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1. Describe the Principal Oceans of Earth, Including the Following: A

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1. Describe the Principal Oceans of Earth, Including the Following: A Chapter 1: Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Describe the principal oceans of Earth, including the following: A. location B. relative size C. land forms that border the ocean 2. Name the deepest ocean trench and describe its exploration by humans. 3. Discuss early ocean exploration and include the contributions of: A. early Pacific islanders (4000 BC– 900 AD) B. the Kon Tiki voyage C. Phoenicians D. Greeks E. Romans 4. Describe the contributions to oceanic exploration during the Middle Ages and the Ming Dynasty, including the: A. Arabs B. Vikings Ming Dynasty (1405–1433) 5. Elaborate on the contributions to oceanic exploration made by European explorers during the Renaissance (Age of Discovery), including: A. Prince Henry the Navigator B. Vasco da Gama C. Christopher Columbus D. John Cabot E. Vasco Nùñez de Balboa F. Ferdinand Magellan G. Juan Sebastian del Caño 6. Discuss the contributions of James Cook to early ocean science. 7. List and describe the systematic steps of the scientific method. 8. Distinguish between a hypothesis and a theory. 9. Describe the formation of the solar system as outlined by the nebular hypothesis. 10. Compare and contrast Protoearth and modern Earth. 11. Describe density stratification in Earth and the resultant chemical structure, including the: A. crust B. mantle C. core 12. Describe the physical structure of Earth, including the: A. inner core B. outer core C. mesosphere D. asthenosphere E. lithosphere 13. Distinguish between continental crust and oceanic crust, including location, chemical, and physical properties of the crust. 14. Differentiate between isostatic adjustment and isostatic rebound. 15. Describe the formation of Earth’s initial atmosphere. 16. Describe the formation of Earth’s oceans and discuss the origin of the salts in ocean water. 17. Discuss the implications of Stanley Miller’s experiment involving the simulation of primitive Earth’s atmosphere on the origin of life on Earth. 18. Discriminate between evolution and natural selection. 19. Define the following terms: A. autotroph B. heterotroph C. anaerobic D. chemosynthesis E. photosynthesis F. respiration G. endothermic (endergonic) H. exothermic (exergonic) 20. Outline the effects of photosynthesis on primitive Earth’s atmosphere. 21. Describe the process of radiometric dating and its implications estimating Earth’s age. Chapter 5: Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Differentiate between an atom and a molecule. 2. Describe the structure of an atom, including the arrangement, relative size, and charge of the subatomic particles: proton, neutron, and electron. 3. Define ion and give an example. 4. Discuss the formation of covalent bonds between atoms. 5. Explain how the geometry of the water molecule contributes to its polarity. 6. Describe the formation of hydrogen bonds and discuss how hydrogen bonding between water molecules affects the physical and chemical properties of water. 7. List the reasons why water is considered a universal solvent. 8. Outline how hydrogen bonding affects the thermal properties of water. 9. Distinguish between heat and temperature and give the units of measurement for each. 10. Define: A. melting point B. freezing point C. boiling point D. condensation point 11. Compare and contrast heat capacity and latent heat. 12. Discuss how the physical properties of water affect global climate, including marine and continental effects. 13. Explain how the geometry of the water molecule affects the density of water as it changes states of matter. 14. Define salinity and discuss its origin and concentration in seawater. 15. Restate the principle of constant proportions. 16. Name the instrument used to accurately measure dissolved salts in seawater. 17. Discuss the factors that affect the salinity of coastal and surface ocean waters. 18. List the processes that decrease seawater salinity. 19. List the processes that increase seawater salinity. 20. Draw and explain the hydrologic cycle. 21. Define residence time and discuss the implications of residence time for substances dissolved in seawater. 22. Distinguish between an acid and an alkaline (base) and describe how the relative concentrations of ions are measured. 23. Discuss the forms of dissolved carbon dioxide that exist in the ocean and the relationship between water pH and the form of dissolved carbon dioxide that is present. 24. Outline how salinity varies with depth in the ocean. 25. Outline how density varies with ocean depth. 26. Differentiate between a halocline, a pycnocline, and a thermocline and discuss the location of each in the ocean. 27. Discuss the two-box model of the ocean (mixed surface layer and deep water) and describe the separation of these water masses. 28. Outline common methods for desalination and discuss their commercial viability. Chapter 6: Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Define Earth’s ecliptic and describe its effect on Earth’s climate. 2. Describe Earth’s seasons, including the: A. vernal equinox B. summer solstice C. autumnal equinox D. winter solstice 3. Define declination as it relates to the Sun, Earth, and global climate variation. 4. Describe the location of the following: A. Tropic of Cancer B. Tropic of Capricorn C. Arctic Circle D. Antarctic Circle 5. Define albedo and the effect of differential albedo (ice/snow, land, and water) on climate. 6. Detail the following atmospheric properties: A. chemical composition B. temperature C. density D. water vapor content E. pressure F. movement 7. Explain the relationship between the solar heating of Earth and convection cells on a nonspinning Earth. 8. Discuss the effect of a rotating Earth on the direction of wind and water movement. 9. Draw and label the major global circulation patterns and the corresponding wind belts (remember that winds are named for the direction from which they blow) including: Hadley cells, Ferrel cells, and polar cells, trade winds (northeast trades and southeast trades), westerlies, and polar easterlies. 10. Describe the location, direction of air movement, and corresponding air pressure for: subtropical highs, polar highs, equatorial lows, and subpolar lows. 11. Distinguish between the doldrums, the horse latitudes, and the polar front, and give the location of each. 12. Define the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ). 13. Differentiate between weather and climate. 14. Describe the relationship between air pressure and wind direction in cyclonic flow and anticyclonic flow. 15. List the factors in the development of land breezes and sea breezes. 16. Explain how storms form, the relationship between jet stream position and storm movement, and make the distinction between warm fronts and cold fronts. 17. Give the distinction between a hurricane, a typhoon, and a cyclone, and the location where these weather phenomena occur. 18. Provide a brief explanation of the Saffir-Simpson Scale. 19. List the severe hurricanes, typhoons, and cyclones (and the location of landfall) that have damaged the coastal areas during the 20th century. 20. Draw Earth and label the following oceanic climate patterns on your sketch, including: the equatorial region, the tropical regions, the subtropical regions, the temperate regions, the subpolar regions, and the polar regions. 21. Differentiate between sea ice, shelf ice, and icebergs, and describe the formation of each. 22. List the atmospheric gases that contribute to the greenhouse effect. 23. Outline Earth’s heat budget. 24. Detail potential changes in Earth’s climate as a result of increased global warming. 25. Suggest ways in which you personally can decrease your contribution to global atmospheric greenhouse gas production. 26. Describe the ocean’s role in minimizing the effect of increased global atmospheric carbon dioxide. Chapter 7: Upon completion of this chapter, the student should be able to: 1. Distinguish between wind-driven (or surface) and density-driven (or deep) ocean currents. 2. Describe methods used to measure the flow rate of surface currents, including: A. direct methods of flow measurement B. indirect methods such as internal density distribution/pressure gradient measurements, radar altimeter, and Doppler flow meter 3. Detail how deep current flow rates are estimated. 4. Define gyre and describe its formation. 5. List the five subtropical gyres and describe their location. 6. Explain the formation of equatorial currents. 7. Discuss the relationship between the Coriolis effect and western boundary currents in gyres. 8. Give the physical characteristics of western boundary currents. 9. Give the physical characteristics of eastern boundary currents. 10. Differentiate between northern boundary currents and southern boundary currents, Describing the location and direction of flow for each in both hemispheres. 11. Distinguish between equatorial currents and equatorial countercurrents. 12. Discuss the formation of the subpolar gyres and describe their location. 13. Describe the Ekman spiral and detail its implications for ocean water circulation. 14. Give the direction of Ekman transport in the northern and southern hemispheres. 15. Define geostrophic current and give an example. 16. Discuss the factors that contribute to western intensification of subtropical gyres. 17. Differentiate between upwelling and downwelling and relate these phenomena to surface water productivity in these areas. 18. Describe the causes of upwelling and list the places where upwelling would occur. 19. List, describe the location,
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