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1989 Ancient Etruscan Metalsmiths: The Afterlife Life Dianne K. DeBeixedon Old Dominion University

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Repository Citation DeBeixedon, Dianne K., "Ancient Etruscan Metalsmiths: The Afterlife Mirrors Life" (1989). Art Faculty Publications. 13. https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/art_pubs/13 Original Publication Citation DeBeixedon, D. K. (1989). Ancient Etruscan metalsmiths: The fta erlife mirrors life. Metalsmith, 9, 14-21.

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· Ancient Etruscan Metalsmiths The Afterlife Mirrors Life

by Dianne K. deBeixedon Etruscan , 3rd century B.C. The back of this mirror is incised with two Dioscttri and two women, encircled by a wreath of leaves, 705/i' long. Collection: Merstens­ Schaffhausen. Photo: Co11rtesy The Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, MD

Looking down the long corridors of time, development, urbanization and rapid tracted and worked from 10,000 to 12,000 the ancient Etruscans emerge as a powerful rise to prosperity. tons of iron ore every year for 400 years! In people whose economic and social develop­ As sailors, warriors and merchants, the Etruscan port of , there are ment was founded on their metal . the Etruscans traded with and its traces of more than 500 mining shafts, to­ Over the centuries, however, the Etruscans colonies in and , Northern Af­ gether with furnaces, some dating were gradually absorbed into the Roman rica, Cypress and . The Romans call ed back to 750 B.C. Empire and their language disappeared. them Tusci or Etrusci, and the When the wood used for furnace fuel Because written records are missing or called them Tyrrhenol, a name that survives was gradually depleted, the Etruscans irretrievably lost, is today for the on the western transported the raw ore on barges across the shrouded in speculation and legend, and coast of . Lost in time, the names for six-mile strait to the city of Populonia. only recently discoveri es in Italy have shed their prosperous cities are now known by There it cou ld be treated with more on Etruscan . , Italy' their Roman names (Tarquinii, , efficient furnaces and formed into moder­ first great civili za tion, rose and flowered , and ) or modern Italian ate-sized blocks for export. These blocks, from 750 to 100 B.C., reaching the peak of names (, , , which looked like black sponges, were pur­ its power from 600 to 500 B.C. Roughly, and Voltera). chased and transported by merchants, in the boundaries of Etruria were the Arno Although the Etruscans were fear­ exchange for money, goods or . river to the North; the river to the some warriors and seafarers, their expansion Knowledge of the Etruscans' vast east and south; and the Tyrrhenian Sea to and power rested on their material and in­ wealth, material goods and li fes tyle is elu­ the west (corresponding to modern Tus­ dustrial wealth. They mined and processed sive, but, fortunately, they placed their ac­ cany). With their prowess, the , , iron and finished metal prod­ cumulated wealth of jewelry, household Etruscans spread outward from central ucts for export. Ci ties such as Populonia goods and weapons into their tombs for use Italy. By 600 B.C., they dominated the were known for their iron industry, Tar­ in Eternity. Most of what we know about western shore from to and quinii for the production of bronze utensils. the civi li zation has been learned from such crossed the Tiber River, controlling much The source of economic strength lay in paintings and objects. The acres of cemeter­ of the present province of . As their control of the mineral resources from ies around Italy's modern cities have helped they moved further south near Naples, they the Hills (west of Lake ), us reconstruct what the Etruscans were like met resistance from the residents of the northward to the Cottins Metallifere (the in life. They were not only a culture of war­ Greek colony and were pushed metal-bearing mountain chain) of , riors, traders and builders, but an exuber­ back. They co ntinued their northward where ore deposits of copper, lead, iron and ant, sens ual people with a passion for the thrust crossing the Apennines ridge, were abundant. good life. colonizing the fertile Valley. Their The cities that became wealthy from Res idences for the dead have sur­ movement north was thwarted only due to the production of bronze produced some of vived much more frequently then those of pugnacious Venetian tribes. the finest metalsmiths on the Italian penin­ the living, and many tombs, constructed to appeared, sula, who created bronze weapons, candela­ last for centuri es, have remained intact and almost suddenly (in comparison to the slow bra, household utensils, figurines and caul­ undisturbed. Beli eving that the dead pace of ancient history). The land they drons. Iron, however, eclipsed bronze as a wanted the same comforts as the living, the controlled offered plentiful game as a bountiful resource. A seemingly inexhaust­ Etruscans placed objects of earthly life in summer and winter pasture for migrating ible supply of ore came primarily from the the tombs. Thus, the contents of the tombs flocks. And as they cleared forests and Island of , off the wes tern coast of Italy. provide a relatively accurate portrayal of drai ned flood lands and marshes, the Ancient writers describe the multitude of Etruscan life. The earliest tombs were cov­ fertility of their land became second to furnaces that spewed clouds of heavy smoke ered mounds of earth, and, over a period of none, producing some of the highest crop into the Mediterranean heavens. Experts 200 years, the structures evolved into short, yields in antiquity. But it was metallurgical estimate from the remaining slag heaps on squat houses where the dead were placed in wealth that determined Etruria's Elba and the coast that the Etruscans ex- urns or sarcophagi.

Metalsmith Fall 1989 15

Left Below left Bronze Etruscan Lamp, 4th century B.C. Bronze Etruscan Lamp, 4th century B.C. Designed to be smpended from the ceiling the Collection: Mtteso dell'Accameia Etrnsca, elaborate decoration appears on the ttnderside of Cortona, Italy. the lamp, 24" in diameter. Collection: Mmeo Photo: Courtesy Frances Van Kettren dell'Accademia Etrmca, Cortona, Italy. Photo: Cottrtesy Soprintendenza Alie Anitchita d'Etmria, Firenze

The Etruscans believed that one's stylized elegance. a high degree of skill and expertise. Where spirit was in danger of a horrible transfor­ Another important type of bronze did this technical virtuosity come from so mation after death, unless a place for the object found in the sites is the in­ suddenly? It is difficult ro believe that such bodily remains was provided. To insure cense burner. The most prevalent design complex gold jewelry was produced when that the spirit retained a form as it resembles a cable candelabra with a three­ few, if any, Etruscan gold mines existed. passed beyond the grave, porters and met­ legged base of human figures supporting a One possible explanation mig ht be that in alsmiths were commissioned to produce central shaft. The decorative dancing and trading with the Greeks and Phoenicians, anthropomorphic urns. The urns vary in mythological figures symbolize the joys and gold work passed into Etruria direccly or form and size bur most are decorated with festivities of li fe . Many incense burners indirectly in exchange for Etruscan iron. In human characteristics, some simple and have repea ted motifs, such as lions or plant all likelihood, the refined gold jewelry chat abstract and ochers realistic and elaborate. forms , that were made in molds and then appears in the Etruscan combs was de ­ Gold jewelry, , chariots, votive chased and incised with details. signed by Greek or Phoenician craftsman to figures and elegant household furnishings Also used in Etruscan homes were satisfy the Etruscan market and artistic filled the tombs of the Etruscan dead. candelabra and oil lamps, the latter a Greek taste. Metal objects made of bronze had a sacred influence. Some floor candelabra are call, Of all the individual objects found in character and ritualistic purpose. The chari­ standing almost four-feet hig h, with a the Etruscan tombs, the bronze hand mir­ ots and wagons, for example, used for pa­ three-legged base supporting a vertical rors may tell us the most about che culture. rades and funerals, were covered with open shaft that terminates in horizontal prongs The mirrors were engraved with illustra­ or pierced ornaments of bronze and iron. to pierce the candles and hold chem up­ tions of Greek myths or scenes of daily life. They may also have been decorated with right. Again, cast or chased joyful dancing The engraved characters were labeled with figurative panels or decorative motifs figures, lions or plant forms usually deco­ names or identified by costume and sym­ formed by repousse. rated the central shaft. Burning an bolic attributes, giving scholars one of the Councless small bronze votive figures required constant adjustment of the thick first clues to the and used for religious dedication also were fiber wick throug h the lamp nozzles. Oil li festyle. placed in the tombs. These votive figures lamps ranged from simple, with one wick, to For Etruscan women, elegance and represent the worshipper, noble lady, war­ elaborate, such as the cast bronze Cortona adornment were symbols of their social rior and robed male figure. They were cast lamp with 16 nozzles. Since the Cortona sratus. Unable to acquire such status with a base or long tangs under the feet so lamp was designed to hang suspended from through political office, the priesthood or they could be fixed with lead into a wooden the ce iling, che elaborate decoration ap­ war, women considered the material objects or soft sandstone base. The surfaces of the pears on the underside. they were buried with to be their "insignia" were carefully polished and finish ed The importance of adornment to the as they traveled into the afterlife. J use as with delicately incised detail. Etruscans is refl ec ted in the sheer quantity men were buried with the symbols of their The figures themselves have a and quality of jewelry found in the tombs. authority and achievements (weapons, mag­ uniquely Etruscan appearance. Not having Earrings, following the Greek fashion, were istrate's chairs, etc.) to retain their impor­ the Greek passion for anatomy or classical large and li ght. Many of these chin gold tance in the afterlife, so, ~oo, a noble proportion, the Etruscans made fi gures earrings were shaped like disks, grape clus­ woman would want her "insignia" or ob­ with narrow flattened bodies and only a ters, or barrels decorated with delicate jects that represented her prestige. slight suggestion of breasts and buttocks. loops and spirals of . Boch Etruscan The mirrors, therefore, were cher­ By exaggerating the fa cial features, hands men and women wore pendants, called bttl­ ished possessions and were custom-made or and feet, the artist could project expression lae, designed to hold an amulet. The hol­ given as gifts. They were not intended for and personality. While the style of the low, lenticular btt!!ae were hung on neck­ export or , but specifically made for an bronze figures varied from region to region, laces or bracelets worn on the upper arm. individual in life and buried with her in most, even if in an active pose, retain the As far back as 700 B.C., che gold death. The mirrors were round, flat disks long cubular torso, chin, graceful arms and jewelry found in the tombs was made with with a hand grip. The front of the mirror

Metalsmith Fall 1989 17 • A Metalsmith's Guide to in Tuscany

This list offers a brief guide. The hours of the museums are subject to change; check before you arrive.

Arezzo Archaeol ogical ~ useum (Museo Archaeologico). Open 9 AM - 2 PM (1 PM Sundays and holidays), closed Mondays. Outstanding collection of Etruscan votive bronze figures .

Cortona Praetorian Palace (Palazzo Prerorio). Open 10 AM - l PM and 4 - 6 PM. The cencral ha ll contains Etcuscan bronze votive figures and implements. The museum also has an imJ1ressive 5C B.C. cast bronze oil lamp surrounded by 16 figures supporting the oil nozz les.

Florence Acchaeological Museum (Museo Archeologico). Open 9 AM - 2 PM (l PM Sundays and holidays), closed Mondays. Excellenc collection of bronze votive figures, stone urns, iron work, b onze implements and fibulae. In this collection also is the famo us bronze sculp­ ture off the , the beasr lion, crouching in an attacking position.

Orvieto Museo del Popolo Orvietano. Open 9 AM - 1 PM and 3 PM - 5:30 PM. This museum ho lds the collection of the Counc Faina Family. It contains Etruscan funeral monuments, cerracottas bronzes, jewelry and cosmetic implements. Of special interest is a wheeled bronze brazie~ dating 6C B.C. and a bronze made of twisted wire.

Perugia :National Archaeological M useum of (Museo Nazionale Archeologico dell'Um­ bria). Open 9 AM - l :30 PM (9 AM - l PM Sundays and holidays), closed Mondays. Excellent collection of bronze work, especially bronze fibulae.

Rome Vati can Museflms. Open 9 AM - 2 PM. In July, August and September, 9 AM - 5 PM, also during Holy and Easter weeks. Etruscan Museum (Museo Gregoriano Etrusco). T his collection is of special interest because it contains objects from the Regolini-Galassi Tomb. lo the coJ !ection are bronze helmets, candelabra, pitchers, urns and gold objects that are spe.cca ular. specially beautiful is the gold fibula and the raised and embossed bronze cauldrnn with griffins projecting over the rim.

Museo Nazionale De Villa Guilia . This exquisite collection contains metalwork from southern En;uria~Vulci, , , Targuinia and Veii).

Volterra Etruscan ~ useum (Museo Etrusco Guarnacci). Open April ro September, 9 AM - 1 PM and 2:30 PM - 5:30 PM, closed Mondays. Enormous collection of funeral urns.

18 Metalsmith Fall 1989 was finished to a high, reflective polish, amples in museums no longer have che plied. The preliminary drawings on the while the back was elaborately engraved. handles intact, buc mirrors produced from bronze may have been done in crayon and Figures and illustrations of the Greek lacer times arc complete with ivory, bone or then the lines cue with a triang ular or dia­ myths were beautifully drawn with flowing woo len handles. mond-shaped . Lase, the convex sur­ contour line and delicate detail. These dis­ The method used co make the g rip face was polished co a reflective shine with tinctive objects made especially to honor hand mirror is not fully underscood, al­ emery and tin oxide and the handle was women remained an Etruscan specialty though recent microscopic metallurgic ex­ attached. from che lase quarter of the 6th century aminations and surface analys is have added Today, when you see an Etruscan B.C. to into the third century B.C. much information. Mose of the mirrors are mirror in a museum, centuries of In sharp to Greek and Ro­ composed of binary (copper-tin) alloys, us­ and oxidation make ic difficult co perceive man women, who li ved in the shadow of ing a composition of approximately 86% the detail of the engraving. Often museums their homes, Etruscan women had a great copper and 13% tin. Trace elements of display a line drawing of che engraved im­ deal of freedom and status. They attended lead, , iron and antimony can be at­ age. A restored or conserve I mirror has dances, concerts, spores events, chariot races tributed co natural impurities in the ores. been carefu ll y cleaned and the bronze dete­ and acrobatic displays. They participated The mirrors were cast as closely as rioration has been haired by chemical treat­ with men at banquets where they reclined possible co the desired shape. However, ments. Incised lines are filled with white as did che men, on the couches of the cric­ there is di puce over what casting method drawing ink and the pits filled with tinted ulinium. Such participation in public and was used. le is possible that they were cast microcrystalline wax. The conservation im­ private life appeared indiscreet, and in in scone molds, which were used a number proves che appearance, add clarity co the some ancient writings Etruscan women of times before breaking from heat shock. derail and protects che mirror, but one were described in an unflattering manner. Or they may have been case by the lose-wax muse still use imagination to see how strik­ evercheless, Etruscan women were held in method. For rhe laccer, mecalsmichs may ing che mirror muse have been when new. hig h regard within their own society, and have used scone molds co make the prelimi­ In looking ac the wide range of sub­ the strong affection and bond between nary wax model. Whatever method was jects engraved on che Etruscan mirrors, the women and their fami li es is apparent in used, once case and removed from the Etruscan character and vital icy become ap­ subject matter chosen for their mirrors. mold, rhe mirror was annealed and ham­ parent. Many mirrors have written dedica­ Even in death women were honored mered to smooch out imperfections and tions or the owner's name. One such trans­ and had a prominent place. One of the refine the convex surface. lation from a fourcb-century mirror is in­ most ancient and luxurious of tombs, the Final cutting, shaping and finishing cribed "Titus Caius gave chis mirror co his Regolini-Galassi comb ac Caere (650 B.C.), may have been done on a lathe. Some mir­ mother as a g ift." Mi rrors might be in ­ was constructed for a princess. The comb rors have a "cupule," or small indentation, scribed with their owners names, much alcoves contained funerary urns of two war­ in the center of che d isk. This indencarion as we do roday with monograms and riors surrounded by rich furnishings of sil­ may have been che pivot for the pointed initials on silverware. For example, one ver and bronze. The main funerary cham­ spindle of the lathe. Concentric circles vis­ mirror reads, "I am che mirror of Larchia ber, however, designed for a woman, was ible on ch e reverse side also suggest the use Puruhena." filled with gold, silver and ivory. Beside the of a lathe. However, some experts feel rbac In contrast co che Greek inclination throne remained a bejeweled skeleton of a che depression on rhe mirrors is roo large co for simplification and idealization, che woman.We only know her name by che have been made by a lath and was created, Etruscans preferred everyday occurrences. inscription engraved on che silver cups and instead, by a cool chat kept the disk sta­ The engraver-artist could emphasize the goblets - Larchia. tionary for engraving. Of course the "cu­ client's wealth by including derails of jew­ From che thousands of mirrors chat pule" might have been a reference point, as elry, luxurious cloches, furniture and acces­ have been found, the most popular style has in raising, to measure and insure even ham­ sories. There are a wide variety of scenes a round or pear-shaped reflecting surface mering. After the mirror was shaped and showing men and women dressing, adorn­ with an attached handle. The earli est ex- finished, the engraved decoration was a1 - ing themselves, attending banquets or

Metalsmith Fall 1989 19

Left Center Right Etruscan , about 300 B.C. Etruscan Bronze Mirror, 3rd century B.C. Etruscan Bronze Mirror, about 300 B.C. The back of this hand mirror is engraved with a On the back, within a band of leaves is a seated This mirror's back is engraved with the scene of Hermes and Paris, JO½" h. 5 ¼" d. nude youth with a clttb in his left hand and in J udgment of Paris, 27.5 cm h. Photo: Ken Photo: Cot1rtesy North Carolina Museum of the right hand an object. A winged female figure Strothman and Harvey Osterhoudt. Courtesy: Art, gift of Mr. and Mrs. Gordon Hanes stands to his right, holding a fish(?) toward the Indiana University Art Museum, youth. The mirror is engraved with a tongtte Bloomington, IN pattern at the edge and a at the top of the handle, with stalks ofpalmette, a border of dots and an animal head at the tip of the handle, 12"/. x 6 1¾6" d. Collection: Warneck. Photo: Courtesy The Walters Art Gallery, Bal­ timore, MD

being waited upon by servants. Frequently, Note: I would like to offer my appreciation to the subjects were intimate and private, the University of Georgia, Studies Abroad Pro­ Reading showing scenes of their personal life. A gram and to Gary Noffke for help and support. husband and wife might be shown at ban­ As a result of my travels in Italy with the Cor­ P. Bruschetti; Gori M. Sassoli; and quet or a well-dressed couple might be de­ tona Program, a brief guide to Etruscan metal­ M.C. Guidotti, ii museo (Carcana, Italy: picted standing in their bedroom. Roman­ work collections appears with this article. Accademia Ecrusca di Cortona), 1988 tic and sensual themes include embracing lovers, bathers and dancers. Women often Nancy T. DeGrummond, A Gttide to chose literary themes from Greek mythol­ Etruscan Mirrors (Tallahassee, Florida: ogy that reflected the importance of women Dianne deBeixedon is Associate Professor of Art Archaeological News), 1982 as nurturers. Scenes with children, births, at Old Dominion University, Norfolk, VA, nursing infants and family "gatherings" are where she teaches meta/smithing and jewelry. Shirley Glubok, The Art of the Etruscans lovingly handled and display the impor­ (New York: Harper & !}ow), 1967 tance of the family unit. The majority of the Etruscan mirrors, Michael Grant, The Etruscans (New York: however, use Greek mythological stori es. Charles Seri bner's Sons), 1980 The preference for Greek themes above their own mythology is a puzzle. The range Sybille Hayes, Etruscan Bronze Utensils in subjects show that the Etruscans pos­ (London: Publication), sessed a sophisticated knowledge of literary 1974 and artistic Greek tradition. The choice of Greek themes simply may have been the ______, Etruscan Bronzes (New York: belief that the Greek culture was the best N .Y Sotheby's Publication, Harper and the world had to offer. However, one muse Row), 1985 not dismiss the Etruscan culture as a mere variant of Greek civili zation. For all their Jacques Heurgon, Daily Life of the Etruscans, "borrowing" and purchasing of Greek translated from French by James Kirkup culture, the Etruscans maintained a (New York: Macmillan), 1964 strikingly independent approach in their arc, achieving something unique. Uninter­ Ellen MacNamara, Everyday Life of the ested in classical principles, they empha­ Etruscans (New York: Dorset Press), 1973 sized capturing the instant or spirit of the moment rather than any permanent, Leonard Von Matt, The Art of the Etruscans philosophical truth. (New York: Abrams), 1970 Etruscan metalwork is characterized by an energy and intensity. Their economy, Emeline Hill Richardson, The Etrmcans: based on metal industry and trade, ex­ Their Art and Civilization (Chicago: tended their influence throughout the an­ University of Chicago Press), 1964 cient world. And although the record of their artistic and technical ac hi evements Maja Sprenger, The Etruscans (New York: does not exist in ancient books, the history Abrams), 1983 of Etruscan metalsmithing has been left to us in the objects themselves.

Metalsmith Fall 1989 21