beyond mere sex roles.157 He viewed contrasexuality as an
unconscious complex with the archetypes of the anima/animus at its center. A complex is
a constellation of feeling-toned composites of ideas, which is distinctive for everyone.158
Expanding upon Jung’s ideas, Ulanov and Ulanov write of the anima/animus as
border figures which remain at the fringe of awareness and just out of direct sight.159
They describe Jung’s concept of the anima/animus as three nesting circles.160 The outer
circle is the personal complex, with the second circle consisting of the collective
influences from our culture regarding one’s sexuality, one’s class, and other ways of
categorizing and defining a person. The third and innermost circle is the archetypal and
archaic images that are timeless. Hillman and Stein believe that these timeless images are beyond gender, as Jung did initially.161
Rosemary Gordon, and Ulanov and Ulanov liken the contrasexual archetype to a
bridge between the ego and Jung’s concept of the Self.162 The anima/animus provides
access as a bridge, and the conscious mind can then be made aware of the contrasexual
archetype through imagery, through behavior, emotions, and through the body.
In contrast, Max McDowell cautions others in thinking of the contrasexual as a bridge and states that the anima/animus is much more energetic and animate.163 He
recommends attending to the archetype when it shows up through fantasy with the magnetism it can carry, even when it feels inappropriate. One does not have to act on the allure of the archetype but can review the freshness and creativity that it carries with it.
McDowell points out that Jung, himself, succumbed to relating to the contrasexual
through intimate relations with at least one of his students as did Picasso with young
53 women as his muses.164 In doing so, Picasso connected to his anima unconsciously.
McDowell states that all creativity comes from the contrasexual archetype, and that
honoring the anima/animus in a literal way can support one’s relationship with it.165
Jules Cashford and Young-Eisendrath are two feminist Jungian writers who take issue with the patriarchal lens that exists in Jungian theory.166 They assert that a
patriarchal influence distorts and complicates Jung’s discussion of the contrasexual images. They note that Jung held that a man’s experience of the anima must have a reciprocal component for a woman. He based the concept of a woman’s contrasexual archetype, what he called the animus, on the anima. He did not explore it separately. Both
Young-Eisendrath and Cashford criticize Jung for this in that women experience being devalued in Western mainstream societies and then are expected to integrate the patriarchy’s notions of who they are.167 Although these writers may have valid arguments, an additional aspect to Jungian theory is that men themselves may not be
eager to take in the devalued feminine or anima, either.
In another critique, Michael Messner states that men like Jung can be unconsciously supporting the perpetuation of the negative feminine just as women may
unconsciously choose to support a system that devalues them.168 Cashford and Houston
note that in this way, both sexes may be choosing to remain locked into the status quo.169
They note that there is security in the collective, or group, where an individual can feel reassurance when they identify and categorize themselves with people like themselves.
This likening oneself to a group can be comforting; the risk of believing one is different can feel risky and create insecurity.
54 Young-Eisendrath found Jung’s gender reductions and dichotomizing of the two sexes to be “reifying originally.” 170 By this, she means that Jung’s descriptions of the masculine as rational, authority, and light are too concrete when contrasted with the archetypal feminine which he defined as receptive, dark, containing Eros, and linked to nature, to name just a few. Reification, notes Young-Eisendrath, is the process whereby phenomenon described as they are in one moment, come to be fixed in that description no matter the variations introduced in other moments. She describes this as implying that there is, “Psychological Truth at our fingertips.” 171 She asserts that postmodern thinking
keeps humans from the inflation of reified belief, and modest in groping with these
theories.
In yet another commentary on Jung’s theory, Rosemary Ruether faults it for being
the intellectual foundation for too many of the men who have co-opted the women’s
movement:
In [male feminists’] identification of their own suppressed self with the “feminine,” they think they have a handle on women’s true “nature.” They want women to cultivate this male definition of the “feminine” in order to nurture the “feminine side” of men. They purport to understand and sympathize with women and, no doubt, sincerely think they do. But they tend to become very hostile when women suggest that this definition of the “feminine” is really a male projection and not female humanity. The male ego is still the center of the universe, which “feminism” is now seduced into enhancing in a new way.172
In light of the criticisms, it is significant that some feminists recognize both the patriarchal bias and the liberating value of Jung’s contrasexual theory. There are women who are forgiving of Jung, as is Young-Eisendrath. Some women who find immense value in his theory of archetypes are June Singer, Houston, Ann Ulanov, and feminists such as Naomi Goldenberg, Olds, Carol Christ, Estella Lauter, and Carol Rupprecht.173
55 The latter two women recommend unconsciousness raising, as well as multidisciplinary
approaches to feminist theory.174
Catherine Keller, after repeatedly delineating Jung’s androcentric thinking and theory, also turns back to it for the psychological ground it offers in what she terms the nonseperative ego, where connection is valued over separation.175 She suggests that
Jung’s collective unconscious presents the permeability and connectedness that is revolutionary and missing in the existing patriarchal order. In Keller’s view, the criticisms of androcentrism are valid though there may be a point at which the muddied patriarchal waters can be seen through to value Jung’s writings.176 Jung’s statement,
“The supreme recognition is that a man is also a woman and a woman is also a man,”
adds clarity to the ambiguities in his writings.177
Archetypal theorists differ to some degree with Jung, and offer their own versions
of contrasexuality.178 Hillman agrees with Jung that both the anima/animus are available
to women and men. He views these as internal conjunctions in one individual.179
Schwartz-Salant sees these figures, and names them the unconscious couple, who are
interacting through individuals as projections and complexes.180 He contends that when
the unconscious couple begins to be recognized through dreams, projections, stories, and cultural imagery, they can be met with in the imagination. The couple can be consciously worked with in a variety of ways and can allow previous projections of faulty images to fall away, or be withdrawn.
The retrieval of projections was addressed in psychodynamic theories and will be addressed now from views in archetypal theories.181 According to Schwartz-Salant,
perceiving and interpreting the projection allows its retrieval, which then enables
56 developmental conflicts to be resolved.182 Jung saw projection occurring when greater consciousness is being sought; if the unconscious content is seen in another person first,
it creates a connection to the other, who unknowingly holds the projection so that it can be seen.183 According to Thomas Ogden, difficulty arises when the projection is not worked through and a person does not re-own the projection.184 Then the psychic content
is not integrated and does not become a psychological resource for the original actor. The
working through of a projection entails altering what occurs between two people in the
communication. Reclaiming a projection entails further reality testing and a reduction of
the distortion in the experience with another.
Jung illustrated how difficult it is for individuals to retrieve projections when
taking back feelings of darkness that might be projected through feeling that someone is
evil.185 He said that when the projection of darkness or evil is taken back into the
individual psyche, it is usually as an introject, meaning it is internalized and then there is
recognition that the other person is not really evil. This recognition can create great
discomfort though, as it needs to be psychologically digested.186
In the East, Jung noted, the projection-making factor is called the Spinning
Woman Maya, who creates illusion through dance.187 Men experience the illusion,
created by the projection-making factor as inner femininity projected out externally first onto the all-powerful mother. The energy behind this projection is the man’s anima, and is archetypal in nature. A woman tends to carry this projection for the man, until he develops and integrates his femininity and so has the ability to view women as sisters,
daughters, and equal partners.
57 The animus represents masculinity in a woman.188 She sees the masculine image
in men until she integrates her internal masculinity and develops an increased ability to
view men as brothers, sons, and partners. After this takes place, femininity and
masculinity can be integrated in a more balanced way. The integration of both femininity
and masculinity is often referred to as androgyny, though theorists and researchers
present conflicting arguments regarding the value of this concept.189
Hillman, Stein, Verena Kast, Whitmont, and Schwartz-Salant believe that women and men have both an anima/animus, and that archetypes are not gendered; rather, individuals place gender onto archetypal images, out of attempts to name specific energies of each.190 Hopcke also states that the anima, “the archetype of soul,” is without
gender before it is expressed. He adds that identifying anima with the unconscious
feminine in a man is a sexist act.191 Hillman refers to the anima archetype in everyone as
representing interiority and the reflective partner.192 Joseph Redfearn states that the
anima archetype needs to be worked with to restore an individual’s self-image, though it
means giving up a type of power that one clings to and fears losing. He writes that when
one is willing and submits however, there is a treasure to internalize.193
Hillman states that the withdrawing of projections and coming to terms with the
depersonalizing nature of the anima archetype means an individual sees through their
self-importance and sacrifices their attachment to what is personal for the impersonal.194
Commenting on Hillman’s description, Redfearn refers to this process as having a sad
quality that comes with the sacrifice.195 Also writing about the anima archetype, Peter
Schellenbaum sees it as a strong motivator toward individuation.196 He advises paying
58 attention to the feeling tone in the qualities of the anima archetype which when worked
with consciously, kindles and contributes many images.
Jung saw emotion as authoring images and wrote that the essential nature of
humanity is affectivity.197 In this vein, Louis Stewart wrote, “The affects are the life
blood of the psyche” and recognized Jung’s early thinking about affects as the “primary
motivating system of the psyche,” which, “are the source of imagery and
consciousness.” 198 Stewart modified Sylvan Tompkins’ innate affects to describe them
from a Jungian perspective.199 He also recognized that Sylvan Tompkins’ three
categories of affect fit his own developing affect theory, the archetypal affective system.200 One modification was Stewart’s view that the affects of contempt and shame
are two sides to a bi-polar affect. He saw rejection as the stimulus for this affect.
Similarly, Laurens van der Post viewed the human act of projecting outward of that
which cannot be tolerated as a kind of self-rejection.201
Stewart’s seven innate archetypal affects, modified from Tompkins, consist of the
following: The positive affects of joy-ecstasy and interest-excitement which Stewart
believes to be the spring for the life instinct.202 The survival affects are fear-terror,
anger-rage, sadness-anguish, and the bi-polar affect contempt-disgust/shame-humiliation
that are protective responses which can be transformed into increased consciousness and
imagery through psychological development. The surprise affect is the startle response
which disrupts other affects and abruptly reorients and assists in centering an individual.
Stewart addresses emotions as arising from the basic affects to form a matrix of feelings
and emotional complexes within one’s early family. Stewart relates the affects of interest
and joy to the consciousness of the anima/animus, mythically represented as Eros and
59 lunar consciousness, and logos and solar consciousness respectively. More
pessimistically, Joseph Henderson views the anima/animus as affective complexes that
are unreliable and seductive, but if worked with consciously he suggests they may prove
to be guardian spirits of old that can help individuals mediate between the conscious and
unconscious mind.203
Jung wrote of emotions as being an essential part of archetypes which are:
images and at the same time emotions. One can speak of an archetype only when these two aspects coincide. When there is only an image, it is merely a word-picture, like a corpuscle with no electric charge. It is then of little consequence, just a word and nothing more. But if the image is charged with numinosity, that is, with psychic energy, then it becomes dynamic and will produce consequences. It is a great mistake in practice to treat an archetype as if it were a mere name, word, or concept. It is far more than that: it is a piece of life, an image connected with the living individual by the bridge of emotion.204
Jung describes with metaphor that “emotion is the moment when steel meets flint and a spark is struck forth, for emotion is the chief source of consciousness. There is no change from darkness to light or from inertia to movement without emotion.” 205
Though Jung evoked metaphor and image so heavily in his work, his contrasexual
archetypal images, as anima/animus, have been used in this vein for research only
marginally, as in Susan Scott’s qualitative research study on dreams.206 Imaginal
approaches might provide effective tools for further exploration of the concepts of
anima/animus through elaborating on the imagery in experiential activities.
Conclusion
In sum, this cluster has provided review of psychological literature related and
relevant to gender development. As described above, gender development begins in the
family when children look to others for what it means to be female or male. Beginning in
60 the infant-parent relationship, the internal images and experiences along with the external
images become woven together as gender development proceeds. The developing child
takes in the workings of family first, learning to fit into gender roles, and then develops a
security in their identity through parental support and feedback. To build understanding
of this process, Freud’s psychodynamic theory was briefly reviewed along with other psychodynamic theorists’ and researchers’ views regarding the development of gender.
Also presented were Object Relations theories, particularly regarding the mother-infant relationship and the concept of projective identification which stems from this first relationship.
Next discussed were Cognitive Development and Social Learning theories which address gender development. Included here was an overview of research and theory related to the cognitive developmental model and stages of Piaget and Kohlberg as well as other theory and studies in gender development.
Discussion then moved to Jungian and Archetypal theories, and then the feminist perspectives. The theory and perspectives focused on the current qualitative study of the concept and metaphors related to the anima/animus, also referred to as the contrasexual archetype. Archetypal and feminist theorists assisted in broadening Jungian concepts and terminology to elucidate the multifaceted possibilities Jung portends. Stewart’s affect theory was also addressed to portray affects and emotions from a Jungian perspective, and as they relate to the anima/animus.
This cluster focused on internal images and experiences predominantly, while the next cluster will focus on the external images and experiences in the development of
61 gender. Next to be considered are research and theory about gender development that are based in cultural and sociological perspectives.
Cultural and Sociological Perspectives on Gender Development
For the second cluster, I will address the essentialist and social constructivist views regarding gender development first. Then literature and research will be addressed in the following subclusters. The first subcluster is entitled Sociological and Political
Perspectives on Gender Development, which includes discussions of academia, work, and politics and the impact on individuals and these institutions as it relates to gender.
The second subcluster is Cultural Impacts on Child and Family Related to Gender
Development, with research and theory on family as a main influence on gender development and a brief historical overview of changes in the family structure. The third subcluster is Cultural Influences of Media and Advertising on Gender Development, which reviews the impact of media and advertising on the development and maintenance of gender. The influence of advertising through television, the internet, and magazines as it affects both adults’ and children’s identity as male or female is examined. Also reviewed, are possible consequences of viewing gender imagery in movies and television.
Sociological and Political Perspectives on Gender Development
After addressing how the essentialist and social constructionist views relate to gender, this subcluster will present sociological and political perspectives regarding how gender development is a life long psychological process in which the individual assesses their match, or fit, according to how it is defined by society.207 When cultural and
62 political pressures and norms only support behaviors and feelings that match adults’ and
children’s traditional gender roles, these become reinforced, while other cross-sex
internal resources are not cultivated. The uncultivated cross-sex feelings and expressions
are a loss of resources not only for individuals, but for communities and society at large
as well.208
According to Cherney et al. and Richard Lippa, the essentialist versus
constructivist theories are akin to the ongoing discussion of nature versus nurture;
supporters of the nature perspective believe that behaviors are biologically driven, while
supporters of the nurture perspective argue that culture creates behavioral expectations
and then reinforces them.209 For Steven Pinker these perspectives are not mutually
exclusive; according to him “the answer to all nature-nurture questions is ‘some of
each.’” 210
Carol Tavris states that most research on sex differences takes the essentialist
approach, which views sexual differences as intrinsic and biologically determined, whereas the social constructivist view locates the differences appropriated to women and men in their interactions with others, and consider differences to be socially determined.211
Tavris points out that the cultural myth of science as a highly objective way of knowing about life has been an evolving and dominating theme for the last two centuries in Western cultures.212 A century after Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection,
Michael Ruse notes that beliefs still exist about males being more sexually driven, and
prone to act indiscriminately.213 Tavris notes also, that females continue to be viewed as
highly discriminating, cautious, and less responsive in their sexuality.214 According to
63 Tavris, sociobiologists affirmed this through research with a fruit fly and other
nonhumans. These results from nonhumans then extended to explanations about
complicated human social interactions and customs.215 Ruth Hubbard notes that major
social assumptions such as male promiscuity, female fidelity, women as caregivers, and
other unequal distributions have all been based on such research.216
Tavris writes that as women have entered the field of sociobiology and science in the last three decades, increasing research casts doubts on the assumptions that were made.217 Women viewed their research through the academic frame and lens with which
they were taught at first, but then began to ask different questions resulting in different
results. Janice Irvine observes that researchers were using the mystique of science in order
to fund and explain research results to meet their own ends. Irvine views the research on
sexuality by Alfred Kinsey et al. as very progressive, however.218 She states that
Kinsey’s research called stereotypes into question so that sexuality could no longer be
viewed dichotomously as good or bad, healthy or sick, or simply his or hers.
Female physicians and congresswomen have noted that most of the money funneled to medical research was focused on health issues of concern to congressmen.
The National Institute of Health was criticized in 1990 for spending only 13 percent on
medical research on issues that affect women.219 Margrit Eichler, Anna Reisman, and
Elaine Borins examined four medical journals in 1988.220 Three of the four were
American, and one a Canadian medical journal. In all of these they found gender bias in each step of the research, in the titles, the designs, methods, the collection of data and its interpretations, as well as in the recommended treatments. They found these biases extended throughout other Canadian and American medical journals as well.
64 Candace West and Don Zimmerman point to the distribution of power in society
that produces the biases experienced not only in the area of science and medicine but
across the Western culture of North America.221 They state that sex-role socialization has been the process for teaching children how to become girls and boys; along with this socialization, there is an evaluation of whether a person is faithful to this lifetime status.
The power structure demonstrates and reinforces doing gender as natural and normal, which is the essentialist view. Society’s focus on the differences between girls/women and boys/men reinforces difference as being the natural order of humanity. West and
Zimmerman invite their audience to consider life without gender ranking; they maintain
“we do not have a gender, we do gender.” 222
Judith Butler also views gender as socially constructed and does not believe there is a gender identity, but a performance. She states that everyone does perform gender, whether it is the traditional performance, or not; she encourages confusion in these performances, calling for subversive actions to change views of femininity and masculinity.223 Amelia Jones also views gender performance as a valuable framework to
express images. The images can be enactments that leave outdated notions behind where
women were viewed too often as inanimate objects.224 With the essentialist and social constructivist views briefly addressed, the public and political spheres are explored next.
In the area of education and gender, the American Association of University
Women summed up findings by stating that it does not matter if “one is looking at preschool classrooms or university lecture halls . . . research spanning the past twenty years consistently reveals that males receive more teacher attention.” 225 Books children
read in school previously consisted of traditional sex differences biased towards males.226
65 When women were depicted they were portrayed as dependent, passive, and in submissive positions. Changes have been made; however, the stereotypes are still prevalent. Changes include females being portrayed as lead characters and as women entering the world of work. However, they continue to be portrayed as interested in domestic life more often than are boys and men. Kimmel notes there is not an equivalent move for boys and men being portrayed as nurturing and caring.227
In academics, corporations, and other public arenas, Rosabeth Kanter called attention to the deeply gendered structures that exist because of masculine authority representing the norm.228 Occupations and other public structures may seem gender neutral, though they are in fact laden with images that the culture views as gender-related.
These images are linked to assumptions about a group’s status and competencies, which equates with authority, wealth, and power, depending on the status implied.
Celia Ridgeway has reviewed research using expectation states theory to demonstrate how gender is deeply entrenched with the hierarchy in society. In her writings, expectation states theory points to gender stereotypes that “contain status beliefs that associate greater status worthiness and competence with men than women.” 229 She states that beliefs about status bar women from exercising their authority and from achieving wealth and power at a level equal to men, beliefs that comprise what is referred to as the glass ceiling; this has direct impact on women in management or leadership roles as they face the glass ceiling as a metaphor and reality. A summary of statistics over the past twenty-five years affirms Ridgeway’s theory.
Two different authors, Kathleen Archambeau and Abby Begun look at how corporate and political structures contribute and perpetuate discrimination based on
66 anatomical differences of gender.230 Archambeau states the act of climbing the corporate
ladder has separated women from men with the traditional image of men as
breadwinners. Men traditionally have more access to their bosses, as well as mentors to
guide them, and often become part of what is caricaturized as a club of good old boys.231
Begun notes that in the last ten years, important lawsuits were settled in the favor of
women who claimed sexual discrimination when their male counterparts were advancing
and receiving higher wages for the same work.232 Begun believes that gender images
may change as a result of these lawsuits with new policies being implemented by
employers. Employers who want to avoid lawsuits will make changes in the inequality in
salary and advancement.233
Begun’s study shows that in 1979, women working full time earned 62.5 percent
of what men made working full-time.234 In 1998, this increased to 76.3 percent. In 2007,
it increased to 77.8, up from 76.9 in 2006, which means the gap is now 22.2 percent.
United States Bureau of Labor statistics show that, although the gap is narrowing
between women and men, the gender ratio grew only 6.2 percent over the last 17 years;
from 1980 to 1990 the ratio increased 11.4 percent.235 Lesley Jacobs points out that
equality in pay between women and men has not been achieved.236 The reason often given for women receiving less pay than men is that they are employed in lower-paying positions, though these are the positions more available to women and are seen as women’s work. Jacobs states that raising children, working part-time, or having less experience in years on the job often places women at a disadvantage in the work place.
However, Begun’s work shows that in engineering, law, and architecture, women with the same advanced degrees continue to earn less than men.237 In 1998, the income
67 of female attorneys was only 70.4 percent of the income of male attorneys. The same
year, the average median income for women in an executive, administrative, or
managerial position was $34, 755.00, whereas it was $51, 351.00 for men. In 1991, the
Department of Labor investigated the glass ceiling, to describe barriers women and
minorities experience when they are not promoted to higher administrative and
management positions comparable to men. When a group of senior executive women
were surveyed it was found that women were preconceived and stereotyped, regardless of
their ethnicity, as being unable or unwilling to make decisions, not having the desire to
work, not being tough enough, not being committed as much as men, and too emotional,
to name a few; the more positive stereotypes were that they were good team players, as
well as nurturing and warm.238
Begun also looks at how political leadership is another area where myths and stereotypes may restrict women.239 In 1999, women represented 12.1 percent of 535
seats in the 106th United States Congress. This was an all-time high. The number of
women in elective statewide offices rose in the last two decades from 11 to 28 percent, and in state legislatures it has risen from 10 to 22 percent.240
Linda Feldmann argues that politics shifted when the American public showed
enough support for Hillary Clinton to compete for the Democratic nomination for
president in 2008. After Clinton lost the bid in the Democratic Party, she told her supporters that they had made a million cracks in the glass ceiling, despite her loss.241
Mark Murray shows how Clinton’s significant support by women captured John
McCain’s attention. He brought Sarah Palin on to his Republican ticket as his running mate, to persuade women to vote for him and Palin in the November 2008 Presidential
68 Election. Clinton and Palin provide cultural and political images signifying power and
can shift the landscape of politics for women in American society.242
The imagery depicted in reviewing public and political spheres does not reveal
equality in gender roles in academia, in the sciences, or in the political arena. The
methodology in the current study uses Imaginal Inquiry to explore stereotypic roles of
authority and nontraditional imagery. Studies to explore nontraditional imagery in the
above areas are lacking.
Cultural Impacts on Child and Family Related to Gender Development
The socialization of children in America will be addressed in this subcluster
before focusing on the structure of the family, how changes in the family system have
evolved, and the impact of religion on family. Socialization of America’s children is
viewed as a necessary prerequisite to their becoming responsible citizens. Kevin Durkin
states that recognition that a child is male or female is an integral part of their socialization.243
Spencer Cahill analyzed the experiences of preschool children in a social
recruitment model.244 Cahill states that categorization is necessary for children in
learning to portray masculine and feminine behaviors. He writes that at first children are
concerned with establishing their competence over the others in the classification of
baby. Then children move on to proving their competence as a girl or boy, which acts as
a forced choice. As Cahill notes, “typical verbal responses to young children’s behavior
convey to them that they must behaviorally choose between the discrediting identity of
baby and their anatomically determined sex identity.” 245
69 The delivery of mainstream socialization regarding gender first takes place within
the family, which is explored next within a brief historical context to provide the
background for recent cultural trends in gender roles. According to Arlene Skolnick, the
family as a social system was a concern to Theodore Roosevelt at the turn of the 20th
Century.246 Divorce rates were increasing to one in seven marriages in conservative
cities, and one in four in San Francisco at the time of Roosevelt’s apprehension. A survey
in 1914 showed that 60 percent of women graduates of Eastern colleges had not married.
John Watson proclaimed that marriage would no longer exist in fifty years.247 Then after
World War II, according to Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, the monies infused into
America’s economy supported the image of the nuclear family, which they state, “was
the product of a convergence of an unusual series of historical, demographic and
economic circumstances unlikely to return again.” 248 The structure of the family became
the nuclear, two parent-with-children model, in contrast with Roosevelt’s previous
concerns.
A frantic-like reinforcement of the nuclear unit then took place, according to
William Chafe.249 Families became more isolated and separated from extended family
members. In his analysis from the mid-1950s, Morris Zelditch wrote that the nuclear family needed both the female’s expressiveness and the male’s instrumental nature to function well; this meant that women acted as housewife-mothers who maintained the home for their husbands, acting as breadwinners.250
In the 1970s, Jessie Bernard labeled two different marriages, his and hers, with men experiencing the most satisfaction.251 Results from psychological measures
demonstrated that married men were happier, healthier, and lived longer. Women were to
70 continue providing the comforts of home life for their husbands even if they did work
outside the home. Kimmel views this as a stalled revolution and called for men at that
time to change their behaviors and attitudes.252
Kimmel writes that the portrayal of the nuclear family looks different now in
recent years as both partners are beginning to experience strain in the institution of
marriage.253 According to Adrian James and Kate Wilson, more options exist now apart
from marriage and a family. The number of unmarried couples cohabitating rose in the
last 18 years by almost three times.254 James and Wilson state that household size has also decreased as adults are considering careers, education, and their finances. Eric
Nagourney cites a study in the Annual Review of Sociology which addresses the
following: the number of women as head-of-households rose significantly from 1970 to
1998, with more women increasingly choosing to conceive a first child out of wedlock. In the 1930s, the number was 18 percent of women between 15 and 29, and in the early
1990s the number of women choosing to conceive out of wedlock rose to 53 percent in
the same age group. Nagourney notes the birth rate in younger mothers decreased during
this time.255 Kimmel points out that it is considered more acceptable today for unmarried women to be sexually active. Birth control can provide the freedom and many choose to finish school and begin careers before they marry, if they choose to marry. Single
mothers are disadvantaged in pay equity when they choose to have a child without
another adult’s support.256
Kimmel views behaviors and attitudes of adults as stemming from their parents.257
He points to results from a study in 1991 of full-time working mothers that found the daughters of these mothers completed over ten hours of housework in one week; their
71 sons completed less than three. Another study by Michael Cunningham found that a good
predictor of men caring for their children was whether their own fathers cared for them
and did housework.258
In a 1996 poll in Newsweek magazine, Jerry Adler noted that 70 percent of the
fathers reported spending more time with their children, with 55 percent stating that
fatherhood also seems more valuable to them than it seemed to be to their fathers.259
Kimmel states that men’s increased participation in the home is as a parent, and not as a
husband.260 According to Kimmel, men express support for their wives but do not
actively participate in domestic chores. However, Kimmel continues, men who do
housework are better fathers, while the fathers who participate more with their children
report more satisfaction in their marriage.261 Perhaps the rewards of participating in the
home reduce the pressures in the outside work world. Rachel Bondi found that when men
participate more in their own homes and families, women’s economic status is higher.262
Research by the Families and Work Institute shows that when childcare is
necessary outside the home, parents view quality childcare as a significant issue.263
Working mothers miss twice the amount of work that working fathers do when they have children under 13 years old. The Institute found that single mothers, and mothers whose husbands were employed, showed no significant difference in the number of absences from work. In a two parent, dual-career family it would seem logical that the married working mother would have less absences from work due to relying on her partner-husband for sharing the care of sick children. However, the Institute reported in
1998 that only 22 percent of fathers compared to 83 percent of mothers are absent from work due to their children’s illnesses.264
72 Chodorow’s views of work and home life calls the unequal division of labor into question.265 She argues that if both parents participate in childcare, both girls and boys
would have the opportunity to merge as well as to differentiate from their caregivers,
without the emphasis on separation. In two-parent homes it would help children develop
the reflexivity to separate from each parent, as well as to feel connected to each of them,
within the relationship.266 Gilligan concurs with Chodorow and faults mainstream
patriarchal thinking, which insists on objectivity and separateness. Gilligan recommends
viewing the world and developing human potential through relatedness.267
Both Chodorow and Gilligan have been criticized for their views on women as mothers.268 Diana Meyers sees motherhood as over sentimentalized; she thinks it gives
“men a pretext to subordinate women and induces women to collaborate in their own subordination.” 269 Meyers contends that new imagery is needed, and she provides the
example of a mother playing catch with her daughter. She asks feminists not to support
and duplicate the regimentation of the current family structure and gender coding that
will merely provide a plethora of worn post-patriarchal metaphors and imagery.270
In Weaving the Visions, Ruether writes that religion in a patriarchal society perpetuates sexual stereotypes, with the family becoming the model.271 Susan Schechter
quotes Emerson Dobash and Russell Dobash after she notes that the Christian Bible is
filled with scriptures viewing woman as the scapegoat. They state:
The seeds of wife beating lie in the subordination of females and in their subjection to male authority and control. This relationship between women and men has been institutionalized in the structure of the patriarchal family and is supported by the economic and political institutions and by a belief system, including a religious one, that makes such relationship seem natural, morally just, sacred.272
73 Susan Thistlethwaite has worked with abused women who have strong beliefs in
the Bible and have difficulty believing their partner’s violence is wrong. These women
hold tightly to the biblical passages that women are to obey their husbands. The children
in families where their mothers are physically abused, or even in families where there is
emotional and verbal abuse, develop with the patriarchal pattern ingrained in their own
lives as trauma.273 According to John Phillips, children from Christian households also
learn the biblical story of creation where Adam was made in the image of God. They
learn that Eve was created later, and then was the one who sinned and convinced Adam
to do the same.274
In The Hite Report on the Family: Growing up under Patriarchy, Shere Hite states that children learn how love is mixed with domination and power from their families.275 Hite found that in more than half of the two-parent households in her study
gender tension existed, but more significantly there was poorer treatment of the
children’s mothers by their fathers. Hite recommends gaining some distance from our
obsession-like view of the holy family, which places the value of family above all else,
including safety; she finds hope in the Western world opting out of this system and creating and accepting alternative ideas of what family may look like.276
This subcluster has reviewed the socialization of children in everyday life in the
school and in the family. A brief historical overview of the family structure in the last 90 years addressed how the nuclear family stabilized after World War II, with disruptions occurring again when birth control, as one change during the 1960s, became available.
The depictions of family roles regarding work and caring for children can provide understanding of how traditionally sanctioned gender roles continue to be played out; at
74 the same time the review above clarifies the dysfunction in traditional roles and provides
an impetus for increased expression of postpatriarchal imagery, as Meyers suggests.277
The current study supports increased nontraditional imagery for women and men, which is lacking in the sociological field of research.
Cultural Influences of Media and Advertising on Gender Development
The images in media and advertising are significant in terms of the amount viewed in every day life. According to Kenneth Gergen, these images provide many opportunities for self-assessment.278 The theories and research reviewed in this section
address how the media and advertisements confirm gender roles, even when they are
outdated. The expansion of media through the internet and how it influences and impacts
children and teens is also discussed. Another focus is how movies and television
programming influence youth, looking at the roles of leading characters, to the producers
and writers behind the scripts. Lastly, the gender imagery in advertisements is addressed
through reviewing a few of the research studies in this area. Linda Ellerbee made the
following statement, which is pertinent to focusing on the media and advertisement,
“When we point the camera at one thing, we are pointing it away from another. Thus, one
of the first things to look at when viewing the media is what you cannot see.” 279
Luke Howie states that cultural images and messages influence members of society even when portions of society experience them as outdated.280 As fresher images slowly emerge to take the place of crumbling ones, archetypal energies involved are perceived, but usually remain out of an individual’s daily conscious review. Gender
75 develops in a child with daily images and messages impinging on their way of seeing,
thinking, and feeling about their sexual identity and gender.281
According to Margaret Gallagher, the images of gender that are seen in
advertisements and the media too often support gender stereotypes. She writes that these
images are hierarchical with men continuing to be viewed in higher positions in their
roles, and women still being depicted in lower positions and passive roles.282
Tara McLaughlin and Nicole Goulet look at how the media and advertising industries “operate as socialization agents on several levels,” one of which is a
presentation of gender expectations to the public. The images also depict people who
appear to accept the gender roles they perform, and thus validate them.283 Geis et al. also state that images act to educate the public viewers as to what behaviors are acceptable as female and male, and what behaviors are inappropriate, thereby reinforcing conduct that conforms to mainstream society and culture.284
David Buckingham and David Harris both point out that when there is recognition
that media imagery no longer rings true, humor is often created out of the irony that
emerges.285 When the image persists even though a large portion of society is aware, in
part at least, that the image is worn, media and advertising marketers could change the
images to provide accuracy, in order to authentically represent changes in society.
However, the familiarity of images and presentations are often comforting to the public
and easier for the marketers of media to provide. Jan Nagel states there is risk in offering
the public images that it has not yet fully embraced.286
In addition to the unconscious messages carried in media and advertising, the media also has a direct impact on its viewers. After looking at the Internet’s impact on
76 youth and society in general, as well as that of video games and music videos, a review of
children’s animation will follow, along with a discussion of other media programming for
youth and adults, and perspectives on the influence of movies and film. Lastly, the effect
that magazine and print advertisements have on its readers is reviewed.
There is an expansion of media outlets for youth today. Youth have exposure to
many more visual images since the Internet became accessible in many homes and
schools.287 Public concern has increased about the safety for children and teens accessing
the Internet. The Kaiser Family Foundation study of 2001 found that 70 percent of 15 to
17 years old using the Internet had come across pornography and 23 percent said this
happened more than once.288 The Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of
Girls notes that before the Internet, a child had little access to sexual materials; sexuality
is now provided to them, often without them searching for it.289
Rod Barker notes that websites such as My Space or Facebook have been the
focus of public concern for the ways young girls and women often use these outlets.290
When adolescents and others view the pictures posted, there can be an expectation to wear suggestive clothing to represent themselves to others on the Internet as attractive.291
Even when a girl or boy does not provide a picture, they open themselves to receiving
communications from strangers they do not know, and strangers who may present
themselves falsely.292
The computer is also used for playing video games. Haejung Paik found that 87
percent of children play video games.293 Kevin Haninger and Kimberly Thompson
surveyed 80 out of 396 teen video games available in 2001; they found 27 percent of
these to have sexual themes with women having skimpy clothes or behaving sexually.294
77 When Haninger and Thompson broadened the sexual themes to include provocative
clothing, large breasts, or exaggerated cleavage, the percent of video games with sexual
themes increased to 46 percent.295 The sexualized images of female characters are there for teenage boys and girls as images provided to them by adults.
Music videos depict teen artists who use their sexuality to present themselves as
more mature, according to Julie Andsager and Kimberly Roe.296 They give the examples
of Faith Hill, in country music, and Britney Spears in pop music, whose talents are often
overlooked when viewers are drawn to and discuss the music artists’ sexualized
presentations. The artists’ underlying message is that success in the music world means
acting as sexually aware and mature.297
Sharon Lamb and Brown express concern regarding sexualized themes or content in children’s animation that accentuates female characteristics, by being scantily dressed
and exposing increasingly more areas of the body. They give Pocahontas and the Little
Mermaid as examples of female characters depicted as sexy.298 Shirley Ogletree et al. state that television is accessible in most homes today and has enormous impact on children’s conceptions of gender.299 In 2000, the Department of Education reported that
each day, 75 percent of fourth-graders watched two or more hours of television. In 2001,
Patricia Donahue et al. found it was six hours of television watched by 18 percent of children.300
A study by Emily Davidson, Amy Yasuna, and Alan Tower, as well as a study by
Shirley Rosenwasser, Michael Lingenfelter, and Annette Harrington found that the perceptions of kindergarten to second grade children were less gender based when the children watched nontraditional programming on television.301 A Report of the APA Task
78 Force shows that social and parental responsibility could influence and assist in
supporting more nontraditional programming, nontraditional commercials, and images
for children.302
The actress Geena Davis has done just this through expressing her frustrations as
a mom watching cartoons with her two-year-old daughter.303 Sara Voorhees and Davis’
website explain that Davis was surprised and concerned to see the disparity between the
female and male characters in children’s animation. Davis has played roles of mothers
but also played a leading role in Thelma and Louise, and was to star in a television series
Commander and Chief as the first woman president. Davis started the nonprofit, Geena
Davis Institute of Gender in Media (GDIGM), to evaluate the female and male portrayals
in children’s programming because of the disparity she saw. With the assistance of a
journalism professor at the University of Southern California overseeing research, over
400 movies from 1999 to 2006, which were rated G (general audiences), PG (parental
guidance suggested), PG 13 (parents strongly cautioned), and R (restricted), were
reviewed. These were top-grossing animated and live-action movies and were viewed
along with 1,034 television programs for children (534 hours of programs that ran over a
two-month time period in 2005).304
In January of 2008, Stacy Smith and Crystal Cook shared a summary of GDIGM research data. The three points consisted of the following: that there is gender imbalance across the board in media, that the highest gender imbalance is in General
Audiences-rated programming and animated films, and that female characters are presented in a hypersexualized manner.305 From this last point the researchers shared that
the female stereotypes fit into three character roles. There were the daydreamers who
79 were passive without an apparent goal, or the goal of only pursuing their romantic love.
There were daredevils who did have goals that might find love, though she has other
interests as well. Then there are the derailed characters that do have a goal, but this is left
behind when love is discovered. The researchers did find equality in preschool programming where boys and girls were shown in almost equal numbers and in similar roles.306
The GDIGM researchers found that females were sexually inviting five times
more than males and dressed in sexually appealing clothing three times more then male
characters. They found that females were outnumbered by males on a one to three ratio in
the movies they viewed, and were outnumbered by males as narrators by one to four.
Females were more likely by three times to have perfect bodies.307 Voorhees writes that
at the presentation of these results, Amy Pascal from Sony Pictures stated that animated
characters that are female “have no room for a womb,” when she described their
unattainable body dimensions.308
Smith and Cook also noted that more women may be needed where key decisions
are made to propose and develop more creative and equal stories in programming. They
stated that in 2004, one large entertainment industry employed only 18 percent women as
screenwriters, with 27 percent of women writers for television. Membership in the
animation guild in 2006 had only 7.3 percent women as members with 10.8 percent being
writers, 8.0 percent were producers, and 14.9 percent were directors.309
Nagel interviewed Kathleen Helpple who assisted in running two major animation
companies.310 Helpple reminded her that stereotypes exist for males as well and that
audiences laugh when they see these stereotypes exaggerated. She pointed out that it
80 might be exhausting for males to be seen as mostly heroic, make impossible leaps, and
show inhuman strength. She also said they probably do not aspire to being someone like
the Elmer Fudd character in animation, for one example.311
In another study Joe Kelly and Smith reviewed films from 1990 to 2004 with over
4,000 characters in 101 of the most successful G-rated movies.312 They found no
significant change from the year 1990 to the year 2004, with 75 percent of the 4,000
characters, 83 percent in the crowd scenes, 72 percent of speaking characters, and 83
percent narrators all being male.313
In 1999, two studies surveyed boys regarding their views of media portrayals of men, the Children Now study and a sociological study by Pascal Duret.314 The Children
Now study asked boys between 10 and 17 years old what they thought of male roles on
television, in the movies, and in music videos. Two findings followed: male characters
were focused on women, and they tended to be angry, to not cry or be sensitive, or do any housework. The boys did recognize that the characters may not match what happened in real life.315
Duret’s study focused on boys’ perceptions of virility in media. Arnold
Schwarzenegger and Bruce Willis were frequent picks of virile characters in movies;
Duret states that boys did not think it was just physical strength and appearance that made
characters virile but the violence each of the male actors performed. Duret concluded that
the boys’ perception of virility included violence.316 Both studies recommend reaching
beyond the stereotypes in the media for boys and men.317
There have been gender-bending movies that create confusion and humor in viewers, though the characters in the films are most often seen as being outside gender
81 roles that are accepted in society. Sofie Van Bauwel defines gender-bending as creating
confusion in gender roles to blur cultural norms and extend them to include cross-sex
behaviors.318 Examples considered to be gender-bending in the last 25 years are The
Birdcage, Tootsie, Victor/Victoria, Boys Don’t Cry, and Adventures of Priscilla, Queen of the Desert.319
In the Report of the APA Task Force, there is a major focus on the impact of
media.320 The report states that girls and women are portrayed in sexualizing images in
prime-time shows on television, as researched by Elizabeth Grauerholz and Amy King, as
well as Dorothy Singer and Jerome Singer.321 Carol Lin reports the same occurs in commercials.322 Joe Gow discusses similar portrayals showing up in music videos.323
The Report of the APA Task Force points to other articles and their authors who discuss the sexualized portrayals of both females and males in magazines. Pantea Farvid and
Virginia Braun note that boys and men suffer a negative impact from the objectification of females too. Their exposure to stereotypes of females can limit their perceptions in relating to girls and women.324
Deborah Schooler and Monique Ward found that men may have more difficulty
considering a woman as acceptable for a partner when exposed to stereotypes that objectify women.325 Doug Kenrick and Sara Guttierez show that viewing even one
episode of the Charlie’s Angels television program could lead men to perceive women
they know as less attractive.326
According to findings from the Kaiser Family Foundation, 68 percent of
American children have televisions in their bedrooms.327 Ward analyzed programs during prime time that are favorites of adolescents and children and found that 11.5
82 percent of verbal messages that were sexual in nature were focused on objectifying,
mostly women.328 Claudia Lampman et al. found similar results by studying prime-time sexual statements in comedies; sixteen and one-half percent of these statements were
either about nudity or body parts, 85 percent of these statements came from male
characters in the comedies, and 23 percent of the behaviors in the prime-time comedies
had to do with catcalls, leers, staring, and ogling women.329
In 2001, Jack Glascock found that women are depicted less often than men in
television, but they are portrayed as working in higher status jobs now, some of the time,
as well as in less stereotypical roles. However, women receive twice the comments about
their appearance than men.330 Martha Lauzen and David Dozier found women were
portrayed as more provocatively dressed and younger than the men in the 1999-2000
season.331 Women were also more likely to be portrayed without any specific
occupation, or it was a lower status occupation that they held.
The Report of the APA Task Force reviews the impact mainstream magazines
have on youth.332 Margaret Duffy and Michael Gotcher found that girls and women are encouraged to attract attention by costuming for seduction, to be attractive and sexy for males.333 This observation was made by analyzing the text, ads, cover lines, articles, and
photographs in magazines where the focus is on females getting the attention of men, and
being desired by them. Meenakshi Durham notes the focus for females in the content of
the magazines is to achieve and maintain attractiveness through the use of cosmetics and
clothing while emphasizing the heterosexual relationship as the goal.334 The report
addresses the sports media using women as sexual objects to draw male readers. The
September 2004, issue of Playboy highlighted eight Olympic women athletes. In 2005,
83 Sports Illustrated depicted athlete and swimmer Amanda Beard in the swimsuit
edition.335
Katharina Lindner reviewed studies on visual advertisements from 1958 to 1972
and found that women were rarely portrayed outside the home and were presented in
decorative roles, as adjuncts to the male and to the home.336 Gary Sullivan and Patrick
O’Connor did a follow-up study to research completed by Alice Courtney and Sarah
Lockeretz, as well as Louis Wagner and Janis Banos.337 Sullivan and O’Connor
compared advertisements from 1983 to those of the 1970s and 1950s, reviewing samples
of Life, Newsweek, Reader’s Digest, U.S. News and World Report, People, The New
Yorker, and the Saturday Evening Post. Sullivan and O’Connor did find an increase in
women depicted in a variety of work and social roles in the 1983 advertisements. Women
were also shown as more equal with men in social roles and often independent of them.
This was counteracted, however, by women depicted more often in sexualized and purely
decorative roles.338 Lindner states that there was a backlash that occurred in degrading,
sexualized, objectifying, and submissive images increasing in the advertisements as a way to stabilize the power between men and women.339
In 1979, Erving Goffman used a method called frame analysis for evaluating gender in print advertisements.340 Frame analysis focuses on subtleties such as eyes,
hands, facial expressions, knees, relative size, head posture, head-eye aversions, finger
biting, and positioning. He categorized his findings in the following ways: relative size,
ritualization of subordination, function ranking, licensed withdrawal, and feminine
touch.341 He stated that the categories indicate the female and male differences as social
weight. By this he meant the advertisements depicted gender difference as authority,
84 influence, and power. Goffman came to the conclusion that the pseudo-reality created in
these gender images portrays differences in gender status in their purest form.342
Lindner also reviewed studies that attempted to replicate Goffman’s study.343
Although Goffman was criticized for his methodology, which was not a random sampling of advertisements but one where he chose advertisements that represented his preconceptions, several researchers chose to use Goffman’s coding scheme.344 Mee-Eun
Kang, Penny Belknap and Wilbert Leonard, as well as Jean Umiker-Sebeok, all used
some or all of Goffman’s coding scheme with Kang and Umiker-Sebeok adding their
own categories.345 These researchers concluded that a shift in depicting women has taken
place in some of the categories; however, they are superficial and continue to portray
more modern stereotypes, which support the power hierarchy that exists between the
sexes. Despite the changes in how women are portrayed since early 1970, both negatively
and positively, the reduction of gender stereotyping does not appear to be decreasing.346
Nancy Signorelli found that stereotypical gender images in advertisements mold
individuals’ gender expectations and attitudes about both men and women.347 William
Kilbourne shows that an individual’s exposure to these stereotypes in print correlate to the stereotypes and negative attitudes about women’s role in society.348 The existing
imbalance in terms of social power between men and women is reinforced through these
images, as the stereotyping of women in the categories is associated with lower degrees
of social power and control.
A review of the literature on media and advertising demonstrates that images in
the media send a defining message to children who are developing sexual and gender
identities, as well as to adults who continue to live out and reinforce what it means to be
85 female and male. Youth in the Western society of the United States are vulnerable to a multitude of gender images through the media and advertisements that support a polarization between females and males. More alternative images and models are needed to provide options for developing youth. Researchers could invite young people and adults to explore what other possible imagery and roles would be entertaining that break the molds of gender stereotypes. The current study of an Imaginal Inquiry focuses on stereotypic images of women and men through participants exploring cross-gender activities and roles. As a qualitative imaginal approach it can provide an alternative perspective to images impacting gendered development.
Conclusion
This cluster focused on theory, research, and statistics regarding gender development and its images within the public and political, cultural and social systems, as well as the impact the media and advertising has on children and adults. The constructivist theories and views were addressed to portray how the social milieu creates the concept of gender. Kang, Lindner, and several authors of the research from the APA
Report addressed the influence of external images and messages regarding prescribed gender roles, in their respective writings. The images range from imperceptive to seductive, sometimes subtle, and often unconscious as discussed in the political and work arena, family systems, the media, and in advertising.349
The social messages regarding what is expected of girls, boys, women, and men are increasing exponentially through channels of the media and advertising as more options are available. Rodger Streitmatter states that visual imagery may be the most
86 potent form of communication.350 While the research literature in this subcluster focused
predominantly on gender images that are quantitative and from a positivist paradigm, the
imaginal approach in this study focuses on images that emerge through experiential
activities. Personal experiential learnings may provide a wider breadth in gender
development research, and is the intent of the Imaginal Inquiry in this study.
Imaginal Approaches to Gender Development
For this third cluster, the literature on imaginal approaches as well as parallel
concepts for methodological research possibilities will be reviewed. The images in the
spectrum of gender and individual development can be accessed through the qualitative
methodology of Imaginal Inquiry. Michael Patton is one who believes that qualitative
studies can offer more than only the quantitative methods do in the field of psychological
research.351 Exploring images portraying what it means to be female and male in daily
interactions with others may offer more learning as well.
Several definitions of the word Imaginal are explored in the first subcluster, A
General Introduction to Imaginal Approaches. After discussing the dimensions of this
concept, the second subcluster, Gender Development in Imaginal, Archetypal, Jungian,
and Feminist Studies, explores imagery and its use in studies with Archetypal and
Jungian concepts. Qualitative studies mixed with quantitative methods address the
breadth, depth, and richness that qualitative research offers. Lastly the third subcluster,
Myths and the Strangeness of Gender, clarifies how the Imaginal is germane to the exploration of gender. There are a multitude of images in daily life, when attended to,
87 which can provide inspiration or learning, guidance, and increased awareness regarding the expansiveness of human expression, rather than merely the dualities of gender.
A General Introduction to Imaginal Approaches
The inquiry in this study will look at the contrasexual images that can emerge and which present opportunities for women and men to recognize these images as their own.
Given the emphasis of this study on images, this subcluster offers a general presentation of imaginal approaches and their relevance to psychological work and gender development.
The first person to use the term imaginal was Henry Corbin who drew it from his studies of Islam in general, and of the mystic Ibn’ Arabi in particular.352 He explained the word imaginal in the following way:
It occupies an intermediary position between the purely intelligible world and the world of sense perception, a world which I suggested we call imaginal, to avoid any confusion with what is commonly called imaginary.353
Corbin writes of the imaginal as if it were a different realm, separate from every day experience and states that Ibn’ Arabi wrote about the imaginal as an in-between world.354 This in-between world is both in the material and spirit world, yet it does not belong fully to either. Corbin describes it further, “it is a realm in which all things that appear inanimate in this world come alive.” 355 It is in every day life, and in the life of imagination. Corbin holds that the imaginal is a form of transcendental reality that prefigures and anticipates what will be seen and determined as empirical. It is the place that reflects all of the external sensory perceptions in one mirror, and reflects the intellect’s active form of imagination in another, both converging like a confluence of the
88 two seas.356 He describes this imaginal flowing together as a bursting through of any
historical frame or time, and transmuting the truths of history into the form of a parable.
The power of these converging seas into the imaginal waters acts to uphold the image of
what is revered and sacred. Corbin believes that one misses the full meaning of this realm
if one has not developed the capacity for the imaginal.357
An imaginal approach can be utilized within any field or discipline where imagination is a primary mode of experience. Imaginal Psychology is an orientation to psychology, which is distinct from other orientations such as cognitive behavioral psychology, depth psychology, humanistic psychology or transpersonal psychology.358
This particular orientation to psychology focuses on soul, its images, and transformative
practices. Within the orientation of Imaginal Psychology, Omer developed Imaginal
Transformative Praxis, which includes imaginal practices interwoven into the theory.359
There are several concepts in Imaginal Transformative Praxis (ITP) which are important to introduce given their relevance to this study. A focus of ITP is the development of individual capacities which emerge through individuation. Essential among these is reflexivity which Omer defines as “the capacity to engage and be aware of
those imaginal structures that shape and constitute our experience.” 360 For Omer
imaginal structures are “assemblies of sensory, affective, and cognitive aspects of
experience constellated into images; they both mediate and constitute experience.” 361
They are the internal beliefs built from one’s own experiences, which may have been
helpful or necessary at one point in one’s life but which become limiting of one’s
potential. Omer adds that “during the individuation process, imaginal structures are
transmuted into emergent and enhanced capacities as well as a transformed identity.” 362
89 Omer defines identity transformation as one’s imaginal structures transmuting or shifting
as a result of certain life-changing experiences.363 As such transformation takes place, an
experiencing I comes into consciousness as an aware, embodied, and personal self.364 As
the experiencing I is able to engage transformative experiences so adaptations to stresses
and trauma of life are transmuted, consciousness of the experiencing I deepens.
Drawing on the poetry of the great Sufi poet Jalaludin Rumi, Omer uses the term
of the Friend to describe the guiding and supportive force within a person.365 The Friend
assists a person in developing reflexivity for the awareness and capacity to resist gatekeepers. The term of gatekeeper, coined by Omer, describes the “individual and
collective dynamics that restrict experience.” 366 The gatekeepers are the many voices,
influences, and pressures that attempt to convince a person to act as others believe or
want them to act, and therefore maintain imaginal structures in place. The gatekeepers
prevent the person from attempting to break free from past influences or beliefs. The
Friend however, “encourages us to align with . . . the creative will” and the
experiencing I.367
Both Hillman and Omer view the concept of the imaginal as pertaining to all
experience.368 Hillman states that if we let images speak to us, if we hear them, and
particularly if we let ourselves smell the immediacy or presence of the images, they are
like soul mines as he metaphorically refers to the possibility for underdeveloped and
often repressed sensitivities to be developed and utilized once again through engaging
imaginal approaches.369 In Hillman’s view, there is little or no value placed on these very
subtle ways of sensing, knowing, feeling, seeing, tasting, and hearing in mainstream
90 cultures; however, such ways of experiencing are available in every experience. Other
parallel concepts that may border on this region of the imaginal are discussed next.
Using a variation of terminology, other theorists have written about experiences that are similar to the imaginal. Anthropologists view the term liminality as ambiguous and paradoxical.370 Victor Turner explains that the word liminality comes from the Latin limen, which means threshold and therefore, liminality describes what is betwixt and between. The liminal, this in-between stage, presents one's own status as ambiguous; a person is neither here nor there, but is “betwixt and between all fixed points of classification,” according to Turner. Richard Palmer writes, “and thus the form and rules of both the earlier state and the state-to-come are suspended. For the moment, one is an outsider; one is on the margins, in an indeterminate state.” 371 Turner views this
marginality, this space of indeterminacy as the standpoint from which writers, artists, and
social critics look beyond the social norms and structure and view society from outside;
then they are open to messages and imagery from beyond society’s structure.372 Similar
to Turner, Deah Curry and Steven Wells view a liminal domain as a place between
worlds or paradigms.373
From another perspective, Stein uses the terms the muddle to describe liminal space and writes “the muddle calls ingrained assumptions (‘projections’) into question and may break participation mystique by forcing awareness of differences . . . and archetypal patterns.” 374 Participation mystique, he says, “consists in the fact that the
subject cannot clearly distinguish him[her]self from the object but is bound to it by a
direct relationship that amounts to partial identity.” 375 Stein goes on to say that the
muddle maker is none other than Mercurius, the unconscious itself.376 He asserts that if
91 one is able to track Mercurius through the process of intermingling one’s conscious and
unconscious that one can create openings for liminal spaces where gold can be found.377
James Hall views liminality as relating to a person’s self-image when identity change involves shifting from the persona, with its social holds, to a new identity; this change can be a horizontal or vertical shift.378 According to Hall, a vertical shift in
identity involves deepening into a fuller sense of who one is, while a horizontal shift
involves movement to a more marginal or outsider identity. He expands as follows:
Thus the ordinary result of a liminal transition is enlargement of what might be called the personal sphere of the psyche, that “area” in which the ego can move in a relatively conflict-free manner. The personal sphere of the psyche would be bounded externally by collective consciousness interfacing with the persona, and inwardly by the objective psyche or collective unconscious, interfacing through the function of the anima/animus.379
According to Hall, transformative images occur as a vertical shift when two
opposing forces or dualities require something to link or bridge them, and not through a
horizontal shift where already known collective awareness marginalizes an experience.380
Several theorists offer thoughts about image that are useful to this study. Mary
Watkins writes that when one enters an image that is not known to the ego one can
experience an otherness that begins to feel familiar when it is attended to, and then a new
territory and a different sense of timing opens.381 She states that each image has its own
timing and the experience of this other time is often visceral. Hillman views images as
the means by which one see the world.382 He agrees with Jung’s thinking that psyche is
image. According to Hillman, we do not see images directly because they are not only in
the subjective imagination; they are beyond personal subjectivity as well. Images that
belong to a culture represent the way that culture structures soul and the way that it
assists in molding social reality.
92 Robert Sardello and Hillman both point to the primacy of soul to human experience. Sardello states that soul is displayed in the world through the cultures that humans have formed.383 Hillman believes that imagination is soul language, and that the
myths of the culture are cultivated by this language of soul and the imagination.384 To concretize imagination though, is an error, Hillman states. He contends that the mainstream heterosexist view of gender has become rigidified. When these gender images are literally lived out, one can only physically enact half of one’s potential identity. Accordingly, Hillman told an interviewer who questioned him on feminism that she was far more than her gender, and that it would be a racist move to place her in a socially determined category.385 This racist move could possibly be highlighted in
qualitative methodologies that look at stereotypic gender images.
Gender Development in Imaginal, Archetypal, Jungian, and Feminist Studies
This subcluster summarizes a number of qualitative studies as well as quantitative
studies that focus on gender development. It provides descriptions of various ways
qualitative research has been implemented through interviews, autobiographical stories,
dreams, and personal loss and recovery. Gender theory as it relates to women’s animus is
discussed along with research describing workshops focused on a Gender Role Journey.
According to Michael Lewis-Beck, the interview is the most common method
used for qualitative research.386 Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Tim Liao, and Herbert
Rubin and Irene Rubin agree that the flexibility of qualitative interviewing allows more
focus upon key issues that emerge in participants’ responses; in contrast, the rigid
adherence to requirements of standardization means that significant responses are often
93 left out of quantitative studies.387 Earl Babbie states the qualitative research study can
expose underlying patterns and meanings in relationships.388 Lawrence Grossberg, Cary
Nelson, and Paula Treichler state that qualitative research holds two tensions, one of a broad and postmodern sensibility, and the other is a focus on the details of naturalistic and humanistic interpretations of experience.389 Robert Romanyshyn invites researchers
to tend to the gap between what is known and not known.390
Drawing upon the strength of the qualitative interview, Sylvia Rimm conducted a
research study that began with a 23 page questionnaire completed by over 1400
women.391 Known as the Rimm Report, her research included women ranging from 29 to
85 in age. The completed questionnaires assisted Rimm and her associates in learning
which environmental systems influenced the women’s early development and education.
One hundred and twenty of these women were then interviewed for an in-depth look at
their life stories. Originally Rimm set out to look at childhood influences on women who
were in nontraditional careers, but incorporating feedback from prospective participants,
she expanded the study to include women who were happy in traditional as well as
nontraditional careers. These findings can be found in the book, See Jane Win.392
Sue Scott focused on the imaginative and the spiritual in her qualitative interviewing methodology as she considered the loss and consequent grief that often accompanies personal transformation.393 In her literature review, Scott cites a study by
Shaykh Shiekh who interviewed two immigrant physicians that came to North America in search of a higher quality of educational opportunities for their families.394 They
found themselves in deep despair when they could not find work for a period of time, and
missed the identities they had established in their homelands. With their families to assist
94 in anchoring their lives in a new land, however, the physicians were able to grieve and
gradually let go of their old identities. They became aware over time that their identities
and their status as physicians made up only a part of their lives, and they then accepted
new identities that fit who they were becoming in their new homelands. Scott notes that
this study is an example of people being able to grieve, reflect on the past, and in the end, upon reflection, liken their lives to a mythic journey.395
Also drawing upon story, Alex Nelson used autobiography along with
imagination and critical reflection to interpret life occurrences within social settings.396
According to Nelson, life stories can portray personal historical imagery, which can help
bring an awareness of gender limits that exist in mainstream heterosexist society.
Tapping into another source of image, Kast looked at dream characters in her
research study of dreams, categorizing them into five groups; she then discussed them
with students and her colleagues before concluding that only two of these categories
constituted true anima figures, the mysterious stranger, which included the wise old
woman and the divine child.397 The Wise Woman symbolizes the development of insight
with the capacity for wisdom. The divine child is both magical and innocent.
Susan Scott (distinct from Sue Scott) used both qualitative and quantitative
methods in research with 19 women living in Seattle and ranging in age from 25 to 85 in
order to explore animus images in women’s dreams.398 The women recorded their dreams over a three-month period and also answered a questionnaire, completed an art scale, rated themselves, and had a friend rate them on a creativity checklist. The most significant finding was the correlation between the art scale score and the women’s
95 valuing animus measure. The negative or devaluing animus images in the dreams
correlated to repressed creativity.
Also utilizing qualitative and quantitative methods, Olds conducted in-depth
qualitative interviews that focused on androgyny and participants’ experiences of sex roles and the words femininity and masculinity.399 She also used quantitative measures with forty-eight women and men who were chosen from scores on the Bem Sex Role
Inventory, and independent rating scale scores which were completed by two friends of each participant. Forty-eight participants were chosen to represent four groups: the androgynous men, the masculine-identified men, androgynous women, and feminine-identified women. Presenting qualitative and quantitative data in parallel, Olds drew comments and quotes from stories participants told in the interviews and included these along with statistical findings to help provide the reader with a more vivid and direct understanding of participants’ individual experiences. Olds did find differences
between same-sex identified and androgynous participants, at the .05 level of
significance.
Ann Ulanov acknowledges that the research and theory in depth psychology can
now provide a richness in working with images.400 According to her, the images from internal worlds can influence the external world, and effect daily actions; working with
images can expand our awareness through reaching into the less conscious influences that
affect humans. Carolyn Clark and John Dirkx note that the shift to include qualitative
research is beginning to offer learning that was previously difficult to access in
quantitative studies. Clark and Dirkx cite Sells and Ann Ulanov in offering steps that
could be utilized for an imaginal approach to research which are as follows: (1)
96 describing the image clearly; (2) making associations with images; (3). utilizing images
in stories, poetry, or myths for amplification; and (4) animating images, to name a few
possibilities.401
One such example is demonstrated in the work of James O’Neil and Marianne
Carroll who drew upon image and metaphor in their study, which is known as the Gender
Role Journey research.402 In coed, gender role workshops that were six days long and
held over a three year period, O’Neil and Carroll provided 84 participants with a
metaphor and an image of a journey that continued to have an impact on them three years
later.403 Participants were led through a guided imagery experience to review past gender
socialization, listened to and watched music and videos, and participated in discussions
regarding gender roles and stereotypes.404 O’Neil and Egan also used a metaphor from
Matthew Fox, Befriending the Darkness and Pain.405 They cite Fox’s phrase as the most
important concept and metaphor for all of the six groups that participated in the
workshops.406 After gathering observations and evaluations from the above gender role
workshops, O’Neil et al. utilized quantitative research methods to develop a Gender Role
Journey Measure, though use of the metaphors of the journey, and befriending the
darkness and pain, along with the methodology employed, adds qualitative aspects to this study.407
From the six separate gender role workshops conducted for the above studies,
operational definitions were created and used with a 46-item self report measure covering
five phases from the researchers’ theoretical framework. These phases have been used in
workshops and courses and have been evaluated over time.408 O’Neil and Carroll found
97 that the five phases did not hold up as constructs, though they recommend a three phase
model since three of the phases did constitute empirical constructs.409
Another construct developed by Young-Eisendrath and Florence Wiedemann built
on Loevinger’s ego development theory and borrowed Jung’s concept of the animus to
create a model for women, which they state goes beyond the deficit model.410 They
created five stages in the model to help women develop their female authority; they note
that theirs is a conflictual model since women’s authority is questioned, and often not
honored in society. The stages are named for the degree of animus development the
women currently experience. The first is the alien or outsider, which is the image of a
frightened masculinity. The second figure is father or a god-like complex. The third
figure is a lover or the hero complex. The fourth and fifth stages are when the animus
becomes more conscious, and a restoration of authority takes place. The authors note that
most women they have worked with do not complete all five stages and their internal
representation of the animus continues as a lover or hero, though some may continue
their development later through the last two stages.411
Jill Rees used an Imaginal Inquiry for her participatory research methodology with eight lesbian women exploring gender identity, and female masculinity.412 The
women were led through a role-play, shared an image from childhood, viewed movie
clips, and participated in a body image activity. Rees found a resiliency in participants
being able to live out a nonconforming gender identity despite significant pressures in
their environments; Rees found that the participants felt compelled to embody their own sense of a gendered identity.413
98 The studies above provide an overview of some of the qualitative methodologies
that have been used, particularly in relation to gender identity. More qualitative studies
from a participatory research paradigm could provide a breadth of information that is not
accessed sufficiently in the solely quantitative methodologies.
Myths and the Strangeness of Gender
Offering an important reminder, Mary Rummel and Elizabeth Quintero write,
“Myth is the glue of human experience. Without it things fall apart, we lose contact with
one another, bonding becomes haphazard, individual and whole communities come
unglued. Myth invisibly and powerfully connects us to the Meaning and Mystery of our
lives.” 414 Rummel and Quintero go on to state that myth as symbol, “grounds ideas and
feelings in generative images.”
Ted Tollefson makes a useful distinction between myth as a sign and myth as symbol, with signs having only one meaning, with a language of measurement and command that is used for logical and empirical testing for truth.415 Tollefson states that
myth as symbol then can provide a fountain of fresh images, or fresh meanings providing
impetus for growth.416 Jung also made the distinction between sign and symbol, stating
that the sign is less than what it is pointing to, and, “a symbol is always more than we
understand at first sight.” 417 Olds cites Ernst Cassirer’s description of myths as organs
of reality, meaning that people shape reality so they can understand it through the
language of symbols.418
Susie Jollie states that the myth of gender in mainstream heterosexist society
tends towards images concretized into stereotypes, which hold women as all-nurturing
99 and men as the creators of violence. Jollie notes that while myths can be a powerful tool for change, the gender myth brings risks and dangers when images become static, simplified, and act as signs.419
According to Olds, the cultural myth of gender as a sign entails expectations and
definitions to be lived out according to physical anatomy, involving patriarchal imagery
of the hero who rescues or exerts power over another.420 Keller writes that the
compensation for the hero myth is the loss of relatedness to others.421 However, both
Olds and Guggenbühl-Craig believe the heroic myth can have positive value.422 They
write that an individual who needs the capacity to differentiate can benefit from the hero
archetype since this archetype can be expressed in a multitude of heroic forms, and then
from these forms, a proliferation of images can emerge and transform the myth itself.
Young-Eisendrath and Weidemann also view the image of the heroic animus as a resource in therapy.423
Jean Raffa writes of an alternative to the hero myth, pointing to the lack of being in the myth, in contrast to the doing of the hero and cites Joseph Campbell who noted that
there are no models for a woman’s quest in myth and neither are there models for men in
relationship with an heroic or individuated woman.424 Raffa sees a need for women to stop taking on the patriarchal hero myth and find an alternative way. She suggests the image of an island as one alternative (noting its parallel to Jung’s concept of the Self) as well as the image of a bridge as another which conveys a going between external and internal worlds.425
Ulanov and Ulanov also use the image of a bridge to support individuals to access unconscious aspects and state that this bridge is the contrasexual archetype, the
100 anima/animus.426 They note that the bridge can be used imaginally to remind a person to
cross over to access resources, or return to conscious awareness, depending on whether
internal or externally focused capacities are called for in any given situation. Also
pointing to the transformative nature of images, Stein states that “transformative images
are engaging and even arresting metaphors.” He writes that once these transformative
images enter the psyche, they take it over, they change it, and they alter people’s lives.427
Indeed the image of the hermaphrodite or psychological concept of the androgyne has often had this arresting effect. John Izod notes that archetypal images have fascinating powers of both appeal for the androgynous individual as well as confusion that can surround this imagery. He notes that when androgynous images are confusing or seen negatively, they represent an imbalance between what is conscious and what is unconscious in a culture.428 During times of cultural imbalance, androgyny may be a
conduit for images emerging into consciousness. Izod notes that Christ’s androgyny,
which suggests some homosexual aspects, may still be too taboo to discuss. Christ, like
other positive religious and mythical figures that appear androgynous, are endowed with mysteries of what is sacred.
Both Luc Brison and Izod state that public figures such as Michael Jackson,
David Bowie, Annie Lennox, and members of the Rolling Stones, as well as other
musicians, have provided the mainstream heterosexist society with a fresh view of
androgyny.429 Yet, the concept of androgyny has been present since antiquity and was
institutionalized in both Greek and Roman societies as a kind of male mentoring, called
pederasty, with men practicing homosexuality with other men, yet heterosexuality with
their wives.430
101 According to Izod, the social upheaval of the 1960s broke open commonly held ideals which constrained people to mate with only one other significant adult of the opposite sex.431 A significant influence during this time was the women’s movement which questioned the inequality in women’s prescribed roles of the time. There has been a fascination with androgynous presentations. Izod notes, this sexual freedom and questioning seems to have called up archetypal images that startle people because of the contrast with the mainstream heterosexist view.432
Yet, societal ambivalence toward androgyny continues in the forms of fascination mixed with fear, disgust, and confusion. Theorists hold differing views: Olds and June
Singer address androgyny as a positive and futuristic move toward a fuller expression of human capacities.433 Both Keller and Ann Ulanov view androgyny as premature merging of internal parts in a person, which can be symbolized as a hermaphrodite.434
As previously noted, the image of the hermaphrodite in the sixth Rosarium woodcut was seen as a premature fusion by Jung.435 Ulanov and Ulanov suggest that androgyny or the image of the hermaphrodite, in particular, leads to a regression, or according to Jung’s thinking, is a state of being stuck in the individuation process, as follows:
it indicates an unsatisfactory state, as is shown by the pictures in the alchemistic books; the being with two heads represented there is too monstrous, it represents no absolute liberation from the pair of opposites. . . . In it the opposites should be overcome; otherwise it is not a reconciling symbol.436
Jung also noted that the hermaphrodite’s image can act as the symbol of reconciliation when an inner resolution occurs, represented as the internal sacred marriage.437
An alternative image performed by females and males appeared in Native
American tribes. William Roscoe states that prior to exposure to European culture there
102 were 150 Native American tribes that accepted men dressed as women and acted out the role of the women in the tribe, as well as some women who took on the role of men. They lived amongst the tribe as a third and fourth gender and were called berdache.438 They
were often thought to have supernatural powers and some took the role of the shaman in
the tribe.439 Their physical anatomy usually contrasted with the choices they made in
dress, work, and a partner; the berdache do offer a different version of androgyny,
predominantly choosing to live out the contrasexual archetype rather than the roles of
their same-sex tribal peers.
According to Izod, the androgynous, metaphoric hermaphrodite and the berdache
all portray strangeness to those who are threatened by sexual and/or gender
unconventionalities.440 In a similar vein, Olds writes of her distress with the media
images of androgyny in the early 1980s; she views androgyny as the antithesis of the
term unisex, and believes the associations people make with media presentations of
androgyny are of homosexuality, bisexuality, and hermaphrodism.441 She writes about a
book cover with a half man, half woman fused together, which she states is confusing and
perhaps frightening to people, and does not represent a healthy view of androgyny. Olds
views it as more likely that people will enjoy androgynous capacities when they nourish
their fullest creativity.442
Imaginal approaches to exploration and inquiry into the development of gender
may provide a multitude of possible unique choices. An imaginal approach may provide a
clean canvas for creating and painting different portrayals or images of what is possible
between women and men, boys and girls.
103 Conclusion
Literature surveyed for this cluster indicated that imaginal approaches to the study
of gender development can assist in unearthing and elucidating images that are buried by
layers of socialization and psychological prescriptions. The Gender Role Journey
workshops and research point to explorations into these layers. These workshops helped
uncover individual pain and depict developmental phases that individuals travel through,
as well as ways that can assist them in continuing their individuating journey.443
Young-Eisendrath and Weidemann’s developmental model describes one way of working with women and imagery to assist them in claiming and integrating characteristics, behaviors, and concepts typically only assigned to men. Their model uses the Jungian concept of animus, which is one of the contrasexual archetypes, and is used in this current participatory research study.444
Review of concepts related to androgyny provided rich material that is relevant to gender development. Hefner, Rebecca, and Oleshansky proposed the concept of sex-role transcendence that is similar to some concepts of androgyny. Androgyny is viewed by some authors as a valid concept or a transition to more creative choices living as female and male members of society; while other authors view androgyny as possibly becoming a rigid notion that may be defined as a unisex model for everyone.445
Finally, images of the hermaphrodite and berdache offer creative expressions as
addressed above.446 Calling on the imagination for creative options, disidentifying from
gender stereotypes, allowing the contrasexuality that is unexpressed, and honoring what
appears strange, as if it may have something to offer, all may provide a wealth of images
for what a woman or man can be. Opportunities to move into new territory and create
104 more meaningful myths and imagery are possible in an imaginal approach, which was described in this cluster.
The question that surfaces upon reviewing the imaginal approaches in the area of
gender development is the research problem: What new images, experiences, and insights
arise when women and men imagine and practice contrasexual gender performances and expressions that are outside of traditional gender roles?
Conclusion
The first cluster of this Literature Review, Psychological Perspectives on Gender
Development, summarizes Freud’s’ Psychodynamic theory of sexual development, along with other theorists in this discipline, including Object Relations theorists. Research studies and the theories considered also address a child’s development from birth as it pertains to the development of gender. There was consideration of how Freud’s oedipal model of sexual development is refuted by psychodynamic theorists and researchers.
Overall these thinkers state that girls have not been found envious of the male anatomy and the penis in particular. Neither do children necessarily attach predominantly to the same-sex parent if the parent is unavailable and the other parent shows authority along with nurture. Labouvie-Vief calls Freud’s rationalist logic into question pointing to it as the ruling masculine principle that has been over-valued.447
The review of Erikson’s ego-identity formation model and the theorists and
researchers who elaborated on it, demonstrates Erikson’s contribution to the field as well as his biased portrayal of women being caregivers, and men being the achievers.
Chodorow, for one, addresses the need for men to parent so that children can enact their
105 fuller capacities, and men can expand theirs. The gender-role strain theory addressed by
Pleck and Pollack sheds light on the struggles for boys and men in the mainstream heterosexist culture; they consider the separation from the mother as often traumatic.448
The Object Relations theorists in this cluster provided the portrayal of the developmental processes that begin at birth, with the infant separating from the fusion with the mother, and the resulting splitting that takes place and develops as projective identification.449 Projection was discussed from several different psychological disciplines to convey the basic defense entailed in the dichotomizing that takes place in identifying genders, much like other concepts that become dualistic.
Piaget and Kohlberg’s cognitive development models were also reviewed briefly along with theorists who discuss how children make sense of information and develop schemata as mental structures to organize their worlds. The cognitive links and networking discussed paint a picture of the complexity involved in addressing gender roles and possible accommodations that can be made in integrating new concepts.450
The subcluster that reviewed Jungian, archetypal, and feminist perspectives included sources that assist understanding Jung’s theory and contrasexual archetypes that are employed in the research problem, as well as the parallel concepts of androgyny and hermaphrodism.
Imagery that is conveyed through political authority figures, as well as in academia, in occupational and family roles, and in the media in mainstream society was also discussed in Cultural and Social Perspectives on Gender Development. Theory was presented regarding ways that images stimulate us from the beginning through the experience of mother, or sometimes father, as the first other. The child in the mainstream
106 American society develops in a patriarchal matrix; however, separation is particularly
emphasized with boys and men receiving the brunt of this message. The child, boy or
girl, incorporates cultural myths of authority as male that are equated with dominance,
which hurts and limits both sexes. The desire to be accepted by significant others, funnels and shapes behaviors and thinking into prescribed roles, the traditional gender roles that support dichotomous and stereotypical thought and action.451 The imagery discussed in
the above cluster often conveys societal prescriptions more akin to signs rather than
symbols, which were defined in the final cluster, Imaginal Approaches to Gender
Development.452
Also discussed were Winnicott’s false self and Jung’s persona, which both act as
psychological masks for social acceptance. The presentations can take on shape shifting
textures as images of support change and creative living is more fully expressed.453
There is a vast array of images available if individuals open to their internal contrasexuality. Stein states that the anima/animus is a psychic structure that does not necessarily connote gender at all. The anima/animus acts to lead an individual to the images in their unconscious.454
The final cluster, Imaginal Approaches to Gender Development, addresses the
realm of the imaginal along with parallel concepts and various qualitative research
studies. Additionally, while androgyny was woven into the clusters in this review for a
more complete understanding of the varying perspectives, it received particular attention
in this cluster. According to Olds and June Singer, androgyny can break the mold of
either/or thinking; however, Keller and Ulanov and Ulanov argue that it will only create another reified picture where there is measurement for idealized balance in the
107 polarities.455 Various authors cited interpret androgyny and the hermaphrodite imagery from their own theoretical and personal lens of reference, which adds to the breadth and depth of the discussion surrounding these terms.
Sex-role transcendence was another term discussed which connotes reflexive capacities and emerging possibilities in individuals who are dissatisfied with sex and gender roles. Hefner, Rebecca, and Oleshansky cite Carolyn Heilbrun, and Nancy Bazin and Alma Freeman who support the expansion of androgyny that parallels how they define sex-role transcendence. Heilbrun writes, “Androgyny seeks to liberate the individual from the confines of the appropriate. . . . Androgyny suggests a spirit of reconciliation between the sexes.” 456
Also significant in this cluster was the berdache of the Native American tribes
who could be considered androgynous. They appeared to have more freedom in their
choices and have been called a third and fourth gender, depending on if they were female
or male. The physical make up of the berdache and their option to choose another way to
dress, work, and live within their tribes offered them more freedom through the
expression of their contrasexuality.457
The images above are all viable representations of human capacities and provide
metaphors to aid in understanding these. An imaginal approach may allow gender myths
that are no longer useful, or are too rigid to maintain, to collapse. Through the approaches
of more imaginal, liminal, or transitional spaces, images may emerge that may even
transcend, or go beyond gender.
The limitations of sex roles or the wounding in the formation of gender identity
may not need to be experienced, if the breadth of supportive cultural images expands so
108 that individuals can express themselves in unlimited ways not yet fully imagined. It is from this perspective regarding imaginal approaches that the following methodology has been developed in order to explore images of gender and contrasexuality.458 The
Research Problem is stated in the following question: What new images, experiences, and
insights arise when women and men imagine and practice contrasexual gender
performances and expressions that are outside of traditional gender roles?
109
CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
Introduction and Overview
Introduction
The research design implemented for this study was an Imaginal Inquiry, which is
a research method authored by Omer, and situated within the participatory paradigm.
Imaginal Inquiry consists of the following Four Phases: Evoking Experience, Expressing
Experience, Interpreting Experience, and Integrating Experience.1
This chapter includes an overview of each phase of this Imaginal Inquiry of this
study before providing detail of the research design, which also incorporated Jung’s individuation theory and the concept of the contrasexual archetype. The first section,
Introduction and Overview discusses the research focus and the methods used to
implement the study.
The second section, Participants, entails a discussion of the recruitment processes
involved for this study and description of demographic data. The third section is entitled
Four Phases of Imaginal Inquiry, and discusses implementation of the research design.
Included in the discussion is description of both the originally planned research design as
well as the actual design which was fine-tuned to fit the real-life context.
The Evoking Experience phase consisted of stimulating images and experiences
in participants through activities focused on gender issues. These activities were
110 structured as role-plays, guided visualizations, and Authentic Movement exercises. The
Expressing Experience phase consisted of participants verbally sharing the images, experiences, and feelings that arose for them. They shared their experience within the group setting and through journaling. The phase of Interpreting Experience consisted of my sifting through journaling and audio recordings to glean the meaning of what participants shared regarding their images, experiences, and feelings. Participants also identified their own key moments in the activities, which helped in the meaning making.
By exercising reflexivity I was able to be more aware of my biases and personal lenses in the process of the interpretation. The Integration phase of the research design provided participants the opportunity to share verbally within the group format after each of the experiential activities. The opening and closing rituals, the ending discussion, and closing journaling questionnaire also assisted in the integration for participants. The closing ritual was the final integrative activity in the two research sessions.
Research Problem, Hypothesis, and Design
The Research Problem at the heart of this study is: What new images, experiences, and insights arise when women and men imagine and practice contrasexual gender performances and expressions that are outside of traditional gender roles?
The Research Hypothesis states that imagining and practicing contrasexual performances will encourage a beginning awareness of contrasexual aspects, gender projections, and a reimagining of gender for the future.
The activities utilized in this study are described briefly to clarify how they align with the theories of individuation and contrasexuality, as well as how they support
111 increased awareness of gender stereotypes and increased capacity to see beyond traditional roles. The activities used were the following: verbal sharing in the group format after or during the activities, ritualizing at the beginning and the ending of each session, role-playing, guided visualizations, Authentic Movement, journaling after each activity, and evaluating the key moments in a closing questionnaire.
Through the opening and closing rituals, participants experienced the research meetings as providing a beginning and ending, and containment for experiences that took place. The rituals served both to assist participants in leaving behind the external world in the beginning, and then to recognize the closure and transition to the everyday world at the end. The ritual activities instilled a sense of gathering and provided a sense of honoring the process of exploring gender and contrasexuality.
The activities in between the opening and closing rituals acted to amplify traditional stereotypes and the projections that occur from disowning cross-gender or contrasexual internal resources. Activities also amplified and provided access to contrasexual options for participants. Internal changes do not usually occur within two days; however, beliefs and imaginal structures were disrupted at least minimally, creating the possibility of a shift over time in beliefs associated with adaptive identities. The meetings’ activities created the potential for engendering appreciation for both masculinity and femininity within participants who both enacted and expanded expressions of their contrasexual capacities.
The research meetings were held in Sacramento, California in a community library meeting room. The first evening session began with obtaining informed consent.
An opening ritual then took place where participants introduced themselves in a circle
112 and verbalized what had drawn them to the study. The traditional gender role-play activity followed where two participants, for each role-play, acted out stereotyped gender
behaviors that matched their gender.
Role-playing is taking on gestures, postures, and speech intonations and patterns
of others. The acting, or taking the place of another, as if participants are what they are
enacting, provided an inside view of the experience of being-that-other. This activity, lent
itself to participants utilizing their imagination and creating contrasexual images, both
consciously and some that were less conscious and more liminal. The activity accessed
bodily knowledge that was not necessarily known previously.
The traditional gender visualization was the last activity of the night before the
closing ritual. A guided visualization is a method for relaxation and exploration. The
posture in lying down, and the act of closing one’s eyes, reduces outside stimuli and
allows a person to relax and listen to the guided journey, which is another name for the
activity. Any suggestions to picture, hear, smell, or taste something is interpreted by each
person’s imagination. The visualization lent itself well to an imaginal approach where
participants’ very own private, inner worlds were accessed, explored, and observed by
them witnessing their own internal experience. In the first session the participants
visualized gender memories from the first time they could remember being either a girl or
boy, through their development and identification with the traditional gender roles as they
grew into adulthood.
Participants may never have thought specifically about their early gender
experiences as part of their life story. Through verbally sharing their early gender stories
with the group, participants’ awareness of the impact it had on their lives increased. The
113 awareness had two additional benefits: 1) the impact provided opportunities to
acknowledge gender’s influence in participants’ lives, and in others; and 2) participants
gained a foundation of gender memories to reflect and to draw on for the activities that
followed. The act of verbalizing after the activities acted to heighten the meaning for
participants when they shared and were supported by others. By articulating their
experiences, participants shared and heard other images and feelings that emerged as
well, and this provided additional perspectives.
The second meeting, held during the following day, began similarly with an
opening ritual, then led to role-plays of cross-gender performances, a guided visualization
that used cross-gender imagery, and an Authentic Movement activity in between the
other two more familiar activities from the previous evening. The first activity of the
second day matched the role-plays of the previous evening, only participants were asked
to try on and enact the traditional behaviors and interactions of the other sex, portraying
cross-gender performances.
The second activity of the day, Authentic Movement, is an activity that lends itself to an imaginal approach because of internal experiences and images which facilitate
movements. Knowing someone is witnessing can create a sense of being held, as an
infant experiences with its first nurturing adult. The experiences and images are felt
through the body and its senses more fully. The bodily awareness of one’s own identified
gender and imaginally of contrasexuality, contributed to the overall inner knowing as
other senses were accessed. However, the first attempt at facilitating this activity met
with a lack of understanding, little movement, and a frustration on the part of the
participants. They seemed to have wanted more specifics for enacting any movement.
114 The Authentic Movement activity took place right before lunch, after the
cross-gender role-plays. Participants were provided several minutes of explanation to acquaint them with Authentic Movement initially; however they seemed unable to move, and provided feedback stating they were unsure of what to do. Participants were guided to notice their internal sense of being a woman or a man and feel into that sense and any internal prompting of expressing that in movement; they were asked not to move according to what their head, or mind, prompted, but to follow only internal body promptings. Another attempt at facilitating the movement activity was made after lunch, with participants being instructed to move according to their own assigned gender or sexual roles. The repeated movement activity after lunch was an adjustment from the original research design. I realized from participant feedback that they found the activity awkward and foreign. I wanted to explore whether a second round of the same activity would provide them with increased access to internal promptings in their bodies.
After the second round of the movement activity participants were asked to engage in another phase of it. This time I directed them to move as their body led them with cross-gender feelings, expressions, and movements. In closure to this activity the participants were asked to demonstrate a gesture to depict their experience since there had been little movement in the previous Authentic Movement activities and to simplify the movements they were invited to express.
In the second visualization, of the two meetings, and after the Authentic
Movement, the participants were led back in time to their earliest memory and visualized themselves as the other gender. They were asked to experience themselves as cross-gendered through early childhood, elementary and high school, early, middle, and
115 then late adulthood, and finally to project themselves into the future to view how the sexes approached each other and how life might look in 30 years. The participants were brought back into the present time where they journaled before they shared their experiences of the visualization. The participants next completed a closing questionnaire and then gathered for the last closing ritual.
Participants journaled about their experiences, feelings, and images after each activity, which provided them time to consider these for themselves and digest what they had visualized, witnessed, and enacted. It also provided material resources that were interpreted later. The completion of the closing questionnaire acted as a closure and internal summation before the ending ritual.
Limitations and Delimitations
The age range for the study’s participants was from 25 to 69 years old. Five participants’ ages clustered in a middle-adult age group, with the other two participants being a 69-year-old woman and a 25-year-old man. The age range was one of the study’s limitations as learnings from other ages were not available.
Though there was a wide age span, the experiential learnings came predominantly
from participants who were 45 years and older. The middle to older ages of participants
does not take into account the experiences of people in the 26 to 44 years of age range,
for example. The learnings in the study may be focused on experiences and imagery from
people who have more life knowledge and practice, and who have had more
developmental opportunities in the additional years to increase and broaden their
116 perspectives on gender. They also grew up in an era where gender roles were more
pronounced in social and cultural attitudes and behaviors.
The uneven number of male and female participants was another limitation. I
intended a more balanced number of women and men as participants in the research;
however, the group ended up being comprised of five women and two men because two
additional men did not show up and engage in the research. The fact that there were more
women than men prevented comparison as to how similar or different their experiences were. However, some of the literature reviewed does not favor researching differences as it can create more duality; the literature offers validation for not comparing women and men’s experience in the usual female/male categories.2 An additional limiting factor is
that if a person did not identify as a woman or a man they may not have felt they
qualified for this study, such as someone who identifies with a transgender experience.
Another limiting factor was that one woman did not attend the first research meeting because of an unexpected obligation. Even though I led her through the same activities two days later the group field may have been affected by her absence and her
experience may have been affected by the absence of the group.
Ethnicities and socio-economic levels of the participants were not restricted.
However, the prerequisites of two psychology classes, six months of therapy, or participation in a men’s or women’s group narrowed the pool of participants chosen for
the research design. Accepting participants who met the eligibility criteria assisted in
screening for a level of psychological awareness.
Other limits in the study consist of only two meetings and the number of participants that were allotted for these research meetings. Additional learning may have
117 been collected if the study included more participants, and further learning may have resulted with a higher number of sessions, and extra activities. Also, the participants’ experiences of being in a study, being observed by me as the researcher, verbally sharing with others while being recorded, and taking turns in sharing their own images, stories, and explorations, all entailed some endurance and a layer of restriction imposed as a necessity in the implementation of this particular research design.
My own imaginal structures limited this study as well. My gender development story in the Introduction Chapter speaks to dilemmas I experienced as a child and into my adult years. My belief that gender is a societal construct and cultural myth that hinders people as they relate to each other, limits my view. In my opinion, while young children have a need to define who they are in the world, more enriching possibilities for the formation of identity are needed.
The delimitation most concerning to me, from the beginning, was that participants might experience the activities as therapeutic. However, there was care taken by myself as the researcher not to explore vulnerable areas that participants did share, other than acknowledging these sensitive experiences and feelings. Participants were told at the beginning of the meetings that this was not therapy, but a research study. They were reminded that even though there was an agreement of confidentiality, they should be cautious about sharing something if it caused them much discomfort.
The research frame for these experiences was held and maintained. The call to assist participants in a therapeutic manner rather than just facilitate the research is something I observed closely. Ethically, I needed to maintain sensitivity to participants’
118 experiences while simultaneously differentiating between the roles of being therapeutic and being the researcher in an Imaginal Inquiry.
The depth of internal observation and exploration in the activities themselves, as well as the sharing of these after each activity did heighten and intensify the participants’ experience; it also brought them insights. An emergence of new images, questions, concepts, and options regarding participants’ development of their own gender could have evoked more than they had anticipated. The internal experiences could have disrupted imaginal structures and beliefs that provided stability for participants.
Participants were listened to and witnessed along with the extra caution I experienced abiding by the research role.
Another limiting factor is that all possible learnings cannot, and were not collected. All research has delimiting factors; the amplification of the limits of this study assists in the awareness of what was specifically included, and what was not.
Participants
The areas discussed next address the issues of acquiring participants for this research study: participant recruitment, participant demographics and characteristics, the screening process, and informed consent.
Participant Recruitment
Hundreds of flyers were posted within at least seven communities over a
17-month period in attempts to recruit community members for this research study (see
Appendix 6). The flyer stated that this study was as an exploration of gender for both
119 women and men in a Friday night and Saturday group format that had limited enrollment.
It also stated that comfortable clothing was advised for participants and that the study consisted of experiential activities in both meetings. The topic to be explored, the requirements for eligibility, the time commitment expected, and the phone number of the researcher were all listed as well. When prospective participants called, they were asked questions from the screening form created for the study (see Appendix 5); the registering participants were informed they needed to sign a consent form at the beginning of the first meeting (see Appendix 4).
Participant Demographics and Characteristics
When participants signed up for the research meetings they were informed of the prerequisites to participate in the study. The age range was restricted from 25 to 70 years old. The wide age range was intended to provide diversity in the adult life span. There were no restrictions as to socio-economic class or ethnicity. There was not a restriction
related to gender as both women and men were wanted as participants, though a balanced
number was the preference.
The inclusionary characteristics for prospective participants consisted of meeting
eligibility criteria, along with the willingness to engage in experiential activities in the
two research meetings. High motivation and a degree of psychological awareness was
desired and discussed with participants in terms of eligibility requirements and the desire
to participate. The experiential format of the methodology appealed to people who were drawn to alternative experience and activities, people who wanted to try something new,
and people who were drawn to the theme of exploring gender.
120 There were no exclusionary characteristics for prospective participants outside of
not meeting eligibility criteria, except for non-English speakers. That did exclude
participants who were deaf and who did not have access to alternative ways of hearing.
Screening Process
I screened prospective participants over the telephone with the form created for
the study (see Appendix 5). The people who were drawn to this research study were
self-selected or referred by therapists or friends. They were between the ages of 25 and
70, were willing to explore gender through a variety of experiential activities, and met the
eligibility criteria already discussed.
I accepted any participant who fit into the above criteria, limiting the number of
women to six, as well as the number of men to six. I did not need to call or write a
prospective participant to let them know that I had too many participants and could not
include them, as I thought I might. Obtaining participants who were interested in exploring gender seemed more difficult than I had anticipated. I wanted community
members as well as college students to participate.
When prospective participants called and did not meet the criteria for eligibility I
assured them I appreciated them calling even though I was unable to accept them into the
study. This happened very few times however, and people most likely excluded
themselves when they read the flyers and found that they did not meet the eligibility
criteria.
121 Informed Consent
The consent form was emailed to the prospective participants prior to the two research meetings, to inform participants of more details required in the study, to inform them of what they would be agreeing to at the beginning of the first session, and to inform them that their consent was a condition for participating in the study (see
Appendix 4).
Participants who filled in for two men who did not show up for the study read the consent form at the beginning of the first research meeting when they were all signed. I welcomed the participants as I handed them the consent form to read and sign, and then collected them. The consent form included a confidentiality agreement.
Four Phases of Imaginal Inquiry
The Four Phases in the methodology of Imaginal Inquiry are addressed in more detail below as Evoking, Expressing, Interpreting, and Integrating Experience. Imaginal
Inquiry is located within the Imaginal Transformation Praxis and developed by Omer, the founder of Meridian University. Imaginal Inquiry is anchored in a participatory research paradigm and “is congruent with the orientation of Imaginal Psychology.” 3 The following phases assist in describing how an Imaginal Inquiry research design was used in this study.
Evoking Experience
The evoking experiences consisted of the exploration of traditional and contrasexual gender roles and imagery and was the primary experience elicited in the two
122 research meetings. I laid the groundwork for participants to role-play conventional gender
stereotypes according to their sex, female or male, to evoke and support the stretch in
role-playing, moving to internal imagery, and visualizing cross-gender experiences later; cross-gender imagery and expressions were explored during the second research meeting to evoke the participant’s core identity in the contrasexual experience. The sensing of limits in the first, traditional role-play for participants, and the experiencing of unfamiliar behaviors and feelings in the second, cross-gender role-play activity, evoked and increased awareness and access to internal imagery and capacities.
In the first role-play activity I asked the volunteers to act out stereotypical images or behaviors that are expected of their sex. I encouraged them to engage in the role-play with their whole body, with gestures and feelings in order to evoke experience of limits in mainstream gender behavior.
The participants witnessing the role-plays were asked to attend to what they were viewing and experiencing and how this affected them. I then asked participants to journal feelings, images, and experiences that were evoked in the role-plays for several minutes after each one. They discussed what was evoked at the end of the activity.
Next, each of the two guided visualizations will be addressed to depict the focus for evoking experience in participants. Before the first guided visualization, I encouraged participants to remember early developmental experiences as they were guided back to earlier times when they first learned about their own gender. Specifically, participants were asked to visualize when they first realized that their physical body matched only one gender. By remembering some of the first experiences, awareness was evoked for how gender began to take shape in their lives. Participants were asked to experience a
123 felt-sense, memories, and images of themselves as children first learning about the gender
they were culturally assigned.
Another guided visualization was facilitated in the second research meeting where participants were led through the past, present, and the future as female if they were male, and male if they were female, to explore cross-gender development. The intention in this visualization was to evoke the experience of accessing more options and freedom in expressing contrasexual behaviors and feelings, and to imagine their own development as the other gender. The possibility for recognition of disowned parts and resources by participants was evoked through this activity as evidenced by participants sharing
experiences, feelings, and images after both guided visualizations in discussion and in
journaled form.
The Authentic Movement activity in the second session was another experiential
exercise utilized as an imaginal approach to evoke sensory imagery for both genders.
Through not using words or sight, a sensing of internal images can be elicited and experienced more intensely. Participants were told that although soft music would be playing in the background, they were to attend only to internal promptings in their body
in this movement activity, and that the music was simply to cushion any outside noise
that occurred.
I told participants that I would ring a bell to begin and end the movement activity,
the purpose being to contain the evoked movement experience through a starting and
ending signal. I explained that there would be silence in the first half of the activity, and
then the bell would be rung for them to use their voices in the last half if they felt the
124 promptings or urge to do so. I asked them to just focus internally on the gender that
society assigned them.
During the lunch break, I went home to reflect on the feedback I had received from participants, as well as the sharing from the Authentic Movement activity that had just taken place. Confusion had been evoked in the participants and I was unsure of how to proceed. Confusion was also evoked in me by the participants’ feedback. During the first proposed movement activity five participants did not move and a sixth said she hesitated and did not see others moving, so she did not. The seventh person was able to move; she explained that she was acquainted with movement activities and they were comfortable for her. Internal imagery did emerge for the others, however. The feedback participants provided evoked an initial helplessness in me; I was able to use what they said to facilitate the same movement activity again. The movement activity was repeated after lunch, because of the feedback participants contributed.
In the middle phase of Authentic Movement, the research activity was focused on evoking internal promptings as the other gender in participants. Since there was minimal movement in this phase as well, I requested a gesture from them to close off the internal imagery that had been evoked. I also thought a simpler suggestion with more structure could evoke a more accessible movement for participants.
In the opening and closing rituals for both research meetings participants were asked to respond briefly to an opening or closing statement. Both the opening and closing rituals for each meeting provided opportunities for imagery and experience to be evoked and for a sense of containment for the exploration in the experiential activities.
125 In sharing what arose for participants in the group format, a sorting was also
evoked. There was a sense of recognition for participants having similar stories while
also listening to the uniqueness of them. The stories stimulated more motivation and
exploration through recognition of the shared experiences of gendered images, both what
participants accepted as their own gender, and what they did not accept and saw in others
instead.
The exercises stated above evoked images, feelings, and experiences in me too. I
journaled briefly during the sessions, as time allotted, and I also journaled after the
meetings. Participants were provided a time to complete a closing journaling
questionnaire so what was evoked in them as the most meaningful activities in the two
research meetings could be captured as their key moment/s.
The closing journaling questionnaire was intended to evoke a sense of gathering
together all of what had taken place for each participant as well as gathering more learning from the participants’ experiences. The final, closing ritual assisted in the gathering together of the participants, their experiences, and making room for saying goodbyes to evoke feelings of containment and closure.
Expressing Experience
The opening rituals for each session as well as the closing rituals provided support for participants’ expressions in response to a facilitating statement or question. A sense of shared participation began building trust for the two research meetings as participants introduced themselves and articulated why they were drawn to the study. The trust supported an increase in internal exploration and further expression of what was
126 discovered in the experiential activities, and what was remembered in earlier gender development from the guided visualizations and sharing of stories.
The verbal and physical expressions in the role-plays demonstrated that the participants were engaged as they acted out gender stereotypes in the traditional role-play activity in the first research meeting, and the cross-gender role-plays of the second day.
The role-plays, the guided visualizations, and Authentic Movement were all performed in a group format where participants witnessed each others’ physical expressions and heard others’ verbalize their experiences. Participants then verbally shared their own experiences with others spontaneously. From the beginning the shared expressions acted as an ice breaker reducing initial tensions, and then continued to develop trust within the group; the initial sharing of experience in the opening ritual and the first role-play activity increased the desire for participants to get to know others and encouraged exploration and expression of themselves as the intersubjective field developed.
The participants articulated their experiences and brief stories that emerged within the group after the role-plays, guided visualizations, and the Authentic Movement activities. The experiences, feelings, and thoughts regarding them were written down on large newsprint for everyone to see, as well as to collect this information for later discernment and interpretation. The first visualization, of participants’ own gender development, supported the expression of their sharing memories of these experiences from their early lives through adulthood. Participants seemed eager to express themselves after the visualization. The activity also contributed to the intersubjective field. Robert
Stolorow, Donna Orange, and George Atwood define the intersubjective field as an “area of understanding, the uniquely patterned interplay of particular subjectivities.” 4 The
127 participants had imagery and memories to share with each other from the visualization
when they first remembered they were a girl or boy, and the activities they chose at different stages of their lives. Participants also commented on what was expected by their culture or community, from memories of a preschool school bathroom that was unisex in the late 1950s, to standards of girls wearing dresses and boys learning to work on cars. As participants listened to each other, and responded with their own stories, they heard both similar and dissimilar accounts relative to their own early development. The sharing of stories seemed to sustain and enrich the discussion and entailed empathy for other participants through the acts of witnessing and reciprocating.
In the second visualization, during the second meeting, participants imagined themselves as the other sex. The cross-gender visualization was the focal activity for this research study since the other activities were planned around this one, to support the access of internal imagery, the exploration, and the expression of it. The intent for the second guided visualization was to assist participants in developing an altered sense of journeying back in time, back to the present, and into the future as the other sex, allowing them to experience and express their contrasexual resources within the research meetings.
Participants expressed the experiences that were felt and visualized, both verbally and through journaling. The sharing by the participants was documented on newsprint for them to view their own expressions of their experiences, and for later inclusion in research materials.
In the expression and sharing of cross-gender behaviors and feelings in the role-plays, the guided visualizations, and the Authentic Movement activity, participants’ vulnerabilities may have been exposed in sharing parts of themselves they were not even
128 aware of previously. Throughout the research meetings, I expressed that confidentiality
was important to maintain. I also reminded participants of emotional safety issues, to
insure what they expressed would be honored.
The Authentic Movement activity was addressed previously in the evoking
section and is defined again here to portray the imaginal approach participants responded
to. The movement activity is predominantly a nonverbal movement with eyes closed, and
lends itself to nonverbal expression which can later be articulated verbally and shared in
the group format. Participants were told that I, as the researcher and facilitator, would be
witnessing the movements they expressed. They were to center themselves in a comfortable stance, sitting, or lying on the floor, close their eyes or choose a loose
blindfold if they opted for this, and then to feel into the internal desire for movement
within their own bodies, ignoring any thoughts in their head instructing them they should
move, or to move in a specific way.
Participants were asked only to move as their bodies led them in expressing and
embracing the gender that matched their physical anatomy. They were given instructions
regarding the starting time, midway time when vocalization could be expressed, and then
the ending time. Journaling followed the movements. After the first phase of Authentic
Movement the participants expressed their frustration and confusion. The feelings
expressed by the participants called for reflection from me as the researcher. I listened,
gathered my thoughts during a solitary lunch break, and facilitated the first phase of the
movement activity again, after lunch, taking into account the participants’ feedback that
they were confused about the directions for the activity. Though there continued to be
minimal movement, the participants shared yet more internal imagery. After the next
129 phase of movement when they were asked to feel internal impulses in their body as the other gender, another adaptation to the original design was spontaneously facilitated. I invited the participants to express a closing, physical gesture for the internal imagery they experienced in the Authentic Movement. The physical gesture was enacted by each participant unique to them from internal imagery expressing their own gender experience.
A group discussion took place after the completion of all the experiential activities. This closing discussion ranged from talking about the limits and freedom participants experienced in their own gender development, as well as what options, images, and concepts they might include now, and in the future. Participants also had the opportunity to verbally express and offer images and experiences in the closing ritual.
Interpreting Experience
The newsprint used for documentation with the group, the participants’ journaling of experiences, images, insights, participants’ verbal sharing, writings from the closing questionnaires of the participants’ experiences, and segments of audiotape were combed through for narrative learnings with condensation approaches used in the interpretation.
My experiences in written form were accumulated, interpreted, and integrated as well.
The interpretation of the materials was approached in the following ways. First recurring feelings, insights, and images were noted. Secondly, the metaphors and stories that appeared throughout the material documentation were delineated. The metaphors addressed contexts for images in a meaningful way. Finally, after assessing the material results through these approaches, the results were again reviewed, intuitively for what the other two approaches did not access as important or significant, yet that appeared to have
130 authentic validity. My own images, insights, and experiences from observations were
perused to explore overlap and gaps in what the participants expressed, as well as to
determine any of my biases and imaginal structures.
Next an overall and an in-depth look at my own imaginal structures were
addressed. The imaginal structures on which I relied and the lens through which I looked influenced my own participation, facilitation, and control of the direction of the research
meetings and learnings. I addressed how the participants, activities, and results affected
me in the learnings in Chapter 4. Though I did not have a co-researcher for this
assessment, an editor did minimally contribute to the shaping of the learnings.
The terms contrasexual archetypes, traditional and stereotyped identities of
gender, gender projections, and the re-imagination of and seeing beyond gender roles
were addressed in the interpretive process through the lens of Jung’s Individuation
Theory. The principles behind these terms were kept in mind during the interpretation,
guiding the intuitive identification of the evidence.
During the interpretive process, images, feelings, and experiences arose in me; I
wrote about these in Chapter 4, Learnings, in the sections How I was Affected and
Imaginal Structures. With reflecting on my own biases and what took place, as well as
my journaling, I addressed moments in the research meetings when my reflexivity
became narrowly focused and my actions were constricted by my imaginal structures.
Though I found myself observing and facilitating what occurred internally both in the
group process and in the interpretive phase, I had a unique position that was very
different from the participants during the two study meetings.
Interpretation also took place during the participants’ last discussion. They looked
131 back at what had taken place in the two meetings as they articulated the key moments or insights they experienced. The predominant myth used for the interpretation process and for reflection on the learnings was the Myth of Persephone and Demeter. This myth involves characters coping with unfamiliar imagery and circumstance, increasing their awareness, and reaping the benefits of good-enough parenting.
Integrating Experience
The integration of the images, experiences, and key moments for the participants was facilitated in a number of ways. Through participants’ verbal sharing in the group there were opportunities for integration to occur as they articulated their experiences.
When participants chose to speak, they were heard by the whole group. They experienced being listened to while sharing personal stories. The beginning of an integration process was initiated, which then took a life of its own, unique to each person.
The use of the body in both the role-plays and the Authentic Movement also contributed to integrating awareness in a somatic way. The containment of what took place through supportive facilitation and feedback by others, opening and closing rituals for each meeting, and the closing journaling questionnaire assisted in the integration of the experience evoked within the research meetings.
In the opening ritual for the first meeting participants were asked to share briefly what drew them to participate in the research study. During the closing ritual of the first meeting participants were asked to share a new image, insight, or experience related to the evening’s activities. During the opening ritual of the second research meeting, participants were asked for images or insights they wanted to share with the group. For
132 the ending ritual of the research study on the second day participants were asked for a
new image that they could carry forward into the future. All of the opening and closing rituals provided opportunities for beginning to integrate images and experiences that were evoked in the two research meetings.
The participants’ experiences of memories and influences in developing gender concepts and identities also added to the beginnings of the integration process. The experiences were an essential part of the focus of this research study so that participants could try on contrasexual behaviors, physical stances and gestures, and feelings. The belief was that participants’ experiences of early memories, enactment of stereotypical roles and contrasexual ones, and the increase in awareness these would create, would begin an integration of new images and increased possibilities in their lives. Jung’s
Individuation Theory with the essential contrasexual recognition is aligned with the experiences and integration that took place.
As stories and images were evoked, expressed, and interpreted, the integration process took a form unique for each participant. Integration of new experience depends on each participant’s past experience, ways of knowing, and learning styles. The images, stories, role-plays, and discussions gathered and melded experiences that overlapped, and that assisted participants in distinguishing their own unique experiences, when what was expressed felt like an isolated experience. Acknowledgement and support for both similar and dissimilar experiences and voices were facilitated through the opening and closing rituals, group activities, and the group discussions, which enhanced the integration process.
133 Additionally, the witnessing of other participants describing their own images, telling their own stories, and role-playing traditional and cross-gender roles, along with the emerging imagery in the Authentic Movement, played an important part of the integration process. By witnessing others’ similar and dissimilar experiences, participants began to view and understand contrasexual expressions, behaviors, feelings, and images of their own, adding increased access to the wealth of human resources and possibilities.
A brief summary of learnings, which was mailed to participants, also served to integrate the participants’ experiences (see Appendix 16 and Appendix 17). The communication can support and validate the participants’ experiences, reminding them of what took place during the two research meetings.
The hope is that through participating in the current study and any further gender explorations participants will begin to integrate some of their insights, experiences, and images that translate to changes in how they live out a gendered identity. Participants may have even left a few gendered behaviors behind to reclaim a degree of internal resources. They may have integrated more contrasexuality into their lives. It is possible that participants will experience a decrease in gender influencing their lives after this research study.
My own integration process has taken place through the preparation for and the facilitation of the research meetings, journaling, witnessing participants as well as my own thoughts and actions, sorting through the material resources and results, interpreting the results as learnings, and stretching my capacity to endure this process. My honoring of the poignant moments in the completion of this study, and the wisdom and humor that hindsight offers through the god Hermes, will provide more integration as well.
134 The integration of the whole process involved in writing a dissertation from the
beginning to the end will continue to unfold more meaning for me. I will facilitate more
gender exploration in the future. The learnings from this study can assist others in
integrating more contrasexual resources. In the future, as an offshoot of the rich
experience yielded through this process, I may summarize the learnings for an article to
be submitted to a psychological journal. Clients may arrive at the door in my clinical
office with expectations of exploring their own individuation and what lies beyond mainstream gender development. My own understanding of the individuation process and the richness of contrasexuality has deepened.
The current research study contributes to the emerging field of Imaginal
Psychology as an additional research study that is accessible to academic readers who want to know more about the Imaginal Transformation Praxis, the term that describes the imaginal approaches and methodology of Imaginal Inquiry.5 Through facilitating
participants in visualizing and enacting not only traditional gender roles, but cross-gender
roles, they explored and performed the internal resources that are not easily accessible in
every day experience. I facilitated the research activities and the participants entered into
territory in an intersubjective field where the dualities of gender were recognized and the
possibility of going beyond these roles was affirmed.
135
CHAPTER 4
LEARNINGS
Introduction and Overview
This section, Introduction and Overview, first addresses the Research Problem and Hypothesis, and then the Cumulative Learning statement. Following this section, the
four learnings are discussed in more depth and entitled as follows: Learning One:
Honoring Increased and Individual Capacities, Learning Two: Amplifying Roles Focuses
Insight Through Affect, Learning Three: Contrasexual Capacities Engaged in
Cross-Gender Rehearsal, and Learning Four: The Gatekeeper at the Threshold. Each of
the learnings mentioned above is presented by means of the following six steps that
constitute Imaginal Inquiry: (1) What Happened; (2) How I was Affected; (3) Imaginal
Structures; (4) Theoretical Concepts; (5) Interpretations; and (6) Validity. In the
conclusion to this chapter, the relationship of the learnings to the Research Problem and
Research Hypothesis is addressed.
To restate, the Research Problem was: What new images, experiences, and insights arise when women and men imagine and practice contrasexual gender performances and expressions that are outside of traditional gender roles? The Research
Hypothesis was: Imagining and practicing contrasexual performances will encourage a beginning awareness of contrasexual aspects, gender projections, and a re-imagining of gender for the future.
136 The learnings gleaned from this study are both academic and personal, given the framework and lens of the qualitative and participatory methodology. Theoretical concepts will be addressed along with my own imaginal structures in each of the four learnings so as to inform the reader of the particular lens used in arriving at the interpretations. The participants have each been given a pseudonym to retain their anonymity (as was discussed with them) and this arrangement was included in the consent form they signed at the beginning of the first meeting together.
Cumulative Learning: Capacities Nourished in Good-Enough Beginnings
The Cumulative Learning reveals that early, good-enough family support for developing both feminine and masculine capacities allows an individual to explore contrasexuality throughout their lifetime without severe and restrictive gatekeeping dynamics, and enables the individual to digest discrepancies between social expectations related to gender performance and the individual’s core identity. Embodying and visualizing cross-gender experience enhances empathy both toward others and the internal other and supports the withdrawal of projections and the increase in capacities.
Participants in the research study expressed support by their families for the activities they were drawn to in their early years of development, apart from any socialized gender roles. Looking back at their early development, participants realized they had the freedom to explore what they later learned were cross-gender activities.
Later when they learned about gender role expectations it was in the public school and community settings where they experienced being relegated to certain behaviors because of their identity as a girl or boy.
137 The embodiment and visualization of cross-gender experience in this study
supported participants’ access to physical stances, expressions, behaviors, and feelings of
the other sex. These cross-gender experiences were predominantly positive despite
feelings that were evoked in the forms of surprise, anger, disgust, and sadness. In
reviewing the experiential responses overall, participants were able to increase feelings
and expressions of empathy. When another person is seen authentically and empathically
understood, the withdrawal of projections can take place; the unwanted feelings can then
be acknowledged by an individual as their own. Participants availed themselves of this
opportunity through engaging in the study’s qualitative and imaginal research activities.
Learning One: Honoring Increased and Individual Capacities
The primary claim of this learning is: Childhood gender identity develops through
selective identification with positive aspects of both genders and disidentification from
limiting aspects, in an atmosphere of sufficient parental support, despite cultural
expectations and stereotypes. When there is early support, rather than rejection, of
androgynous and traditional cross-gender behaviors, the developing child can access
more internal resources in their expressive repertoire. When the child observes restrictive
behaviors of either sex they can disidentify with those more easily as well, because of
support for the wider range of expressions the child has available.
What Happened
During the two research meetings, participants engaged in role-plays, guided visualizations, and Authentic Movement activities, along with story telling, discussions,
138 and journaling. The two meetings consisted of a Friday night and the following Saturday
in which participants recalled images, memories, and feelings about their gender
development and how it impacted their lives.
On the first evening, participants engaged in a guided visualization, in which they
were led back in time to their first memory of being either a girl or boy, on through other
gender memories in elementary school, junior high, high school and their teen years, and
into early adulthood. Participants then shared their experiences in a group discussion.
“Ellen” (pseudonym) shared with the group of participants that when she looked back at her own gender development beginnings on through to her current life as a
53-year-old woman, she realized her family consisted of strong women. The women in her family were her mother, her sister, and herself, along with an extended family of aunts and a grandmother. Ellen journaled after the guided visualization, “I always had strong role models of women–competent, dominant, strong, hard-working, independent.
That’s how I grew up.” Ellen seemed proud when she told the group her uncles worked, but her mother, aunts, and a grandmother were the ones to kill and skin the animals they ate. As she spoke Ellen’s voice was clear and strong and she smiled and made eye contact with several people. Another woman, “Amy” (pseudonym) joined in after Ellen made these statements. Amy proudly shared that her mother also killed the turkey, hens, or pig, for meat for her family.
After the guided visualization, Ellen also shared and journaled that she remembered feeling okay about her developing sexuality and clearly recalled,
“recognizing differences between boys and girls in preschool in the bathrooms (which were coed!!), boys stood up, and girls sat down.” Ellen sounded somewhat amazed that
139 she remembered this. She also recalled feeling it was a “rip-off” when she realized only the boys could take shop in high school, and wondered if this was why as an adult she did not enjoy mechanical and electrical work, “since I didn’t have a father or other adult male to learn from and I didn’t have these classes in school.” She shared emphatically with the group and also journaled, “I felt I could do almost anything boys could do; I always felt as competent as the boys in most games/sports.”
After the guided visualization, “Barb” (pseudonym) shared her experience of her relationship with her dad when she was three to 12 years old. He took her fishing and taught her many things that fathers often do not teach their daughters. She related feeling lucky she had this experience and realized not many girls have these opportunities when they are young. Barb said she felt thankful she did not have a brother, because she might not have had the experiences if her father had a son to teach. She realized she might have been excluded because of the traditional roles of fathers handing down their skills and knowledge to their sons.
After this visualization, Barb also told the group a story that she remembered.
One day as a child, dressed in cowboy boots and jeans, Barb’s dad took her to a new school to register her; he promised she would not have to stay that day when she protested that she could not go dressed as she was. She said that in those days school clothes consisted of a dress or skirt for girls, and she knew it was inappropriate to wear what she had on at school or out in public as a girl. Her dad did in fact leave her at school for the day, and she remembered being “taunted and teased,” by the boys on the playground for what she was wearing. She journaled, “I felt devastated, embarrassed and angry. That said something to me about what I must watch out for–both with my dad and
140 the male children I went to school with.” She explained, in a disappointed voice, that she could not trust her father to keep his word, and that other kids can be hurtful when you do not fit in.
Amy told the group and journaled that during the guided visualization she recalled how she “took cousins out in the wheat fields for a safari.” She continued, stating she never wanted to play house; instead she remembered, “preferring to be on the farm with animals, gathering eggs, playing with the ducks, kissing the pigs, and jumping off fences.” Amy told the group she wanted to be either a fireman or a race car driver when she grew up, and was given a push paddle fire truck as a child. Amy’s face seemed to light up as she shared these experiences with the group, and she had what seemed like an excited lilt to her voice.
After “Kay’s” (pseudonym) experience of the guided visualization, she sounded surprised at the memory of girls and boys being separated into different activities. She remembered that she was sent to girl scouts, while her brother went to boy scouts. Kay talked of an early memory when she wanted to bring cows in from the pasture at her grandparents’ farm, but she was told that was men’s work, and that helping in the kitchen was women’s work.
“Matt” (pseudonym) verbalized his memory of when he learned that girls liked to kiss boys and the boys did not, after the visualization in the first meeting; he emphasized that he did like kissing girls, and smiled as he said this. Matt journaled after this same activity, “I did remember grade school girls who bucked what they were suppose to be.
They competed with the boys, etc. I knew they were different than the other girls and I liked it.” Matt also stated he played hopscotch with the girls. He could not remember any
141 other boys playing this game. He seemed to like sharing these memories as if they were images of fun times; he smiled as he disclosed this and then seemed to scan the room looking for responses. Barb and Amy replied almost at the same time and seemed to reassure Matt that he was not alone in remembering incidents of playing with the
opposite sex.
“Gwen” (pseudonym) shared with the group and journaled after the guided
visualization that she could not remember realizing she was a girl. She did remember
being, “a shy Asian girl (in that order),” and stated this rather forcefully, repeating it
again, as if she were absorbing the order of those words, and what they might mean. She
appeared to withdraw physically after stating the previous phrase; she looked down as other participants continued to talk. She acknowledged a short time later that she remembered being frustrated as a girl when, “I wasn’t allowed to work cleaning up a railroad spill. The male foreman said there wasn’t a bathroom for me.”
How I Was Affected
I felt a bit startled when I realized most of the participants had lived with limits in being a female or male, honored what was useful to them in their gender development, and yet disidentified with society’s expectations when these did not work for them. I felt envious and yet heartened when several women spoke of seeing their mothers and other strong women in their family take on difficult work, killing and skinning the animals for the meat their families ate. The adult women provided their daughters with strong role models to learn from, as well as supporting them to go beyond traditional feminine roles.
142 My own mother often told me to “be a lady,” in various ways, and I remember her
often stating that I was singing or talking too loud; I received the message in many
different forms that she wanted me to be silent, or at least quieter, and a bit sweeter. My
mother wanted me to fit the role of the feminine, and not go beyond it. I felt that any of
the participants who had strong and supportive mothers were fortunate.
Imaginal Structures
The wounds I experienced as a girl provided one of the lenses that I see through.
The healthiest and most alive times I experienced as a child were those when I was physically active and involved with groups of other children. When my mother and others called me a tomboy, at first I identified with this word strongly; however, as my mother’s discomfort with the word tomboy grew, along with her desire to see me in a different light as I grew older, the emphasis in the phrasing changed to, “She’s just a tomboy.” Her expectations became clearer; my mother wanted me to be a lady, quieter, and more demure. Since she was a very depressed person, I complied, trying to hang on to the mothering she could provide. Though I moved from a confused and ambivalent stance as an adolescent to finding my own way as an adult, I still feel the pain from this time.
As I listened to the participants and later as I reflected upon their words, I realized that I wanted to hear participants’ own gender wounding and restrictions that originated from within their families, to validate my own experience. Yet, while many might have experienced gender role limits to some degree in their families, this was not prevalent or where they experienced the most restriction. The contrast between the participants’
143 experience and what I experienced will take time to integrate, and may be the most potent
learning in this study for me personally.
Theoretical Concepts
Winnicott asserted that good-enough parenting consists of adults supporting their
child’s developmental level, adapting to the child’s needs, and being consistent in their
relationship with the child.1 An additional benefit in good-enough parenting is that a cushion or buffer is available as support to the child during stressful times. Initially,
Winnicott wrote of the mother providing a good-enough environment for the child, and then later included the father. Ulanov and Ulanov point to the parents working together in concert, and state “The feminine presence is not to be equated with the mother alone.” 2
Ulanov and Ulanov depict the supportive environment for a child consisting of parents
working with their own contrasexuality, “sharing back and forth . . . in the clearest
possible discussion of the manliness [masculinity] each feels, the womanliness
[femininity] evoked in both.” 3 They state that the child’s conscious contrasexual resources increase from witnessing their parents’ relationship in this manner.4
Harding writes that, “The psyche itself . . . is both male and female. Each human being contains within [her] himself potentialities in both directions. If [s]he does not take up both of these aspects and develop and discipline them within [her] himself, [s]he is only half a person, [s]he cannot be a complete personality.” 5
144 Interpretations
Childhood gender identity develops through selective identification with positive
aspects of both genders and disidentification from limiting aspects, in an atmosphere of
sufficient parental support, despite cultural expectations and stereotypes. This learning speaks to the protective nature that parents can provide in supporting and modeling feelings and behaviors of both femininity and masculinity.
Participants did not seem cognizant of how wounding gender and sex role limits could be, even when they had disidentified with some of these expectations. The majority of them seemed to have created what they needed in their gender development.
Participants noted behaviors of theirs which did not fit with cultural gender roles. Matt voiced several instances of this when he spoke of playing hopscotch with the girls, though he never saw other boys doing so, and liking to kiss girls. Matt seemed to feel different than other boys as he wondered out loud with the group, if other boys played hopscotch; he did seem certain boys did not like kissing girls as early as he did. Matt seemed to be sorting out ways he was different in feeling and behaving from the traditional male behaviors when he was young.
Most of the women articulated how they separated out from the feminine role in some way. Gwen said she felt both of her parents modeled behaviors which supported her independence and assisted her in pushing past what was comfortable; other adults were
the ones to dissuade her from working with men on a railway spill. Ellen had strong
women in her family, said she identified with them, and felt she could do almost anything
boys could do.
145 Barb’s relationship with her dad provided her skills a son would traditionally learn. She had her own tools, learned to work on cars, and learned to fish with her dad.
Barb’s dad supported contrasexual resources when she was young even though she did learn to distrust her father at times. This distrust stemmed from the time her father left her at a new school after Barb explained she could not stay because of her inappropriate clothing; she was dressed in what was considered appropriate for boys. Her father seemed to understand this when he promised he would not leaver her at the new school. But then he left her at the school dressed as boys did in those times. Barb realized her father was not as sensitive to the social pressures a young child can experience outside the family environment. Overall though, Barb felt that her father did support her in developing all of who she was, and that seemed good enough.
Amy said she never wanted to play house and would lead her cousins into the fields for a safari; she seemed to share this with the other participants quite proudly with a stronger and emphatic voice, perhaps enjoying the retelling and imagery it evoked. She added that she was validated for wanting to be a fireman by being given a push paddle fire truck as a present.
These more androgynous behaviors as children provided what participants seemed to allude to as freedom. Rarely did participants speak of parents repressing behaviors that were considered cross-gender behavior by societal standards. Rather, the public settings of the community and school seemed to be where participants experienced cultural expectations and pressures. The participants recognized the discrepancy in gender roles both between the sexes and in their own lives; they felt more restricted in their behaviors or dress in public domains.
146 Validity
Validity in the participatory paradigm is established through identifying parallels
in the existing literature, and through accounting for all aspects of the intersubjective
field, including ways that the participants and the researcher may affect it. There is
notable literature that addresses good-enough parenting or support in an individual’s
early development which validates this learning.
Regarding my own impact upon the intersubjective field, there are several issues
to consider regarding the validity of this learning. The bias from my own wounding and
limitations I experienced in my gender development drew me to this topic. The
assumption that others experienced similar wounding was a projection and not a valid
way of viewing others’ experience; the contrast between my initial assumptions and this
learning points to one aspect of its validity and the authenticity in the interpretation.
Additionally, authenticity in the participants’ responses regarding their experiences assisted in validating learnings as congruent with the participatory paradigm.
Participants did speak and write of experiences from their childhood memories where they expressed themselves through androgynous play and interactions. They predominantly experienced good-enough support in their early lives in their home environments. The experiences in the activities continued to connect with even more memories of androgynous and contrasexual experiences from their childhood as they discussed and journaled throughout the two research meetings.
147 Learning Two: Amplifying Roles Focuses Insight through Affect
The primary claim of this learning is that the expression and amplification of stereotypical gender roles evokes disgust, anger, sadness, and surprise for both genders and assists in disidentification, and withdrawal of projections. The participants
hesitatingly engaged in the role-plays at first, though a momentum built as stereotypic
images of gender emerged and appeared to be fun for them to portray. Several saw
behaviors of their own in the role-plays; the participants also experienced affective
responses to the caricature-like, reifying, limiting, and sometimes denigrating gender
performances.
What Happened
As the first role-playing activity began, there was hesitancy in the room that
echoed how most participants had responded on their screening forms. Six out of seven
participants answered they did not like role-playing; however, they all agreed to
participate when reassured they did not have to join in anything that made them too
uncomfortable. I asked for volunteers for the first role-play and waited for a few minutes.
I then invited them to consider the gender images and roles they see in their daily lives
and to raise their hands once a scenario came to mind. Several participants raised their
hands and I asked if they were willing to perform the scenarios. Matt was the first
volunteer. Barb then volunteered to perform the stereotypic female role for Matt’s
performance. After each role-play participants silently journaled their experience of
witnessing what was performed, or if they were the ones enacting the scenarios they
wrote of how that affected them.
148 In the first role-play, Matt acted out the male role and strutted around in front of
Barb who played a woman being very attentive and blatantly impressionable. Barb seemed to “fawn” over the male character, as she described it afterward. During the
performance, Matt told Barb that he was interested in spending time with her but that he
needed to check with his wife first. After the role-play, as Barb walked back to her chair,
she remarked loudly, “I actually would like to have punched him in the nose, and
stomped on his feet,” and then added, “but nice women don’t do that.”
Ellen titled her journaling comments about the very first role-play, “Pick-up.”
Gwen wrote that the role-play brought back memories of high school with “the typical
male self-centered role and the girl who doesn’t have the strength to be herself.” Amy
wrote she felt ashamed of the woman in this same role-play, and felt the woman
presented herself as weak and easily flattered. In the discussion after the role-plays, Amy
told the group she could not believe a woman could fall for “a jerk” like the one Matt
enacted. Matt then shared with the group that he tried to show a macho, aggressive role,
“with the old multiple partner stereotype.” He added, “I felt pretty uncomfortable in the
role and realized how much I am not like that . . . but also how I step into the role in more
subtle ways.” Matt appeared to be thinking through what he was articulating or saddened
by this insight as he shared this. He journaled about this insight as well.
Participants volunteered more readily after the first role-play. Amy role-played a
woman complaining and nagging her husband to obtain some help from him. During the
discussion after the role-plays had ended, Amy commented on acting out what she called
“bitchy” feelings in this role-play. Amy said that in her own day-to-day life she is able to
express such feelings without reacting like the stereotype. In response to Amy, and her
149 role-play, Gwen told the group she was reminded of frustrations she felt earlier in her
marriage. She titled this role-play “the B” and said she identified with the role, because as
a mother, caretaker, accountant, and housekeeper there are just too many roles to fill.
After several role-plays where the women seemed to be focused and waiting on the men, Amy wrote that the women in them sickened her. She later told the group in the
discussion afterward that she felt nauseated when Barb portrayed the helpless woman in
the first role-play. She told other participants, and journaled, that one of the roles was not
as nauseating as the one Barb played since it showed: “It is good to support your partner as long as you don’t lose yourself when you do it.” She reiterated this distaste several times in the discussion of the role-plays and in her writings.
Ellen sprang to her feet and went to the front of the gathering to show her readiness to engage in the fourth role-play. She portrayed a woman who repeatedly asked
her husband to quit watching a sports show so they could talk. Later when the role-plays
were discussed, “Rob” (pseudonym) noted the pressures or responsibility he saw in
Ellen’s portrayal. Rob seemed to share regretfully that as a man, “I have to make the plans for everything.”
In the discussion, after witnessing the role-plays, Barb noted that several performances depicted the man as very self-absorbed and asked if other participants, and women in particular, see men this way; Barb acknowledged that she did. She also acknowledged a very strong reaction to one of the role-plays, pointing to her anger and
frustration when women feel responsible for keeping everything in order and then fear
they will “displease the man in their life.” It seemed that Barb almost spit out her
150 displeasure, or discharged anger as she forcefully stated her reaction to what was portrayed in that role-play.
Barb also told the group that she does not feel safer or more feminine when she is around “STRONG/PHYSICAL/MACHO men,” as she later wrote. She continued in her writing, “I don’t want to ‘admire’ them–those I’ve known and interacted with I’ve wanted to (be) equal (to) in some way–show my physical strength and endurance. I want to be independent and strong myself–honor my masculine side.”
Ellen commented on the role-play where Rob portrayed a physically strong male with Gwen playing a woman cheering for him. Ellen told the group she has seen sports recently shifting to include women. She added, almost as if it was an afterthought as she hesitated, (and journaled) that even though there is a shift, “I don’t think men are the cheerleaders; the women are always the cheerleaders.”
As participants ended their discussion of the role-plays, they noted other stereotypes they had not seen enacted. Matt described the stereotype of women seeing men, “as being lazy when they’re just kicked back;” he demonstrated the male’s behavior with his legs stretched out and he leaned back into his chair. Matt continued with an example of a media stereotype when a man comes home from work and wants a martini brought to him.
Throughout the role-plays there was laughter and exclamations of agreement with what participants were witnessing, as if they were familiar with what they were viewing.
The laughter was mixed in with the other affects expressed and mentioned above.
Participants showed a willingness, and at times a desire, to take a turn in this activity after the initial hesitation.
151 How I Was Affected
As the researcher, I experienced surprise and relief in hearing participants name the stereotypes they see in everyday life. I also felt a flood of relief when they began
role-playing the gender stereotypes in this first activity. The study seemed to be unfolding
before me without any further effort once the participants became engaged in the
performances.
Previously, I had come to the conclusion that the research topic did not impact
people consciously enough to draw much interest. With the length of time it took to
obtain enough participants I began to feel that the wounding I experienced in my gender
development, and the awareness of its impact, was not an area shared by most people; I
experienced further isolation from what I thought others’ experience consisted of in their
early development. The relief at witnessing how well participants knew these roles, and
the poignant restrictions they implied, felt quite welcome and allowed the isolation I took on earlier to begin to dissolve.
At one point in the beginning of the two sessions, I felt participants hesitate in expressing what they wanted to discuss. One woman stated, “I don’t know if this is what you want.” I was taken aback. Of course I had a hypothesis, but I did not discuss this with them. I quickly realized I needed to address that I wanted what was valid and authentic for them. I reminded participants several times through the research meetings that I wanted what was real and truthful, from their internal experiences. I emphasized I wanted their authenticity, their own imagery and feelings–without at all obliging them to consider my agenda. At the time, I felt I could have been overcompensating with these
152 statements, however, I felt it necessary to express what I wanted was their authentic
participation.
Imaginal Structures
The imaginal structure from my own gender wounding may have subtly seeped into my presentation of the beginning activities. The wounding experience in my own gender development is an imaginal structure and one of the lenses I used both in addressing the research topic and in facilitating the study. This wounding was addressed in the Introduction Chapter, in part, by the story of being punished for performing cross-gender behaviors. Once I became aware that participants were possibly sensing my wounding in this area, I may have overcompensated by repeating I wanted only their authenticity. However, reflexive participation also came forward to assist me in conveying that only their true feelings and responses mattered and were valid.
There were also several times during the role-plays when someone’s perspective or reaction seemed extreme, such as when Amy felt nauseated by Matt playing what she called “a jerk.” I realized that unlike Amy, I do not notice reactions to such displays of misogyny in my body. I wondered later if I defend against my body experiencing the distasteful remarks when others are rude and condescending in this way. Amy provided me insight into the rigidity I hold in order to defend against fully experiencing the disdain and dishonoring I see expressed by others. I recognized that I do not have the capacity to digest misogyny anymore than Amy and was thankful for the reflection she provided.
153 Theoretical Concepts
According to Stewart, one of Jung’s distinctions for an archetype is its relation to
the affects. Stewart states that Jung viewed affect and archetype as closely linked and did
not always differentiate between them. Stewart views an affective experience as “an
image that constellates the affect.” 6 In Jung’s early writings he highlights the
significance of the affects in the following quote, “The essential basis of our personality
is affectivity. Thought and action are, as it were, only symptoms of affectivity.” 7
Stewart discusses Tompkins’ list of affects and adapts them to fit Jungian theory.
Stewart views the startle/surprise affect as an orienting response. He likens rage (extreme
anger) to the frustration and restriction of autonomy. The affect of humiliation/disgust he
links to rejection and alienation, to name a few.8 Participants experienced a range of
feelings, including frustration, anger, disgust, and surprise in their role-plays. Some were
able to journal and name the feelings that arose and imagery that triggered these affects.
Young-Eisendrath wrote, “When a person recognizes deeply the patterns of image
and emotion that have shaped her or his reality, that person can begin to see reality
differently.” 9 It is this seeing differently that can allow a projection to lose its grip, the
grip itself being the energy that sustains the projection.
Labouvie-Vief suggests that notions of femininity and masculinity are created in interactions and define the, “images of mind and development.” 10 As stereotypic roles
are enacted with others, as in the research meetings in the study, projected images can
begin dislodging from the projections. As the images are digested internally, integration
can begin to take place. There is an increase in accessible, internal resources, and in
consciousness, when a person can withdraw any degree of their projections.
154 Woodman writes that, “a stereotype carries no numinosity, no living energy, no
intensity of feeling. A stereotype is a worn out vision, a dead archetype, or perhaps even
worse, a parody of it.” 11 There were parodies of the gender role stereotypes in the
role-plays as well as an honoring of what was still alive.
Interpretations
The primary claim of this learning is that the expression and amplification of stereotypical gender roles evokes disgust, anger, sadness, and surprise for both genders and assists in disidentification, and withdrawal of projections.
By witnessing and participating in the parodies or role-plays of traditional gender roles, the participants experienced emotional reactions to the stereotypes they witnessed.
It seemed that participants themselves felt relief in braving a performance in front of strangers, and acting out gender roles to depict the stereotypes. They became more willing to take part in the role-play activity as they watched others take a turn, and this seemed to provide access to even more gender stereotypic scenarios to play out. It was as if there was permission being given in the room for participants to magnify the rigidness of gender roles they witness in their daily lives.
Throughout the role-plays there was laughter or exclamations of agreement with what participants had seen or even experienced and was being played out in front of them. In some cases there was disgust, anger, or sadness felt in watching these role-plays, indicative of unwanted or disowned feelings or projections.
The exaggeration of the roles seemed to match the energy that projections can hold. There seemed to be a release of what is often held back and repressed, when
155 participants witnessed and encountered these stereotypes in others as well as themselves.
The stereotypes seemed to be fairly easy for participants to access within themselves
once they decided to engage in a performance; however, there seemed to be remarks in the discussion that followed which compensated for the imbalance that some of the stereotyped role-playing had depicted.
One such example is when Ellen talked of sports recently shifting to include women; she was commenting on the role-play depicting a woman supporting a very
strong, athletic man. It seemed that Ellen wanted to compensate for the portrayal of the weaker or supportive role of the woman. She hesitated, then quickly added what seemed like an afterthought, that men do not fill the support role for women athletes and are never seen as the cheerleaders. There seemed to be a growing awareness taking place as
Ellen articulated her thinking about the limits the stereotypes portrayed, both the compensating statement that things are shifting in sports, related to a possible discomfort with the amplification of the strong, athletic man, and then what often does take place in gender role-performance in daily life with her afterthought that women are always the cheerleaders. The possible impetus to compensate for the exaggerated role-play, yet honoring the truth in it at the same time, could create a dissonance and attentiveness to previous perceptions. As perceptions waver and shift, the projections involved in the perception can also shift.
Matt journaled that when he role-played a sexually aggressive male he felt uncomfortable but admitted he sees himself act this way at times. It seemed that he began to view some of his actions as being close enough to what he has projected out onto more stereotypically aggressive males, and did not view himself this way previously. The
156 discomfort people experience with tendencies they do not like makes those tendencies
easier to view in others. That Matt could realize he does act out the aggressive male, even
subtly, opened a glimmer of knowing for him that could assist him in the withdrawing or
dissolving of a projection.
The participants all recognized gender stereotypes and limits in the activities, as
well as experiencing affective responses to them. The recognition created a conduit for
further thought, awareness, and discussion about gender; such recognition can subtly
begin to disengage repressive cultural expectations, allowing for more expansion in
living. Gender projections can then begin to shift, fall away, or lose the intensity of the
charge they have held. Indeed, by observation, gender projections within the group did
subtly begin to shift as participants recognized behaviors and feelings as their own.
Some of the role-plays seemed to surprise participants as they witnessed a range of performances, from all too familiar to appalling behaviors. A surprise can assist individuals in looking at a behavior in more depth, and with more insight; a surprise is an orienting response where a behavior or memory can be viewed from an unexpected perspective, possibly shifting projections.
Validity
The intersubjective field that evolved in the traditional role-play activity brought participant affect forward with a recognition that gender roles can be reifying and limiting. Participants’ engagement in this activity increased as feelings were evoked.
The purpose of the study was for participants to explore their internal images, memories, and stories around gender development. The validity of this learning is
157 supported by participants’ discussions and journaling of their internal imagery evoked through the experiential activities, and my repeated support and request for what was true and authentic in their experiences for them. Participants expressed feelings of disgust, surprise, sadness, and anger in role-playing and witnessing stereotypical gender roles.
Participants’ recognition of what they identify with and what they do not want to identify with any longer, increases the likelihood of projections beginning to be withdrawn from gender roles.
Learning Three: Contrasexual Capacities Engaged in Cross-Gender Rehearsal
The primary claim of this learning follows: The contrasexual performance and experience brings to awareness the limiting aspects of gender roles, leading either to further personal insight or increased rigidity resulting from defensive processes. Through cross-gender role-playing and visualizing a person can gain a different perspective by placing themselves in another’s position. Though this can bring insights through viewing other perspectives or positions, it can also create a defensive stance if a person reacts to reject the insight or new perspective.
What Happened
At the end of the first session the participants were asked to volunteer a word or phrase that arose in them, for the closing circle that night. Matt offered “cross-gender,” and said he did not mean that in a sexual way, but that genders are coming together and seem to be merging. Amy offered the word “frustration.” Rob offered the word
“confusion.” Ellen offered the recognition that her family had shaped her. These words
158 were verbalized after the traditional gender role activities of the first meeting; the second
meeting, on the following day, consisted of exploring the contrasexual resources, labeled as cross-gender roles for the participants. Cross-gender imagery was explored in both of the role-plays, Authentic Movement, and the guided visualization of the second meeting.
The cross-gender role-plays and discussion of the first half of the cross-gender visualization are addressed in this learning.
The morning of the second meeting, participants volunteered more readily to perform cross-gender behaviors than they did the previous evening in the traditional gender role-play activity. Two volunteers were requested again, this time to enact stereotypic behaviors and expressions of the other sex, cross-gender behaviors and
feelings.
After a couple of cross-gender performances Barb asked participants if they
noticed more laughter in the room. She journaled, “These all strike a comical note. I don’t
think our role-plays did last night. What is that about? Is it because we are playing
opposite roles from our actual gender?” Participants seemed to hear Barb verbalize this
question, but did not offer a response to it as they appeared to be assessing what she said.
There had been laughter in the role-plays of the first meeting, but Barb pointed to a
difference, an increase in the cross-gender role-plays. Matt offered that he thought some
role-plays overlapped with the ones performed the previous meeting.
After one cross-gender role-play, where the woman was portrayed as pleading
with her partner to talk with her, Matt’s journaling focused on communication between a
man and woman. He wrote that some folks believe in the Mars vs. Venus concept with
men not having as much of a need to discuss feelings as women. He continued, “Men can
159 learn to fill that need in women, but can women learn to set aside that need? That might
be more difficult for women.” After the next role-play where the man was portrayed as
very self-centered and strutting as if he wanted people to look at him, Matt wrote, “This
role-play focused on the man acting like God’s gift, but I think girls grow up with even more sexual insecurities than boys.”
Toward the end of the second meeting, participants were again guided in a visualization to view themselves from a very young age, through to elderly years, and then into the future. In this visualization, however, participants were to view themselves born and living their lives as the other sex or gender (as a male if they were female, and a female if they were male). The visualization took them through noticing their different sexual anatomy at birth on up into old age, and into the future. There were pauses in the visualization at various stages for participants to notice the differences in how they felt, how their body responded, and how their family, teachers, friends, and the community saw them, and interacted with them, as this other gender with different sexual features and behaviors.
After this visualization, Kay told the group she had seen herself as her brother in about the sixth grade. Kay appeared surprised by what she pictured internally and stated,
“I was allowed more freedom to go places and do things.” She said she was more popular
and was involved in sports; “my parents were prouder of my accomplishments,” she
journaled. She noted that she had a different career goal as an engineer rather than
becoming a nurse in this visualization. She also experienced more pressure as a male to
earn money for her family. Visualizing herself as a male was one of Kay’s key moments
in the activities. She journaled, “It was intense to try to see myself as my brother.”
160 After visualizing himself as a girl, Rob shared that he felt rejected and was,
“looked down upon because I was a girl and not a boy.” Barb said, in a matter-of-fact
manner, that her name would have been John if she had been born a male; her mother had
wanted her to be a boy and had shared that her name would have been John then.
In contrast to the first guided visualization involving early memories of gender
development, when Ellen, Barb, Amy, and Kay had remembered negative and limiting
aspects of dressing as a girl, they shared, as if relieved that they did not have to worry
about a dress getting in the way when seeing themselves as boys. The other women
nodded in agreement when Ellen said she would not need to be concerned about someone
seeing her underwear. She wrote, “sports would be easier, less restrictive for me.” Amy
shared she experienced both disadvantages and advantages of being male in her
cross-gender visualization. She journaled, the disadvantage of being a man would be, “he
isn’t a man if he can’t provide or isn’t a man who could be sought by a woman unless he
is very handsome and sexual.”
After the cross-gender visualization Matt laughed as he shared the images he saw
of himself as a stereotypical teenage girl talking with friends about boys, clothes, and cell
phones. He wrote in his journal, “later images were focused on the physical fears that
women go through, always afraid of sexual predators, not being able to calmly walk in
the park by myself.” Matt added in his closing questionnaire that he felt he developed
empathy, “for what it would be like having women’s body parts.”
After her experience of the cross-gender visualization, Gwen told the group her
father pushed her to do things she was not comfortable with; she said her mother carried out both gender roles while her father provided opportunities for her to observe his life.
161 She felt she had a choice to be independent from others, or not. She wrote she felt an “ah ha” moment when she realized her dad left her, “a gift of himself.” On the closing
questionnaire she also acknowledged she did not mind playing the role of a male and it
was one of the key moments for her in the meetings. In answer to another question on this
closing activity she wrote, “I’m a stronger male than I thought.”
All participants in the study mentioned the cross-gender activities as one of their
key moments in the research sessions. Barb phrased a key moment as, “Bringing together
in my own body the masculine and feminine in myself.”
How I Was Affected
The women’s discussion of clothing restrictions reminded me of my childhood
attire. As I combed through data that formed this learning, one memory stood out in
detail. I remember desperately wanting a holster to go with my cowgirl outfit when
young, though my parents were against it. My mother somehow addressed my love for
the red cowgirl outfit, which did include a skirt, and turned it into an attachment for the
Little Red Riding Hood fairytale. She took the fabrication further and made me a red cape
with a hood. This instance is just one of many when my mother’s discomfort with my
gender expressions surprised and disappointed me.
When Matt mentioned that he had played hopscotch during a group discussion
and did not remember other boys doing so, I also could not remember boys playing
hopscotch. At the time, I did not understand the significance of my recollection; however,
I now understand I was feeling a resonance in myself, a validation, in hearing someone
162 share their enjoyment of a contrasexual activity as a child. Other incidents were shared that resonated as well, and I felt gratified as I witnessed the cross-gender performances.
Imaginal Structures
My own lenses were colored by my gender development history. My rigid insistence and rebellion against my father’s claimed authority over me as I moved into adolescence created a desire to find my own way, my own belief system. As a woman in intimate relationships with men, this insistence on my way has proven to be an imaginal structure which hinders me in relationships. My ambivalence in wanting intimacy but not trusting another to recognize me has worn thin. More self-trust has loosened the rigid insistence that others honor my way and has allowed me the reflexivity I need to find the internal and external support for this.
In order for the research study to proceed, especially when prospective participants were difficult to find, I had to step outside of the adaptive stance of another imaginal structure I grew up with. I felt strongly that I did not want to convince people that their gender development was problematic or restrictive. I continued to struggle with the tensions of not inserting my own beliefs onto others; I did not want to talk them into my own beliefs that gender is too restrictive.
I also felt taken aback during one of the research activities when a participant said she did not know if she was providing what I wanted. Although I insisted I wanted only her authenticity, I cannot help but feel that my ambivalence came into play. I was attempting to move ahead but at the same time not wanting to persuade people to participate. My experience with authority was overwhelming when I was young. It seems
163 to have influenced me so that I vacillate between rebelling against any authority (at least
internally), insisting on my way being the right way, and then veering away quite
emphatically so I do not intrude on others. The conflicting feelings have not been fully
digested or resolved. My conflicting rigid stances in this imaginal structure I am
describing seem to call for a loosening and increased reflexivity. This imaginal structure
was a lens I did engage, in preparation for the facilitation of the study, unbeknownst to
me at the time.
Theoretical Concepts
Many authors have interpreted Jung’s writings of the anima/animus, the
contrasexual aspects of humans. Young-Eisendrath and Ulanov and Ulanov point out that
Jung portrays the contrasexual as an internal other, and that humans have a choice
whether to consciously relate, or to remain unaware of it in themselves, and then only to
see it externally.12 The archetypal images of both femininity and masculinity become
known through awareness of the contrasexual complex, which contains cross-gender
imagery, behavior, and feelings.
Jung’s concept of contrasexuality supports insights not only from witnessing the
amplification of gender stereotypes played out, but particularly from the activities
focused on the internal other. Jung’s statement, “There is no consciousness without
discrimination of opposites,” speaks to the necessity of the exploration and awareness of
the gender polarities so often seen in daily life.13 Jung’s individuation theory supports
the emergence of contrasexual images, as well as the awareness and recognition of these as part of one’s own make up.
164 Ulanov and Ulanov write that projection “links us to the other on whom we project as well as to the content we deposit there . . . . We use the other as a parking garage; when we feel ready to manage the contents ourselves, we will pick up what we have left.” 14 In experiencing the cross-gender amplification and the dissonance of gender roles, the participants in this study may experience more awareness of what has been deposited with others and want to manage these parts themselves.
Interpretations
The primary claim of this learning is: The contrasexual performance and experience brings to awareness the limiting aspects of gender roles, leading either to further personal insight or increased rigidity resulting from defensive processes. As cross-gender acts were witnessed and performed, participants became increasingly aware of misunderstandings that gender roles can create, and the hurtfulness they often impart.
Participants’ own cross-gender imagery in the second day’s visualization offered them a further opportunity for insight into the other-sexed body and experience.
The cross-gender role-plays brought the participants to laughter, as Barb pointed out. It added levity and an awareness of what the other gender experiences, from an inside perspective, through an imaginal approach. It also seemed to create a defensive stance in several instances. Although there were degrees of insight experienced by participants in their cross-gender performances, there were also beliefs defended by participants when they wanted to justify their familiar gender role. Matt expressed this in his defense of men, demonstrating the attachment to gender was still vital for him. When he wrote about two of the cross-gender role-plays, Matt seemed to reinforce current
165 beliefs; he first questioned if women could put their need to discuss feelings aside, though he thought men could stretch to discuss feelings if they had to. Then he continued in his journaling, answering his own question, stating that it might be more difficult for women to compromise than men.
Matt then wrote about the next contrasexual role-play that depicted an overconfident man, with the thought that girls have even more insecurities than boys do.
It seemed that Matt took on defending men after these two role-plays. In considering whether women were capable of negotiating their discussion of feelings, Matt lacked reflexivity. He seemed to want a familiar conclusion to his question. It is interesting to note that in journaling about both of these role-plays, Matt journaled with less reflexivity after the contrasexual, or cross-gender role-plays than he demonstrated when he visualized himself as the other sex in the second cross-gender visualization and Authentic
Movement activities. The amplification of the male stereotype in the cross-gender role-plays seemed to reinforce Matt’s imaginal structures rather then loosen them. When
Matt encountered internal images of fear as a woman possibly meeting sexual predators in public, and not feeling safe, he demonstrated insight and reflexive participation, and expressed empathy for women. The contrasexual practice did fertilize the emerging capacity.
The cross-gendered activities focused participants on details of contrasexuality, whether as a female or male, that they may never have experienced or discussed. Kay said she felt more freedom visualizing herself as a boy and more relief by playing a male.
Several women expressed that as boys they did not have to worry about their dress and expressed relief. Rob said that as a girl he felt looked down upon. To put themselves in
166 the other gender’s position and enact those behaviors, participants experienced further understanding of the Western gender myth’s impact and limits.
Kay’s intense experience visualizing herself as her brother in sixth grade was one of her key moments from the study. To visualize herself as male, having a different career goal, feeling more pressure to make money, and yet feel the benefit of more appreciation by her parents, all provided contrasexual practice and insight. The participants’ contrasexual images of negative and positive implications opened the door for further insights into specific gender myths and entailed reflexive participation in recognizing them, and not shrinking from the experiences.
The participants were all able to practice the contrasexual roles, which supports increase in their sensitivity to that part of themselves and the other gender. In several instances participants could see they had misjudged the other gender, felt empathy for them, and recognized some of their own behaviors. Through memories of childhood androgynous play and behaviors in the first research meeting, and the cross-gender activities in the second meeting, participants accessed more of their contrasexuality.
Validity
Overall, the level of reflexivity demonstrated by the participants as well as the self-examination of my own experience contributes to a strong accounting for the intersubjective field relative to this learning. The theoretical concepts that were identified in the literature as well as the participants’ authenticity also support the validity.
The activities focusing on cross-gender roles seemed to contrast well with the familiar experiences and images of one’s own gender. There were insights from both
167 witnessing the amplification of these roles as well as in performing and visualizing them.
The images, feelings, and experiences expressed in discussion, journaling, and in the closing questionnaire all support validity of this learning. Participants’ recognition of limits in traditional gender roles and the freedoms in accessing contrasexual resources showed a good degree of reflexivity. This reflexive capacity supported increased insight for the other gender’s experience, as cultural roles became clearer through the participants’ engagement in the activities. During the experiences of the study, participants were able to interact and respond reflexively to the unconscious contrasexual images as they emerged. There were also gender performances that were defended, pointing to the attachment of a role that likely still held meaning.
Learning Four: The Gatekeeper at the Threshold
The primary claim of this learning follows: Through gatekeeping dynamics, unfamiliar movement and stances are restricted as they threaten to dislodge familiar and gender adaptive patterns. The Learning here describes the hold on participants’ psyches and bodies. The dynamics of gatekeeping restrict unfamiliar patterns of movement.
Personified, the gatekeeper threatens, cajoles, or argues to maintain the adaptive identity when an individual begins to think or move beyond it.15
What Happened
For all three cross-gender research study activities, participants were asked to stretch the roles they usually enact in their daily lives. Authentic Movement and the cross-gender guided visualization were the last two group activities before participants
168 completed the Closing Journal Questionnaire; the second half of the cross-gender visualization is addressed for this learning, along with the Authentic Movement and
Closing Journal activities. Participants were invited to embody their own assigned gender for the beginning and ending phases of the Authentic Movement activity. They were invited to embody the cross-gender in the middle phase of Authentic Movement in the afternoon of the second research meeting.
Authentic Movement is an activity that lends itself to an imaginal approach because of internal experiences and images which facilitate movements. Participants were told that the activity would be performed predominantly nonverbally with eyes closed, and that I would be witnessing the movements they expressed. They were asked to center themselves in a comfortable stance, sitting, or lying on the floor, close their eyes or choose a loose blindfold, and feel into any internal desire or impulse for movement within their bodies. They were guided to ignore any thoughts in their head instructing them they should move, but to allow the internal promptings in their body to direct their movements. During the first phase participants were asked only to move as their bodies led them in expressing and embracing the gender that matched their sexual anatomy.
After the first phase of Authentic Movement, Ellen expressed that she could not move though she added, “I did have an image of myself cradling a baby.” She appeared surprised by this and shared that she had made the choice long ago not to have children.
Ellen said that she was glad for her decision but she acknowledged that she understood the “biological heritage.” Kay said that she also had the sensation of swaying and holding a baby after this phase of the activity. She demonstrated the holding position as she expressed that she felt like transitioning into meditation rather than movement. Matt said
169 that if there was a more general instruction about moving first followed by direction about exploring the gender of their body that might have worked better for him. Rob said that he did not want to move as a stereotypical male. Gwen felt the sensation of warmth in this first phase of Authentic Movement.
All but two participants expressed their difficulty in moving during the first phase of this activity. The plan for Authentic Movement was then improvised to provide additional instruction after a lunch break. The second phase seemed to create more internal experience than movement once again, with participants discussing this afterward.
After the second attempt of the first phase of Authentic Movement, Gwen spoke about the imagery of a ballet and noticed the different roles for the female and the male.
She said it was like a role reversal with the man being supportive of the female ballerina in the dance. Then she recalled an image of her friend doing modern dance, which she said she envies, since it has been emotionally healing for her friend. Gwen said she could not move that way because it is not a comfortable way of expressing herself.
I then asked participants to begin feeling into their bodies as the other sex in the next phase of Authentic Movement. I again directed them to follow internal impulses to move as the other gender. After this phase ended, Amy said she felt she had more
“permission to rejuvenate; as a man I would give myself more respect to my needs for resting,” without the guilt. Gwen shared she started out relaxed, and then every time she thought of moving as the other gender she felt tense. She realized she was getting tense, then would relax, and then tense up again. Ellen said she had the sensation of strength and felt her muscles flexing. Rob stood up during this phase of the activity and made the
170 gesture of a circle. He journaled after the activity that he had made a sign of the world and felt that represented the female giving birth.
Several participants wrote of sensations or experiences in their physical bodies when they tried on the other gender in the Authentic Movement. Kay wrote that she felt a significance in how strong and sure she felt of herself in the images and memories that arose in this activity. She did not expect to experience this. She felt a heaviness and weight in the cross-gender phase of it.
Barb told the group, and demonstrated at the same time, that she took on a
“determined grimace,” felt heaviness and a sense of being rooted; she had images of pushing and pulling, and her heart center felt more “contracted and protected by my upper body and thigh/muscles.” Barb said she felt as if she were crouching, and felt,
“defensive . . . (and need for) protecting the center of my body.” She wrote that she sensed sounds of grunting, growling, defending, and being ready for heavy actions. “I felt more gorilla-like and hard externally and closed internally. I did not feel free,” she journaled after the activity.
Matt said he was glad to hear Barb talk about crouching since long ago the fighters and hunters needed to crouch; he added, “that’s one side that is really deep inside of our genes.” He told the group he thought males could allow that in themselves and realize, “there are two opposite sides of the spectrum in me.” After the cross-gender
Authentic Movement activity Matt expressed that he had felt a merging of “a woman’s body parts into mine.” Amy shared that her image from this phase of the activity felt personal. Barb nodded in agreement as if hers was as well, and added that she has lived
171 alone and has needed to bring that strong, more contracted part out to feel safe as a woman.
In order to transition toward closing the Authentic Movement activity I asked participants to physically express a gesture along with a word or phrase to describe a sense of their own gender arising out of their bodies: Rob offered the word, “Unity,” Matt said, “A roar of the warrior,” Barb said, “Love,” Kay provided the word, “Nurturing,”
Ellen stated, “Beauty,” Gwen said, “Silence,” and Amy stated, “The image of Namaste was giving respect to myself–honoring my being.”
The cross-gender guided visualization then followed the phases of Authentic
Movement as indicated in Learning Three. To reiterate here, participants were first guided into relaxation. They were then guided back in time to imagine themselves being born as the other gender on through their development into adulthood; then they were invited to project themselves into the future as this other gender and experience what life would be like in thirty years.
Ellen wrote, after the visualization, that she imagined a future where there was understanding between the sexes and there was no longer a need to play roles. Barb wrote, “I imagined fewer differences across the board. Greater understanding, acceptance of differences, fewer gender expectations. Intentional communities of all people to benefit all people.” Barb explained to the group that she saw women and men dressing for comfort with the sexes dressed more alike; women were open to feeling strong and safe, while men were open to feelings of warmth. People were also less judgmental and life seemed more peaceful. Matt wrote that he saw people not needing to play roles any longer in the future and that the sexes had a better understanding between them.
172 Amy both shared with the group and journaled after the cross-gender visualization that she did not see a difference between men and women in the future, that there was no fear about emotional or sexual needs being met, and that people worked at what it is they wanted to do for their livelihood.
Kay expressed that her images of future careers were based on desire and talent rather than on gender. She saw physical statures only making a difference when it came to the height of the person. Kay imagined there would be unisex clothing in the future, and much more ease in friendships without concern about a person’s gender. After the cross-gender visualization, Rob wrote that he saw himself in the future, “As a strong intelligent woman who is self-sufficient.” He saw people treat him simply as a human being and with respect.
The closing questionnaire was handed out for each participant to complete after discussion of the guided visualization. There were several questions regarding how to complete the questionnaire. There was a sense of confusion in the room. Several participants asked whether to answer from their own gender, or the alternate one; their was laughter in the room as participants seemed to realize they were reorienting themselves back and had become confused in the switching back and forth of gender roles.
How I Was Affected
I felt frustrated when the initial Authentic Movement activity seemed ineffective in providing any movement. I then improvised in an attempt to provide additional time for the Authentic Movement so that more learning might come from this activity. I felt
173 that I had misjudged what it would take for individuals who were foreign to this
movement activity to be comfortable enough to participate. My enthusiasm for Authentic
Movement colored my view of how much preparation strangers to it might need. It
seemed that the activity was just too much of a stretch for most of them and I did not
know how else to move them into a more comfortable approach to the movement.
I had hopes that the cross-gender guided visualization which followed would provide rich learning. I also had expectations from the start that this visualization activity
would provide the most fertile imagery. All activities led up to this one in my
conceptualization of how the study would unfold. However, I soon discovered that
participants were getting weary. Several participants said they had fallen asleep after the
second visualization ended. I felt a bit of horror wondering how this could be. I was then
somewhat heartened when participants began to offer what did take place for them in the
guided visualization.
I was disappointed about the difficulty that participants had in viewing gender in
society’s future generations. I felt appreciative, however, that participants engaged as
much as they did in this topic, particularly given the length of time it took me to recruit
them; and yet I felt I overlooked the intensity of the day’s activities. Despite all these
feelings, I needed to go on to facilitate the closing questionnaire and closing circle
activities, so my experience was set aside temporarily; after all, the study was coming to
a close and I did have learnings. I was sure of this.
Looking back at the mixture of feelings and combing through my learnings, I feel
I missed out on cultivating a way for participants to fully reimagine gender in the future;
perhaps gender does not need to be reimagined when there is a willingness to see beyond
174 it. With hindsight, I would pace the day differently. In the end, the images that surfaced
are good enough and I am thankful for what did arise in participants.
Imaginal Structures
The part of me that assumes that others understand me and my way met head-on
with the error of this thinking when participants did not seem to understand and seemed
to resist attempts to move during the first phase of the Authentic Movement. I remember
sensing a halting in myself, and then not knowing what to do when most participants
voiced they did not feel an urge to move. Something shifted as I realized I could be more
flexible, that I could approach the activity in yet a broader way, given the feedback that I
was receiving from the participants. The kinesthetic or haptic way of knowing, feeling,
and experiencing was obviously not comfortable, or accessible to most participants.
Initially after the first phase of the movement activity, I felt that my plan was obviously
flawed and not providing sufficient imagery and learning. I gathered my thoughts over a
solitary lunch, integrated feedback from the participants, and felt refreshed to proceed
and try again.
Theoretical Concepts
Woodman writes about finding “how much energy has been caged” in her
workshops focusing on the body.16 She states that the energy, like unconscious emotion
that is surfacing, “reacts like an animal,” and she advises not accepting it fully even
though it brings great relief initially.17 She likens it to shadow energy which can be dangerous if not integrated. She points out that integration takes place through the
175 chewing and the digesting. She states, the conscious ego needs to recognize the energy
emerging and allow the instincts to be transformed as “symbolized by the Wisdom of
Sophia.” 18 Woodman views Sophia as the center of feminine wisdom, and as “an
emerging archetypal pattern, not yet fully conscious, that is bringing to our Western
culture a new understanding.” Woodman views masculine wisdom as the collective and
accessible institutionalized wisdom.19
Sager views “movement and image as somato-imaginal because of the degree to which production of the image is indebted to awareness of the body.” 20 She states that
the impulse to move in Authentic Movement is like the seed which has the end within
itself, and the entelechy of the symbolic seed, or impulse, can only be grasped through
the embrace of the paradoxical part/whole polarity, or the self/other paradox.
Ponce writes that images affect the human body and that human consciousness
relies on the body.21 He states that the somatic base is needed simply to be awake, aware, and to attend for humans to construct meaning. Conger states that humans “need movements that help us feel whole, that identify our left and right sides and help us sort out our inside response from outside expectation.” 22
Omer’s definition of gatekeeping “refers to the individual and collective dynamics
that resist and restrict experience. The term gatekeepers refer to the personification of
these dynamics. Cultural gatekeepers restrict experience; cultural leaders catalyze the
deepening and diversification of experience.” 23 The resistance or hesitations expressed
in the initial Authentic Movement activity, and possibly on into the cross-gender guided
visualization, may have occurred from participants encountering the cultural gatekeepers.
176 The cultural gatekeepers may have been at the threshold where attempts were made by participants, some being successful, to stretch beyond familiar movement and experience.
Interpretations
The fourth learning proposes that through gatekeeping dynamics, unfamiliar movement and stances are restricted as they threaten to dislodge familiar and gender adaptive patterns. Participants appeared to be confused even after my repeating directions and introducing the Authentic Movement several times. It may be that the activity seemed to be too foreign for them to comprehend, though perhaps bodily movement was not activated because internal imagery captured their focus.
Participants seemed weary during the mid-afternoon sessions which took place right after lunch. The room had been darkened again for more of the Authentic
Movement activity. Participants seemed to have difficulty understanding directions for the activity and asked many questions before they engaged in the first phase of the
Authentic Movement activity again.
Repetition of the first phase of Authentic Movement seemed to loosen rigidity, however slightly, so that participants engaged in what seemed to them a foreign activity.
Internal resistance and gatekeeping dynamics may have created internal barriers which caused participants to hesitate. However, suggestions to feel internal impulses to move according to their gender identity and their physical anatomy did evoke internal experiences that participants were later able to articulate. Participants accessed internal imagery that they expressed during the discussion afterward and in their journaling. One woman did physically engage her body because of her comfort and familiarity with
177 movement activities. Kay and Ellen both expressed their experiences of swaying or
rocking an infant, which is an archetypal, nurturing feminine gesture.
The cross-gender phase of Authentic Movement provided a depth of imagery,
again without participants becoming physically very active. Barb’s imagery and sensing
of her crouching, grunting, and feeling like a gorilla, and Matt’s internal merging of a
woman’s body parts with his, both expressed archetypal knowledge deep within their
bodies. Two people also spoke of the imagery feeling personal to them, indicative of the
experience touching a sensitive and/or a more private area.
Earlier in the day, at the end of the previous cross-gender role-plays, participants
had some confusion before they began journaling. Several individuals wanted to know if
they should journal from the other gender they had just tried on for the role-plays, or if they should journal as themselves. This also occurred after the last guided visualization
when participants were handed the closing journal questionnaire. Participants giggled about the confusion. There seemed to be a cognitive dissonance when they moved from
their gender to the alternate gender and back again throughout the second day’s session.
It is plausible that even the familiar gender they inhabit and play out in their daily lives,
was difficult to hone in on after the previous activity of cross-gender role-plays and the
confusion that arose in the journaling. This unsettling shift can create both disorientation
and an opening. The intent of the study was for a shift or dislodging to take place in
images no longer supporting new development in the participants’ lives thereby
beginning to free them of imaginal structures, as gatekeepers, that act to maintain the status quo.
178 Images of the future from the second guided visualization consisted of either no differences between women and men in dress, work, or behaviors, or much less difference than now, with more understanding between women and men and more acceptance and respect of others in general. These images seemed to be limited to hopes for the future, and as the researcher, I wonder if participants were too weary at this point to fully immerse themselves into the cross-gender guided visualization. I wonder if they could have more easily accessed future images of roles women and men carry out if they were more rested, or if they were imagining this from their own gender role. Perhaps gatekeeping dynamics were at work blocking the threshold to the unknown in order to prevent further change in the status quo.
It may be possible that I am overlooking the point that the role-playing of both the feminine and masculine from various positions, as well as the visualization where contrasexual images emerged, provided a moment of going beyond specific and rigid gender roles so that the concept of gender became beside the point and not viable in that moment. The earlier resistance to movement may have entered the cross-gender guided visualization as resistance to crossing a foreign threshold, one that also held the possibility of change and the stretching of capacities. Change in gendered identity and stretching beyond gender into a range of contrasexual resources may have seemed overwhelming to the body and adapted identity structures for participants. With the depth of internal imagery that was evoked and articulated however, participants noted their own experiences of stretching beyond gender roles, recognizing both femininity and masculinity residing in themselves.
179 Validity
The authenticity and depth of experiential sharing demonstrated by the
participants created an intersubjective field that clearly provided validity congruent with
the participatory paradigm. The participants discussed and journaled their images and
experiences in the Authentic Movement activity even when I, as the researcher, did not
notice that what occurred for them was more of an internal experience without
movement. After the cross-gender guided visualization participants acknowledged they
had both gender capacities which are usually seen conceptualized as either/or, rather than
both. They also discussed changes they visualized for the future and documented them
through journaling.
Gatekeeping dynamics act as barriers to the status quo changing. The experiential
activities of Authentic Movement and the cross-gender guided visualization directed
participants to stretch past their culturally assigned embodiment of gender. Participants embodied the cross-gender internally, at least temporarily, as evidenced by their discussions and journaling. Participants’ hesitations alluded to gatekeeping dynamics being activated in them as they engaged in these activities. Additionally, once again, the literature further supports the validity of this learning.
Conclusion
Through amplification of the Western gender roles, with performances and guided visualizations of traditional gender and cross-gender roles, contrasexual images emerged and participants became increasingly aware of their own internal other. The Research
Problem asks, what new images, experiences, and insights arise when women and men
180 imagine and practice contrasexual gender performances and expressions that are outside
of traditional gender roles? Answers to this question unfolded through discussions,
journaling, and participants’ closing questionnaires, as delineated in the four learnings.
The participants were surprised by some images, particularly when engaged in contrasexual activities; however, only three participants wrote that they experienced some kind of epiphany. (In hindsight the term insight may have been more appropriate to use in the closing questionnaire.) Gwen wrote that she realized she did not fit the typical female role as her epiphany. Matt wrote that he realized that problems between the genders are actually “fixable.” Amy wrote that she now realizes men do have feelings and they work at suppressing them to maintain their image of being a man. Though small, these statements seem to indicate realizations that participants had not considered previously.
The hypothesis for this study was that imagining and practicing contrasexual performances will encourage a beginning awareness of contrasexual aspects, projections, and a reimagining of gender for the future. It seems clear now that just by practicing contrasexual performances at all, individuals are stepping into new ways of experiencing.
The new experiences developed awareness through the willingness and creative action of imagining and portraying other possibilities that emerged. The reclaiming of projections was subtle when it was discussed or journaled, as participants noticed previously unconscious behaviors or feelings; it is often subtle when unconscious material surfaces.
While the reimagination of gender was not as clear as I had expected, participants were able to discuss and journal about what they did imagine might be different in the future. The reimagination of gender may have taken shape as a going beyond gender
181 conceptions, rather than reconceptualizing or reimagining it. Support for this can be
viewed as participants experiencing contrasexuality through the experiential activities,
forgetting or being confused about which role they were to write their experiences from
(both in journaling and completing the closing questionnaire), and seeing less distinction
in the future regarding gender, possibly leaving gender images behind as no longer vital.
The first of the four learnings entailed recognition of cultural gender roles. The
primary claim is that childhood gender identity develops through selective identification
with positive aspects of both genders and disidentification from limiting aspects, in an
atmosphere of sufficient parental support, despite cultural expectations and stereotypes.
The second learning highlights the affective responses that took place when
individuals participated in experiential activities with gender development as the focus.
The primary claim of the second learning is that the expression and amplification of
stereotypical gender roles evokes disgust, anger, sadness, and surprise for both genders
and assists in disidentification, and withdrawal of projections. Both Matt and Barb
acknowledged that they saw examples of how they have behaved, demonstrated in a
couple of stereotypic role-plays. Participants also felt surprised, along with other affects, in response to the recognition of their own range of internal imagery and resources.
The primary claim of the third learning is that the contrasexual performance and experience brings to awareness the limiting aspects of gender roles, leading either to further personal insight or increased rigidity resulting from defensive processes. As
discussed, all of the participants in this study journaled about their own experience of the
internal other after engaging in contrasexual activities; several expressed empathy for the
other gender as well.
182 A personal learning for the researcher is that participants accepted the gender constructed for them by society as good enough, along with the limits and expectations of
that role. Yet at times, they were still able to disidentify from the gender role expectations
through androgynous and contrasexual actions and sufficiently resolve tensions from the
dissonance. In this regard, it appears that family support was significant for the particular
participants in the study. The participants’ early developmental support may have
contributed to their extending support to others in the intersubjective field which
developed through engagement particularly in the cross-gender activities.
The last of the four learnings concludes by discussing the difficulties inherent in
change. The primary claim of this learning is that through gatekeeping dynamics,
unfamiliar movement and stances are restricted as they threaten to dislodge familiar and
gender adaptive patterns. Facilitating awareness of gatekeeping dynamics may offer
individuals more reflexivity in adaptive identity patterns.
The participants in this study arrived at the first meeting already having accepted
society’s norms and expectations as good enough to perform the gender they were
assigned at birth. They engaged in activities that included amplifying both familiar and
cross-gender roles through role-plays, guided visualizations, Authentic Movement,
journaling, and discussing these experiences as well as their own developmental histories.
The experiential activities assisted participants in recognizing limits in gender roles,
provided increased insight into the cultural gender myth, and a degree of insight into their
own projections. The imaginal approaches and exploration assisted participants in the
beginnings of assimilating the internal other, and increased contrasexual and reflexive
capacities supportive of seeing beyond conceptions of gender.
183
CHAPTER 5
REFLECTIONS
Introduction
The intent of this chapter is to reflect upon mythic and archetypal dimensions of this study, and to consider the significance and various implications of the research learnings. The study’s significant learnings and the research problem and hypothesis will be restated first. Then the discrepancies that surfaced between the learnings and the research problem will be explored.
The mythic and archetypal reflections will address the following: the Narcissus myth, the myth of Persephone and Demeter, and the Rosarium woodcut illustrations.
Stories and visual portrayals can lend additional imagery and elucidate aspects of the learnings from different perspectives.
Following the discussion of myth, possible impacts the study may have on various individuals, ways of learning, institutions, and culture will be addressed. The discussions are contained in the following sections: Personal Implications of Learnings, Implications for Research Participants, Implications for Psychology, Implications for the Orientation of Imaginal Psychology, Implications for the Institution of Marriage, and Implications for
Contemporary Culture. The Conclusion consists of final reflections.
184 Significance of Learnings
The significant learnings in the current study are discussed for further
contemplation and reflection on their meanings. The Cumulative Learning begins the
discussion with the four major learnings restated to refresh the reader’s memory of them.
The Cumulative Learning in this Imaginal Inquiry reveals that early, good-enough family support for developing both feminine and masculine capacities allows an individual to explore contrasexuality throughout their lifetime without severe and restrictive gatekeeping dynamics, and enables the individual to digest discrepancies between social expectations related to gender performance and the individual’s core identity. Embodying and visualizing cross-gender experience enhances empathy both toward others and the internal other and supports the withdrawal of projections and the increase in capacities.
The first of the four learnings indicates that even though an individual’s culture and subculture may enforce traditional gender roles, good-enough early support assists the individual in choosing what works for him or her and what does not; societal pressures can be coped with so that any gender conflict is cushioned by the good-enough environment of the individual’s family of origin. Other good-enough holding environments may also assist in contributing this support. The primary claim follows:
Childhood gender identity develops through selective identification with positive aspects of both genders and disidentification from limiting aspects, in an atmosphere of sufficient parental support, despite cultural expectations and stereotypes.
The second learning evoked a variety of emotions that surfaced through witnessing and expressing gender stereotype behaviors and feelings. The amplification of
185 the roles performed assisted participants in feeling empathy, which aided in withdrawing
projections. The second learning’s primary claim was: The expression and amplification
of stereotypical gender roles evokes disgust, anger, sadness, and surprise for both genders
and assists in disidentification, and withdrawal of projections.
The third learning found that either insight or rigidity occurred as a result of
cross-gender rehearsals and visualization. Through witnessing and identifying with the
other gender in cross-gender activities, all participants saw, to some extent, inherent harm
and limitations in gender roles. There was also evidence of a defensive stance being taken
in response to the amplification of roles. The third learning’s primary claim was: The
contrasexual performance and experience brings to awareness the limiting aspects of
gender roles, leading either to further personal insight or increased rigidity resulting from defensive processes.
The Authentic Movement activity seemed to uncover long-held armoring that participants have carried in their bodies. Participants voiced being uncomfortable with movement and being uncertain how to move when they were directed to follow their own inner promptings. The primary claim of the last of the four learnings was: Through gatekeeping dynamics, unfamiliar movement and stances are restricted as they threaten to dislodge familiar and gender adaptive patterns.
Research Problem, Hypothesis, and Discrepancies
The Research Problem was the frame that guided the activities chosen for the
study and has been answered, as well as the Research Hypothesis being substantiated by
the learnings through participants’ stories, their discussions, their journaling, and their
186 completion of the closing journal questionnaire. The Cumulative Learning above points to options for increasing contrasexual awareness and capacities within individuals.
Parents and significant adults in a child’s life can support behaviors beyond traditional gender roles; the support enables the developing child to cope with discrepant expectations by society. Practices of embodying what is considered to be cross-gender behaviors can provide the child, teen, or adult with increased flexibility and freedom in their behaviors, assist in developing empathy, and assist in withdrawing judgments about others and themselves.
The Research Problem was stated in the question: What new images, experiences, and insights arise when women and men imagine and practice contrasexual gender performances and expressions that are outside of traditional gender roles? The Research
Hypothesis was: Imagining and practicing contrasexual performances will encourage a beginning awareness of contrasexual aspects, gender projections, and a re-imagining of gender for the future.
The experiential activities did encourage the participants’ awareness of contrasexuality; participants did not name projections as such, though there were several instances where participants recognized the stereotypic dimension of their interactions and behaviors in the contrasexual role-plays.
In the current study I did not find participants who had wrestled with gender in their development to the degree I had experienced it. Perhaps this was due to the good-enough parenting they received; I experienced this learning as bittersweet in relation to my own gender history.
187 The participants did surprise me in their capacities to open to cross-gender images. I do wonder what the learnings would have been if I had drawn heterosexual participants to the study who had struggled in their development of gender without adequate support. A gap remains in the research in this regard. As cited earlier, Rees addressed the struggle with gender identity in her dissertation on Female Masculinity
with nonconforming lesbian participants, which may begin to answer the questions
remaining for me in the learnings from the current study.1
In retrospect, the reimagining of gender seems to be a contradictory phrase, given some aspects of the learnings’ interpretations. Participants did visualize more equality, less distinction, and more relaxation between the sexes in the future; however, there is the possibility that rather than re-imagining gender, there was a going beyond or transcendence of gender that other researchers have put forth.2
Research Problem Revisited
Images that emerged in the participants’ visualization of the future were not
gender specific in dress, friends, or work. The clothing was viewed as more unisex with
friends’ gender being insignificant. Other images or feelings consisted of more respect
between people, with less judgment, as well as more calm and peacefulness; careers were
based on talent rather than gender, and there was a lack of fear about physical and
emotional needs being met.
The Research Problem called for new imagery and experiences from participants
who engaged in the study’s experiential activities. The new imagery was found in
participants’ recognition that they housed, in their own physical bodies, the contrasexual,
188 the internal other, the cross-gender, or other sex (the last two terms being the terminology they knew and used). As the researcher, I was surprised that more future images were not offered. It seems that participants’ weariness from the days’ activities may have drained sufficient energy to fully engage in the last guided visualization. Perhaps participants’ opening to the contrasexuality within themselves required some assimilation before they could project themselves more fully into viewing the future.
The individuals who did participate were not drawn to the study out of frustrations or feelings of gender restrictions–as initially anticipated by the researcher.
The call to explore gender did not seem to recruit participants as much as curiosity; I had intended to draw participants who had more of a struggle with the gender role they were assigned at birth.
When individuals experience blatant restriction of their own behaviors–those behaviors that trespass on gender sanctions in Western heterosexist society–there may be a stronger desire to explore what lies behind the cultural sanctions. For those individuals who have not experienced a good-enough holding environment, or do not feel acceptance from society, they may not cope with restrictive admonitions successfully; there may then be a stronger desire and drive not only to explore gender, but to somehow contribute to changing societal gender roles. An example of this would be the advocates of same-sex marriage in California in the 2008 election; many of those advocates were in heterosexual relationships but seemed to understand that a change in concepts of equality was necessary for gay or lesbian couples who want to marry.
Participants in the current study did have good-enough support in their family of origin and they experienced support for early androgynous experience. They all appeared
189 to define themselves as heterosexual; at least two prospective participants defined
themselves as other than heterosexual, though personal obligations prevented them from
participating in the study. It may be that individuals who have felt harsh gender
restrictions in their lives have reached out and gone beyond merely exploring gender; the
topic of exploring gender was advertised in flyers for the current study and may not have
had a strong enough appeal for those who have reached beyond an initial exploration of gender roles already. As the researcher, I wanted to tap into the experience of individuals who had wrestled with their identity in gender development, and I wanted participants from the community at large.
The emotions that arose in the research meetings did appear to signal a developing increase in the awareness of gender restrictions, judging by what the participants journaled and verbally shared. The intent of the study was to re-imagine possible options and images for the future, which could mean a transcendence of gender roles; the learnings point to an increasing consciousness of gender limitations and contrasexual freedoms which piqued participants’ interest through the research meeting activities and included a range of affects in their responses to them. The experiences ranged from participants’ defending current views to opening to the contrasexuality in themselves and others. The opening to contrasexuality was the predominant response.
Mythical and Archetypal Reflections
The cross-gendered images that surfaced for participants in the study provided glimpses of the imaginal terrain where individuals can acquaint themselves with the contrasexual archetype. The territory in myth and the personification of archetypes,
190 addressed next, can depict the nuances in contrasexuality, provide clarity in narrative
form, and invite a reader to enter a more reflexive domain. A brief glimpse at the
Narcissus myth followed by the myth of Persephone, and a brief assessment of the
Rosarium Woodcuts are addressed to illuminate the value one can find in committing to
the process of individuation and becoming aware of one’s own contrasexuality.
In the myth of Narcissus, the river god Cephisus rapes a nymph. The nymph
subsequently gives birth to Narcissus. The river god is viewed as an overwhelming
masculine figure who overpowers the smaller feminine image.3 Schwartz-Salant likens
the powerful male image to the patriarchy, which acts in both men and women to crush
the feminine, knowing that the feminine is critical for the formation of identity.
Schwartz-Salant writes that the unconscious patriarchal power was previously projected
onto religious figures. He states that men now continue this projection, with chauvinist
attitudes, to defend against the patriarchal power through identification and an unconscious hatred of the feminine.4 There is a danger for men in identifying with the
patriarchy. As previously mentioned, Jung cautioned that one needs to beware of
identifying with the images of the unconscious; one needs to relate to these images and
not identify with them, because identifying with the images creates inflation and a
regressive fusion.5 The similarity between identifying with the unconscious patriarchal
power and identifying with one’s abuser in order to tolerate the psychic pain is striking.
Schwartz-Salant views women as identifying with the nymph in defending against the patriarchal powers, through a masochistic agreement meant to ward off the intrusiveness of patriarchy. The regression for women is to identify as a victim, a helpless mate to the masculine power of the patriarchal ruler. Women can also opt to identify with
191 the patriarchal powers by thinking and living at a whirlwind and driven pace which is
common in the United States at the present time. Schwartz-Salant states that women and
men both need to work to raise awareness of their complicity in valuing the patriarchal
action of doing over the almost absent being of the feminine.6
Tanya Wilkinson writes about the myth of Persephone.7 She sees Persephone as
the archetype of the naive young woman, or Kore (maiden in Greek); her name provides
no distinction from other young women also called maidens. The distinction and
development in her character come about through an initiation that parallels her emerging individuation from the status as a maiden.8
Wilkinson portrays Demeter as a powerful Greek deity, and the mother of Kore in
this story. One day Kore was enjoying herself and stopped to pick a flower, a narcissus,
when she was abruptly pulled down into an abyss by Hades, the ruler of the Underworld who people feared. Even though Hades was often seen as a kind god, he was so feared that people did not dare to speak the truth about him and had to avert their gaze when they offered sacrifices to the underworld where he reigned. The people did not want to invoke his wrath because he was known to make things invisible, or vanish. Hades, himself, was rarely seen.9
According to Wilkinson, when Demeter discovered her daughter had vanished,
she searched far and wide for her.10 In one version of the myth, another goddess, Hecate, gave a clue to Demeter which revealed what happened to her daughter; in another version of the myth, Hecate put something into a well that rose in the water for Demeter to see and recognize what had happened. Baubo, the dancing goddess, is also a character in this
myth who was able to bring humor to Demeter when she was in need of it by dancing for
192 her, telling her jokes, and baring her belly and womanliness. She provided the necessary
energy for Demeter through her jovial humor. Demeter visited Zeus to ask for his help in
getting Kore released from Hades once she realized he knew her whereabouts. Zeus
relented after Demeter, as an expression of her wrath and grief, caused the land to
become barren. Kore was finally released from the underworld; as she left Hades realm,
she either ate a few pomegranate seeds willingly, or Hades tricked her into ingesting one,
depending on the version of the story.11
Wilkinson states that as the seeds were eaten and digested, Kore was transformed
by their assimilation and took on the consciousness of Persephone.12 This was an act of
transmutation, when aspects of the unconscious surface and are digested resulting in a
new state of identity. The seeds must be eaten and digested for the new understanding
that has been suppressed in the unconscious or underworld to emerge. As Persephone
returns from the underworld and runs to embrace her mother, Demeter finds out that
Persephone ate pomegranate seeds and understands that Persephone will now have to
return to the underworld at times.13
Wilkinson evaluates James Frazer’s interpretation of Persephone’s descent and
ascent as simplistic in likening it to the cyclical nature of the seasons.14 She points out that the timing of when Persephone is in the Upper or Underworld in the stories does not
align with the seasons. Wilkinson views Persephone as a liminal figure that is missing in
a patriarchal order. Persephone opens the path to the underworld, the unconscious, and
thus connects Hades with the conscious, the upperworld. The consciousness of
Persephone wants to break down Zeus’ divisions and dualistic worldviews. In the myth of
Persephone, both Zeus and his brother Hades represent the hero persona; Zeus represents
193 the lighter aspects of the hero, and Hades symbolizes the dark aspects of it. Wilkinson
states that an adult who holds onto the hero persona minimizes their own and others’ pain
and betrayals, clings to the rational, the orderly, and the status quo, and takes on the
attitudes of Zeus. On the other hand, an identification with the dark aspects of the hero persona, as Hades, engages the person in unacknowledged descents and identification with the hero as the aggressor and the betrayer, in attempts to escape human vulnerabilities.
Wilkinson states that this myth belongs to both women and men as they relate in a patriarchal society with the archetypal pulls impacting them.15 The culture’s expectations
that young men should leave behind the support of their family of origin can be viewed as
both Zeus and Hades, personifying the patriarchal culture and pulling men into a place of
unconsciousness. Young men learn they must hold the responsibility of being successful,
and often for a new family as well. They bury longings for their family of origin, feelings
that are usually viewed as valid for women, but not men. Men are in Persephone’s
position with their contrasexual complex or anima, with patriarchal society representing
both Hades and his brother Zeus. As men and women unconsciously collude with the
patriarchal status quo and are held in the upperworld of Zeus, or are pulled and held
underneath, with Hades, the separation of the conscious and unconscious continues
without connection, without a way to mediate the tension between the two. According to
Wilkinson, Persephone symbolizes a connection of the conscious with the unconscious;
she is a metaphoric model of the process needed for living with inevitable loss,
destruction, and pain. Persephone also ascends and has life above ground with
consciousness of the full range of experiences in life.16
194 In Learning Two and Three of this study, the witnessing and performing of both stereotyped and cross-gender roles assisted participants in experiencing a range of emotions and recognizing both limitations and untapped resources in response to the role-play portrayals. There was also an initial movement by participants towards digesting the mirroring of their own gender behaviors. Although the participants were not young and naïve, as was Kore in the myth, they did witness more than what was comfortable at times. They did obtain glimpses of the edible seeds of the metaphoric pomegranate in a wide-range of images; they can opt to digest what became more conscious for them over time. When individuals become aware of gender role limits, as in
Learning Three, they have an opportunity to begin disengaging from them to develop more of their internal capacities. Like Persephone they may choose to be in contact with both the upperworld and the underworld, the conscious and the unconscious, and what lies between.
Demeter represents the good-enough parent as Learning One suggests is needed for the support of individuation in a young person. Persephone was not forsaken by her mother. Demeter mourned, became angry, found humor, and negotiated with Zeus in order to support Persephone’s life above ground again. Wilkinson states that loss necessitates these feelings be experienced, and not denied. She points to Western culture as having no means or processes for facilitating descents, returns, and the transformations that can occur through them. She proposes that the myth of Persephone be used as a metaphorical model for psychological development; she points out that the myth needs to be worked with, and the story needs to be repeated until there is a mediation of the split between the conscious upperworld and unconscious world below.17
195 The metaphoric journey of the work of individuation is also portrayed in the
Rosarium philosophorum that McClean and von Franz both consider in their writings.18
Other woodcuts and alchemical illustrations depict the individuation journey as well, such as Giovanni Battista Nazari, the 18 woodcuts of the Pandora Series, and the 10 Ox
Herding woodcuts from the Zen tradition.19
Jung viewed alchemy from a psychoanalytical perspective. Transmutation was a
psychological process and not just attempts at changing physical matter. The
psychological change consisted in taking destructive issues or conflicts and transmuting them into life-enhancing foci. Jung describes the individuation process and interprets the
meaning of key stages and symbols of alchemy in his Alchemical Studies. Von Franz,
Titus Burckhardt, and Stavis all write that Jung provided a means for individuals to look
inward. Jungian and archetypal psychology view alchemy as a science and an art which
contributes to clarifying the individual journey. Jung writes that the incest within the
Rosarium pictures of the king and queen “symbolizes union with one’s own being,”
poetically describing individuation.20
From a personal perspective, the rockiness of my early development with young
parents who struggled to become mature adults connects me with a hope I sense in the
Rosarium illustrations. The story portrayed there kindles a renewed hope in me for my
parents (and other distressed adults), and I sense that the good-enough parenting I longed
for is possible. I do understand that these good-enough parents are, or become,
contrasexual resources that act to support my individuation. With what I discovered from
Learning One in this study and in the Cumulative Learning, good-enough parenting may
be provided to children more often than I imagined or more than I received. Contrasexual
196 resources may not be rejected initially when a child is young when they are provided with
this quality of parenting. The support of contrasexual resources in a developing child
supports the child’s initial unfolding process of individuation.
Schwartz-Salant refers to the Rosarium illustration 10, as the “lesser coniunctio,” which represents the wholeness of a person in relating to another.21 He writes that the
coniunctio is a phenomenon that is beyond psychological projections and introjections.
The alchemical concern lies in the creation of the coniunctio, which is usually disowned
by collective life through the denial and fears of strong emotions and passion.22 Though
the Sacred Coniunctio is the ultimate goal of the journey, which is never literally
completed, there are less significant occurrences of transmutation and the transcendent
function at work. These less significant times of transformative experience seem integral to the process of increasing maturity and individuation. With the support of good-enough parenting in one’s early development, as in Learning One, it follows that a person’s core identity has more developed internal capacities. Schwartz-Salant states, that the Royal
Wedding of the queen and king is a numinous metaphor for the ever developing, sustaining, yet practically, mundane maturity acquired along one’s path of individuation.
Implications of the Study
This section considers ways in which this study’s learnings might affect particular groups and how they might assist in the disruption of restrictive gender roles. Learnings in the current study have implications in the following areas, which will be discussed below: personal implications for the research participants, for psychology, for the orientation of Imaginal Psychology, for educational institutions, for the institution of
197 marriage, and for contemporary culture. This section will end with a review of the recommended areas for future research.
Personal Implications of Learnings
Aside from the learnings in this academic and participatory research, the focusing on my own development of gender has provided a coming-to-terms with a very personal wounding that will now instruct me in my professional work world, as well as in my own personal life.
As I began to conclude the interpretations of the research learnings several months ago, I wrote that I was experiencing a phase of nigredo. Edinger likens the experience of the nigredo as entering the gate of blackness.23 Jung described it as a
descent into Hades.24 Marlin states that what is taking place in this blackness is the death
of an immature innocence.25 It is a part of the alchemical process of transformation,
described as a dark place where it seems that the usual coping skills are ineffective. From
the experience of living with the writing of the study, I wrote that I needed to integrate
the learnings so they did not dry out or remain elusive in my turning away from them; I
knew the digestion of the learnings could increase the accessibility of internal resources.
Presently, I am noticing the experience of digesting the learnings, however initial this
may be; there is a threshold I am becoming more familiar with in this particular phase of
my own individuation.
During my graduate studies at Meridian University, I felt both nourished and
challenged by a teacher’s invitation, inspired by a passage from Jung’s autobiography, to
notice what may be our “task of tasks.” 26 The phrase became a calling for Jung, an
198 unconscious pull toward meaning in his life, when he asked himself what myth he was
living. The phrase spoke to me and connected with an earlier challenge and memory of mine. I was an eleven-year-old girl laying back on a teeter-totter in the Midwest looking
up at the sky when the phrase “go west young man” seemed to have been shouted from
the sky above. I wondered if that phrase applied to me, as a girl. I did experience the
calling above as a task that I wanted to meet; I actually did go west, at twenty-one years
old. I garnered a relationship with a young man whom I married and who seemed willing
enough to follow my lead to the West. I also experienced the challenge of researching the
very heart of my wounding through this study as a calling and a task.
I grew up with a mother and father who seemed to be victims of gender
dichotomizing. My father felt too responsible for the family. My mother struggled with
finding rewarding work and seemed to experience shame and guilt about not enjoying
motherhood more, though she never stated this outright. Instead, she overemphasized the
gift of mothering, as though this sentiment would somehow dissuade her of how
unfulfilling it had become. I regret that my parents did not find support beyond their
gendered roles.
The phrase, the task of tasks, compels me to draw a parallel that emerges
internally when I notice one of the other meanings it holds for me. Raised very
religiously as a Seventh-day Adventist, I found the figure of Jesus as a strong supportive
friend through a troubled childhood. I learned as an adult that other faiths, such as new
thought beliefs in the Science of Mind or Unity Churches, view the figure of Jesus, or
Christ, as a symbol of a clear consciousness. The strength of clarity, sometimes referred
to as Truth, or Spiritual Law, is what the figure of Christ represented to me as a small
199 child when I felt I could not trust or believe in adults. With this background as an anchor
in my early formative years, the task of tasks took on Biblical proportions for me, as a
mythic story portraying the figure of Christ taking up the cross. It is the thing we must do
to fully engage our whole being in life. It is a call to do what is the most difficult, most
often creating life change without any assurance of how the change will affect daily
existence. The call to engage in the present study was a similar call to move forward, past
the threshold of my task of tasks, to research the early wounding I experienced in
developing an identity within the confines of gender roles.
The image of Jesus conjured up a very gentle man in my mind who, I learned, loved women in a very respectful manner. He was an androgynous man, who unlike the
punishing God I had learned about, seldom judged or exacted obedience. The figure of
Jesus offered sustenance. In Ponce’s writings on Jesus and his androgyne likeness, Ponce
raises the question of why there is not recognition of Jesus’ androgyny as an example of
individuation.27 Ponce states that humans have not yet developed a safe way to marry the opposites again.28 He writes that the androgyne exists in the imaginal, which is where
one must travel in order to meet with this archetypal consciousness.
My future professional life entails using the learnings from this study. I am
learning that a good-enough holding environment provides support for disidentifying
from gendered behaviors that do disservice to who I am. This reinforces the re-parenting of myself I have practiced for the past twenty years. I will be offering this knowing and good-enough support to others with whom I work therapeutically. The image of Gaia,
with the Wisdom of Sophia, provides the support within my home and my professional
200 environments along with my friends and colleagues; a new masculinity is also being
invited in to guide me as well as my clientele.
Implications of Learnings for Research Participants
Upon receiving a summary of the learnings in the mail, participants have had the
opportunity to re-experience the research meetings. Any integration of increased
capacities from their participation in the study, or activation of gender development
memories can provide another opportunity for participants to re-evaluate how they are
affected as they read the learnings. In the summary, I also invited participants to
remember the behaviors and feelings they expressed and experienced in the cross-gender
activities within the research meetings; the invitation served to remind participants of the
spectrum of images they witnessed and experienced so they could choose to access them
if they were so inclined. Ripple effects from the research activities and the Summary of
Learnings they receive can have a larger impact on participants than can be known. Even fleeting imagery and memory from their participatory experience can serve as reminders of the resources available to them.
Implications of Learnings for Psychology
The implications this study holds for the field of psychology will depend on those individuals or groups who read it. The study offers other modalities in how to implement
Imaginal Inquiry within a participatory and qualitative research paradigm. Others may choose options from the current study to use for their own methodology in Imaginal
Inquiry, and in qualitative research. The learnings may also inspire further research in
201 Jungian contrasexuality, in parenting, in gatekeeping dynamics involved in gender
development, or practices to assist in transcending gender role limitations.
Psychology has predominantly embraced logos, the masculine aspects of
knowledge, through experimental data falling within the positivist paradigm of
research.29 Norman Blaikie states that a positivist paradigm is based on the belief that
reality is what is in the external world, and that it can be integrated into social sciences
with what is often called the scientific method.30 Positivism is based on objectivity in
research, using numbers and statistics with the premise that nature is orderly and
predictable.31 The current study shows the relevance of other ways of conducting psychological research.
The learnings from this study indicate that the embodiment of gender stereotypes and cross-gender roles foreign to one’s own physical body in a structured format, as well as witnessing others perform these, allow individuals to better recognize their own behaviors and projections. When the format itself is foreign, such as in the Authentic
Movement activity, individuals who are not comfortable with creative movement experience are reticent to embody or express themselves fully. The gatekeeping dynamics, or internalized authoritative messages an individual experiences, may be a barrier to embodying foreign expression when the activities are not labeled as role-play or acting. Affective expressions and experiences in the research activities serve to remind professionals of the potency of any role-playing that embodies the topic of focus.
202 Implications of Learnings for the Orientation of Imaginal Psychology
The learnings in this research study add to the expanding orientation of Imaginal
Psychology and contribute to adding yet more validity to it. The methodology of
Evoking, Expressing, Interpreting, and Integrating experience in an Imaginal Inquiry
provides an imaginal framework for those who want to pursue research other than from a
positivist paradigm.
Dennis Slattery, in reviewing Romanyshyn’s writings, speaks of something which
seems to have broken free in his colleague’s research which is “allowed to breathe for the
first time.” 32 Romanyshyn states that psychology has been held as a hostage in its
research methodology.33 He invites the researcher to pay attention to the gap between
what is known and not known, in the territory of the imaginal. Descending into the gap
along with inherited knowledge, such as alchemy and the I-Ching which Jung also
studied, allows a richer exploration.
Babbie defines the qualitative research study as an examination without the usual
numerical use, and the interpretation of observations in order to discover underlying
patterns and meanings in relationships.34 Within the process of interpreting the
discoveries, or learnings, both the personal lens and the conceptual lens of the researcher
need to be made apparent so the reader can see through these lenses and track the
meaning-making from the transparency of the study.35 Grossberg, Nelson, and Treichler write that qualitative research holds two tensions, one is a focus on the details of naturalistic and humanistic interpretations of experience, and the other is a focus on a broad and postmodern sensibility.36
203 The learnings in this study illustrate how imagery helps recall one’s history,
facilitates the performance of experience, and leads an individual inward to explore new and remembered territory in their own psyche. Images performed within this study’s activities infused the participants’ experience with affect, thus demonstrating Jung’s statement that “emotion is the chief source of consciousness. There is no change from darkness to light or from inertia to movement without emotion.” 37
Implications of Learnings for Educational Institutions
In the educational arena, classes in men’s and women’s studies, psychology, and
sociology could benefit from allowing students to explore gender in a method similar to
the one used in the current study. Colleges that offer extended education classes for
seniors can offer the opportunity to explore gender to adults in the second half of their
lives. In preschools, elementary, middle, and high school classes children and teens can
explore what it might be like to be the other sex, and perform behaviors and feelings of
the other gender. Though there are places in these institutions where this would still not
be acceptable, the potential for movement activities to free up personal armoring could
offer a beginning step.
Qualitative research designs may have more support in educational systems as
more of these studies are read by educators and teachers in all levels of education, and as
they become known as a valid alternative to traditional experimental designs.
204 Implications of Learnings for the Institution of Marriage
Learnings in this study found that participants were affected and felt empathy for
the alternate gender (or internal other) when role-plays allowed them to detect
stereotypes. As individuals expand their views and see the limitations in gender or sex
roles, relationships outside and inside of marriage can evolve. There will be more
understanding of how restrictive gender role limits are. As individuals recognize the
internal other, the contrasexuality in themselves, there will be less need to relate out of loneliness and more reasons to relate out of a felt-sense of wholeness. More people can recognize that marriage can be an affirmation of a loving commitment, but that as a societal structure it currently acts to polarize gender.
As this study’s conclusion is being written, gay and lesbian marriages in
California were voted unlawful because 52 percent of California voters saw love between
two adults as only being proper and legal between a woman and a man. The stereotype of
romantic love only belonging to a relationship between a woman and a man continues to
limit equality for those who see or have experience beyond the cultural gatekeeping for the institution of marriage. More studies like the current one, along with experiential practices in workshops, therapy offices, and community centers are needed to help people become aware of their own contrasexuality within themselves. Perhaps then there will be an increase in empathy for the other.
Implications of Learnings for Contemporary Culture
Implications for the wider culture in the Unites States relate to the readiness of some people to step beyond gender roles and try on experiences of the other gender. The
205 good-enough parenting that participants experienced in their early development appears
to help them cope with discrepancies between societal expectations and their core identity
as previously stated. Parents can take heart in knowing that they are providing this extra
cushion of support and competence.
The recognition by participants of some of their own stereotypical gender behaviors engendered an understanding and insight to assist them in letting go of rigid, sometimes harmful roles. It could benefit Western society greatly if more citizens would recognize their actions, and come to terms with being more than what society defines as the roles of a girl, a woman, a boy, or a man.
Recommended Areas for Future Research
The gender research literature has focused on the polarization between the sexes and how stepping away from this polarization is beneficial for individuation; however it also seems to perpetuate the dichotomy even when the intention is otherwise. Recently
Hyde and Amy Mezulis presented the criticism in the field in this regard and some research attempts to focus on similarities and shared aspects of gender.38 Additional
qualitative research on similarities is recommended to provide increased breadth in this
area and to support the increase in equality between women and men. Hyde and Mezulis
speak to a significant area of research which is missing when they state that “the richest
research will examine the contexts and process involved in multiple identities such as
gender and ethnicity.” 39 Gender research which includes the spectrum of ethnic
identities is recommended. The current study fell short of addressing the gap found in
current gender research concerning the many ethnicities found in the United States.
206 Kimmel and Mary Crawford note that feminist researchers in academia still,
“occupy a continuum of outsider status.” 40 The tenured female professor interested in
gender research continues to feel tension between supporting societal change for women
and continuing the relationships she has developed within the patriarchal institution.
Kimmel and Crawford state that future academic institutions need to look at and alter the
way women and men in academia are treated differently.
In regard to the current study, there are other qualitative studies focused on
anima/animus images; however, further narrative interviews and longitudinal studies
could provide more depth to the field of qualitative studies focused on developmental
individuation. Participants could be interviewed throughout different stages in their lives
and provide developmental imagery in each interview. Hare-Mustin and Maracek point
out that gender cannot be left out of research where it is relevant, until societal norms
exist without gender expectations.41 It seems that when the concept of gender is left out of research, where it is relevant, there is an implicit agreement that gender norms and
expectations are acceptable.
Although gendered emotions and affects were not a focal point in the current
study, participants did experience a range of affects in the research activities. It appears
that between the affective responses of participants and the minimal amount of research
found in gender and affect, it is an area ripe for further research. As both women and men
become more comfortable with men expressing a range of emotions other than the
stereotypic expressions of anger and pride, qualitative research could explore affect in
men and assist in breaking up the gender dichotomy currently found in traditional roles.
Similarly, research focusing on anger and the feelings of helplessness in women might
207 expose the roots of compliance with the patriarchy and assist women in increasing
responsibility for their own development and well being.
Research with the woodcut pictures could provide some validity for representing
stages of development in the individuation process with increased ego maturity depicted
toward the end of the illustrations, whether or not gender is an integral part. Individual art
work in an illustrated series representing the individuation process, along with the
inclusion of one’s contrasexuality could prove therapeutic and provide valuable insight in qualitative studies. Research exploring the individuation process more fully could prove
to validate more androgynous behavior, just as research on ego maturation has done. It
could inspire further research in contrasexuality or ways to transcend gender roles, as
Hefner, Rebecca, and Oleshansky, as well as Eccles have suggested.42
There has been research exploring the effects of media on a wide range of ages,
however research that addresses how the media impacts views of oneself and one’s gender is minimal. Qualitative interviewing and other modalities could assist in cutting through the sterility of positivist methods and could bring issues to light from different vantage points, providing more informed discrimination in future gender and media research.
Ward and Allison Caruthers recommend ten directions for future media and gender research.43 Three of the ten are as follows: (1) expand the definition of gender to
cover more of the twenty-four multiple dimensions of this construct; (2) use
age-appropriate, inclusive, and all-encompassing ways of measuring gender dimensions;
and (3) complete research focused on misrepresentation and under-represented gender
images in the media. The media stereotyping of gender is much more complex than what
208 is addressed here in the current study. Sandra Pacheco and Aida Hurtado state that
women and men of color have additional stereotypes superimposed on the media
characters that supposedly represent them. Several media studies address this, though
there is little hope of making changes by merely addressing the misrepresentations.44
While reviewing the research already completed on the impact of media on children I felt sickened. I began to grasp how gender polarization is perpetuated in very potent ways. It became somewhat frightening when I thought of the expanding media influences that children and teens are exposed to every day. I am now committed to discovering ways in which the average person can make changes in the images that girls and boys view everyday. More conscious participation and conscious funding is needed in the writing of scripts for television, movies, video games, and internet displays; as the younger generation take the positions of power in society, it would be wise for significant adults in their lives to ask themselves if they want their children to carry out the imagery that is being instilled in them.
Conclusion
Human beings are not born once and for all on the day their mothers give birth to them . . . life obliges them over and over again to give birth to themselves.
—García Márquez Love in the Time of Cholera
These words of García Márquez’s speak to constant change and the challenge of meeting life creatively. Change is a given. Those who yearn for increased understanding of themselves and their lives will face the challenge of individuating according to their
209 own innate resources, rather than turning to the collective societal structures. In the
process of acquainting themselves with and relating to the internal other, a shift can be
sensed as the journey unfolds.
The essence of the shift in awareness and experience of the internal other is
captured in the illustrations of alchemy. Authors, such as von Franz, are drawn to the
metaphorical journey depicted in the Rosarium Woodcuts or the Splendor Solis. If a
person views the imagery as a journey, awareness of their own life issues can be
glimpsed through the metaphor.45 Perhaps individuals can create their own illustrations of their journey, as previously suggested.
The recognition of the contrasexual archetype is an integral part of meeting life’s challenges and integrating the internal other. Jung makes it clear when he writes “Though the effects of anima/animus can be made conscious, they themselves are factors transcending consciousness . . . . Hence they remain autonomous despite the integration of their contents, and for this reason they should be borne constantly in mind.” 46
Maintaining awareness of one’s contrasexuality requires a full commitment to oneself along with the willingness to bear challenges that can seem overwhelming at times. The
commitment provides courage as individuation continues, the journey of becoming more fully one’s own. When projections are withdrawn, the practice of relying on the internal other provides increased and expanding capacities.
Our traditional cultural gender myth and socialization can be depicted as a pyramid, a hierarchy, with men representing the patriarchy on top, and women and children below.47 Maybe we can view this as the outdated myth. Acknowledging and
accepting contrasexual images and expressing cross-gendered behaviors can begin to
210 shift this form to a concentric circle. Recognizing resources of both sexes makes more resources accessible; it makes what is called common sense. Women and men can take their place together in a new form as equality is increasingly recognized and accepted. As capacities increase through the withdrawal of projections, and the increase of responsibility, the form could evolve to include children, and eventually all living things.
Bratherton states, “Current cultural healing of the patriarchal society may be taken forward by the masculine-feminine healing within the individual’s psyche and the healing of the feeling function within the society. This might mean that different values become dominant.” 48 In the 21st century it may be time for rearranging values with the inclusion
of the valued feminine along with the valued masculine in each person in authentic
dialogue, accepting the parts that have hitherto been missing.
Contrasexuality that is recognized and owned breaks through the restrictions of
limiting gender roles and opens to endless resources, much like an artist discovering new
color combinations to enhance an unfinished masterpiece. The quest, or search and
longing for the external other, be it in a human, a material object, or the Divine,
transmutes to an inner knowing and acquaintance with the internal other.
Both women and men can experience their internal Narcissus who recognizes his
own reflection and reaches deep within the waters. And they can experience Persephone
as she digests patriarchal wounds, then readies herself to live not only in the darkness
within the realm of Hades, but also in the warming light of the sun for what it provides.
Individuation is not for the fearful, and yet for many, fear and horror exist in
stalling further consciousness. Externalizing what is within one’s own resources onto
others creates superficial separations that damage individuals, groups, and nations.
211 Finding those external projections that are being mirrored back and owning them can lead
to transmuting conflicts and difficulties in life’s journey. The transcendent function acts
to transmute conflict and dichotomies. It can release tensions and provide a qualitatively different kind of life. Individuation supports new life, fresh ideas, and creative potentials.
Individuating consciousness is rocky and treacherous at times; it does offer hope, however, when a creative reservoir of possibilities is found internally. This is where the treasure lies.
212
APPENDIX
213
APPENDIX 1
ETHICS APPLICATION
Participant Population
I will title my research, “Exploring Gender” on a flyer, and send them to
therapists in the community who may want to refer individual clients who have had six months of therapy, as well as to women and men’s groups, and post some of them in the community where I live. The flyer will state that the research meetings are open to both women and men, ages 25 to 70 years old who experience gender roles as somewhat restrictive and meet at least one of the following three criteria: 1) are or have been in a women or men’s group; 2) have at least six months therapy; or 3) have completed two psychology classes. It will also state that participants need a high level of commitment, and that it will take place on a Friday night and Saturday in a group format with a small number of participants. I will state that comfortable clothing is to be worn, and that this will be a research study on the development of gender.
I anticipate similarities in prospective participants’ motivation and their interest in the exploration of this topic, which may be their own experience of gender as restrictive.
There may be a similarity as well in people who have a high level of motivation and who enjoy alternative types of learning.
The age range of participants will be restricted from 25 to 70 years old yet will provide diversity in the adult life span. There will need to be an equal number of women
214 and men, so there will be a restriction on the number of each sex. Anyone over the
number for each sex will be told they can be on a waiting list.
Twelve participants of an equal number of women and men will be recruited for
this research. The design of this Imaginal Inquiry necessitates that there is an equal
number of women and men. Eight or twelve participants is the anticipated number that
will facilitate turn-taking with different people. There is a possibility of attrition, and
planning for twelve participants leaves room for four to drop out, so that there is an even
number of women and men who remain to participate.
Procedures Involving Research Participants
The activities utilized in this study will be briefly described to clarify why these
particular activities will be used. The activities chosen are the following: guided visualizations, story telling, Authentic Movement, role-plays, journaling after each activity, verbal sharing, identifying key moments, and ritualizing the beginnings and the endings of the meetings.
The activity of role-playing traditional gender performances assists in raising the awareness of stereotypes in Western culture. This introduction can assist in participants’ recognition of their own comfort level with what is enacted. The journaling and sharing of the gender images, experiences, and feelings will support the group process forming and facilitate this as a participatory exploration.
A guided visualization is a method for relaxation and exploration. The posture of lying down, and the act of closing one’s eyes, reduces outside stimuli, and allows a person to relax and listen to the visualization as it is verbalized without doing anything. I
215 will evoke images and experiences in participants through inviting them to review their own gender development through a guided visualization of when they first recognized
that they were a certain sex, a girl or boy, and to focus on images in their gender
development, when it began, what conventional images they integrated as part of their
identity, and what gender behaviors and feelings were set aside, for the opposite sex. In
another visualization I will ask participants to imagine cross-sex feelings and behaviors
as a young child, as a teenager, a young adult, into present time, and then to imagine
themselves enacting these in the future with a friend, and then with their families, and in
their communities.
Story telling in this study is an activity that can assist participants in centering
themselves in the present time, in the role of storyteller. In this activity, I will ask
participants to disclose personal experiences from their childhood, according to their
comfort level. I will ask them to decide what they can share with group, and remind them
of confidentiality. I will then invite this sharing in the larger group.
Authentic Movement is usually enacted in a dyad, with a witness; however, in this
study I will serve as the witness to the movements. I will ask participants to move
according to their own inner promptings in regard to their experience in their bodies of
the gender they have been identified with in our Western culture. I will direct them to
close their eyes and wait for their body to inform them of the movements familiar to their
bodies in its gendered identity. I will explain that I will witness them and facilitate this
movement intermittently as the guide for the whole group. Authentic Movement will be
facilitated once again as I ask participants to express cross-sex movements and images
through bodily sensing and experiencing.
216 For the role-play activities, I will ask participants to role-play traditional gender stereotypes, performing gestures, postures, speech intonations and patterns first, for what fits their own sex and physical anatomy, and then secondly what does not traditionally fit.
The role-playing will consist of acting out traditional gender identities they are familiar with for themselves, as well as acting out cross-sex behaviors and what may not be as familiar and may feel strange.
I will ask participants to verbally share, after the above exercises, which can heighten the value for participants, as long as they share discriminatingly and are supported in this process. Participants will be asked to share in the large group format which I will facilitate.
Through the opening and closing rituals which will ask participants to focus on an aspect of their experience related to gender and the research, I will invite participants into a circle to set a tone and mark the beginning and ending to the meetings. I will explain that this will act to contain their experiences and I will remind them to validate others by listening to them without interruption and holding what they hear in confidence.
I will ask the participants, at the end of the two research meetings, to evaluate the meetings in light of their own experiences, and to share key moments or highlights.
I will ask participants in a closing discussion to verbalize some of what they have written, and to share this reflection with others (this will be audio taped). I will then ask them to form a circle for a closing ritual to share a new image of their gendered self that they will take into the future.
217 Consent Process
As potential participants call in to sign up for these meetings, I will ask them to answer the questions in the screening form; they will also be told there is a consent form to sign. If they are chosen to participate, they will be mailed a copy beforehand and instructed that it is for their information. They will be instructed that they can bring it to
the first meeting unsigned, or they can sign a blank one at the first meeting. The form (in
Appendix 4) will be utilized for this and stored in a locked file cabinet after the first meeting.
Risks
Potential participants who cannot be accepted, due to too many of the same sex, or those who do not meet other requirements, may feel rejected. I will thank them for their interest and explain that there may be future non-research-based meetings that also explore gender issues, and to watch for these to be listed in the community.
What most concerns me is that these activities can be, and will be experienced by some of the participants as therapeutic, and possibly bring up past trauma or vulnerabilities. This could very well unsettle participants, when the research frame of these experiences is held, and maintained, and yet the anxieties are not addressed therapeutically. While I will attend to participants’ present experience as it arises in the research setting, this is distinct from therapy, which can involve a long-term contract. The pull for me to assist participants in a therapeutic manner, rather than just facilitating this research, is something that I will observe closely within myself by reminding myself this is a research study.
218 Safeguards
The containing effect of opening and closing rituals will assist in lessening risks to participants. The instructions to hold what is heard in confidence, to validate others by listening to them, and to not interrupt will all assist as precautions.
Since the participants will be listened to, as well as witnessed in movements, there will be an element of support that will be facilitated by the participants and by me in the activities themselves. Journaling exercises will also assist with the expression and integration of participants’ experience.
Benefits
Imaginal Inquiry offers an approach and experience that only a small percentage of people usually have the chance to partake in, unless they intentionally pursue this course. The richness this approach can provide in the exploration of the depth and breadth of one’s own internal world cannot be matched by traditional experimental studies. The experiential sharing that will take place in the research meetings after the imaginal approaches are engaged in, will lend a field of depth, acting as a container, or intersubjective field in the relationships that develop. Authenticity will ideally transpire as these relationships become more entwined with shared stories, experiences, and images which validate not only the participant’s experiences, but will also validate the findings as congruent with the participatory paradigm.
Participants may never before have assumed contrasexual animation through their physical bodies to the degree that they will experience this in several activities. This may provide a safe-enough way of trying out these behaviors, feelings, and images.
219 The act of verbalizing, after the above exercises, will heighten the value for
participants, as long as they share discriminatingly and are supported in this process.
Speaking one’s voice, or by the participants articulating their experiences authentically, they will experience that others will listen to new images and feelings that emerge. As participants verbalize their experiences after each activity with the whole group, the images and experiences of their own gender development are placed out into external reality with recipients who will listen to these experiences in a new way.
This study could significantly contribute to therapists and their clients exploring gender images, images that both promote and hinder the client’s psychological health.
Idealizations and disrespect which occur for both genders can be discovered in the
client’s images. The idealizations that occur become compensated psychologically by
gender attitudes of disrespect and denigration, according to Jungian theory. These
attitudes and beliefs could be generalized to other areas, including a spectrum of images
ranging from those that disgust us on one end, to those that feel beyond reproach, or too
sacred or taboo to approach. Clients not only project what they cannot see in themselves,
in regard to gender, but to anything that cannot be tolerated, regardless of the feeling tone
that is connected to it. Working to reclaim projective material is a vital aspect of
psychological work that will have applications to other psychological issues.
220 After the Study
When I do provide a brief summary of learnings for the participants by mail after
the dissertation has been completed and approved, this will also serve to integrate the
participants’ experiences. With the physical and temporal distance of the correspondence, it may serve to lessen the intensity of the experiences for participants. This communication will support and validate the participants’ experiences reminding them of what took place.
No research instruments will be utilized other than the evaluation form participants fill out regarding key moments or highlights they experienced and the paper
for journal writing after particular activities. I will give no documents to study
participants other than what is discussed here and the consent form they will sign (in
Appendix 4). 221
APPENDIX 2
CONCEPTUAL OUTLINE
Evoking Experience Meeting One • Opening ritual. • Role-plays of gender stereotypes that match participants’ gender. • Guided visualization from early childhood to adult years. • Journaling after role-plays and guided visualization. • Ritual closing. Evoking Experience Meeting Two • Ritual opening. • Role-play activity of the other cross-gender. • Guided visualization as the other gender. • Verbal sharing/story telling after all activities except rituals. • Traditional gender Authentic Movement activity, then cross-gender. • Verbal sharing in group after each activity except for rituals. • Ritual closing. Expressing Experience Meeting One • Articulating questions, concerns, issues in opening meeting. • Nonverbal and verbal participation in role-plays and guided visualization. • Journaling after each activity except the rituals. • Sharing and discussion following each activity written on large newsprint. 222
Expressing Experience Meeting Two • Verbal sharing/discussion after activities and in opening and closing rituals. • Nonverbal participation in visualization, role-playing, and Authentic Movement. • Group sharing written on large newsprint. Interpreting Experience Meeting One • Sharing in ritual, role-play, visualization audio taped. • Images/insights/experiences discussed placed on newsprint. • Journaling after each activity. Interpreting Experience Meeting Two • Audiotape of shared images/insights/experiences. • Data on paper from newsprint written on after activities. • Journaling after role-plays, visualization, and authentic movements. • Closing journaling questionnaire completed by participants. Integrating Experience Meeting One • Opening and closing rituals as gathering and containing. • Journaling after role-plays, visualization, Authentic Movements. • Group sharing and listening to others’ experiences. Integrating Experience • Meeting Two • Opening and closing rituals as containing and gathering. • Journaling. • Group sharing and listening to others experiences. • Closing journaling questionnaire.
223
APPENDIX 3
CHRONOLOGICAL OUTLINE
Meeting One (7:00 to 9:30 p.m.)
I. Introduction and Orientation (30 minutes) A. Participant Consent Form 1. Remind participants of form previously discussed as they were handed out. 2. Collect signed consent forms. B. Introduction Circle - Researcher provided general information 1. Make space comfortable with heat, windows, drinking water available at back of room, bathroom locations pointed out, as well as exit and entry doors. 2. Ending time stated two hours for first meeting; break before information given or before beginning gathering (ritual) as needed. 3. Explain confidentiality including materials collected, participation as voluntary. 4. General overview of procedures, opening, closing rituals. II. Role-Plays (45 minutes to 1 hour) A. Explain procedure for role-plays and timing with bell rung to stop. B. Volunteers in pairs, one woman, one man. C. Participants journal after each one. D. Discussion of experiences, images, feelings. III. Guided Visualization for Meeting One (45 minutes to 1 hour) A. Gradual lead in and instruct/guide/facilitate 1. Ask if participants have experienced guided visualization or journeys previously, and if there are questions, to alleviate any fears or concerns. 2. Relaxation phase with stretching and lying or sitting comfortably. 3. Guide sensing in various modalities, sight, smell, tactile, haptic, auditory. 4. Guide back to pleasant trip, last year, teen years, elementary age, preschool years or toddler, and earliest memory of being a girl or boy. B. Discussion from Visualization 224
1. Verbally share gender life history stories. 2. Verbally share any images, insights, experiences which will be recorded. 3. Write images, insights, experiences on large newsprint for all to see. 4. Ask which images, etc. are similar and different from theirs, and observe/witness their experience of this. IV. Closing for Meeting One A. Ritual 1. Transition from sharing in group by gathering in circular format. 2. Remind participants of starting time tomorrow, confidentiality, and recommend getting a full night of sleep for next day’s activities, second day. 3. Gathering for closing; appreciation by researcher; hearing what participants offer as concerns, questions, before they made statements, bell rung to close.
Meeting Two (10:00 a.m. to 3:30 p.m.)
I. Introduction and First Activity A. Opening Circle (20 minutes) 1. Greet and ask how participants slept. 2. Remind of bathroom locations, break times being every 2 hours, participants going as they need to outside of an activity; remaining within the meeting for continuity for all participants otherwise; remind of confidentiality. 3. Gathering in circular formation for participant statements, and suggesting a supportive environment be maintained for today’s activities, ring the bell. B. Role-Plays (65 minutes) 1. Researcher facilitates participants loosening up physically by directing them to flop their hands, arms, feet, wiggle their torsos and thighs, etc., and make silly faces. 2. Facilitation of cross-gender role-play of those behaviors and feelings x 5. 3. Participant journaling briefly after each role-play. 4. Verbal sharing of images, feelings, experiences, and written on large newsprint for all to see. II. Late Morning Activity A. Break (15 minutes) 1. Room adjustment and bathroom break; participants move to comfortable positions, use bathroom; researcher arranges room, then reorients to activity. B. Authentic Movement (25 minutes) 225
1. Transition made by addressing movement with internal sensing of the participants’ assigned gender role. 2. Authentic Movement explained. 3. Lights are dimmed with background soft music as participants move into the room and situate themselves. 4. A light bell is rung while researcher reminds movers to close their eyes and feel themselves safely in place, to move anyway they feel, that their body moves them, knowing that witness will keep them safe; light bell rung when they can vocalize if they feel urge for this internally. 5. Participants journal experience. 6. Verbal sharing in the group format with images, insights, experiences being written on large newsprint. III. Lunch Break (12:00 to 1:00) A. One hour, participants on own for lunch with several restaurants close by; some lunch foods put out on table; (some bring food for diet restrictions); researcher has private lunch to reflect upon what happened, and how to proceed in Authentic Movement. IV. Reorientation to and Facilitation of Afternoon Activities A. Revisit and extend Authentic Movement 2 times (45 minutes) 1. Adjustment made addressing movement with internal sensing of their assigned gender role again, their own assigned sexual identity as female or male, since participants expressed difficulty in first authentic movement activity; participants told when bell is rung to reach for internal sensing of their own bodily feelings and behaviors. 2. Authentic Movement explained further using other words, researcher answering questions. 3. Lights dimmed again with background music as participants position themselves for activity. 4. A light bell rung while researcher remind movers to close their eyes and feel themselves safely in place, to move anyway their body seems to urge them toward, knowing witness/researcher is watching for safety, light bell sounded at time when vocalizations can be made if the body prompt for this. 5. Bell rung - participants journal. 6. Verbal sharing in group with images, insights, experiences being written on large newsprint. 7. Additional Authentic Movement for cross-sex internal feelings, images, bodily sensing, movement and vocalization as internally urged, with items 2-7 above repeated. 226
B. Guided Visualization as Cross Gender (60 minutes) 1. Researcher facilitates stretching, yawning, deep breath activities; participants position themselves lying down, sitting back with blankets, air mattresses provided. 2. Guide participants into reverie suggesting they day dream about what life would have been like as the opposite sex, first in that memory of when they discovered they were a girl or boy, then a bit older as a preschooler about to go to Kindergarten or first grade for the first time, then in elementary school, then as an adolescent, teen, and young adult. 3. Suggest participants go forward to present time as the opposite sex; notice difference, and similarities, how people view them, then go into future time. 4. Finally, in the visualization, researcher suggests participants pay attention to how loved ones react to them differently, or even the same, and then their wider circle of friends, and then the community, before taking them back into the present time, the room, and their bodies, as the sex of their bodily anatomy. 5. Journaling about the experience. 6. Experience of images, insights shared in group format; written on large newsprint. C. Group Discussion (10 minutes) 1. Discussion open to what arose for participants in all of the above activities that they did not get a chance to address, and asking them to check internally regarding similarities and differences they experienced. 2. Participants asked what they would have liked to have done or experienced that was not included in the activities. D. Complete closing journaling questionnaire (20 minutes) 1. Hand out and explain closing journaling questionnaire form. 2. Provide time, suggest they review what took place. 3. Collect completed closing journaling questionnaires, and transition with bathroom break before closing gathering. V. Closing of Meeting Two A. Ritual (10 minutes) 1. Gather in circular formation, researcher shares appreciation of participants’ time and commitment, reminds them of confidentiality; informs participants of mail they would receive when interpretations are approved, with participants making last closing statements. 2. Participants say goodbye and the bell rung lightly for the last time.
227
APPENDIX 4
INFORMED CONSENT
Dear Research Participant,
You are invited to participate in a study exploring gender development. The purpose of this study is to assist participants in exploring experiences related to gender.
Participation will involve guided visualizations, role-plays, movement, journaling, and verbal sharing and storing telling, in a group format. This will take place from 7:00 to 9:30 p.m. on Friday evening of the [date], and the following day, Saturday [date], from 10:00 a.m. to 3:30 in the afternoon. The group meetings will be audio taped, and experiences and images that are shared will be written on large newsprint, for all to see. Your group sharing and written journaling will comprise the data for this study.
For the protection of your privacy, all audio tapes, journal writing, and transcripts that are completed following the two meetings will be kept confidential. Your identity will be protected and will only be reviewed by myself and my assistant. The data will be kept in a locked file cabinet, and no one will have access to them besides me. A research assistant may also assist in the review of the data for interpretation purposes though she will not know your identity at any time. The reporting of information in published material will alter any identifying aspects, other than whether you are a woman or a man, and your age, to ensure you have anonymity.
Given the research nature of this study, you may not experience any direct benefits. The published findings, however, may be useful to others who want to explore their own gender issues. This study is designed to minimize potential risks to you. However, some activities may touch on sensitive memories or issues in certain instances. Memories could contain difficult emotions or traumas, or you could experience strong emotions, such as fear or anxiety. I will make every effort to discuss any concerns or questions you have. Since I cannot provide therapy to you in my role as a researcher, I will provide referrals to several therapists if the need does arise.
If you decide to participate in this research, you may withdraw your consent and discontinue your participation at any time and for any reason. Please note as well that I, as the researcher, may need to terminate your participation from the study at any point and for any reason.
If you have any questions or concerns, you may call me at 707 616-6560, or you may contact the Dissertation Director at Meridian University, 47 Sixth Street, Petaluma, 228
California, 94952, telephone: (707) 765-1836. Meridian University assumes no responsibility for any psychological or physical injury resulting from this research.
I, ______, consent to participate in the study, The Exploration of Gender. I have had this study explained to me by Debbra Haven. Any questions of mine about this research have been answered, and I have received a copy of this consent form. My participation in this study is entirely voluntary.
______Participant’s Signature Date
229
APPENDIX 5
SCREENING FORM
The screening form was completed when someone called and was interested in becoming a participant. If participants qualified, the postal mail and email addresses were taken, to send a consent form just for information purposes at that point. The following is a description of what was used as a guideline and was closely adhered to:
“Hello, this is Debbra Haven.” Pause to hear the person calling. “The information on the flyer states that this is a research study. I am looking for people who may have experienced gender roles as somewhat restrictive. One of the following three requirements is also necessary for participation in this Gender Exploration study, which are: 1) you have completed two psychology classes; or, 2) you have completed six months of therapy; or, 3) you are participating in a women’s or men’s group, or have done so in the past. Is one of these three true for you; and if so, which one? ______
If you are interested in the study and assisting me in determining whether you meet the eligibility criteria for participation in the study, I can go ahead and fill in the screening form now. This will help provide you with more information. Would you like to proceed with that?” Pause for answer, and if no, I will simply tell them thank you for calling. If the answer is yes, I will go ahead and say, “Okay, so what is your name?” I will then proceed with completing this form.
Name______
Address______230
Phone number and email address: ______
The following will be asked of prospective participants:
Gender ______
Age ______
The best method and time to contact you is:
______
Have you ever experienced guided visualizations/journeys before? ______
If so, what was the experience like for you?
______
Have you experienced gentle movement exercises previously, and if so, what was your experience? ______
______
Are role-play exercises familiar to you? ______
If so how? ______
______
Do you have any qualms or hesitations regarding any of the above activities?
______
If so, what are they?
______
______
Do you experience gender roles as somewhat restrictive, and if so in what ways?
______
Recent example of this, if so: ______231
On a scale of 1 to 10, with 10 being the highest impact, how much does gender role
restriction impact your current life? ______
Again on a scale of 1 to 10, with 10 being the highest, how would you rate your motivation for this gender exploration? ______
Are you be willing and able to commit to a Friday night and the following Saturday in exploring these issues? ______
What might interfere with this?
______
______
What Friday evening and Saturday in the next two months work best for you, 2nd best, and not possible at all?
______
______
“Thank you for your time and responses. I will get back to you within a week to 10 days.
If you discover a scheduling or other conflict related to making a commitment to participate, please give me a call to let me know this. This is important since the number of people participating will be a small group. When you receive the consent form I will send, please read it; I will provide you with another one at the first meeting when you can sign as an agreement with what the form states.
Do you have any questions or concerns? (Additional answers given will be written on the back) ______
______
Thank you so much.” 232
APPENDIX 6
FLYER TO RECRUIT PARTICIPANTS
ANNOUNCING “Exploring Gender” RESEARCH STUDY
Come explore gender roles through guided visualizations, gentle movement exercises, role-plays, and journaling. Discover things about yourself through this exploration! Gather and
meet with others interested in this experiential exploration in a small group setting.
You are eligible if you are 25 to 70 years old, experience gender roles as somewhat restrictive, and one of the following is true:
1. You have been in six month’s of therapy sometime in your life, or
2. You are in, or have been in, a women’s or men’s group, or
3. You have completed at least two psychology classes,
Call Debbra at 707-616-6560 for more information
Times will be from 7 to 9:30 on a Friday evening, and 10 a.m. to 3:30 p.m. the next day, a Saturday. A high level of motivation and commitment is desired. The meetings will take place in October, with dates to be determined by what is convenient for most participants who qualify. 233
APPENDIX 7
GUIDED GENDER VISUALIZATION SCRIPT
Instructions for participants follow: “Lie or sit down where you will be able to
situate yourself; get very comfortable and relaxed. As you do this you might want to
shake out any tension that might be in your arms, legs, or any part of your body. You
might want to even tense your face, your lower jaw, your neck muscles, and then release
all the tension easily and effortlessly that may have built up there.
Now take in three very deep, big breaths and release any left over tension. That’s
right. Just let any cares or concerns drift off for now along with the out breath. Notice
your hands or legs may be lighter, or heavier, as you allow yourself to relax, at your own
pace, in your own way.
Now I want you to think of your life and try on any feelings, sensations, or images
that might come to you in this relaxed state about the gender you inhabit in your life. Get
comfortable in this place where you just observe what arises for you right now, as I pause for about a minute, and if there is any discomfort whatsoever, just allow what arises to be projected out onto an imaginary television or movie screen. PAUSE one minute. How does it feel to live out this gender identity? Just notice this. No judgments are necessary.
In fact, just let that part of your mind drift off as you experience any pleasure or displeasure in this gendered experience–just take it in and let it go just as easily, remembering to view yourself on an imaginary screen if you would like. 234
Now in a moment I want you to go back in time to a day in high school, maybe
junior high or even elementary school when you were paying attention to yourself as a
female or male, girl or boy. Just go back there now and notice. What is happening?
Pause. How do others treat you? Are you friends with boys? Are you friends with girls?
Pause longer. What do your mom, dad, teacher, or any care providers think of you as a boy or girl? (Wait ½ minute as I tell participants to just notice). Now go back even
further, yes further back to a time when you were smaller when you first noticed that you
wanted to do something that the opposite sex did, and for some reason you stopped; or
maybe you didn’t stop. Pause Notice what is around you. Pause. Is it daytime, night time?
Are you at home, at school? Where are you? Take that in gently, watching it on a screen
if you would like. What is happening in this scene? Just notice. (I wait for ½ minute
again). Now go even further back, taking a big, deep breath, and allow another time to be
remembered. Let a memory, or even a part of a memory just pop up as you relax into this
time in the past safely, slowly, at your own pace; this moment or time can be when you
first noticed you could only be either a boy, or a girl, and not both. Notice this time as it
appears in you, and watch what happens there. I will give you a minute now to allow
some memory or fragment to appear almost as if you are in a dream, remembering. Pause
a minute.
Now drift back even further, to a time when you first realized you were a boy or
girl, or maybe you are already back there in time. Stay with this and see how other people
around you interact with you. What made you aware that you were one sex? Pause.
Now gently, ever so slowly and gently, bring this small child to the “adult you” to
hold, talk to, or encourage in some way. See and feel the adult part of you back in time 235 with this small child in a loving way (I will wait ½ a minute). Now you can say goodbye to yourself as a small child, and begin to pass through your other memories 0f when you were a little bit older and recognizing you can be one gender only (time passes), and then older yet around your parents or playmates (a bit more time passes), and then in junior high or high school (time passes), and now gradually, slowly come back into the present time. Pace yourself and remember the parts of you that you connected to when you were younger (I will give them a few minutes). When you are ready I would like you to gradually feel your adult body, in this room, moving your fingers and toes, and coming safely, back to the present time in this room. Pause. You can begin journaling your experiences in this visualization when you are ready. After 8 to 10 minutes of journaling.
Now you can share your experience with us when you are ready; remember, only share what feels safe and comfortable to share. Allow up to 20 minutes for this.
236
APPENDIX 8
GUIDED CROSS-GENDER VISUALIZATION SCRIPT
After relaxation introduction as above, the following script will be read: “Find a
comfortable place to stretch out; shake any tension out first. Just let it all go, easily and
effortlessly. This is a good time, right after lunch for a day dream (pause and wait until
everyone looks relaxed). This is a day dream about what life would have been like as the
opposite sex, first in that memory of when you first discovered you were a girl or boy, or
the earliest memory you have of that. Go there now gently, easily, and effortlessly and as
your eyes begin to feel heavy I invite you to close them. Pause. See what is around you
inside this memory. Pause.
Now instead of noticing yourself as the gender you discovered yourself to be in
your memory, notice, just start out noticing how your body is actually a body of the
opposite sex. Remember to imagine and observe this on a big screen in your mind if you
would like. You may see it all at once and be surprised, or your body may slowly shape shift into the opposite sex now. Really explore this, and discover that you are the opposite
sex, whether it is a boy or girl with the corresponding features of that sex. Breathe this in as you go further on and into yourself as the opposite sex growing up a bit, into the time of preschool, or Kindergarten, or first grade, whatever comes up for you. How are people, small friends, and adults close to you, interacting with you? Take a minute now and
experience this fully. (Wait 1 minute.) 237
Now observe yourself growing a bit older as an adolescent maybe, or in junior
high or high school, whatever comes to you. Now look around and observe how friends
and adults may be responding to you. (Wait ½ minute.) Now as you become a teenager or
young adult notice how friends treat you; take your time and really explore what it might
feel like to be the opposite sex; what is different for you? (Wait ½ minute.)
Now slowly, still as this opposite sex, come to your present age briefly, and try on
your present life and observe how folks interact with you as the opposite sex. (Wait ½
minute.) Now you are being lightly and swiftly carried into the future in any way you imagine or experience. Now you are 10 to 30 years older. Feel that, picture that, project that out onto a large movie screen in your mind’s eye. Pause. How are you interacting in your body as the opposite sex? Take your time to notice. Pay attention to how loved ones might react to you differently, or even the same, and then your wider circle of friends,
Pause - and then move into your community; how do people respond to you? Pause. Now look around as you travel 5 years more into the future. Observe how the genders seem to be interacting in general. Is it different from how it was in the past? Pause. Now see if
you are able to imagine that everyone you see pretty much looks however they want to,
regardless of their sex or gender? How would that look, or be? Observe this for a minute;
take your time. Pause.
Now breathe deeply, remembering what you saw, felt, sensed, and imagined.
Remember these images and gently travel back from way into the future, traveling back
at your own pace, gently coming back from the 10 to 30 year future into the present time.
As you travel back, begin traveling into the body you are now in this life, as your present
gender with the corresponding features of the sex you are, and were born with in this life. 238
Slowly and gently feel the sensations as you return, sensations in your body . . . wiggling toes or fingers, and gently awakening slowly, to be present in this room on this Saturday afternoon. Pause. When you are ready go to your journal and write the experiences of this gender visualization. Allow journaling for 8 to 10 minutes.
Gather comfortably when you are ready, so that everyone can hear what is shared.
Remember this is being audio taped and I will write feelings, experiences, and images on the newsprint as they are shared. Twenty minutes will be allowed for this.
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APPENDIX 9
AUTHENTIC MOVEMENT SCRIPT
The following paragraph is a script of what will be said for the authentic movement activity: Background music will be played to assist the movers though it is not important or even desired necessarily to move to it.
Now breathe deeply a few times after you find a comfortable place where you have plenty of room to move. I will wait until everyone finds this place for themselves.
Although I have soft music playing in the background I want you to attend to internal promptings in your body only in this movement activity. The music is really to act as a cushion for any outside noise that may occur. When I ring this small bell you can begin to close your eyes and sense what inner movements in you want to be expressed as you feel into whatever sensations or movements match your biological sex. I will ring the bell at the beginning and at the end of six minutes. After I complete giving the instructions for this exercise, there will be movement in silence for three minutes. There will be silence in the first 3 minutes. Then I will tell you half way through to use sound for the last 3 minutes, if you feel that prompting or urge, and I will ring the bell as well to signal this.
For those of you already wanting to move as the opposite sex, just wait, we will get to that. For now, just focus on the gender society assigned you at birth, and really feel into how your body wants to move, according to this, deep within your body. Please do this from your solar plexus, or some part of your body, other than your head. Guidance can occur within your body and its internal knowing can prompt you. So shake your arms 240 and legs out now, take a deep breath or two, and let yourself relax while you begin to close your eyes.” Ring bell and state for them to begin. Wait 3 minutes, then tell participants they can make noises now if they are moved to do this. Three minutes later, ring bell again. “Now slowly and gently move toward your journal and write down the experience, images, sensations, and feelings that arose.”
(A second round of authentic movement will take place, utilizing the following script.) Find a comfortable place again. Remember that although I have soft music playing in the background I want you to attend to internal promptings in your body only.
The music is to act as a cushion for any outside noise. When I ring this bell you can begin to close your eyes and sense what inner movements in you want to be expressed as the other gender, whatever sensations or movements do not match your biological sex, but the biological sex of the other gender. I will ring the bell at the beginning and at the end of six minutes. After I complete giving the instructions for this exercise, there will be movement in silence for 3 minutes. There will be silence in the first 3 minutes. Then I will tell you half way through to use sound for the last 3 minutes, if you feel that prompting or urge. For those of you who feel it is awkward to move as the other gender, just wait if nothing prompts you, you can ask any resistance in your mind, “what if I was the other gender.” For now, really feel into how your body wants to move as this gender deep within your body. Please do this from your solar plexus, or some part of your body, other than your head. Guidance can occur within your body and its internal knowing can prompt you. So shake your arms and legs out now, take a deep breath or two, and let yourself relax while you begin to close your eyes.” Ring bell and tell them to begin. Wait
3 minutes, then tell participants they can make noises now if they are moved to do this. 241
Three minutes later, ring bell again. “Now slowly and gently move toward your journal and write down the experience, images, sensations, and feelings that arose.”
After journaling is complete participants will share experiences, images, or feelings within the group in the following manner. “Okay, I would like volunteers to share experiences and images from these movements with the group. Share only what feels safe and remember that confidentiality needs to be honored for what is shared. This will be audio taped.”
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APPENDIX 10
GENDER ROLE-PLAYS SCRIPT
I will start by asking for two volunteers, a woman and a man, to role-play traditional and stereotypical gender performances. I will tell the volunteers the following:
“Now I want you to act out stereotypical images or behaviors that are expected of your sex. Really attempt to get into the role with your body, with gestures, and put feeling into it. When I first ring the bell, I want you to interact with your partner nonverbally for the first two minutes. I will tell you midway that you can begin interacting verbally if you would like for 1 to 2 minutes. Then I will ring the bell to end if the two volunteers are still role-playing at the 2 minute mark. Are there any questions?” (Answer any question that does not lead them.) “Okay, proceed.” (Ring bell to begin, then halfway through, and at the end.)
After this is complete, I will ask for two more volunteers, a woman and a man, until each participant has had a chance to role-play gender stereotypes that match their own gender. Then I will ask participants, including the volunteers, to journal for 5 minutes paying attention to their bodily responses, what arose for them, a feeling, an image, a memory, or experience. Journaling will take place after each role-play.
The above role-play will take place during the first meeting. The following role-play will take place the following day during the second meeting. I will ask for two volunteers, a woman and a man, to play cross-gender behaviors and performances, first nonverbally, and then verbally halfway through. Following is the script:
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“Now I want you to act out cross-sex stereotypical gender images or performances that are expected of the other gender. Really attempt to get into the role with your body, with gestures, and put feeling into it. When I first ring the bell, I want you to interact with your partner nonverbally for two minutes or as long as you need up to that time. I will ring the bell to let you know you can begin interacting verbally if you would like for 1 to 2 minutes. Then I will ring the bell to end if the two volunteers are still role-playing at the 2 minute mark. Are there any questions?” (Answer any question that does not lead them.). “Okay, proceed.” (Ring bell to begin, then halfway through, and at the end.)
After each of the role-plays for both meetings, I will ask participants, including the volunteers, to journal for 5 minutes paying attention to their bodily responses, what arose for them, a feeling, an image, a memory, or experience. I will have this as a question on newsprint for them to see and refer to, as I point to it and say the following:
“What did you notice arise in this role-play in terms of feelings, images, memories, or bodily responses?” I will ask for more volunteers until everyone has had an opportunity to role-play cross-gender behaviors, feelings, and performances.
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APPENDIX 11
CLOSING JOURNAL QUESTIONNAIRE FORM
Please answer the questions below as completely, yet concisely as you can; an extra sheet (with corresponding numbers) is attached if you want more room to write.
Name Age
1. What were 3 to 5 key moments for you in this study, “Exploring Gender?”
2. What images, pictures, or memories of gender did you access that feel significant?
3. What was the most difficult moment of gender exploration in the two meetings for you?
a. briefly explain why
4. What (if any) images that arose for you disturbed or surprised you?
a. briefly explain why
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5. An epiphany is defined by Webster’s as a “sudden insight into the reality” of something. Explain any experience in these two meetings that might constitute an epiphany.
6. In the visualization of the future, what did you, or do you now, imagine for yourself in a gendered role?
a. Does the physical body still determine limits to what is accepted in gendered roles in this future? Choose one answer and briefly explain.
If yes______, how?
If not______, why do you suppose this would be?
7. In the visualization far into the future, describe detailed ways people acted, or the way you imagine/d them paying attention to gender roles.
8. What image/s of gender will you carry forward in your life as a result of the experiences in this Gender Exploration Study?
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APPENDIX 12
MEETING ONE: INTRODUCTION AND OPENING RITUAL
Hello, I want to begin by having you look at the consent form that has been
passed out. Take time now to read it, then sign it, and hand it back to me. Pause.
Now that we’ve completed that I want to move on to some logistics, where the
bathrooms are; does anyone not know the locations? They are just down the hall. There is
a water pitcher at the back of the room with glasses if you did not bring your own. We will have bathroom breaks, at least every hour and a half so that there is no disruption in any of the activities; so please stay with the group other than those times. Please turn any cell phone or pager off. You will be able to check it at break time if this is necessary.
We will begin each meeting with a circular gathering for a very simple ritual where I will ask participants to share something. This will also occur at the end of each meeting. For tonight, I will ask you to state your name, to introduce yourselves, and then to share why you were drawn to this research study in just a sentence or two.
Let us gather into a circle. I will drum briefly to help us focus, and then ring a bell for us to begin going around the circle stating our name and the reason we were drawn to this study. I will begin and we can continue around the circle clockwise. Drum for 30 seconds. Ring bell. My name is Debbra and I was drawn to this group and to this topic for the research study because I have experienced restrictions in gender roles, and continue to experience this to some extent. Next person begins as I nod to the person left of me.
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APPENDIX 13
MEETING ONE: CLOSING RITUAL
Let us gather in a circle now to close. I appreciate everyone’s participation tonight. Tomorrow morning we will start at 10:00 a.m. in the morning. I hope everyone gets a full night sleep so they are rested. Wear comfortable clothes and bring a bag lunch if you would like; there will be food offered in the morning and for lunch time, and there are restaurants nearby. We will take a lunch break at noon and start again at 1 p.m. tomorrow afternoon. Please remember that what you heard here tonight is to be kept confidential. You all signed the consent form regarding this.
Now I would like you all to take turns and share a new image or awareness as yourself as a gendered person before I ring the bell to close. Pause for the sharing of images/awareness. Thank you again; good night, and I will see you in the morning.
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APPENDIX 14
MEETING TWO: ORIENTATION AND RITUAL
Good morning. Remember that lunch will be at noon today, and we will meet back here at 1 p.m. in order to stay on schedule. Please be prompt. Remember the consent form you signed last night which includes providing other participants the safety of confidentiality, alright? The bathroom is right down the hall. There is a water pitcher and glasses in the back of the room. Now, let us gather in a circle and open the day with very brief drumming to help us wake up a bit more and clear our minds of any distracting thoughts. Drum for 30 seconds. Now when I ring the bell I would like you to share any new gender images that may have arisen overnight. I will ring the bell.
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APPENDIX 15
MEETING TWO: CLOSING AND RITUAL
Let us gather in a circular formation to close the day and the two meetings. I want to remind you all once again of the confidentiality we need to honor for everything we have heard and shared here in these two meetings. I appreciate you all. To end, please share what new gender image you may carry forward from your experience in this study.
Pause for this. Ring the bell when done. Goodbye, thank you again.
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APPENDIX 16
SUMMARY OF LEARNINGS
Learnings in the research study Beyond Gender Development: Internal Resources
Recognized reveals four Learnings and a comprehensive statement that captures the focal or Cumulative Learning.
The Cumulative Learning reveals: Early, good-enough family support for developing both feminine and masculine capacities allows an individual to explore contrasexuality throughout their lifetime without severe and restrictive gatekeeping dynamics, and enables the individual to digest discrepancies between social expectations related to gender performance and the individual’s core identity. Embodying and visualizing cross-gender experience enhances empathy both toward others and the internal other and supports the withdrawal of projections and the increase in capacities.
Every participant in the research study expressed that the cross-gender activities in the research meetings was one of their key moments, or significant experiences in the research meetings. All but one participant shared they had support for their early cross-gender experiences from their parents and extended family.
Learning One: Childhood gender identity develops through selective identification with positive aspects of both genders and disidentification from limiting aspects, in an atmosphere of sufficient parental support, despite cultural expectations and stereotypes. Six participants spoke and journaled about participating in activities or games they later learned were more identified with the other sex. One woman’s dream
251 was to be a fireman when she grew up; the adults in her family bought her a toy fire truck to drive. She and another female participant saw their mothers and female family members carry out tasks requiring strength as well as killing and butchering the animals raised for meat. Two other women shared and journaled that their fathers often involved them in their daily lives teaching them they could do or be anything they wanted. One woman shared how her preschool had only one restroom for the boys and girls, so that both used the same restroom; she noted the only difference she saw was that the boys stood up sometimes and the girls sat down to pee.
Learning Two: The expression and amplification of stereotypical gender roles evokes disgust, anger, sadness, and surprise for both genders and assists in disidentification, and withdrawal of projections. All of the participants mentioned some type of sadness, shame, or repulsion when they witnessed several stereotypes that were hurtful to women, or the stereotype of a man appearing too full of himself and strutting down the street holding his crotch.
The stereotypes performed in the traditional gender role-plays seemed to increase the participants’ recognition of limits and possible harm the roles can cause. One woman mentioned how nauseated she felt a couple of times; several participants felt anger or sadness in a couple of the role-plays when they saw blatant misunderstanding or disrespect between the roles of the woman and man. Several participants wrote of their disgust when they witnessed haughty behaviors acted out. Surprise was also noted in participants along with laughter at many of the performances.
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Learning Three: The contrasexual performance and experience brings to awareness the limiting aspects of gender roles, leading either to further personal insight or increased rigidity resulting from defensive processes.
As mentioned above, all participants journaled at least once that role-playing cross-gender behaviors and feelings and/or visualizing themselves as the other gender was significant. The laughter in the room increased during the cross-gender role-plays and seemed to lighten the feelings that arose from witnessing limits and restrictions. The cross-gender experiences for participants through the cross-gender activities brought more understanding and empathy. Several participants journaled and shared that they felt the limitations in being the other sex, and felt empathy or understanding from it. There was also one incident where a participant felt they wanted to defend their own identified gender, even providing a rationale using the other gender’s weakness (the weakness being a traditional stereotype); this represents a defensive stance which can act to increase the strength of the stereotype for the other gender within the participant.
Learning Four: Through gatekeeping dynamics, unfamiliar movement and stances are restricted as they threaten to dislodge familiar and gender adaptive patterns. The gatekeeping dynamics refer to an internal critic, pattern, or messages that people have accepted as right, through their development. In the cross-gender Authentic Movement activity the foreign movements, rejected early in life–as not me–can be experienced as unsettling to the familiar and adaptive gender movements that a person knows.
Six out of seven participants stated they did not feel comfortable in some way with the Authentic Movement activity. When given instructions for the role-plays, participants seemed to know how the other gender moved and what feelings might go
253 with the movements and communication. However, when given instructions to turn inside to internal promptings and urges according to their own gender first, and then the other gender, participants had more difficulty.
The hesitation and discomfort in the Authentic Movement activity may have come from the unfamiliarity of participants expressing their body differently and in a personal and authentic way, rather than through acting out a role.
Participants were able to verbalize experience in the Authentic Movement, however, providing relevant images for the first three learnings above, and allowing their authenticity of discomfort and inability to move, contribute to this learning.
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APPENDIX 17
THANK-YOU LETTER TO PARTICIPANTS
Date
Dear (participant),
The enclosure with this letter is the Summary of Learnings which I explained
would be sent to you after I completed my dissertation.
I would like to thank you for your participation and the time you committed to the
two research meetings. You assisted me in a lengthy task in which I learned much. I do
hope that you remember some of the imagery from the two meetings as you read the
Summary. It does appear that the key moments for most of you were in the cross-gender
activities. It is my hope that you continue to draw on those resources within yourself.
Thank you again.
Yours truly,
Debbra Haven
Researcher and Doctoral Candidate in Psychology
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APPENDIX 18
SUMMARY OF DATA
SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: CLOSING QUESTIONNAIRE 1
1. What were 3-5 key moments for you in this study, “Exploring Gender?”
Barb, a 69-year-old woman: “Trying on the opposite gender.” “Bringing together in my own body the masculine and feminine in myself.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman: “Exploring issues to opposite gender (male).” “Seeing how others experience genders.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man: “Realizing that problems from gender roles (stereotypical) are fixable and improving.” “Hearing about some male stereotyping made me feel uncomfortable. “I’m not like that” as a man.” “Developing empathy during authentic movement for what it would be like having women’s body parts.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman: “I didn’t mind role-playing a male.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman: “Recognizing what the other gender might be thinking about certain female behaviors and as a female understanding why the male is behaving in a certain manner.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman: “It was intense to try to see myself as my brother.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: CLOSING QUESTIONNAIRE 2 AND 3
2. What images, pictures, or memories of gender did you access that feel significant?
Ray, a 25-year-old man: “The image of being a female who is the caretaker.”
Barb, a 69-year-old woman: “Image of the young boy who peed in the bath tub/age 3. Image of neighborhood boys who “taught” me how they viewed me/girls when I was 4-5.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man: “Fear of sexual predators can be so limiting in what women can do.”
Amy is a 58-year-old woman: “As a child I didn’t feel any different imagining myself as male or female: as an adult roles were definitely different.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman: “How strong I feel inside and a sureness of myself that I didn’t expect.”
3. What was the most difficult moment of gender exploration in the two meetings for you? a. briefly explain why.
Matt, a 57-year-old man: “Hearing about some male stereotyping made me feel uncomfortable. “I’m not like that” as a man.” a. “I suppose because I want to be fair and equal.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman: “Movement.” a. “I don’t feel comfortable moving in front of people. I don’t feel graceful.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman: “Feeling of frustration as a woman. Feeling of responsibility and obligation as a man.” a. “With more thought and deeper exploration what could I do to relieve either of the roles or feel more comfortable in maleness/femaleness.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: CLOSING QUESTIONNAIRE 4 AND 5
4. What (if any) images that arose for you disturbed or surprised you? a. briefly explain why.
Ray, a 25-year-old man: “Me being a female as a child.” a. “Rejection.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman: “How bitchy I really feel inside and how can I express my needs without suppressing who I am, yet not be reactive.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman: “I remembered my sixth grade teacher molesting me.”
5. An epiphany is defined by Webster’s as a “sudden insight into the reality” of something. Explain any experience in these two meetings that might constitute an epiphany.
Matt, a 57-year-old man: “Realizing that problems from gender roles (stereotypical) are fixable and improving. All is getting more appropriate, getting fixed.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman: “Seeing people’s stereotypes of male and females and how I wasn’t that stereotype.”
Amy, a 58-year-old female: “Men really do have feelings and it seems like many of them suppress them in order to maintain an image.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: CLOSING QUESTIONNAIRE 6
6. In the visualization of the future, what did you, or do you now, imagine for yourself in a gendered role? a. Does the physical body still determine limits to what is accepted in gendered roles in this future? Choose one answer and briefly explain. If yes______, how? If not______, why do you suppose this would be?
Ray, a 25-year-old man: “As a strong intelligent woman who is self-sufficient.”
Barb, a 69-year-old woman: “I imagined fewer differences across the board. Greater understanding acceptance of differences fewer gender expectations. Intentional communities of all people to benefit all people. a. Yes. The baby always presents some limitations whether male or female. Without gender expectations the limitations will be situational not gender specific.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man: “A better understanding between sexes, no longer needing to play roles is part of our future. a. Yes. I believe that much of our stereotypical gender roles are influenced by eons of genetic memory.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman: “I’m a stronger male than I thought. a. Yes. Males are built stronger than females. I’d rather have a male firefighter save me than a female because of strength.”
Amy, a 58-year-old female: “Making less judgment of the other gender and accepting that we think and do things differently. I’ll still get frustrated but maybe I can be less reactive. a. No. There will be a need to work cohesively and hopefully we have gained some wisdom that tells us how well we can work together.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman: “I am very comfortable with both my age and gender and don’t expect that to change as I grow older. a. No. Jobs that require muscular strength as delicate touch can be done by either gender the only way physical body plays a part is maybe in height.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: CLOSING QUESTIONNAIRE 7 AND 8
7. In the visualization far into the future, describe detailed ways people acted, or the way you imagine/d them paying attention to gender roles.
Ray, a 25-year-old man: “In the future some treated me with respect, as a human being.”
Barb, a 69-year-old woman: “Male, female dressed more the same – and for comfort and practicality – people were less judgmental, calm, and peaceful. Men feeling open to be physically warm, women open to feeling safe and strong.”
Amy, a 58-year-old female: “Sexual needs were met. Individuals worked at what they wanted to do, – there was no fear about physical or emotional needs being met.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman: “I saw people having jobs/careers based on talent desire not gender. I saw clothing more “unisex” and more ease in friendships regardless of gender.”
8. What image/s of gender will you carry forward in your life as a result of the experiences in this Gender Exploration Study?
Barb, a 69-year-old woman: “There is hope for all of us and those who follow us.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man: “That we are more equivalent than we normally think.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman: “Appreciate everyone’s own strengths.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman: “I’m feeling more sensitive to males wanting to be more sensitive yet fearing judgment, ridicule and being seen as less than a man.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman: “I feel that gender roles are changing and I think that is a very good thing. They were not very helpful when they seemed case in concrete.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM TRADITIONAL ROLE-PLAY 1
Ray, a 25-year-old man, Role-play 1: “I felt the male felt very confident about himself. I felt he was masculine and strong. I felt the female was weak, very submissive, and that she was not to sure of herself in the role-play: but before the role-play she was strong, very intelligent, and un-submissive.”
Barb, a 69-year-old woman, Role-play 1: “Yeah! I know what this is like – being hit on by a married man . . . the woman not feeling okay about expressing the anger that arises when she feels less – than and not respected. I’ve been there – done that and have felt badly because I didn’t express my disgust/anger. It’s like receiving a left-handed compliment. Sure, it’s “flattering” when a man finds you attractive, but the pay-off is less that positive when you realize he’s married or is in another relationship. Often the “come-on” feels uncomfortable as well. In my years as a single woman I’ve been deeply disappointed in men who have “come on” in this way.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman, Role-play 1: “Pick Up - ♂ – Assertive, aggressive, self-assured, moved around (physical), not faithful to spouse.♀ – Submissive, sweet, not confident, not physically active, demure posture, flirty. Typical . . . ”
Matt, a 57-year-old man, Role-play 1: “Male tried to portray macho, sexually aggressive role, even with the old multiple partner stereotype. Female was stereotypically demure and somewhat wishy-washy about his aggressive approach. What this brought up was just a reminder of the way we can act if we do not intentionally remember and avoid acting in these roles that we grew up with. It also reminded me of how much advertising and TV affects us in our gender roles. I felt pretty uncomfortable in the role and realized how much I am not like that . . . but also how I step into the role in more subtle ways.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman, Role-play 1: “Brought back memories of high school roles. Typical male self centered role and the girl who doesn’t have the strength to be herself. As I think back, it could be me – Being young and inexperienced with life. This role seemed to be a part of my past.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Role-play 1: “Women’s role – “gag me”. I felt ashamed of her. How could she fall for a jerk? If it was a real situation and she was a friend I would have pulled her away to have talked to her. If he would have approached me I would have instantly walked away. I realized I was stereotyping him. Why can’t Matt walk around like a mating rooster? I was angry at the woman for being flattered from the man’s attention. Image was that she was weak, desperate, flattered easily, therefore, – low self esteem.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman, Role-play 1: “Typical – dumb blonde attitude – once I may have felt that way but not now.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM TRADITIONAL ROLE-PLAY 2
Barb, a 69-year-old woman, Role-play 2: “Strong men – appreciative, fawning – receptive women. How do I feel about “STRONG/PHYSICAL/MACHO” men? I don’t want to “admire” them – those I’ve known and interacted with I’ve want to equal in some way – show my own physical strength and endurance. I want to be independent and strong myself – honor my own masculine side. I do not feel “safer” or more “feminine” when with or around those men.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman, Role-play 2: “Fear Factor” – Man is he strong. Woman is adoring, supportive. Women can do many physical things as well as men. Men usually won’t (as) supportive of women’s accomplishments.
Matt, a 57-year-old man, Role-play 2: “It reminded me mostly that women are “supposed” to be appreciative of a man in action. What a strange society we live in. Then it made me think about how women try to fix this – by emulating too-strong men; when what should happen is acceptance of inner self regardless of gender.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman, Role-play 2: “Stupid macho men who think they can do anything with strength. Women who think this is the way to support their man. It surprises me how many of my students at age 9 to 12 already have these ideas of how men and women should act.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Role-play 2: “I don’t like seeing women play up to their male partners. This one wasn’t as nauseating.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman, Role-play 2: “I remember feeling like that frequently and wanting someone else – my husband when I was married to help out and feeling angry and frustrated by not getting the help I wanted.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM TRADITIONAL ROLE-PLAY 3
Ray, a 25-year-old man, Role-play 3: “I sometimes do that. I catch myself acting like I’m the boss. I was raised in that environment where the male does not have to jump when the female says when to. And when the female gets upset due to the male was incorrect the female is called a bitch.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman, Role-play 3: “B - Women are bossy, busy, organizer, and frantic. Man is relaxed, unconcerned, doesn’t want to be bothered, and non-communicative. This happens a lot in my own life, I relate to the B.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man, Role-play 3: “I am not sure how time has affected these particular stereotypes. Is this one less prevalent than is the past? Has progress been made, or are we merely moving toward the lowest common denominator?”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman, Role-play 3: “Real life scenario – Again, brings up a lot of memories of the past. Especially when we just started our family. Hubby gets to have a beer and relax while I cook and do the evening chores.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Role-play 3: “My role-play – evoked what actually does happen in my life so I could feel my adrenalin pumping and the sense of frustration when I have been in similar situations. “Be saved” – move on.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman, Role-play 3: “Funny – typical old role model – I know I was in that role and it doesn’t always feel good – especially when it’s something that I could do myself.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM TRADITIONAL ROLE-PLAY 4
Barb, a 69-year-old woman, Role-play 4: “The “talking” issue. Ah yes! Yes – the communication barrier is huge in my relationships. The men in my life have not wanted to “talk” – saying “I can’t just turn it on and off when you want me to.” This has been one of my greatest frustrations in my relationships with men. I end up feeling “not cared for” and unimportant.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman, Role-play 4: “Communication” – Women are a problem, wants to talk. Man is clueless, too occupied/unconcerned to talk about it. Men and women often value different things. Men seem more willing to let things slide, not accept women’s feelings. Men often don’t want to talk about “problems” or “feelings.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man, Role-play 4: “Ok, I see myself in the stereotypical role. I haven’t thought about it much, but is it a sex role, or is it some other kind of emotional injury that can happen to either sex? But for sure, this is the way we see it portrayed. The only thing I would have added to the role-play was, “haven’t we already discussed this” so “why do we have to go through this again without resolution.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman, Role-play 4: “Feelings in my family are not talked about. If you don’t talk about it, it didn’t happen. I understand now if you don’t talk you don’t understand the whole situation. It’s interesting that I would marry a man who doesn’t share his feelings.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Role-play 4: “I felt the women’s helplessness. How does one communicate when the other 1 - Doesn’t believe there is a problem because “he” is satisfied. 2 - The other has nothing to say because according to “him” there is no issue. 3 – Even if the woman expresses her feelings “he” doesn’t hear what her needs are. Feelings and hopelessness.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman, Role-play 4: “It reminds me of how I felt when my husband would say he did half of the household chores because he took our daughter to preschool and we alternated giving her a bath. I did the laundry, cleaning, shopping etc. and I felt angry about that often.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM CROSS-GENDER ROLE-PLAY 1
Barb, a 69-year-old woman, Role-play 1: “I don’t usually think of driving as a gender issue for me but I know the stereotypes exist and are often used in comedy – non-mechanically minded – frazzled female!
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman: Role-play 1: “The Driver = . . . Women do talk more, especially about emotional stuff. Want to stay connected to family and friends. I think men are “happy” to be in their own world, not really listening to their partner. More concerned about life outside themselves. I think both “role-players” experienced their ideas about the opposite sex pretty well. Their impressions/ideas of the opposite sex act seemed based on reality.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man: Role-play 1: “Closer examination breaks down the driving stereotype. Though many men are tuned in with their vehicles due to – more thorough exposure when young. This is a role of adults force us into as we grow up – girls don’t work on cars and other mechanical equipment. When I turned 18, I got a full set of tools for my birthday, my sister got clothes and music (which is what she wanted).”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman, Role-play 1: “Road Rage – Back seat driver – Man always trying to control/help with what they see. When I do make a mistake I feel men put me in the category of “poor women drivers.” I hate it when men act as if they never make a mistake or it’s never their fault.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Role-play 1: “Having the male play the female putting on make up awakened me to the thought how a man might see us (females) as doing unnecessary things while driving and putting others in danger; and the woman might see herself as multitasking because these aren’t enough hours in a day.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM CROSS-GENDER ROLE-PLAY 2
Barb, a 69-year-old woman, Role-play 2: “Got it! Feeling? – Anger – frustration. Yes, - “the man is king of his castle” “the woman is responsible for keeping everything in order at home” – even if she works. Women often apologize for not meeting everyone needs. Women are afraid to “displease” the man in their life and that trickles down to male children. The self-absorbed man is getting a lot of role time here – do we all (women) see men that way? I certainly have.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman, Role-play 2: “The Cook - Wife taking care of family, multitasking, and being apologetic. Husband wants dinner now!! Justifying behavior. “Role-players” expressed ideas very real.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man, Role-play 2: “That shows a greater understanding than we might think of the stereotype involved in the other gender. A great starting place to make sure we don’t fall into those roles.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman, Role-play 2: “Reminder of days past when we were starting a family. I’m tired but have to take care of meals, kids, house, and hubby gets to relax. I hear my daughter saying the same thing. My response – “Get used to it.” As time passes roles for me have lessened.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Role-play 2: “Some sadness arose, feeling that the woman was pressured and the man was unappreciative. The type of woman I am I would never even date a man like in this role-play.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman, Role-play 2: “Very true to life – working at home is not considered as important as working at a paying job. His needs come first. I have experienced this feeling even from another female living in the household (my sister-in-law lived with us as a 19 year-old). An image of feeling less than is important came up.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM CROSS-GENDER ROLE-PLAY 3
Ray, a 25-year-old man, Role-play 3: “The male not needing help from the female, the male being very smart, under control. The male thinking the female can not do the job of a male. This being a male dominant world.”
Barb, a 69-year-old woman, Role-play 3: “These all strike a comical note. I don’t think our role-plays did last night. What is that about? Is it because we are playing opposite roles from our actual gender? What about the man or woman who actually does “behave” like the opposite gender? How do we react to them? The man who doesn’t want any help? Working with a man like that is frustrating.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man, Role-play 3: “The woman’s work place situation is poor. Men take over and do it themselves without involving women, or intentionally disengaging the woman-even ignoring. Women are often not trained or raised to deal with this and either think they need to be demure or sometimes even angry – and neither is effective.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Role-play 3. “My learning is I can’t have it both ways – resent not getting help and resist asking for help because I won’t like how it’s done.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM CROSS-GENDER ROLE-PLAY 4
Ray, a 25-year-old man, Role-play 4: “The male is not to very open about his feelings. Very cold-hearted, maybe due to fear of what might be thought of him.”
Barb, a 69-year-old woman, Role-play 4: “It hits close to home. The man who doesn’t want to talk, even though he said he would. The man who backs off – discounts the woman’s feelings and if she persists in trying to engage – he leaves – walks out. That is a scenario I’ve been a part of many times and I feel a catch in my stomach and throat and frustration and anger. I feel not cared for – like I’m just not valued by that person.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman, Role-play 4. “The Conversation = The man doesn’t want to talk, would rather “stew.” The woman has emotional response, crying, to man – not wanting to communicate. I would be ANGRY if my husband refused to talk about something, not sad or pleading.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man, Role-play 4. “This was a real Mars vs. Venus thing. Some folks think it is hard-wired genetically that women seek to more discuss feelings and emotion, and that men don’t have as much of a need for that and can even find it pointless. Men can learn to fill that need in women, but can women learn to set aside that need? That might be more difficult.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman, Role-play 4. “I thought it was the Japanese culture that doesn’t express their feelings but I now see how men don’t like to talk about feelings “it’s not the manly thing to do.” I see it on my students. Their communication is physical. We work with them to open up but its hard behavior to break.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Role-play 4: “I can’t even imagine, nor have I ever heard a man ask to be understood. So, is it a generalization to say they don’t care to be understood? They don’t want to deal with feelings and they just want to be right. Whether they have a big ego or are insecure, I believe both types would behave in the same way. Only a secure, aware, and sensitive man could listen to someone else’s needs and cries of distress. What does this say in regard to world peace negotiations where it’s mostly men who are in the discussions. We need good listeners who get to the heart of the problem.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM CROSS-GENDER ROLE-PLAY 5
Barb, a 69-year-old woman, Role-play 5: “The “cock of the walk” Oh God! These men are a complete turn-off. I’m repelled and disgusted and want to distance myself from the scene. That role is played out in many ways – the most obvious – the one she role-played. These men are a bit frightening to me.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman, Role-play 5. “The Cool Guy” = Man is concerned that he is sexually attractive – verbal. I think both men and women are very concerned about their attractiveness. Men may be more verbal about it, bragging, and posturing. Women will dress suggestively, yet/ooh/act demure.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man, Role-play 5. “Women do the same thing, except it is closer linked to how they dress “sexy”. This is an ego thing that is based more in personal emotional insecurities than in gender. This role-play focused on the man acting like God’s gift, but I think girls grow up with even more sexual insecurities than boys – so it is seen more in women.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman, Role-play 5. “Don’t guys know how stupid they look and act? Come on – how will they function in society. They don’t need to conform but do need to know how to act.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Role-play 5. “ Almost too much to believe it to be true except, unfortunately, I know it to be true. It is difficult for me to know how women fall for this type of egotistical, macho behavior. Because I am aware of where this takes place – it is painful to see and makes me want to throw up because it happens in front of elementary school children and they are learning from those adults and sometimes do not are other types of adults.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman, Role-play 5: “Laughter – it was a great stereotype. I have actually known some men with those feelings. It reminded me of when I would go to a bar and the feeling of being valued only as a “one-night-stand” opportunity – sort of a “meat-market” feeling. Only worth is sexual and it doesn’t matter who you are. Very non-personal.”
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SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM FIRST GUIDED VISUALIZATION TRADITIONAL ROLE ACTIVITY
Barb, a 69-year-old woman: “When I was 3 or 4 years of age I was at the home of a little neighbor boy. His mom was giving him a bath and invited me into the bathroom. The little boy stood up in the tub and peed. That is my first memory of seeing a naked male and realizing there was a very significant physical difference between us. I remember being curious, not at all scared or confused. It was an “ah ha!” moment for me as a little girl.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman: “My family consisted of my mother, sister, and I, – and my extended family of “strong” – grandmother and aunts – I always had strong role models of women – competent, dominant, strong, hard-working independent. That’s how I grew up. I think I first recognized differences between boys and girls in preschool – in bathroom (which were co-ed!!), boys stood up, and girls sat down. I didn’t really have any “bad” feelings arise from thinking about this.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman: “I honestly can’t remember realizing I was a girl. I always look back and remember a shy Asian girl (in that order) the only time I can remember being frustrated with being a female was when I wasn’t allowed to work cleaning up a railroad spill. The male foreman said there wasn’t a bathroom for me. My “a ha” moment was realizing how shy I was as a child.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman: “I remember preferring to be on the farm with animals, gathering eggs, playing with the ducks, kissing the pigs and jumping off fences. I never wanted to play house and instead took cousins out in the wheat fields on a safari. Growing up on a farm I realized that as a boy I might have had more chores or more would have been expected of me in regard to actually working. I also grew up wanting to be a race car driver or a fireman. I was given a push paddle fire truck.”
270
SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM SECOND GUIDED VISUALIZATION CROSS-GENDER ACTIVITY
Ray, a 25-year-old man: “Looking back as a child I want to say I looked down upon because I was a girl and not a boy.”
Barb, a 69-year-old woman: “Future – blurring of sexes – we all look more alike – homosexuals – bisexuals – heteros- all joining together – fewer divisions between – sharing of responsibilities – fewer, if any, gender expectations.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman: “Life as a Boy – I would wonder about going to the bathroom standing up vs. going sitting down. I would play on the playground equipment without worrying a dress getting in the way, or someone seeing my underwear.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man: “The images I got were of me as a teenage girl stereotyping talking with a small group of friends “like, you know” about boys (not yet interested in us) clothes, cell phones. Very animated discussion. Then later images were more centered on the physical fears that women go thorough. Always afraid of sexual predators, not being able to calmly walk in the park by myself. But otherwise, feeling secure in the rest of my life. Finally, in older age I enjoyed losing those fears and settling into a comfortable relationship with a good hearted and loving man.”
Gwen is a 56-year-old woman: “I saw myself as a person not divided. I was raised with a mom who took care of both gender roles. My dad always exposed me to his life – things I could need to be independent.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman: “Looking into the future: I saw males and females being more asexual. They were dressed for comfort rather than for sex appeal. Everything was equal. There were less marriages or couples living together. There was more of what I’ve heard exists today with the 20 and 30 something’s. Friends with fringe benefits. In the future it will be very common place. People will have their needs met in every way and there will be no need for competition between or amongst the sexes. Imagining myself as a male through birth to adulthood, there were benefits being a man and there were disadvantages. If a man is married he is expected to provide, be responsible, and take care of the necessities. He isn’t a man if he can’t provide or isn’t a man who could be sought by a woman unless he is very handsome and sexual and therefore a good friend with benefits. On one hand I felt as a man I would have been very successful as a leader and moved up the corporate ladder quickly, yet as I get older I felt I didn’t want the obligations nor the responsibilities. I think that is why I like the future where everyone was equal, the same, no need to prove anything, no worry about being judged whether I was not enough.”
271
Kay, a 61-year-old woman: “I just saw myself as my brother around 6th grade. I was allowed more freedom to go places and do things. In High School I was more popular (the males of the family are handsome and the female more plain) and was involved in sports. My parents were prouder of my accomplishments. I had a little trouble having to be the one to ask the girls out and to dance first – initiate interaction with the opposite sex. At college I had a different career – engineering instead of nursing but attended same schools. I dated a lot but was somewhat shy. As an adult I had a lot of pressure to earn money for my family. At my current age – it wasn’t ok to have a gardener take care of the lawn. In the future the genders were dressed more alike and the roles are less defined because of gender – they are based on talents and desire more.”
272
SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM AUTHENTIC MOVEMENT 1
Barb, a 69-year-old woman, Authentic Movement 1: “For me as a woman, a stretching – reaching movement feels true to who I am and what feels good to my body ~ there’s a feeling of grace – freedom – strength – release to slow bending, stretching, holding myself and rocking myself feels loving of myself and can bring tears and gentle caring for the child within me. Yoga (yin) does this for me. When I am doing my yoga I feel my body as a woman in all of my parts and emotions/feelings are there through every movement, even the challenging ones. Music during movement takes all of it deeper for me and connects more fully to the emotional part of the experience.”
Ellen, a 53-year-old woman, Authentic Movement 1: “I didn’t have the desire to move. But I did have an “image” of myself cradling a baby. Women bear children. It is our biological heritage to being children into the world and care for them even though I made the decision long ago to not have children and I am glad for that, occasionally the maternal urge kicks in.”
Matt, a 57-year-old man, Authentic Movement 1: “I reflected for awhile on what it felt like to be male, deep inside. It was difficult to find things non-physical to feel about, without being comparative to female stereotyping of inner feelings. Since comparatives are not really feeling the “self” I don’t think I succeeded much in this exercise. I was able, however, to be aware of my sexuality in this exercise.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman, Authentic Movement 1: “With the small amount of movement I was doing I felt warmth, which surprised me.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Authentic Movement 1: “My own nurturing = Softness, relaxation, deliberate but strong. Wanted to move, move and twirl like a ballerina but didn’t feel anyone else move.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman, Authentic Movement 1: “It took a while to get in touch with my body. I felt a gentle swaying – like trees in a light breeze and rocking my body like I did when holding my daughter as a baby. Then I felt a current of strength – bringing me to an upright position and my breathing was stronger and deeper.”
273
SAMPLES OF RESPONSES: JOURNALING FROM AUTHENTIC MOVEMENT 2
Barb, a 69-year-old woman, Authentic Movement 2: “Opposite Gender – The feeling in my body go to my thighs and back – the two most “masculine” feelings parts of my body. My face also takes on a “determined” grimace. I feel heavy – rooted and have images of pushing – pulling – being “low” in my body – getting closer to the ground – Crouching – pushing with the muscles of my back and shoulders and thighs my heart center more contracted and “protected” by my upper body and thigh/muscles. The sounds and grunting – growling – defending – ready for heavy action. I felt more “gorilla” like and hard externally and closed internally. I did not feel free.”
Matt, a 56-year-old man, Authentic Movement 2: “Opposite Gender – Again, for similar reasons, I was not moved to movement. But I felt my feminine side is such a part of me as to be inseparable. The only place I could go was again physiological, as the image I called up was one of merging a woman’s body parts into mine. I felt like I could bring those parts, womb, vagina, breasts, and all into my body to express ownership of my feminine side. That was the image left from this exercise.”
Gwen, a 56-year-old woman, Authentic Movement 2: “Opposite Gender – At first I started with relaxing. Going within and relaxing – relaxing – relaxing. When I remembered to think of the opposite gender I realized I was getting tense. I’d relax and become tense again. I guess my image of male is strong, working, and physical activities.”
Amy, a 58-year-old woman, Authentic Movement 2: “OPPOSITE GENDER – No need to prove strengths, abilities, worthiness. If I’m tired, I’m tired and I’m going to rest. I don’t feel guilty or feel that I have to do everything. I can sleep when I want to and watch TV when I want to and take my time to read the newspaper.”
Kay, a 61-year-old woman, Authentic Movement 2: “Opposite Gender – I felt heaviness/weight but still don’t feel gender – my word/feeling was strong just as before. I did not feel any movement except my head in an upright position and somewhat deeper breathing. I had less thought this time, no images either – just the one word.”
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NOTES
Chapter 1
1. Carl Jung, Aspects of the Feminine, trans. Robert Hull (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1982).
2. Aftab Omer, “Four Phases of Imaginal Inquiry,” in Dissertation Handbook: Graduate School and Research Center, 3rd ed. (Petaluma, CA: Meridian University, 2007), 63-69.
3. Ibid.
4. Ann Ulanov, Finding Space: Winnicott, God, and Psychic Reality (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox Press, 2001); ed. Ben Sells, Working with Images: The Theoretical Base of Archetypal Psychology (Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications, 2000); William Wordsworth, “Ode: Intimations of Immortality From Recollections of Early Childhood,” Poetical Works, with Introduction and Notes, eds. Ernest de Selincourt and Thomas Hutchinson (New York: Oxford University Press, 1961), 460.
5. Kay Bussey and Albert Bandura, “Social Cognitive Theory of Gender Development and Differentiation,” Psychological Review 106 (1999): 676-713.
6. Jill Morawski, “Toward the Unimagined: Feminism and Epistemology in Psychology,” in Making a Difference: Psychology and the Construction of Gender, eds. Rachel Hare-Mustin and Jeanne Marecek (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1992), 167.
7. Rachel Hare-Mustin and Jeanne Marecek, “The Meaning of Difference: Gender Theory, Postmodernism, and Psychology,” American Psychologist 43 (1988): 455-464.
8. National Institutes of Health, U. S. Department of Human Services, http://grants.nih.gov/grants/oer.htm; Internet; accessed 14 July 2007.
9. Janet Hyde, “The Gender Similarities Hypothesis,” American Psychologist 60, no. 6 (September 2005): 581-592.
10. Sigmund Freud, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality: the Definitive Edition, trans. James Strachey (New York: Basic Books, 2000), 13.
11. Polly Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire: Uncursing Pandora (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 1997), 29-31; Linda Olds, Fully Human: How Everyone Can Integrate the Benefits of Masculine and Feminine Sex Roles (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1981), 230-231.
12. APA Online, “Answers to Your Questions About Transgender Individuals and Gender Identity,” in topic: sexuality, http://www.apa.org/topics/transgender.html#whatis; Internet; accessed 28 July 2007; Ann Fausto-Sterling, “The Five Sexes, Revisited,” Sciences 40 (July/Aug 2000): 18-23.
13. APA Online, “Psychology Matters,” http://www.psychologymatters.org/glossary.html#g; Internet; accessed 4 September 2007.
14. Ibid.
15. Ibid; eds. Vern Bullough and Bonnie Bullough, Human Sexuality: An Encyclopedia (New York: Garland Publishing, 1994), 234.
275 16. Michael Kimmel, The Gendered Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 2000), 36; John Money, “The Concept of Gender Identity Disorder in Childhood and Adolescents after 39 Years,” Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy 20, no. 3 (Fall 1994): 163-177.
17. Money, “The Concept of Gender Identity,” 163-177.
18. Ibid.; APA Online, “Psychology Matters.”
19. Kay Deaux and Tim Emswiller, “Explanations of Successful Performance on Sex-Linked Tasks: What Skill Is for the Male Is Luck for the Female,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 29 (1974): 80-85.
20. Bussey and Bandura, “Social Cognitive Theory,” 676-713.
21. Scott Coltrane, Gender and Families (Lanham, MD: Altamira Press, 1997).
22. APA Online, “Answers to Your Questions About Transgender.”
23. Cynthia Miller, “Developmental Changes in Male/Female Voice Classification by Infants,” Infant Behavior and Development 6 (1983): 313-330; Barbara Younger and Dru Fearing, “Parsing Items into Separate Categories: Developmental Change in Infant Categorization,” Child Development 70, no. 2 (March/April, 1999): 291-303.
24. Lawrence Kohlberg, “A Cognitive-Developmental Analysis of Children’s Sex-role Concepts and Attitudes,” in The Development of Sex Differences, ed. Eleanor Maccoby (Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1966), 82-173.
25. Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder, The Psychology of the Child (New York: Basic Books, 1969), 6-15; Heather Davis, “Mental Categorization,” http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/sci_cult/evolit/ s04/web1/hdavis.html; Internet; accessed 20 March 2009.
26. Robert Hopcke, “The Sacred Masculine: Archetypal Images, Shifting Polarities,” Planetary Perspective on Sacred Feminine and Sacred Masculine Seminar (Watsonville, CA: Institute of Transpersonal Psychology, July 2006), http://www.itp.edu/academics/pdf/seminars/Seminar-0607- flyer.pdf; Internet; accessed 20 March 2009.
27. Robert Hopcke, A Guided Tour of the Collected Works of C.G. Jung (Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications, 1989), 62.
28. Murray Stein, “Individuation: Inner Work,” Journal of Jungian Theory and Practice 7, no. 2 (2005): 1-14; Carl Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, ed. Aniela Jaffe, trans. Clara Winston and Richard Winston (New York: Vintage Books Edition, 1989).
29. Ibid.
30. Ibid.
31. Ibid.
32. Ibid.
33. Elizabeth Aries, Men and Women in Interaction (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996).
34. Ibid.
35. Aftab Omer, “Key Definitions,” email forwarded to author, February 12, 2008.
276 36. Marion Solomon, Narcissism and Intimacy: Love and Marriage in an Age of Confusion (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1989), 47; Paula Sager, Witness Consciousness in the Development of the Individual (MA thesis, The Owen Barfield School of Sunbridge College, 2008), 132, in Faculty and Student Works, http://www.barfieldschool.org/works.html; Internet; accessed 10 November 2008.
37. Richard Sennett, The Uses of Disorder: Personal Identity and City Life (New York: W. W. Norton and Company, 1970), 119-121.
38. Ibid.
39. Omer, “Key Definitions.”
40. Ibid.
41. Ibid.
42. Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire.
43. Alice Miller, The Drama of the Gifted Child: The Search for the True Self (New York: Basic Books, 1997); Robert Bly, Seven Sources of Shame (East Montpelier, VT: Heaven and Earth Publishing, 1989).
44. Bly, Seven Sources; John Conger, The Body in Recovery: Somatic Psychotherapy and the Self (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1994), 94.
45. Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire: Uncursing Pandora.
46. Wendy Bratherton, “The Collective Unconscious and Primordial Influences in Gender Identity.” Contemporary Jungian Analysis: Post-Jungian Perspectives from the Society of Analytical Psychology, eds. Ian Alister and Christopher Hauke (New York: Routledge, 1998), 193-197.
47. Bly, Seven Sources; Miller, The Drama of the Gifted Child.
48. Daniel Linder, “The Relationship Model of Addiction,” Relationship Vision, http://relationshipvision.com/read.php?ID=13; Internet; Accessed 20 March 2009.
49. Stein, “Individuation: Inner Work;” Jolande Jacobi, Complex/Archetype/Symbol in the Psychology of C. G. Jung, trans. Ralph Manheim (New York: Routledge, 1999).
50. Jolande Jacobi, The Psychology of C. G. Jung, trans. Ralph Manheim (Chelsea, MI: Book Crafters, Inc, 1973); Jacobi, Complex/Archetype/Symbol.
51. Anthony Stevens, Archetype: A Natural History of the Self (New York: Routledge, 1990), 39.
52. Anthony Stevens, “The Archetypes,” in The Handbook of Jungian Psychology, ed. Renos Papadopoulos (New York: Routledge 2006), 74-93; Carl Jung, The Archetypes and The Collective Unconscious, trans. Robert Hull, vol. 9: 2, Collected Works, 2nd ed. (Princeton, NJ: Bollingen, 1981); Carl Jung, Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self, trans. Robert Hull, ed. Gerhard Adler, vol. 9: 2, Collected Works, 5th printing, (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978).
53. Ibid.; Dacher Keltner, Born to be Good: The Science of a Meaningful Life (New York: W. W. Norton, 2008), 53-54.
54. Melanie Klein, Paula Heimann, and Roger Money-Kyrle, New Directions in Psycho-Analysis: The Significance of Infant Conflict in the Pattern of Adult Behaviour (New York: Routledge, 2003).
55. Edward Edinger, “The Ego-Self Paradox,” in Carl Gustav Jung: Critical Assessments, ed. Renos Papadoupoulos (London: Routledge, 1992), 259-276.
277 56. Ibid.
57. Andrew Samuels, Jung and the Post-Jungians (New York: Routledge, 1986), 86; Adolf Guggenbühl-Craig, Eros on Crutches: On the Nature of the Psychopath (Dallas, TX: Spring Publications, 1980), 25.
58. Carl Jung, “Anima and Animus,” in Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, vol. 7, Collected Works (New York: Pantheon Books, 1953), 187, 296-340; Carl Jung, Civilization in Transition, vol. 10, Collected Works (New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1964), 118; Carl Jung, Symbols of Transformation, vol. 5, Collected Works (New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1956), 299-303.
59. Stein, “Individuation: Inner Work;” Carl Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections, ed. Aniela Jaffe, trans. Clara Winston and Richard Winston (New York: Vintage Books Edition, 1989).
60. Murray Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul: An Introduction (Peru, IL: Open Court Publishing Company, 1998).
61. Anne Ulanov, “Disguises of the Anima,” Gender and Soul in Psychotherapy (Wilmette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1992): 25-54.
62. Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul.
63. Lyn Cowan, “Dismantling the Animus,” The Jung Page (November 2003), http://www.cgjungpage.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=105&Itemid=40; Internet; accessed 5 August 2008.
64. Jung, “Symbols and the Interpretation of Dreams,” The Symbolic Life, eds. and trans. Gerhard Adler and Robert Hull, vol. 18, Collected Works (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1976), 257.
65. Anne Ulanov, “For Better and For Worse,” Psychoanalytic Review 73 (December, 1986): 214-216.
66. David Tacey, “Lost Sons and God Talk,” The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal 13, no. 3 (1994): 15.
67. Ibid., 17.
68. Ibid.; Carl Jung, Aspects of the Masculine, ed. John Beebe (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1989), in “Lost Sons and God Talk,” The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal, David Tacey 13, no. 3 (1994): 5-27.
69. Tacey, “Lost Sons and God Talk,” 15.
70. Carl Jung, “Anima and Animus,” in Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, vol. 7, Collected Works (New York: Pantheon Books, 1953), 187, 296-340; Carl Jung, Civilization in Transition, vol. 10, Collected Works (New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1964), 118; Carl Jung, Symbols of Transformation, vol. 5, Collected Works (New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1956), 299-303.
71. Ibid.
72. Lyn Cowan, “Dismantling the Animus.”
73. Donald Dyer, Cross-Currents of Jungian Thought: An Annotated Bibliography (Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications, 1991).
74. Cowan, “Dismantling the Animus.”
278 75. James Hillman, Archetypal Psychology: A Brief Account (New York: Spring Publications, 1993).
76. Ibid.; James Hillman, “Psychology: Monotheistic or Polytheistic?” Spring (1971): 201.
77. Edward Whitmont, “Jungian Approach,” in Dream Interpretation: A comparative Study, eds. James Fosshage and Clemens Loew (New York: PMA Publishing, 1987), 59.
78. Kenneth Lambert, Analysis, Repair and Individuation (London: Karnac Books, 1994); Donald Winnicott, “The Use of An Object and Relating Through Identifications,” International Journal of Psycho- Analysis 50 (1969).
79. Ibid.; Winnicott, “The Use of An Object;” Donald Winnicott, Playing and Reality (New York: Routledge, 1989), 86-94.
80. Robert Young, “Benign and Virulent Projective Identification in Groups and Institutions,” http://www.human-nature.com/rmyoung/papers/paper3h.html; Internet; accessed 3 September 2008; Robert Young, Ideas in Psychoanalysis: Oedipus Complex (Cambridge, UK: Icon Books Ltd., 2001), 34; Robert Young, “The Human Limits of Nature,” in The Limits of Human Nature, ed. Jonathan Benthall (London: Allen Lane, 1973), 235-274; Robert Young, Mental Space (London: Process Press, 1994).
81. Young, “Benign and Virulent Projective Identification.”
82. Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire.
83. Deldon McNeely, Animus Aeternus: Exploring the Inner Masculine (Toronto, ON: Inner City Books, 1991), 11-13.
84. Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul; Carl Jung, On the Nature of the Psyche, trans. Robert Hull (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press/Bollingen, 1969); David Cornfield, “When Masculine Met Feminine,” Creative Edge, http://www.soulmaking.com/MandF.htm: Internet: accessed 28 December 2008.
85. Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire.
86. Jung, Aion, 17.
87. Daryl Sharp, “Jung Lexicon: A Primer of Terms and Concepts,” http://www.psychceu.com/Jung/sharplexicon.html; Internet; Accessed 20 March 2009.
88. Adam McLean, The Alchemy Website, accessed 5 August 2008; “The Ox-herding Pictures of Zen,” http://oaks.nvg.org/oxpics.html; Internet; accessed 3 December 2008; Mark Stavish, “Alchemy, It’s Not Just for the Middle Ages Anymore,” The Alchemy Web Site, http://www.alchemywebsite.com/ alchemy-middle.html; Internet; accessed 23 December 2008; Marie-Louise von Franz, Alchemy: An Introduction to the Symbolism and the Psychology (Toronto, ON: Inner City Books, 1980).
89. Jung, The Practice of Psychotherapy, ed. Robert Hull, Vol. 16, Collected Works (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966), 218; von Franz, Alchemy: An Introduction to the Symbolism.
90. Edward Edinger, Anatomy of the Psyche: Alchemical Symbolism in Psychotherapy (La Salle, IL: Open Court Publishing, 1972).
91. Andrew Samuels, “Gender—A Certain Confusion,” Achilles Heel: Men and Sex 18 (Summer, 1995); [journal online], http://www.achillesheel.freeuk.com/article18_09.html; Internet; accessed 9 March 2008.
92. Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire; Omer, “Key Definitions.”
279 93. YES Institute, “Communications Solutions,” http://yesinstitute.org/education/courses/ communication_solutions.php.
94. Omer, “Four Phases of Imaginal Inquiry,” 63-69.
95. Robert Hinshelwood, A Dictionary of Kleinian Thought, 2nd ed. (London: Jason Aronson, 1991), 181-184; Demaris Wehr, Jung and Feminism: Liberating Archetypes (Boston, MA: Beacon Press Books, 1987), 57.
96. Diane Zimberoff and David Hartman, “Existential Issues in Heart-Centered Therapies: A Developmental Approach,” Journal of Heart-Centered Therapies 4, no. 1 (Heart-Centered Therapies Association, 2001): 3-55; [journal online], http://www.heartcenteredtherapies.org/go/docs/ Journal%204-1%20Existential%20Issues.pdf; Internet; accessed 4 October 2008.
Chapter 2
1. Jung, Aion, 11-22; Carl Jung, Mysterium Coniunctionis: An Inquiry into the Separation and Synthesis of Psychic Opposites in Alchemy, trans. Robert Hull, vol. 14, Collected Works, 2nd ed. (Princeton, NJ: Bollingen, 1970); Jung, “Anima and Animus,” 187, 296-340.
2. Morton Hunt, The Story of Psychology (New York: Anchor Books, 1994) 187, 206; Carol Beal, Boys and Girls: the Development of Boys and Girls (New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994), 66.
3. Sigmund Freud, The Ego and the Id (London: Hogarth Press, 1961).
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.; Eleanor Maccoby, “Gender as a Social Category,” Developmental Psychology 24 (1988): 755-765.
6. Ibid.
7. Freud, The Ego and the Id; Hunt, The Story of Psychology 187, 206; Beal, Boys and Girls: the Development, 66.
8. Sigmund Freud, The Ego and the Id; Maccoby, “Gender as a Social Category.”
9. Mavis Hetherington, “The Effects of Familial Variables on Sex Typing, on Parent-child Similarity, and on Imitation in Children,” in Minnesota Symposia on Child Psychology 1, ed. John Hill (Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press, 1967), 82-107; Jerome Kagan, “The Acquisition and Significance of Sex-typing and Sex-role Identity,” in Review of Child Development Research 1, eds. Martin Hoffman and Lois Hoffman (New York: Russell Sage, 1964), 137-167.
10. Paul Mussen and Luther Distler, “Masculinity, Identification, and Father-Son Relationships,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 59 (1959): 350-356. Ten kindergarten boys who tested as more interested in masculine items, and ten kindergarten boys who tested as less interested in masculine items were observed in a session of doll play. The fathers of the more masculine-labeled boys were viewed as more nurturant by the boys and their mothers, as well as more dominant in the family, than the fathers of the less masculine-labeled boys; Donald Payne and Paul Mussen, “Parent-Child Relations and Father Identification among a Adolescent Boys,” Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology 52 (1956): 358-362. Parents and their junior and senior high school sons completed the California Psychological Inventory (CPI). The boys whose answers were most like their fathers’ were defined as having a higher identification with their father than boys whose answers did not match their fathers on the CPI. The boys were all given an incomplete story test for an assessment of their relationships with their fathers. The higher father- identified boys saw their fathers as more nurturant than did the boys who identified with their fathers to a
280 lesser degree. The latter boys also demonstrated less masculine attitudes and behaviors than the boys who identified highly with their fathers.
11. Nancy Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering: Psychoanalysis and the Sociology of Gender (Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1978), 44-47.
12. Alan Sroufe, “Attachment Classification from the Perspective of Infant-caregiver Relationships and Infant Temperament,” Child Development 56 (1985): 1-14.
13. Gisela Labouvie-Vief, Psyche and Eros: Mind and Gender in the Life Course (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1994).
14. Labouvie-Vief, Psyche and Eros, 8.
15. Ibid.
16. Erik Erikson, Identity Youth and Crisis (New York: Norton, 1968).
17. Ibid.
18. Ibid.; Jacquelynne Eccles and James Bryan, “Adolescence: Critical Crossroad in the Path of Gender-Role Development,” in Gender Roles Through the Life Span, ed. Michael Stevenson (Muncie, IN: Ball State University, 1994): 111-147.
19. Erik Erikson, “Inner and Outer Space: Reflections on Womanhood,” Daedelus 93 (1964): 582-606.
20. Erik Erikson, Identity Youth and Crisis.
21. Joseph Pleck, “The Gender Role Strain Paradigm: An Update,” A New Psychology of Men, eds. Ronald Levant and William Pollack (New York: Basic Books, 2003), 11-32; William Goode, “A Theory of Role Strain,” American Sociological Review 25, no. 4 (August 1960): 483-496.
22. Eccles and Bryan, “Adolescence: Critical Crossroad.”
23. Eccles and Bryan, “Adolescence,” 111-147; Erikson, Identity Youth and Crisis; Andrew Smiler, “Thirty Years after the Discovery of Gender: Psychological Concepts and Measures of Masculinity,” Sex Roles 50 (January 2004): 15-26.
24. Jeanne Block, “Conceptions of Sex Roles: Some Cross Cultural and Longitudinal Perspectives,” American Psychologist 28 (1973): 512-526; Daryl Costos, “Gender Role Identity from an Ego Developmental Perspective,” Sex Roles 22 (1990): 723-741; Jacquelynne Eccles, “Adolescence: Gateway to Gender-Role Transcendence,” in Current Conceptions of Sex Roles and Sex Typing, ed. Bruce Carter (New York: Praeger, 1987), 225-241; Robert Hefner, Meda Rebecca, and Barbara Oleshansky, “Development of Sex-Role Transcendence,” Human Development 18 (1975): 143-158.
25. Eccles, “Adolescence: Gateway to Gender-Role Transcendence,” 225-241.
26. Hefner, Rebecca, and Oleshansky, “Development of Sex-Role Transcendence,” 143-158.
27. Jane Loevinger, Ego Development: Conceptions and Theories (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1976); Jane Loevinger, “Construct Validity of the Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development,” Applied Psychological Measurement 3, no. 3 (1979): 281-311.
28. Ibid.
29. Krisanne Bursik, “Gender-Related Personality Traits and Ego Development: Differential Patterns for Men and Women,” Sex Roles: A Journal of Research 32, no. 9-10 (May 1995): 601-610;
281 Loevinger and Ruth Wessler created the (SCT), Washington University Sentence Completion Test in 1970 in order to evaluate ego level. The impulsive stage, which characterizes people as demanding, dependent, and egocentric and is the lowest of the SCT stages; they live in a conceptually simplistic world. The self- protective and second stage describes individuals as manipulative, exploitative, and opportunistic. The behaviors and tendencies begin to diminish at the stage of conformity. The conformist adheres to rules and their identity is based on belonging to a group, and since they conform, they adhere to traditional gender roles. During the transition of the conformist to the next stage, the conscientious stage, the ability to view alternatives comes into play and the ability to enjoy complex emotions. At this stage one begins to differentiate and understand individual differences. There are increasing reflective and self-critical capacities; one’s intentions and the consequences of one’s actions are more significant since there has been an internalization of morality; Loevinger, “Construct Validity of the Sentence Completion Test of Ego Development,” 281-311; Loevinger and Wessler, Measuring Ego Development: 1. Construction and Use of a Sentence Completion Test (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1970).
30. Karen Prager and John Bailey, “Androgyny, Ego Development, and Psychosocial Crisis Resolution,” Sex Roles 13 (1985): 525-536; Costos, “Gender Role Identity,” 723-741; Block, “Conceptions of Sex Roles,” 512-526; Jeanne Block, Sex Role Identity and Ego Development (San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 1984).
31. Prager and Bailey, “Androgyny, Ego Development;” Block, “Conceptions of Sex Roles;” Block, Sex Role Identity.
32. Prager and Bailey, “Androgyny, Ego Development.”
33. Costos, “Gender Role Identity,” 723-741; Sandra Lipsitz-Bem, “Mind Garden;” (2005) http://www.mindgarden.com/products/bemss.htm; Internet; accessed 17 September 2008.
34. Costos, “Gender Role Identity,” 723-741.
35. Carol Gilligan and Lyn Brown, Meeting at the Crossroads: Women’s Psychology and Girls’ Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992).
36. Ibid.
37. Carol Gilligan, “Women’s Psychological Development: Implications for Psychocounseling,” in Women, Girls, and Psychocounseling: Reframing Resistance, eds. Carol Gilligan, Annie Rogers, and Deborah Tolman (New York: Haworth Press, 1991), 5-32; Carol Gilligan, In a Different Voice: Psychological Theory and Women’s Development (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982), 28.
38. Ibid.
39. Gilligan, “Women’s Psychological Development” 5-32; Gilligan, In a Different Voice, 28; Jacquelynne Eccles, “Gender Roles and Women’s Achievement-Related Decisions,” Psychology of Women Quarterly 11 (1987): 135-172.
40. Ibid.
41. Ronald Levant, “Toward the Reconstruction of Masculinity,” Journal of Family Psychology 5, no. 3-4 (March-June, 1992): 379-402.
42. Pleck, “The Gender Role Strain Paradigm,” 11-32; Goode, “A Theory of Role Strain,” 483- 496.
43. William Pollack, “No Man Is an Island,” A New Psychology of Men, (New York: Basic Books, 2003): 33-90; Heinz Kohut, The Restoration of the Self (New York: International Universities Press, 1977); Joseph Pleck, The Myth of Masculinity (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1981).
44. Ibid.
282 45. Prager and Bailey, “Androgyny,” 525-536; Eccles and Bryan, “Adolescence,” 111-147.
46. Donald Winnicott, Thinking About Children, eds. Ray Shepherd and Jennifer Johns (London: H. Karnac Books Limited, 1996), xvi, xxiv, 216.
47. Ibid.
48. Ibid.
49. Winnicott, “The Use of An Object;” Winnicott, Playing and Reality, 86-94.
50. Ibid.
51. Ibid.
52. Winnicott, Playing and Reality, 14, 102; Winnicott, Thinking About Children, xvi, xxiv.
53. Carl Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, trans. Robert Hull, vol. 9: 1, Collected Works, 2nd ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1980), 20.
54. Daniel Stern, The Interpersonal World of the Infant (New York: Basic Books, 1985), 220; Kohut, The Analysis of the Self, 53-55, 73.
55. Winnicott, Playing and Reality, 14, 102; Winnicott, Thinking About Children.
56. Jessica Benjamin, Like Subjects, Love Objects: Essays on Recognition and Sexual Difference (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1995), 18, 73.
57. Winnicott, Playing and Reality, 139.
58. Benjamin, Like Subjects, Love Objects, 97, 186.
59. Melanie Klein, Envy and Gratitude and Other Works (New York: Free Press, 1975), 8.
60. Ibid.
61. Melanie Klein, “Notes on Some Schizoid Mechanisms,” International Journal of Psycho- Analysis 27 (1946): 99-110, reprinted in The Writings of Melanie Klein, vol. 3 (London: Hogarth Press, 1975); Melanie Klein, Love, Guilt and Reparation and Other Works, 1921-1945, vol. 1 (New York: Free Press, 1975), 1-24.
62. Ibid.
63. Winnicott, Playing and Reality, 131-137.
64. Ibid.
65. Wilfred Bion, Learning from Experience (London: Heinemann, 1962); Wilfred Bion, Second Thoughts (London: Heinemann, 1967), 36-37; Wilfred Bion, Elements of Psycho-Analysis, (New York: Basic Books Publishing Company, Inc., 1963).
66. Hinshelwood, A Dictionary of Kleinian Thought, 181-184; Bion, Learning from Experience; Bion, Second Thoughts, 36-37.
67. Hannah Segal, Introduction to the Work of Melanie Klein (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1973), 31.
68. Donna Bassin, “Beyond the He and She: Postoedipal Transcendence of Gender Polarities,” Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 42 (1994), cited in Benjamin, Like Subjects, Love
283 Object, 74; Donna Bassin, “Beyond the He and the She: Toward the Reconciliation of Masculinity and Femininity in the Postoedipal Female Mind,” in Gender in Psychoanalytic Space: Between Clinic and Culture, eds. Muriel Dimen and Virginia Goldner (New York: Other Press, 2002), 149-179.
69. Bassin, “Beyond the He and the She: Reconciliation of Masculinity and Femininity in the Postoedipal Female Mind,” Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association 44 (1996):157-190, Supplement: The Psychology of Women; Bassin, “Beyond the He and the She,” 149-179; Clark Power, Ann Higgins, and Lawrence Kohlberg, Lawrence Kohlberg's Approach to Moral Education (New York: Columbia University Press, 1989).
70. Ibid.
71. Sigmund Freud, The Interpretation of Dreams, trans. Abraham Brill (New York: Random House, 1950), 417; Carl Jung, Psychological Types, trans. Robert Hull, eds. Herbert Read, Michael Fordham, Gerhard Adler, and William McGuire, vol. 6, 2nd ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1953-1979), 84, 289; Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul, 142.
72. Nathan Schwartz-Salant, The Mystery of Human Relationship: Alchemy and the Transformation of Self (London: Routledge, 1998), 3.
73. Susan Cross and Hazel Markus, “Gender and Thought, Belief, and Action: A Cognitive Approach,” in The Psychology of Gender, eds. Ann Beal and Robert Sternberg (New York: Guilford Press, 1993), 55.
74. Beverley Fagot and Mary Leinbach, “The Young Child’s Gender Schema: Environmental Input, Internal Organization,” Child Development 60 (1989): 663-672.
75. Ibid.
76. Piaget and Inhelder, The Psychology of the Child, 21.
77. Jean Piaget and Bärbel Inhelder, Memory and Intelligence (New York: Routledge, 1978), 20, 137-138.
78. Ibid.
79. Ibid., 44-46.
80. Kohlberg, “A Cognitive-developmental Analysis,” 82-173.
81. Ibid.
82. Ibid.
83. Ibid.
84. Carol Martin and Charles Halverson. “A Schematic Processing Model of Sex Typing and Stereotyping in Children,” Child Development 52 (December 1981): 1119-1134; Carol Martin and Charles Halverson, “The Role of Cognition in Sex Roles and Sex Typing,” in Current Conceptions of Sex Roles and Sex Typing: Theory and Research, ed. Bruce Carter (New York: Praeger, 1987), 123-137.
85. Ibid.
86. Ibid.
87. Sandra Lipsitz-Bem, “Androgyny and Gender Schema Theory: A Conceptual and Empirical Integration,” in Psychology and Gender, eds. Theo Sonderegger and Anne Anastasi (Lincoln, NE:
284 University of Nebraska Press, 1985), 179-225; Sandra Lipsitz-Bem, “Gender Schema Theory: A Cognitive Account of Sex Typing,” Psychological Review 88 (1981): 354-371.
88. Ibid.
89. Janet Spence, “Gender Identity and its Implications for Concepts of Masculinity and Femininity,” in Nebraska Symposium on Motivation: Psychology of Gender, ed. Theo Sonderegger (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1984), 59-95.
90. Fagot and Leinbach, “The Young Child’s Gender Schema,” 663-672.
91. Ibid.
92. Kay Deaux, and Laurie Lewis, “The Structures of Gender Stereotypes: Interrelationships Among Components and Gender Label,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 46 (1984): 991- 1004.
93. Ibid.
94. Ibid.
95. Ibid.
96. Ibid.
97. Dore Butler and Florence Geis, “Nonverbal Affect Responses to Male and Female Leaders: Implications for Leadership Evaluation,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58 (1990): 48-59.
98. George Mandler, “The Structure for Value: Accounting for Taste,” in Affect and Cognition: The 17th annual Carnegie symposium on cognition, eds. Margaret Clark and Susan Tufts Fiske (Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1982), 3-36.
99. Otis Duncan, “Recent Cohorts Lead Rejection of Sex Typing,” Sex Roles 8 (1982): 127-132. Duncan carried out studies with Detroit men and women and had them rate children on chores they did, and if the chores were considered for both girls and boys, or just girls, or boys; William McBroom, “Changes in Sex-role Orientation: A Five Year Longitudinal Comparison,” Sex Roles 11 (1984): 583-592; McBroom studied men and women in groups to assess for changes in the beliefs for traditional sex-roles using a Likert-type scale; Patricia Devine, “Stereotypes and Prejudice: Their Automatic and Controlled Components,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 56 (1989): 5-18.
100. Patricia Devine and Timothy Wilson, “Strangers to Ourselves: The Origins and Accuracy of Beliefs about One’s Own Mental States,” in Attributions: Basic Issues and Applications, eds. John Harvey and Gifford Weary (New York: Academic Press, 1985), 9-36; Patricia Devine et al., “Prejudice With and Without Compunction,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 60, no. 6 (June, 1991): 817-830.
101. Ibid.
102. Natalie Porter et al., “Androgyny and Leadership in Mixed-Sex Groups,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 49, no. 3 (September 1985): 808-823.
103. Linda Carli, “Gender, Language, and Influence,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 59 (1990): 941-951. Forty-eight children, ages 16 to 18 months, were observed by Carli who used interviews with parents on their child rearing, with the following three measurements in order to assess gender labeling in tasks: (PAQ) Personal Attributes Questionnaire, (AWS) Attitudes towards Women Scale, and the (SERLI) Sex Role Learning Index; Mary Crawford, “Gender, Age, and the Social Evaluation of Assertion,” Behavior Modification 12 (1988): 549-564.
285 104. Robert Zajonc, “Attitudinal Effects of Mere Exposure,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Monograph Supplement 9 (1968): 1-27.
105. Florence Geis, “Self-fulfilling Prophecies: A Social Psychological View of Gender,” in The Psychology of Gender, eds. Ann Beal and Robert Sternberg (New York: Guilford Press, 1993), 9-54.
106. Ibid.
107. Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering, 101.
108. Geis, “Self-fulfilling Prophecies,” 10; William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (New York: Longmans Green, 1916).
109. Geis, “Self-fulfilling Prophecies,” 10; William James, The Varieties of Religious Experience (New York: Longmans Green, 1916); Robert Merton, “The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy,” Antioch Review 8 (1948): 193-210.
110. Geis, “Self-fulfilling Prophecies,” 10.
111. Ibid.
112. Ibid.
113. Susan Egan and David Perry, “Gender Identity: A Multidimensional Analysis with Implications for Psychosocial Adjustment,” Developmental Psychology 37 (2001): 451-463.
114. Deaux and Lewis, “The Structures of Gender Stereotypes,” 991-1004.
115. Egan and Perry, “Gender Identity,” 451-463.
116. Roy Baumeister, ed., The Self in Social Psychology (Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, 1999); Roy Baumeister. “A Self-Presentational View of Social Phenomena,” Psychological Bulletin 91 (1982),: 3-26.
117. Ibid.
118. Sandra Lipsitz-Bem, The Lenses of Gender, (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 1993) 134.
119. Ibid., 2, 102-106, 153-157.
120. Ibid.
121. Ibid.
122. Nancy Chodorow, The Power of Feelings: Personal Meaning in Psychoanalysis, Gender, and Culture (New Haven, CT; Yale University Press, 1999).
123. Lipsitz-Bem, The Lenses of Gender, 2, 102-106, 153-157; Marylee Taylor and Judith Hall, “Psychological Androgyny: A Review and Reformulation of Theories, Methods, and Conclusions,” Psychological Bulletin 92 (1982): 347-366; Bernard Whitley, “Sex role Orientation and Self-Esteem: A Critical Meta-Analytic Review, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 44 (1983): 765-778.
124. Carol Nader, “Masculinity a Health Hazard,” Health Reporter (October 12, 2005); [journal online], http://www.theage.com.au/articles/2005/10/11/1128796526563.html?from=rss; Internet; accessed 18 September 2008.
125. Pamela Frome and Jacquelynne Eccles, “Gender Identity and Self-Esteem,” poster presented at Biannual Meeting for Research on Adolescence (Boston, MA: March 7, 1996); Michael Addis and James
286 Mahalik, “Men, Masculinity, and the Contexts of Help Seeking” American Psychologist 58, no. 1 (2003): 5-14.
126. Loevinger, Ego Development; Chodorow, The Power of Feelings; Erikson, Identity Youth and Crisis; Kohlberg, “A Cognitive-developmental Analysis.”
127. Devine and Wilson, “Strangers to Ourselves,” 9-36.
128. Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul.
129. Lucien Levy-Bruhl, How Native’s Think, trans. Lilian A. Clare (1926; reprint New York: Washington Square Press, 1966), in Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul; Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul, 179-187.
130. Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul, 179-187.
131. Ibid.
132. Ibid.
133. Ibid.
134. Ibid.
135. Ibid., 125-149.
136. Stevens, “The Archetypes,” 74-93.
137. Jean Houston, The Hero and the Goddess: The Odyssey as Mystery and Initiation (New York: Aquarian Press, 1993), 12.
138. James Hillman, Re-Visioning Psychology (New York: Harper and Row, 1975), 27; James Hillman, A Blue Fire: Selected Writings (New York: HarperPerennial, 1991), 26.
139. Jung, Psychological Types; Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul, 151-169.
140. Stein, Map of the Soul, 9; Emma Jung, Animus and Anima, Two Essays (New York: The Analytical Psychology Club, 1957).
141. Esther Harding, Psychic Energy (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973), 411, 447- 448; Edinger, Anatomy of the Psyche; Carl Jung, “A Study in the Process of Individuation,” in The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, vol. 9: 1 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1981).
142. Adam McClean, “A Commentary on the Rosarium Philosophorum” The Alchemy Website, http://www.levity.com/alchemy/roscom.html; Internet; accessed 5 August 2008.
143. McClean, “A Commentary on the Rosarium Philosophorum.”
144. Edward Edinger, Ego and Archetype (Boston, MA: Shambhala Publications, 1972); Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul; Anne Ulanov and Barry Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality: The Archetypal World of Anima and Animus (Boston, MA: Shambhala, 1994) 134, 237; Murray Stein, Practicing Wholeness (New York: Continuum, 1966); Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious.
145. Ibid.
146. Carl Kerényi, The Gods of the Greeks (London: Thames & Hudson, 1951); “Hermaphrodite,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermaphrodite (mythology); Internet; accessed 29 July 2008.
287 147. Carl Jung and Carl Kerényi, Essays on a Science of Mythology (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969); Charles Ponce, Working the Soul: Reflections on Jungian Psychology (Berkeley, CA: North Atlantic Books, 1988), 93-96; Marion Woodman, Addiction to Perfection: the Still Unravished Bride (Toronto, ON: Inner City Books, 1982), 122.
148. Olds, Fully Human.
149. Hefner, Rebecca, Oleshansky, “Development of Sex-Role Transcendence,” 143-158.
150. Samuel Coleridge, Specimens of the Table Talk of Samuel Taylor “Project Gutenberg,” http://www.gutenberg.org/dirs/etext05/8tabc10.txt; accessed 20 March 2009; Virginia Woolf, A Room of One’s Own (Orlando, FL: Harcourt Inc., 1929, 1957), 98.
151. Edinger, Anatomy of the Psyche; Edward Edinger, The Mystery of the Coniunctio: Alchemical Image of Individuation, ed. Joan Blackmer, (Toronto, ON: Inner City Books, 1994), 7-30; Carl Jung, “A Study in the Process of Individuation,” in The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, vol. 9: 1, 576-586.
152. McClean, “A Commentary on the Rosarium Philosophorum.”
153. Edinger, Ego and Archetype; Edinger, Anatomy of the Psyche; Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul; Stein, Practicing Wholeness.
154. Stanton Marlin, “The Dark Side of Light,” The Black Sun: The Alchemy and the Art of Darkness (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2005), 9-26; Stanton Marlin, “Alchemy,” The Handbook of Jungian Psychology: Theory, Practice, and Applications ed. Papadopoulos (Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press, 2006) 263-292; Elaine Pagels, Gnostic Gospels (New York: Vintage Books, 1981).
155. Bratherton, “The Collective Unconscious and Primordial Influences.”
156. Christopher Perry, “Transference and Countertransference,” in The Cambridge Companion to Jung, eds. Polly Young-Eisendrath and Terence Dawson (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 148-149; Bratherton, “The Collective Unconscious and Primordial Influences;” Olds, Fully Human; John Sanford, The Invisible Partners: How the Male and Female in Each of Us Affects Our Relationships (Mahwah, NJ: Paulist Press, 1980); Murray Stein, Transformation: Emergence of the Self, (College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press, 2005); James Hillman, The Myth of Analysis: Three Essays in Archetypal Psychology (Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press, 1972).
157. Olds, Fully Human; Catherine Keller, From a Broken Web: Separation, Sexism, and Self (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1986); Sanford, The Invisible Partners; Stein, Transformation: Emergence; Hillman, The Myth of Analysis.
158. Ibid.
159. Jung, “Anima and Animus,” 187; Jung, Civilization in Transition; Jung, Symbols of Transformation, 299-303; Carl Jung, Experimental Researches, eds. Herbert Read, William McGuire, and Michael Fordham, trans. Robert Hull, vol. 2, The Collected Works (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973), 321-322; Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality, 27.
160. Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality, 27.
161. Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality, 27; Hillman, The Myth of Analysis; Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious; Stein, Map of the Soul.
162. Rosemary Gordon, Bridges: a Metaphor for Psychic Processes (London: Karnac Books, 1993), 5; Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality, 10-22.
288 163. Max McDowell, “Anima and Animus: Invisible Partners,” lecture at 92nd Street Y, New York, author’s notes, 11 March 2009.
164. Ibid.
165. Ibid.
166. Jules Cashford, “Reflecting Mirrors: Ideas of Personal and Archetypal Gender,” Harvest: Journal for Jungian Studies 44, no. 2 (1999): 105-118; Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire, 2, 26.
167. Ibid.
168. Michael Messner, Politics of Masculinities: Men in Movements (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 1997).
169. Cashford, “Reflecting Mirrors,” 105-118; Houston, The Hero and the Goddess, 29-30.
170. Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire, 9-10.
171. Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire, 12.
172. Rosemary Ruether, Sexism and God-Talk: Toward a Feminist Theology (Boston, MA: Beacon Press, 1983), 190.
173. Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire, 21; June Singer, Androgyny: Toward a New Theory of Sexuality (Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1976), 41; 403-404; Houston, The Hero and the Goddess, 103; Ulanov, Finding Space, 8-9; Naomi Goldenberg, “Archetypal Theory after Jung,” Spring (1975): 199-220; Olds, Fully Human; Carol Christ, Diving Deep and Surfacing: Women Writers on Spiritual Quest (Boston, MA: Beacon, 1980), 136-137; Estella Lauter and Carol Rupprecht, Feminist Archetypal Theory: Interdisciplinary Re-visions of Jungian Thought (Knoxville, TN: University of Tennessee Press, 1985), 5.
174. Lauter and Rupprecht, Feminist Archetypal Theory, 220.
175. Keller, From a Broken Web, 149-150.
176. Keller, From a Broken Web.
177. Carl Jung, The Visions Seminars: Two Books, Book 2 (Zurich, SZ: Spring, 1976), 935.
178. Schwartz-Salant, The Mystery of Human Relationship, 5.
179. James Hillman, “Anima,” Spring (New York: Spring Publications, 1973): 115.
180. Schwartz-Salant, The Mystery of Human Relationship, 129-130.
181. Hunt, The Story of Psychology, 178; Jung, Psychological Types, 60, 289; Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul, 142; Carl Jung, The Portable Jung, ed. Joseph Campbell, trans. by Hull (New York: Viking Press, 1971), 157.
182. Schwartz-Salant, The Mystery of Human Relationships, 3.
183. Jung, Psychological Types, 457; Jung, “Anima and Animus,” 193, 195, 204; Jung, Symbols of Transformation, vol. 5, Collected Works (New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1956), 414-415; Jung, Aion, 9-10; Jung, Civilization in Transition, 413-415, 300.
184. Thomas Ogden, “On Projective Identification,” International Journal of Psychoanalysis 60 (1979): 357-373.
289 185. Carl Jung, Nietzsche’s Zarathustra: Lectures and Analysis, ed. James Jarrett (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998), 1320-1321; Perhaps this is similar to what some feminists experience in introjecting the power of the patriarchy in terms of their animus and attempting to assimilate this contrasexual archetype before it is digested.
186. Carl Jung, Nietzsche’s Zarathustra, 1320-1321.
187. Jung, Aspects of the Feminine, 168.
188. Ibid.; Lipsitz-Bem, The Lenses of Gender; Singer, Androgyny; Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality; Sandra Pyke, “Androgyny: An Integration,” International Journal of Women's Studies, 8 (1985): 529-539; Bratherton, “The Collective Unconscious,” 183-197; Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire; Labouvie-Vief, Psyche and Eros.
189. Lipsitz-Bem, The Lenses of Gender; Singer, Androgyny; Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality; Sandra Pyke, “Androgyny: An Integration,” International Journal of Women's Studies, 8 (1985): 529-539; Bratherton, “The Collective Unconscious,” 183-197; Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire; Labouvie-Vief, Psyche and Eros.
190. James Hillman, Anima: An Anatomy of a Personified Notion (Dallas, TX: Spring Publications, 1987), 23-25, 53; Stein, Jung’s Map of the Soul, 128; Verena Kast, “Animus and Anima: Spiritual Growth and Separation,” Harvest 39 (1993): 5-15; Nathan Schwartz-Salant, “Anima and Animus in Jung's Alchemical Mirror,” Gender and Soul in Psychotherapy (Wilmette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1992), 1-24; Edward Whitmont, “The Gender Archetypes,” Gender and Soul in Psychotherapy (Wilmette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1992), 179-184.
191. Robert Hopcke, Men's Dreams, Men's Healing (London: Shambhala, 1990), 85, 127.
192. Hillman, Anima: An Anatomy.
193. Joseph Redfearn, “The Captive, the Treasure, the Hero, and the 'Anal' Stage of Development,” Journal of Analytical Psychology 24 (1979), 185-205
194. Hillman, Anima: An Anatomy of a Personified Notion, 125-127.
195. Ibid.; Redfearn, “The Captive, the Treasure.”
196. Peter Schellenbaum, “The Role of the Anima in Analysis,” Gender and Soul in Psychotherapy (Wilmette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1992), 55-72.
197. Jung, “Symbols and the Interpretation of Dreams.”
198. Louis Stewart, “Affect and Archetype,” Archetypal Process in Psychotherapy (Wilmette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1987), 131.
199. Ibid.; Sylvan Tompkins, Affect Imagery Consciousness Vol. I: The Positive Aspects (New York: Springer Publishing Company, 1962); Sylvan Tompkins, Affect Imagery Consciousness Vol. II: The Negative Aspects (New York: Springer Publishing Company, 1963), in Stewart, “Affect and Archetype,” 131-162.
200. Ibid.
201. Stewart, “Affect and Archetype;” Laurens van der Post, Race Prejudice as Self Rejection: An Inquiry into the Psychological and Spiritual Aspects of Group Conflicts, ed. Nathan Sherman (New York: The Blackmore Press, 1956).
202. Stewart, “Affect and Archetype.”
290 203. Stewart, “Affect and Archetype,” 131-162; Joseph Henderson, “The Cultural Unconscious,” in Shadow and Self: Selected Papers in Analytical Psychology (Wilmette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1990), 103-113.
204. Jung, “Symbols and the Interpretation of Dreams,” 257.
205. Carl Jung, “Psychological Aspects of the Mother Archetype,” The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, vol. 9: 1, Collected Works, 2nd ed. (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1968), 96.
206. Susan Scott, “Dreams and Creativity In Women,” Arts In Psychotherapy Journal 14 (Winter 1987).
207. Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire.
208. Ibid.
209. Isabelle Cherney et al., “The Nature of Nurture and Gender,” Journal of Psychological Inquiry 9, no. 1 (Spring 2004): 46-49; Richard Lippa, Gender, Nature, and Nurture (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2002).
210. Steven Pinker, “Why Nature and Nurture Won’t Go Away,” Daedalus (Fall 2004): 1-13, http://pinker.wjh.harvard.edu/articles/papers/nature_nurture.pdf; Internet; accessed 14 July 2008.
211. Carol Tavris, “The Science and Politics of Gender Research: The Meaning of Difference,” in Gender and Motivation: Current Theory and Research on Motivation vol. 45 (Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1999).
212. Carol Tavris, Mismeasure of Woman: Why Women are not the Better Sex, the Inferior Sex, or the Opposite Sex (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1992), 24.
213. Michael Ruse, Darwin and Design (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 2004), 106.
214. Tavris, Mismeasure of Woman.
215. Ibid.
216. Ruth Hubbard, The Politics of Women’s Biology (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University, 1990), 110.
217. Tavris, Mismeasure of Woman, 216.
218. Janice Irvine, Disorders of Desire: Sex and Gender in Modern American Sexology (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1990), 15, 37; Alfred Kinsey et al. Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (Philadelphia, PA: W. B. Saunders, 1953), 8-9.
219. Tavris, Mismeasure of Woman, 98-100.
220. Margrit Eichler, Anna Reisman, and Elaine Borins, “Gender Bias in Medical Research,” Women and Therapy (September, 1992).
221. Candace West and Don Zimmerman, “Doing Gender,” Gender and Society 1, no. 2 (1987): 125-151; Candace West and Don Zimmerman, “Doing Gender,” in The Social Construction of Gender, eds. Judith Lorber and Susan Farrell (Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications, 1991), 13-37.
222. Ibid.
291 223. Judith Butler, “Gender Trouble, Feminist Theory, and Psychoanalytic Discourse,” in Identities: Race, Class, Gender, and Nationality, eds. Linda Martín Alcoff and Eduardo Mendieta (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing, 2003), 201-226.
224. Amelia Jones, ed. The Feminism and Visual Culture Reader (New York: Routledge, 2001), 370.
225. American Association of University Women, How Schools Shortchange Girls: a Study of Major Findings on Girls and Education (Washington, DC: American Association of University Women, 1992), 68.
226. Angela Gooden and Mark Gooden, “Gender Representation in Notable Children’s Picture Books: 1995-1999,” Sex Roles 45, no. 1-2 (2001): 89-101.
227. Michael Kimmel, “American Fathering in Historical Perspective,” Changing Men: New Directions in Research on Men and Masculinity, ed. Kimmel (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications, 1987); Kimmel, The Gendered Society (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 137.
228. Rosabeth Kanter, Men and Women of the Corporation (New York: Harper and Row, 1977), 161.
229. Celia Ridgeway, “Gender, Status, and Leadership,” in Journal of Social Issues: Gender, Hierarchy, and Leadership 57, no. 4 (Winter 2001): 637.
230. Kathleen Archambeau, Climbing the Corporate Ladder in High Heels (Franklin Lakes, NJ: Career Press, 2006), 35; Abbey Begun, Women’s Changing Role (Detroit, MI: Gale Group, 2000), 37-41.
231. Archambeau, Climbing the Corporate Ladder, 121, 190.
232. Begun, Women’s Changing Role; The Gender Wage Gap 2007: http://www.iwpr.org/pdf/C350.pdf; Internet; accessed 30 August 2008.
233. Ibid.
234. Ibid.
235. Ibid.
236. Lesley Jacobs, Pursuing Equal Opportunities: The Theory and Practice of Egalitarian Justice (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004).
237. Begun, Women’s Changing Role, 29.
238. Ibid.
239. Ibid., 105-110.
240. Ibid.
241. Linda Feldmann, “Hillary Clinton Shattered A Political Glass Ceiling,” The Christian Science Monitor (June 6, 2008).
242. Mark Murray, “Reactions to the Palin Pick,” First Read (Saturday, August 30, 2008), http://firstread.msnbc.msn.com/archive/2008/08/30/1310120.aspx; Internet; accessed 5 September 2008.
243. Kevin Durkin, Developmental Social Psychology: From Infancy to Old Age (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishing), 1995; Harriet Holter, Sex Roles and Social Structure (Oslo, NO: Universitetsforlaget, 1970).
292 244. Spencer Cahill, “Childhood Socialization as Recruitment Process: Some Lessons from the Study of Gender Development,” in Sociological Studies of Child Development: Research Annual no. 1, eds. Patricia Adler and Peter Adler (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press, 1986), 175.
245. Ibid., 175.
246. Arlene Skolnick, Embattled Paradise: The American family in an Age of Uncertainty (New York: Basic Books, 1993), 41.
247. Ibid.
248. Steven Mintz and Susan Kellogg, Domestic Revolutions: a Social History of the American Family (New York: Free Press, 1988), 110.
249. William Chafe, The Unfinished Journey: America Since World War II (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 125.
250. Morris Zelditch, “Role Differentiation in the Nuclear Family: a Comparative Study,” Family, Socialization, and Interaction Process, eds. Talcott Parsons and Robert Bales (New York: Free Press, 1998), 307-352.
251. Jessie Bernard, The Future of Marriage (New York: World Publishing, 1972), 21, 31-35.
252. Kimmel, The Gendered Society, 125.
253. Ibid., 118.
254. Adrian James and Kate Wilson, Couples, Conflict, and Change: Social Work with Marital Relationships (New York: Routledge, 1986).
255. Eric Nagourney, “Study Finds Families Bypassing Marriage,” The New York Times (February 15, 2000); James and Wilson, Couples, Conflict, and Change.
256. Michael Kimmel, “A Black Woman Took My Job,” New Internationalist, 373 (November 2004); [journal online], http://www.newint.org/features/2004/11/01/men/; Internet; accessed 28 December 2008.
257. Kimmel, The Gendered Society, 137.
258. Michael Cunningham, “Parental Influences on the Gendered Division of Housework,” American Sociological Review 66 (April 2001):184-203.
259. Jerry Adler, “Building a Better Dad,” Newsweek (June 17, 1996); Cunningham, “Parental Influences,” 184-203.
260. Kimmel, The Gendered Society, 137.
261. Ibid., 139.
262. Rachel Bondi, The Wealth Gap: Bridging the Eight Gaps to Women’s Wealth (Lincoln, NE: iUniverse, 2007).
263. Ellen Galinsky, James Bond, and Jeffrey Hill, Families and Work Institute, “When Work Works,” http://familiesandwork.org/3w/research/downloads/status.pdf
264. Ibid.
265. Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering, 101.
293 266. Ibid.
267. Gilligan, In a Different Voice, 8.
268. Diana Meyers, Gender in the Mirror: Cultural Imagery and Women’s Agency (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002).
269. Ibid., 67.
270. Ibid., 74.
271. Rosemary Ruether, “Sexism and God Language,” Weaving the Visions: New Patterns in Feminist Spirituality, eds. Judith Plaskow and Carol Christ (New York: Harper Collins, 1989), 151-162.
272. Susan Schechter, Women and Violence: The Visions and Struggles of the Battered Women’s Movement (Boston, MA: South End Press, 1983); Emerson Dobash and Russell Dobash, Violence Against Wives: A Case Against the Patriarchy (New York: Free Press, 1979), 33-34, in Women and Violence: The Visions and Struggles of the Battered Women’s Movement, ed. Schechter (Boston, MA: South End Press, 1983).
273. Susan Thistlethwaite, “Every Two Minutes: Battered Women and Feminist Interpretation,” in Liberating Faith: Religious Voices for Justice, Peace, and Ecological Wisdom, ed. Roger Gottlieb (Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2003), 377-385.
274. John Phillips, Eve: The History of an Idea (San Francisco: Harper and Row, 1984).
275. Shere Hite, The Hite Report on the Family: Growing Up Under Patriarchy (New York: Grove Press, 1995), 254, 369.
276. Ibid., 350, 364.
277. Meyers, Gender in the Mirror.
278. Kenneth Gergen, The Saturated Self: Dilemmas of Identity in Contemporary Life (New York: Basic Books, 2000).
279. Linda Ellerbee, “Is What You Cannot See,” The News, As If All People Mattered: Women, Men and Media pamphlet, Unabridged Communications (September 1992), 15, in Naomi Wolf, Fire with Fire: The New Female Power and How to Use It (New York: Ballantine Books, 1994), 78.
280. Luke Howie, “Terrorism in Indirectly Affected Populations,” paper presented to the Social Change in the 21st Century Conference (Monash University and Australian Homeland Security Research Centre, October 27, 2006), http://www.humanities.qut.edu.au/research/socialchange/docs/ conf_papers2006/Howie_FIN.pdf; Internet; accessed 27 September 2008.
281. Ibid.
282. Margaret Gallagher, “The Impact of Monitoring Media Images of Women,” in Critical Readings: Media and Gender, eds. Cynthia Carter and Linda Steiner (Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press, 2004), 148-161.
283. Tara McLaughlin and Nicole Goulet, “Gender Advertisements in Magazines Aimed At African Americans: A Comparison to their Occurrence in Magazines Aimed at Caucasians,” Sex Roles 40 (1999): 61-71.
284. Florence Geis et al., “TV Commercials As Achievement Scripts for Women,” Sex Roles 10 (1984): 513-525.
294 285. David Buckingham, “Media Education and the End of the Critical Consumer,” Harvard Educational Review 73 (2003), http://www.arasite.org/kcbuckm.html; Internet; accessed 25 March 2009; David Harris, Key Concepts in Leisure Studies (London: Sage Publications, 2005); Decision, complaint 00/155, Meeting 21 August, 2000, http://203.152.114.11/decisions/00/00155.rtf; Internet, accessed 25 March 2009.
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295. Ibid.
296. Julie Andsager and Kimberly Roe, “What’s Your Definition of Dirty, Baby?: Sex in Music Videos,” Sexuality and Culture: An Interdisciplinary Quarterly 7, no. 3 (2003): 79-97.
297. Ibid.
298. Sharon Lamb and Lyn Brown, Packaging Girlhood: Rescuing Our Daughters from Marketers’ Schemes (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 2006).
299. Shirley Ogletree et al., “Pokemon: Exploring the Role of Gender,” Sex Roles 50, no. 11/12 (2004): 851-859.
300. Patricia Donahue et al., The Nation's Report Card: Fourth-Grade Reading 2000 (National Center for Education Statistics, 2001), 499; U. S. Department of Education, http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/pdf/main2000/2001499.pdf; Internet; accessed 21 July 2003.
301. Emily Davidson, Amy Yasuna, and Alan Tower, “The Effects of Television Cartoons on Sex-Role Stereotyping in Young Girls,” Child Development 50 (1979): 597-600; Shirley Rosenwasser,
295 Michael Lingenfelter, and Annette Harrington, “Nontraditional Gender Role Portrayals on Television and Children's Gender Role Perceptions,” Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology 10 (1989): 97-105.
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304. Sara Voorhees, “Where Are All the Girl Ninjas? Sexist Stereotypes Pervade Children’s Media,” Media and Technology: Women’s Media Center (February 22, 2008); Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media, http://www.thegeenadavisinstitute.org/; Internet; accessed 13 October 2008.
305. Stacy Smith and Crystal Cook, “Gender Stereotypes: An Analysis of Popular Films and TV,” Annenberg School for Communication and the Geena Davis Institute on Gender in Media (2008), http://www.thegeenadavisinstitute.org/research.php; Internet; accessed 13 October 2008.
306. Ibid.
307. Ibid.
308. Voorhees, “Where Are All the Girl Ninjas? Sexist Stereotypes;” Amy Pascal, in Voorhees, “Where Are All the girl Ninjas?;” Sarah Voorhees, “WMC Exclusive: Geena Davis Forum—Searching the Cels for Girl Mice and Ninjas,” (February 19, 2008), at http://womensmediacenter.com/ex/021908.html; Internet; accessed 13 October 2008.
309. Smith and Cook, “Gender Stereotypes.”
310. Nagel, “Gender in Media.”
311. Ibid.
312. Joe Kelly and Stacy Smith, “Where the Girls Aren’t: Gender Disparity Saturates G-Rated Films,” at http://www.thriveoncreative.com/clients/seejane/pdfs/where.the.girls.arent.pdf; Internet; accessed 31 August 2006.
313. Ibid.
314. Children Now, “Children's Perceptions of Male Stereotypes,” Media Awareness Network (2008), http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/men_and_masculinity/ masculinity_children.cfm; Internet; accessed 3 October 2008; Pascal Duret, Les Jeunes et L’identité Masculine (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 1999), 28, http://www.media- awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/men_and_masculinity/masculinity_children.cfm, http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001467/146752e.pdf; Internet; accessed 3 October 2008.
315. Children Now, “Children's Perceptions of Male Stereotypes.”
316. Duret, Les Jeunes et L’identité Masculine.
317. Children Now, “Children's Perceptions of Male Stereotypes;” Duret, Les Jeunes et L’identité Masculine.
318. Sofie Van Bauwel, “Change is a Virtue: Gender Bending, Power and Popular Culture,” paper presented at Third Crossroads in Cultural Studies conference (Birmingham, UK: June 21-25, 2000), http://homepages.vub.ac.be/~ncarpent/koccc/Publications/Paper_Sofie_Birmingham.html; Internet accessed 25 March 2009.
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321. Elizabeth Grauerholz and Amy King, “Primetime Sexual Harassment,” Violence Against Women 3, no. 2 (1997): 129-148; Singer and Singer, Handbook of Children and the Media, 272.
322. Carol Lin, “Beefcake Versus Cheesecake in the 1990s: Sexist Portrayals of Both Genders in Television Commercials,” Howard Journal of Communications 8 (1997): 237-249.
323. Joe Gow, “Reconsidering Gender Roles on MTV: Depictions in the Most Popular Music Videos of the Early 1990s,” Communication Reports 9 (1996): 151-161.
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332. Margaret Duffy and Michael Gotcher, “Crucial Advice on How to Get the Guy: The Rhetorical Vision of Power and Seduction in the Teen Magazine YM,” Journal of Communication Inquiry 20 (1996): 32-48, in Report of the APA Task Force, 8; Internet; accessed 17 September 2008.
333. Ibid.
334. Meenakshi Durham, “Dilemma of Desire: Representations of Adolescent Sexuality in Two Teen Magazines,” Youth and Society 29 (1998): 369-389; in Report of the APA Task Force.
335. Ibid.
336. Katharina Lindner, “Images of Women in General Interest and Fashion Magazine Advertisements from 1955 to 2002,” Sex Roles 51, no. 7-8 (October 2004): 409-421; the Women's Movement inspired early studies in the 1970s; the studies demonstrated that advertisements primarily depicted women as mother, homemaker, in sex oriented roles, and roles of beautifying the body. This did
297 not represent women in their diverse lives in reality. In 1976 Belkaoui and Belkaoui completed a study of women’s roles depicted in advertisements in Look, Newsweek, Life, Time, The New Yorker, U. S. News and World Report, Reader’s Digest, and Saturday Review from the years 1958, 1970, and 1972, They found that advertisements in 1958 showed women mostly as housewives in decorative roles and idle situations or as low-income earners with limited purchasing power. The previous study and two others showed that even with the changes since the Women’s Movement that women were portrayed in stereotyped roles. Wagner and Banos in 1973, and Courtney and Lockeretz in 1971, found women portrayed in very few advertisements in roles outside the home, and particularly not as professionals; they were also not portrayed as out away from the home by themselves, or with other women. They were portrayed as dependent on the protection of men. Women were depicted as sex objects via men, or as domesticated. Women were portrayed with cleaning products, clothing, home appliances, and medications predominantly, whereas men’s portrayals were with alcoholic beverages, cars, cigarettes, banking, and in travel; Bert Kellerman and Mary Ann Kellerman, “A Follow-up Study of the Role Portrayal of Men and Women in General Audience Magazine Advertisements,” [journal online], http://www.sbaer.uca.edu/research/mma/1998/pdf/25.pdf; Internet; accessed 30 December 2008); Kellerman and Kellerman found in their study of general interest magazine from the summer of 1996, comparable to those cited above, that men are portrayed in work roles 55 percent compared to women being portrayed in work roles 11 percent, which is the same ratio of that found in 1970, and slightly higher than in 1982 ads. Though women’s representation in the ads was slightly higher, men are still portrayed in work roles at a much higher rate. The authors state that the ratio is no different from the ratio in 1970 during the women’s movement; the portrayals of women at work have decreased proportionately to the women who are actually in the work force. The authors provide a possible explanation for advertisers stating the advertisers may be using a safe strategy so as not to arouse criticism; Ahmed Riahi-Belkaoui and Janice Monti-Belkaoui, “A Comparative Analysis of the Role Portrayal by Women in Print Advertisements: 1958, 1970, 1972,” Journal of Marketing Research 13 (May, 1976): 168- 172; Louis Wagner and Janis Banos, “A Woman’s Place: A Follow-Up Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements,” Journal of Marketing Research 10 (May 1973): 213-214; [journal online], http://www.jenmintzer.com/A%20Woman's%20Place%20Followup.pdf; Internet; accessed 4 September 2008; Alice Courtney and Sarah Lockeretz in 1971, “A Women’s Place: An analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine Advertisements,” Journal of Marketing Research 8 (February 1971): 92-95.
337. Gary Sullivan and Patrick O'Connor, “Women's Role Portrayal in Magazine Advertising: 1958-1983,” Sex Roles 18, no. 3-4 (1988): 181-188; Courtney and Lockeretz, “A Woman's Place” 92-95; Louis Wagner and Janice Banos, “A Woman's Place: A Follow-Up Analysis of the Roles Portrayed by Women in Magazine-Advertisements,” Journal of Marketing Research 10 (1973): 213-214.
338. Sullivan and O'Connor, “Women's Role Portrayal,” 181-188; Lindner, “Images of Women.”
339. Ibid.
340. Erving Goffman, Gender Advertisements (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1978); Goffman, Gender Advertisements (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1979), 69-l54, in “Women's Role Portrayal in Magazine Advertising: 1958-1983.” Goffman clearly showed that women are depicted in advertisements as the weaker sex in the following ways: Relative Size (females viewed as smaller and/or shorter than men), Feminine Touch (females touch their bodies without purpose), Ritualization of Subordination (portrayals of females lying down are not usually congruent with product), Function Ranking (males are executives if/when they cooperate with a female), and lastly Licensed Withdrawal (females are removed psychologically from what is being presented). Goffman was criticized because he selected pictures from newspapers and popular magazines that mirrored gender role stereotypes, rather than collecting a random selection. His sample could not be generalized because of this nonrandom sampling.
341. Goffman, Gender Advertisements.
342. Ibid.
343. Lindner, “Images of Women.”
298 344. Ibid.
345. Mee-Eun Kang, “The Portrayal of Women's Images in Magazine Advertisements: Goffman's Gender Analysis Revisited,” Sex Roles 37, no. 11-12 (December 1997): 979-996; Penny Belknap and Wilbert Leonard, “A Conceptual Replication and Extension of Erving Goffman's Study on Gender Advertisements,” Sex Roles 25, no. 3-4 (August 1991): 103-118; Jean Umiker-Sebeok, “Power and Construction of Gendered Spaces,” International Review of Sociology 6 (1996): 389-404.
346. Ibid.
347. Nancy Signorelli, “Television and Conceptions About Sex Roles: Maintaining Conventionality and the Status Quo,” Sex Roles 21, no. 5-6 (September 1989): 341-360.
348. William Kilbourne, “Female Stereotyping in Advertising: An Experiment on Male-Female Perceptions of Leadership,” Journalism Quarterly 67, no. 1 (1990): 25-31.
349. Kang, “The Portrayal of Women's Images,” 979-996; Lindner, “Images of Women;” Sut Jhally, Codes of Advertising: Fetishism and the Political Economy of Meaning (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1987), 22, 130; Judith Williamson, Decoding Advertisements: Ideology and Meaning in Advertising (London: Marion Boyars, 1978), 43; Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls.
350. Rodger Streitmatter, Mightier than the Sword: How the News Media Have Shaped American History (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1997).
351. Michael Patton, Qualitative Research and Evaluation Methods (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Inc., 2002), 48; Michael Lewis-Beck, Alan Bryman, and Tim Liao, “Interviewing in Qualitative Research,” The Sage Encyclopedia of Social Science Research Methods (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2004), http://www.oup.co.uk/pdf/0-19-874204-5chap15.pdf; Internet; accessed 30 August 2008; Earl Babbie, The Practice of Social Research, 3rd ed. (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Pub Co, 1983); eds. Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula Treichler, Cultural Studies (New York: Routledge, 1992).
352. Henry Corbin, “The Imago Templir and Secular Norms,” trans. Ruth Horine, Spring (1975): 163-185.
353. Ibid., 165.
354. Ibid., 166.
355. Ibid., 166.
356. Ibid., 166-167.
357. Ibid., 163-185.
358. Meridian University, “Course Catalog,” http://meridianuniversity.edu/images/stories/ pdf/catalog.pdf; Internet accessed 25 March 2009.
359. Aftab Omer, “Imaginal Transformative Praxis,” in Dissertation Handbook: Graduate School and Research Center, 3rd ed. (Petaluma, CA: Meridian University, Fall 2008).
360. Omer, “Key Definitions.”
361. Ibid.
362. Ibid.
363. Ibid.
299 364. Ibid.
365. Ibid.; Coleman Barks, The Essential Rumi (San Francisco: HarperCollins, 1995).
366. Omer, “Key Definitions.”
367. Ibid.
368. Hillman, Myth of Analysis, 177; Aftab Omer, letter from Karen Jaenke, May 11, 2006.
369. James Hillman, Inter Views: Conversations with Laura Pozzo on Psychotherapy, Biography, Love, Soul, Dreams, Work, Imagination, and the State of Culture (Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications, 1983), 144-145; Hillman, A Blue Fire, 60-64.
370. Victor Turner, “Passages, Margins, Poverty,” Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1974), 232.
371. Ibid.; Richard Palmer, “The Liminality of Hermes and the Meaning of Hermaneutics,” at http://www.mac.edu/faculty/richardpalmer/liminality.html; Internet; accessed 5 July 2008.
372. Ibid.
373. Deah Curry and Steven Wells, “Liminal Realities,” http://www.liminalrealities.com; Internet; accessed 5 July 2008.
374. Murray Stein, “The Muddle in Analysis,” Liminality and Transitional Phenomena (Wilmette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1991): 1-12, 5.
375. Carl Jung, “Definitions,” in Psychological Types, vol. 6, Collected Works (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1971), 408-486; Stein, “The Muddle in Analysis,” 1-12, 5.
376. Stein, “The Muddle in Analysis,” 1-12, 9.
377. Ibid., 9.
378. James Hall, “The Watcher at the Gates of Dawn: The Transformation of Self in Liminality and by the Transcendent Function,” in Liminality and Transitional Phenomena (Wilmette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1991), 33-51.
379. Ibid., 44.
380. Ibid., 43-44.
381. Mary Watkins, Waking Dreams (Dallas, TX: Spring, 1984).
382. James Hillman, The Thought of the Heart (Woodstock, CT: Spring Publications, Inc., 1997), 28.
383. Robert Sardello, Facing the World with Soul: the Reimagination of Modern Life (New York: HarperCollins, 1994), 15-31; Hillman, Archetypal Psychology: A Brief Account, 6; Hillman, Inter Views, 71-72; Hillman, Re-Visioning Psychology, 39.
384. Hillman, Archetypal Psychology: A Brief Account, 6; Hillman, Inter Views, 71-72.
385. Hillman, Inter Views, 72; James Hillman, Re-Visioning Psychology.
386. Lewis-Beck, Bryman, and Liao, “Interviewing in Qualitative Research.”
300 387. Lewis-Beck, Bryman, and Liao, “Interviewing in Qualitative Research;” Herbert Rubin and Irene Rubin, Qualitative Interviewing: The Art of Hearing Data (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1995).
388. Babbie, The Practice of Social Research.
389. Grossberg, Nelson, and Treichler, Cultural Studies.
390. Robert Romanyshyn, The Wounded Researcher: Research with Soul in Mind (New Orleans, LA: Spring Journal Books, 2007).
391. Sylvia Rimm, See Jane Win: The RIMM Report on How 1,000 Girls Became Successful Women (New York: Three Rivers Press, 1999).
392. Ibid.
393. Sue Scott, “The Grieving Soul in the Transformation Process,” in New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education 74, ed. Patricia Cranston (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Summer 1997), 41-50
394. Scott, “The Grieving Soul in the Transformation Process;” Shaykh Shiekh, “Transformation in Immigrant Experience at Midlife” (MA thesis, University of Alberta, 1997), in Scott, “The Grieving Soul.”
395. Ibid.
396. Alex Nelson, “Imaging and Critical Reflection in Autobiography: An Odd Couple in Adult Transformative Learning,” in Proceedings of the 38th Annual Adult Education Research Conference, eds. Robert Nolan and Heath Chelesvig (Stillwater, OK: Oklahoma State University, 1997). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service, ED 409-460).
397. Kast, “Animus and Anima,” 8.
398. Scott, “Dreams And Creativity In Women.”
399. Olds, Fully Human.
400. Ulanov, Finding Space, 22-105.
401. Ibid.; Carolyn Clark and John Dirkx, “Moving Beyond a Unitary Self: A Reflective Dialogue,” in Handbook of Adult and Continuing Education, new ed., eds. Arthur Wilson and Elizabeth Hayes (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass 2000); ed. Sells, Working with Images.
402. James O’Neil and Marianne Carroll,” A Gender Role Workshop Focused on Sexism, Gender Role Conflict, and the Gender Role Journey,” Journal of Counseling and Development 67 (November 1988): 193-197.
403. Ibid.
404. Ibid.
405. James O’Neil and Jean Egan, “Men’s and Women’s Gender Role Journeys: A Metaphor for Healing, Transition and Transformation,” in Gender Issues Across the Life Cycle, ed. Barbara Wainrib (New York: Springer Publishing, 1992); Matthew Fox, Original Blessing (Santa Fe, NM: Bear and Company, 1983).
406. Ibid.
407. James O’Neil, et al., “The Gender Role Journey Measure: Scale Development and Psychometric Evaluation,” Sex Roles 28, 3-4 (1993).
301 408. O’Neil and Carroll, “A Gender Role Workshop Focused on Sexism;” James O’Neil and Marianne Carroll “Evaluation of Gender Role Workshop: Three Years of Follow Up Data,” Paper presented at the 95th Convention of the American Psychological Association (New York, September, 1988a). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 287121.); James O'Neil and Marianne Carroll, “A Six-Day Workshop on Gender Role Conflict and Strain: Helping Men and Women Take the Gender Role Journey” (Storrs: University of Connecticut, 1988b), Department of Educational Psychology, Counseling Psychology Program. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 275963).
409. Ibid.
410. Polly Young-Eisendrath and Florence Wiedemann, Female Authority: Empowering Women through Psychotherapy (New York: Guilford Press, 1987).
411. Ibid.
412. Jill Rees, “Female Masculinity: Re-Imagining Gender Nonconformity,” (PhD dissertation, Meridian University, 2006).
413. Ibid.
414. Mary Rummel and Elizabeth Quintero, Teachers’ Reading/Teachers’ Lives (New York: SUNY Press, 1997), 190.
415. Ted Tollefson, “Cinemyths: Contemporary Films as Gender Myth,” in The Soul of Popular Culture, ed. Mary Kittelson (Chicago, IL: Open Court, 1998), 106-116
416. Ibid.
417. Jung, “Symbols and the Interpretations of Dreams,” 185-264, 212.
418. Olds, Fully Human, 152; Ernst Cassirer, Language and Myth (New York: Dover, 1946).
419. Susie Jollie, “Bridges,” Gender Myths (Conference, 2003), http://www.bridge.ids.ac.uk/docs/in%20brief_myths.pdf; Internet; accessed 3 October 2008.
420. Olds, Fully Human.
421. Keller, From a Broken Web.
422. Olds, Fully Human, 181; Adolf Guggenbühl-Craig, Marriage Dead or Alive (Zurich, SZ: Spring Publications, 1977).
423. Young-Eisendrath and Wiedemann, Female Authority.
424. Jean Raffa, The Bridge to Wholeness: A Feminine Alternative to the Hero Myth (San Diego, CA: LuraMedia, 1992), 187; Joseph Campbell, “The Great Goddess,” Parabola: The Magazine of Myth Tradition 5, no. 4 (Fall 1980): 74-85; Carl Jung, The Psychology of the Transference, trans. Robert Hull (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966, 1969), 103.
425. Ibid.
426. Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality, 10-13.
427. Stein, Transformation, 41.
428. John Izod, “Androgyny and Stardom: Cultural Meanings of Michael Jackson,” The San Francisco Jung Institute Library Journal 14, no. 3 (1996): 63-74.
302 429. Luc Brison, “Sexual Ambivalence: Androgyny and Hermaphroditism in Graeco-Roman Antiquity,” http://www.associatedcontent.com/article/757825/ androgyny_found_in_ancient_egypt_and.html; Internet; accessed 3 October 2008; Izod, “Androgyny and Stardom.”
430. Izod, “Androgyny and Stardom.”
431. Ibid.
432. Ibid.
433. Olds, Fully Human; Singer, Androgyny.
434. Keller, From a Broken Web, 149; Ann Ulanov, Receiving Woman: Studies in the Psychology and Theology of the Feminine (Philadelphia, PA: Westminster Press, 1981), 51.
435. Carl Jung, Psychology and Alchemy, vol. 12, Collected Works (New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1953), 357; Carl Jung, Alchemical Studies, vol. 13, Collected Works (New York: Bollingen Foundation, 1967), 136.
436. Carl Jung, The Visions Seminars: Two Books, Book 1 (Zurich, SZ: Spring Publications, 1976), 369-370, in Ann Ulanov and Barry Ulanov, The Witch and the Clown: Two Archetypes of Human Sexuality (Wilmette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1987), 11.
437. Carl Jung, Dreams (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1974), 279; Carl Jung, Answer to Job (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1973), 86.
438. Will Roscoe, Changing Ones: Third and Fourth Genders in Native North America (New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1998), 11-13.
439. Ibid.
440. Izod, “Androgyny and Stardom,” 63-74.
441. Olds, Fully Human.
442. Ibid.
443. O’Neil and Carroll, “Evaluation of Gender Role Workshop.”
444. Young-Eisendrath and Wiedemann, Female Authority.
445. Hefner, Rebecca, Oleshansky, “Development of Sex-Role Transcendence,” 143-158; Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality.
446. Izod, “Androgyny and Stardom,” 63-74.
447. Freud, Three Essays on the Theory of Sexuality; Mussen and Distler, “Masculinity, Identification, and Father-Son Relationships;” Maccoby, “Gender as a Social Category,” 755-765; Labouvie-Vief, Psyche and Eros.
448. Erikson, Identity Youth and Crisis; Chodorow, The Reproduction of Mothering; Pleck, “The Gender Role Strain Paradigm;” Pollack, “No Man Is an Island.”
449. Winnicott, Playing and Reality, 14, 102; Winnicott, Thinking About Children, xvi, xxiv; Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious, 20; Bion, Learning from Experience; Bion, Second Thoughts, 36-37; Hinshelwood, A Dictionary of Kleinian Thought, 181-184.
303 450. Piaget and Inhelder, The Psychology of the Child; Kohlberg, “A Cognitive-developmental Analysis,” 82-173.
451. Polly Young-Eisendrath, “Myth and Body: Pandora's Legacy in a Post-Modern World,” (1995), http://psikoloji.fisek.com.tr/jung/pollypm.htm; Internet; accessed 21 June 2008.
452. Ibid.; Susan Rowland, Jung: A Feminist Revision (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2002).
453. Carl Jung, “The Relations between the Ego and the Unconscious,” Two Essays on Analytical Psychology, vol. 7, Collected Works (1928), 305; Jung, The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious vol. 9: 1, Collected Works (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1969), 20; Donald Winnicott, “Ego Distortion in Terms of True and False Self,” in The Maturational Process and the Facilitating Environment: Studies in the Theory of Emotional Development (New York: International, 1965), 140-152.
454. Stein, Jung’s map of the soul.
455. Olds, Fully Human; Singer, Androgyny, 41; Keller, From a Broken Web; Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality, 27.
456. Hefner, Rebecca, and Oleshansky, “Development of Sex-Role Transcendence,” 143-158; Carolyn Heilbrun, Toward a Recognition of Androgyny (New York: W. W. Norton, 1993), x; Nancy Bazin and Alma Freeman, “The Androgynous Vision,” Women’s Studies 2 (1974): 185-215.
457. Izod, “Androgyny and Stardom,” 63-74.
458. Rowland, Jung: A Feminist Revision.
Chapter 3
1. Dissertation Handbook, 63-69.
2. Hyde, “The Gender Similarities Hypothesis;” Barnett and Rivers, Same Difference; Young- Eisendrath, Gender and Desire.
3. Dissertation Handbook 3rd ed., 63; addendum to 3rd edition, page 3.
4. Robert Stolorow, Donna Orange, and George Atwood, “Thinking and Working Contextually: Toward a Philosophy of Psychoanalytic Practice,” http://www.selfpsychology.org/neutrality/thinking.htm, Internet accessed 25 March 2009.
5. Dissertation Handbook 3rd ed., 63; addendum to 3rd edition, page 3.
Chapter 4
1. Winnicott, Playing and Reality.
2. Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality, 86-87.
3. Ibid., 86-87.
4. Ibid.
5. Esther Harding, Women’s Mysteries (New York: Harper & Row, 1971), 104.
304 6. Stewart, “Affect and Archetype,” 186, 183-203.
7. Carl Jung, “The Psychology of Dementia Praecox,” vol. 3, Collected Works (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978), 38; Stewart, “Affect and Archetype,” 183-203.
8. Stewart, “Affect and Archetype,” 186, 183-203; Tompkins, Affect Imagery Consciousness, Vol. I, Tompkins, Affect Imagery Consciousness, Vol. II, in “Affect and Archetype,” 183-203.
9. Young-Eisendrath, “Myth and Body.”
10. Labouvie-Vief, Psyche and Eros, 228.
11. Woodman, Addiction to Perfection, 119.
12. Young-Eisendrath, Gender and Desire; Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality.
13. Jung, “Psychological Aspects of the Mother Archetype,” 178.
14. Ulanov and Ulanov, Transforming Sexuality, 65, 66.
15. Omer, Class IV Lecture; Omer, “Key Definitions.”
16. Woodman, Addiction to Perfection, 91.
17. Ibid., 91.
18. Ibid.
19. Ibid., 15-23.
20. Sager, Witness Consciousness, 75.
21. Ponce, Working the Soul, 127, 140.
22. Conger, The Body in Recovery, 236.
23. Omer, “Key Definitions.”
Chapter 5
1. Rees, “Female Masculinity.”
2. Eccles, “Adolescence,” 225-241.
3. Nathan Schwartz-Salant, Narcissism and Character Transformation (Toronto, ON: Inner City Books, 1982); Jung, Psychology of the Transference, 101-102.
4. Schwartz-Salant, Narcissism, 71-91.
5. Ibid.; Jacobi, Complex/Archetype/Symbol; Stein, “Individuation: Inner Work.”
6. Schwartz-Salant, Narcissism, 71-91.
7. Tanya Wilkinson, Persephone Returns: Victims, Heroes, and the Journey from the Underworld (East Lansing, MI: PageMill Press, 1996), 21-49.
8. Ibid.
305 9. Ibid.
10. Ibid.
11. Ibid.
12. Ibid.
13. Ibid.
14. Ibid.; James Frazer, The Golden Bough (New York: Macmillan, 1922), in Wilkinson Persephone Returns.
15. Wilkinson, Persephone Returns.
16. Ibid.
17. Ibid.
18. Adam McLean, The Alchemy Website, accessed 5 August 2008; “The Ox-Herding Pictures of Zen,” at http://oaks.nvg.org/oxpics.html; Internet; accessed 3 December 2008; Stavish, “Alchemy, It’s Not Just for the Middle Ages;” von Franz, Alchemy: An Introduction to the Symbolism.
19. Ibid.
20. Jung, The Practice of Psychotherapy, ed. Robert Hull, Vol. 16, Collected Works (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1966), 218; von Franz, Alchemy; Titus Burckhardt, Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul, trans. William Stoddart (Dorset, UK: Longmead, 1987), 92; Stavish, “Alchemy.”
21. Nathan Schwartz-Salant, The Borderline Personality: Space, Vision, and Healing (Wilmette, IL: Chiron Publications, 1988), 124.
22. Schwartz-Salant, Narcissism, 71-91.
23. Edinger, Anatomy of the Psyche.
24. Carl Jung, The Nietzsche’s Zarathustra: Notes of the Seminar Given in 1934 to 1939 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988), 1191.
25. Marlin, The Black Sun, 23.
26. Jung, Memories, Dreams, Reflections; Jung, The Portable Jung, xxi-xxii.
27. Ponce, Working the Soul.
28. Ponce, Working the Soul, 99; Jung, Aion, 40.
29. Dvora Yanow and Peregrine Schwartz-Shea, Interpretation and Method: Empirical Research Methods and the Interpretive Turn (New York: M. E. Sharpe, 2006).
30. Norman Blaikie, Approaches to Social Enquirie (Cambridge, MA: Polity Press, 1993), 3.
31. Tom Wilson, “Structure and Research Methods” (Sheffield University, June 4, 1999), http://informationr.net/tdw/publ/ppt/ResMethods/sld004.htm; Internet accessed 25 March 2009.
32. Dennis Slattery, “MythoPoetry,” review of Wounded Researcher: Research with Soul In Mind, http://www.mythopoetry.com/mythopoetics/review_romanyshyn_slattery.html; Internet accessed 19 April 2009.
306 33. Romanyshyn, The Wounded Researcher: Research with Soul in Mind.
34. Babbie, The Practice of Social Research.
35. Ibid.; Grossberg, Nelson and Treichler, Cultural Studies.
36. Grossberg, Nelson and Treichler, Cultural Studies.
37. Carl Jung, The Psychology of the Transference, 101-102.
38. Janet Hyde and Amy Mezulis, “Gender Difference Research,” in Encyclopedia of Women and Gender, ed. Judith Worell (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001), 551-559.
39. Ibid., 559.
40. Ellen Kimmel and Mary Crawford, “Methods for Studying Gender,” in Encyclopedia of Women and Gender ed., Judith Worell (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001), 751-752, 757-758.
41. Rachel Hare-Mustin and Jeanne Marecek, “Asking the Right Questions: Feminist Psychology and Sex Differences,” Feminism Psychology 4 (Nov 1994): 531-537.
42. Hefner, Rebecca, and Oleshansky, “Development of Sex-Role Transcendence,”143-158; Eccles, “Adolescence: Gateway to Gender-Role Transcendence,” 225-241.
43. Monique Ward and Allison Caruthers, “Media Influences,” in Encyclopedia of Women and Gender, ed. Judith Worell (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001), 687-701.
44. Sandra Pacheco and Aida Hurtado, “Media Violence,” in Encyclopedia of Women and Gender, ed. Judith Worell (San Diego, CA: Academic Press, 2001), 703-708.
45. von Franz, Alchemy; Burckhardt, Alchemy: Science of the Cosmos, Science of the Soul.
46. Jung, Aion, 40; Jung, Aspects of the Feminine, 177.
47. Anne Primavesi and James Lovelock, Sacred Gaia (New York: Routledge, 2000), 128.
48. Bratherton, “The Collective Unconscious,” 196.
307
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