Sustainable Tourism As a Springboard for the Development of the City Of

rism & ou H f T o Paul Nkemngu, J Tourism Hospit 2012, 1:5 s o l p DOI: 10.4172/2167-0269.1000107 a i t

n a

u t

y o

J Journal of Tourism & Hospitality ISSN: 2167-0269

Research Article OpOpenen Access Access Sustainable Tourism as a Springboard for the Development of the City of Buea (Focus Area – Case Study and Applied Research on Tourism as an Instrument for Community Development) Acha-Anyi Paul Nkemngu* Department of Tourism Management, Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa

Abstract The purpose of this study is to test the applicability of sustainable tourism theory within the sustainable community development framework. Starting with a review of literature on sustainable tourism and sustainable development, the study focuses on a project called “Achas Centre for Sustainable Community Development” (ACSCD). Based in the tourist hot-spot of Buea in the South West region of Cameroon, ACSCD operates on a theoretical framework designed to orchestrate development and shape the future of this mountainous (volcanic) city and its neighboring coastal city of Limbe. The research method employs the case study approach by exploring the conceptual base of this project that seeks to development tourism as a springboard for sustainable community development. The operating model of ACSCD reveals that the sustainable community development centre is complemented by the training centre “Achas Higher Institute of Sustainable Tourism, Hospitality and Business”. While the higher institute imparts the training that empowers community members with tourism and community development skills, the sustainable development centre channels these skills through identified focus areas into community development projects. The key finding of this study is that planning for the future and sustainable development of creative cities such as Buea, should be the outcome of both empowerment programs, the identification of essential development focus projects and the execution of such projects in the interest of sustainable community development. The significance of this study lies not only in its conceptualization of a new approach to sustainable community tourism development, but also its demonstration of the fact that sustainable community development is a result of both skills acquisition and the transmission of such skills into viable community development projects.

Keywords: Sustainable tourism; Sustainable community these living in rural areas [4]. IFAD further states that “Rural poverty development; Achas higher institute of tourism; Hospitality and results from lack of assets, limited economic opportunities and poor business management education and capabilities, as well as disadvantages rooted in social and political inequalities” [4]. The problem here is the perpetuation Introduction of this untenable situation despite the fact that research since 1973 Travel and tourism contribution to Global gross Domestic Product [5-11] indicates that tourism can be used as a means of orchestrating (GDP) in 2011 is expected to stand at US$ 1,850.0 billion (2.8% of development. total GDP), increasing by 4.2% per annum to US$ 2,860.5 billion in Significance of the pilot project 2021. In the same vein, the industry’s total employment contribution is forecast to rise by 2.3% per annum from 258,592,000 jobs in 2011 The significance of this study lies both in improving the quality to 323,826,000 jobs (9.7%) by 2021 [1]. While the economic gains of life of community members and raising awareness on issues of emanating from this sustained growth in the tourism industry are global concern such as the protection of endangered species, climate evident and laudable, the translation of these benefits into visible change, health and so on. More so, by tailoring training and education developmental gains for poor communities has been the subject of to relevant community development projects, the challenges posed by much debate [2]. Despite the plethora of literature on guidelines for jobless graduates will be curbed, if not eliminated. Other specific gains the use of tourism to orchestrate sustainable community development, will include job creation, social cohesion, peace and foreign exchange there are still few practical illustrations to showcase the successful flows to the local economy. implementation of these guidelines. This, in essence is the motivation for this experimental study that seeks to apply sustainable tourism theory to catalyse development in the mountain town of Buea in the *Corresponding author: Acha-Anyi Paul Nkemngu, Department of Tourism South West region of Cameroon. Management, Tshwane University of Technology, Pretoria, South Africa, Tel: 0027- (0)-72-589-8973; Fax: 0027-(0)-12-382-4611; E-mail: [email protected] Problem statement Received July 20, 2012; Accepted October 31, 2012; Published November 05, At the beginning of the present millennium, the United Nations 2012 General Assembly committed itself to “Spare no effort to free fellow Citation: Paul Nkemngu AA (2012) Sustainable Tourism as a Springboard for the men, women and children from the abject and dehumanizing Development of the City of Buea (Focus Area – Case Study and Applied Research conditions of extreme poverty, to which more than a billion of them are on Tourism as an Instrument for Community Development). J Tourism Hospit 1:107. doi:10.4172/2167-0269.1000107 currently subjected” [3]. More than one decade after this commitment, the International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD) reveals Copyright: © 2012 Paul Nkemngu AA. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits that there are still about 1.4 billion people living on less than US$ 1.25 unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the a day and close to one billion suffering from hunger, with 70 percent of original author and source are credited.

J Tourism Hospit ISSN: 2167-0269 JTH, an open access journal Volume 1 • Issue 5 • 1000107 Citation: Paul Nkemngu AA (2012) Sustainable Tourism as a Springboard for the Development of the City of Buea (Focus Area – Case Study and Applied Research on Tourism as an Instrument for Community Development). J Tourism Hospit 1:107. doi:10.4172/2167-0269.1000107

Page 2 of 7

Background to the Study 1.9% of total investment in 2011. It should rise by 7.6% pa to reach FCFA 93.9 billion (or 2.4%) of total investment in 2011. The Cameroon tourism situation Site and population of the study Cameroon is commonly described in tourism circles as Africa in miniature as most of the attractions found on the continent can be Buea, capital of the South West region of Cameroon (Appendix seen in the country. However, the contribution of tourism to economic 1) is the site of this experimental study, hence the base of the two development in Cameroon can be described as a missed opportunity operating structures: Achas Higher Institute of Tourism, Hospitality as the country occupies an unenviable position 148 out 181 in world and Business Management and Achas centre of sustainable Community rankings in terms of the relative contribution of tourism to national Development. The choice of Buea as the study site is strategic economy [12]. This situation is quite unfortunate considering the high considering that the region is endowed with two flagship attractions, unemployment rate in the country (estimated at between 30 to 50.2 namely the volcanic Cameroon Mountain (the highest peak in West percent) on the one hand, and the great potential of tourism to create Africa -Appendix 2) and the coastline of the Atlantic Ocean flowing jobs and generate incomes on the other. through the coastal town of Limbe (Appendix 3). With a vibrant population of 90, 088 inhabitants [13], this University town also has In his address to the Cameroon National Tourism Board on huge political and historic significance, hence its historic colonial December 28, 2010, the Cameroon Minister of Tourism, Baba significance as the capital of German Kamerun (1901-1919-Appendix Hamadou revealed the government’s recognition of the strategic role 4) and capital of Southern Cameroons from 1949 to 1961. The that tourism has to play in the country’s vision of becoming an emerging annual mount Cameroon race in February of every year, the amazing country by 2035. The Minister also indicated that Cameroon received mountain trails, the indigenous Bakweri culture (Appendix 5) among 572,728 international visitors in 2010, contributing FCFA 28.64 billion others, beautifully complement and complete the variety of attractions through entry visas to Cameroon, FCFA 2.66 billion through airport in this area. stamps and FCFA 59.142 billion from taxes and duties. Tourism direct employment in Cameroon currently stands at over 60,000. Literature Review By 2035, tourism is projected to contribute 13 percent to the Gross Community tourism Domestic Product (GDP), generating FCFA 250 billion to the state treasury. Over the same period, the accommodation sector is expected Hall [14] describes tourism as an expression of lifestyle “identified to grow to 5689 hotels with a capacity of 156,023 rooms and 170,260 either through voluntary travel or a voluntary temporary short-term beds. change of residence”. The motives of such travel are increasingly wide- ranging, including among others education, business, health and leisure. According to the World Travel and Tourism Council [12], key Following on this, Cooper et al. [15] indicate that the core elements of projections on tourism in Cameroon in the year 2011 are as follows: tourism arise out of the movement of people to and their stay in various • GDP: Direct contribution destinations outside their usual environments and places of work. This in turn fuels the demand for various facilities and services designed to The direct contribution of travel and tourism to GDP is expected be provide for and ease the transition and temporary residence of visitors FCFA 263.6 billion (2.3% of total GDP) in 2011, rising by 5.4% in the host community. The supply of direct and support services such pa to FCFA 447.5 billion (2.4%) in 2021. as transport, accommodation, catering, souvenirs and other shopping • GDP: Total contribution to tourists should help stimulate the local economy, create jobs, bring additional income and hence improve the quality of life of community The total contribution of travel and tourism to GDP, including members. wider economic impacts is forecast to rise by 5.6% pa from FCFA 579.3 billion (5.0% of GDP) in 2011 to FCFA 1,000.4 In this light, Spenceley [16] defines community tourism as billion (5.3%) by 2021. “tourism which is owned and/or managed by communities with the aim of generating wider community benefit”. Choi and Sirakaya [2] • Employment: Direct contribution further argue that the main aim of community tourism should be to Travel and tourism is expected to support directly 88,000 jobs (1.9% improve the residents’ quality of life by maximizing local economic of total employment) in 2011, rising by 2.6% pa to 115,000 jobs benefits, protecting the natural and built heritage and providing a (2.0%) by 2021. high quality of experiences for the visitors. However, taking a slightly different view, Petric [17] emphasises that community tourism should • Employment: Total contribution aim at giving visitors personal contact with the physical and human The total contribution of travel and tourism to employment, environment of the countryside and allow them to participate in the including jobs indirectly supported by the industry, is forecast activities, traditions and lifestyles of the local people. to rise by 2.8% pa from 200,000 jobs (4.4% of total employment) in 2011 to 264,000 jobs (4.7%) by 2021. Sustainable tourism • Visitor exports: The concept of sustainability gained prominence after the publication of the World Commission on Environment and Travel and Tourism visitor exports are expected to generate FCFA Development (WCED) report “Our Common Future” which defined 153.1 billion (4.3% of total exports) in 2011, growing by 8.9% Sustainable Development as development that “Meets the needs of pa (in nominal terms) to FCFA 288.1 billion (4.2%) in 2021. the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” [18]. Keyser [19] points out that the attainment • Investment: of sustainable development necessitates a balance between economic Travel and tourism investment is expected at FCFA 45.2 billion or efficiency, environmental integrity and social justice. According to

Page 3 of 7

Butler [20], sustainable tourism refers to “Tourism which is developed In the light of the foregoing, the World Tourism Organization and maintained in an area (community or environment) in such a envisages that a sustainable tourism strategy should: manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over an infinite period 1) “Make optimal use of the environmental resources that and does not degrade or alter the environment (human or physical) constitute a key element in tourism development, maintaining in which it exists to such a degree that it prohibits the successful development and well being of other activities and processes”. The essential ecological processes and helping to conserve natural United Nations World Tourism Organization’s [21] provides a heritage and biodiversity; comprehensive definition of sustainable tourism development when it 2) Respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities, states that sustainable tourism development “meets the needs of present conserve their built and living cultural heritage and traditional tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunity values, and contribute to inter-cultural understanding and for the future. It is envisaged as leading to management of all resources tolerance; and in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological processes, and 3) Ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing biological diversity, and life support systems”. socio-economic benefits to all stakeholders that are fairly distributed, including stable employment and income-earning Tourism and sustainable community development opportunities and social services to host communities, and The study of tourism business development has gained impetus in contributing to poverty alleviation. recent times. According to Lee and Chang [10], “A general consensus Sustainable tourism development requires the informed has emerged that it (tourism) not only increases foreign exchange and participation of all relevant stakeholders as well as strong political incomes, but also creates employment opportunities, stimulates the leadership to ensure wide participation and consensus building. growth of the tourism industry and by virtue of this, triggers overall Achieving sustainable tourism is a continuous process and it requires economic growth”. Sebele [22] indicates that the concept of community constant monitoring of impacts, introducing the necessary preventive development was introduced as an approach to rural development in the and/or corrective measures whenever necessary” [24]. 1950s and 1960s. This approach calls for the more active involvement of locals in development issues. In the same vein, tourism literature The rationale behind this experiment therefore lies in assessing since the 1980s has advocated the inclusion and involvement of local the extent to which tourism development theory can be incorporated communities in tourism as local residents have been identified as being into community development strategies redress the huge imbalance instrumental in sustaining the product [23]. Furthermore, Tosun [24] between the economic, socio-cultural and environmental opportunities asserts that apart from being instrumental in tourism sustainability, presented by the tourism industry and the abject poverty suffered by community participation also ensures that a number of benefits accrue many people in local communities. from tourism, namely: employment opportunities for local people, positive local attitudes, conservation of local resources and physical Maximising Tourism Gains for Poor Communities: The development within the community. Operation of Achas Centre for Sustainable Community Development It is evident from the above that there is a considerable overlap between community tourism, sustainable tourism and sustainable Achas centre for sustainable community development (ACSCD) development hence the need to explore a strategy that would ensure operates alongside Achas Higher institute of tourism, hospitality and that local communities benefit from all three. business management (Achas Higher Institute of Management – AHIM in short) in Buea, South West region of Cameroon. The rationale behind Considering the rapid growth of tourism and the subsequent having the two centers operate side by side is to ensure that while AHIM impacts (economic, environmental and socio-cultural), its strong deals with issues of training and education, the sustainable development association with issues of sustainability is hardly surprising. Tourism is centre (ACSCD) commutes the skills acquired into practical gains for “intimately connected with issues of sustainable development. Indeed, the community through developmental projects (Figure 1). In order to since the late 1980s there has been an explosion in the number of texts maximize the benefits from these projects, community focus areas are and articles, plus courses and consultants, concerned with sustainable identified. This will ensure that skills and efforts are properly channeled forms of development and mitigating or managing tourism’s undesired to impact in specific areas of community life. Training is pivotal to the effects” [14]. The World Tourism Organization (WTO) defines success of this model because it provides the basic tourism awareness, sustainable tourism as tourism development that “meets the needs information and education and the quality human resource needed of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing to operate tourism and its support industries. Women empowerment opportunity for the future. It is envisaged as leading to management is considered a focus area because this is a vital resource that is often of all resources in such a way that economic, social and aesthetic neglected in many communities. Women generally constitute a greater needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential part of the population and so putting them at the fore of community ecological processes, and biological diversity, and life support systems” development can have significant positive impact. Conservation [21]. Three types of impacts are identified as originating from tourism projects will ensure that resources and the quality of the experience development: do not deplete or degenerate beyond repair. Food security is essential • Impacts on the environment (both natural and man-made); for the livelihood of community members and provides for visitors as well. Research and innovation ensures there are improvements both • Socio-cultural impacts (Effects on host communities through in the way of doing things and the quality of the product offering as direct and indirect relations with tourists, and interaction with well. Of course, all these will only flourish if conditions in the local the tourism industry); and environment (enabling environment) are favorable for investment and • Economic impacts. the operation of businesses.

Page 4 of 7

Training and Empowerment Enabling Environment

• Tourist attractions Community focus areas Infrastructure *Tourism and Hospitality • *Women Management empowerment * Transport and logistics • Accommodation * Conservation Management * Recreation Management *Conservation

• Transport programmes

• Political stability *Food security

*Research and • Financial institutions innovation *Banking and Finance *Human Resource • Service excellence Management *Marketing and Etc. Advertisement *Accounting and Finance

Figure 1: Model of tourism as a springboard for sustainable community development.

Achas Higher Institute of sustainable tourism, hospitality and • Facilitating collaboration between industry partners through business management is strategically positioned to coordinate, lead workshops and conferences; and empower local communities to take advantage of the development • Attract international attention to the tourism potential opportunities presented by the travel and tourism industry, through: of Cameroon, and support to improve its planning and • The training of employees, entrepreneurs, government sectors development; and community residents through certification programs • Harness all the above towards community development in (National diploma, professional degrees and Master’s degrees Cameroon and improve the quality of life of the local people. (in the long run) and Short Learning Programs (SLPs). From theory to practice • Empower women (through workshops and short Learning programs), especially in the informal economic sector to better Though still in the early stages, the application of this theory can manage their small business initiatives; be seen in operation of Achas Higher institute of sustainable tourism, hospitality and business management and Achas centre for sustainable • Alert women to entrepreneurial opportunities (gap community development as follows (Figure 2): identification) in the tourism industry; Transforming the skills’ base into sustainable community • Conducting research on tourism-related impacts: economic, development environmental and socio-cultural; Empowered community members shall contribute towards • Training employees and raising awareness on the importance the development of the community by serving at Achas centre for of conservation, especially in Cameroon and the Central sustainable community development whose specific objectives are the African region; following (Figure 3): • Initiating networks, collaboration and partnerships with a. Women for sustainable community development conservation Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) with the aim of tailoring our curriculum to practical needs and  Goal: Empower women to play a leading role in sustainable participating on conservation programs; community development; through: • Increase capacity-building in tourism and conservation via 1. Identifying the needs of community women; various short learning programs (SLPs); 2. Providing basic education for healthy and balanced social • Working with public and private sector groups to formulate development; policies that will lead to improvements in sustainable tourism 3. Organize women into common-initiative groups so that the planning and development; synergy can further enhance the possibility for success; • Developing best practice guides and training manuals; 4. Provide seed-funding to local women for small business • Training employees for tourism support sectors such as development; banking, hospitality, human resources management, and so on; 5. Create job and income opportunities for women; • Initiating collaboration, networks and interactions with 6. Provide training in small business management skills institutions and organizations that focus on conservation and through Short Learning Programmes (SLPS), workshops and sustainable tourism; conferences;

Page 5 of 7

ACHAS HIGHER INSTITUTE OF SUSTAINABLE TOURISM, HOSPITALITY AND BUSINESS MANAGEMENT

Faculty of Tourism, Faculty of Conservation and Centre for Sustainable Community Management Hospitality Sciences Management Development

Women Conservation for Food Research Empowerment sustainable Security and Innovation livelihoods

Community environment: stakeholder involvement and participation, resource allocation, etc).

Figure 2: Operational model of Achas centre for sustainable community development.

7. Identify potential markets for finished products; 4. Conduct information sessions of healthy eating; 8. Monitor the progress of women in their respective economic 5. Provide financial assisting to existing and new farmers; activities. 6. Encourage cooperation among farmers. b. Conservation for sustainable livelihoods d. Research and Innovation  Goal: Work towards the preservation and sustainable use  Goal: Contribute to and encourage the use of scientific and of flora and fauna species; through: innovative methods to enhance community development; through: 1. Providing education on conservation through accredited 1. Training more people to improve the HR needs of the research courses; sector; 2. Provide training in conservation work through SLPs, 2. Get community members to be active and participate in data workshops, conferences, etc.; collection; 3. Work with existing conservation NGOs to identify endangered species; 3. Educate community members in the benefits of data collection and research in general; 4. Raise awareness within communities on the importance of conservation; 4. Work with the public sector, especially local government departments on research projects; 5. Produce basic EIA reports (Environmental Impact Assessment Reports); 5. Encourage the use of new and innovative methods to resolve individual and community challenges; 6. Work towards re-habilitating endangered species; 6. Encourage and facilitate research work among community 7. Use conservation as an opportunity for job creation for members by availing literature and data sources such as the community members; internet, libraries, and so on. 8. Contribute towards enhancing the HR (Human Resource) Conclusions needs of the conservation movements. • The possibility of job creation: Although this experimental c. Food security study is still in its infancy, fifteen direct jobs have already been  Goal: Work towards ensuring that an increasing number created. Ten of these jobs have been in various positions within of community members have access to their daily nutritional needs; the training centre and five in the sustainable community through: development projects. This is evidence of the possibility of this community development model to create employment for 1. Providing training in the better management of existing farms; community members. 2. Providing training in improved farming methods; • Opportunities for empowered communities to participate 3. Ensure a better distribution of available food stock; in their own development: This model further illustrates the

Page 6 of 7

SMALL BUSINESS CENTRE TRAINING CENTRE • Lack of expertise among local people to manage both the training centre (higher institute) and the sustainable development

Achas Higher Institute of Tourism, Hospitality and Business centre. Delivering lectures requires seasoned academicians, management Travel centre just as much as experienced managers are needed to coordinate the projects at the sustainable community development centre. Projects and Accommodation micro- nance Women Centre for However, expatriate labour is being sought to train trainers empowerment Food Security Conference centre within the communities.

Conservation • Lack of seed funding to kick-start both the training centre centre and the sustainable development centre. While the financial Figure 3: Maximising the trickle-down effect. sustainability of this development model is assured in the medium and long term through tuition fees and the possibility for community members to engage in their own profitability of its projects, acquiring seed funding remains a development. There is ample opportunity for multiple talent major challenge. development and exploitation, either in direct tourism services • Effective stakeholder participation. In principle, all stakeholders or in the support industries. are in favor of community development. However a major • The enhancement of corporate social responsibility: Also limitation to the success of this community development model evident in this model is the opportunity to engage other will be the effective collaboration among the stakeholders. corporate partners to contribute towards community Government processes are usually burdened by bureaucracy development, either by creating opportunities for internship and delays. This could leave the other parties (community programmes for young graduates within their business members, NGOs, investors, etc) frustrated and disinterested. environment, create permanent employment or donate • Lack of training facilities and resources. The success of this resources towards community projects. community development model will depend on the availability • Community benefit from available natural, heritage and of training facilities and resources such as a well equipped other resources: Hallmark attractions such as the Cameroon library and a computer laboratory. This will enable community Mountain and the beach front by the Atlantic Ocean in members access information and empower themselves on how Limbe can be further exploited by the community for its own to deal with various challenges. development. • Finally, one limitation to this study lies in the fact that it is still • Greater social cohesion and synergy among community in its infancy so the full impact cannot be determined at this members: Through working together on various community stage. It is however important to note that these impacts will development projects community members energize each be measured with regards to the number and extent of women other and improve the social bonding therein. empowerment, conservation activities, food production and distribution and research output. • Income generation within the community: This sustainable community development model also demonstrates Recommendations opportunities for income generation to fast-track community Considering the foregoing challenges, the following development. For the year 2011, the budget for the training recommendation would further ensure the sustainability of this project: institute (Achas Higher Institute of sustainable tourism, hospitality and business management stands at XAF 49,595,000 • The active participation of all stakeholders such as government, ($ 99,190). The fact that most of this money will be flowing Non-governmental organizations (NGOs), community from outside into the local economy is a great boost to the members, investors and so on. economy. In addition, income will come from external sources • The provision of seed funding to kick-start the projects. This such as foreign exchange earned from tourism and foreign could come from private individuals such as the case of Achas donors, and internally through the income from community centre for sustainable development, but this funding could also projects. Other spin-offs and multiplier effects are expected to come from the corporate community as part of their social trickle these gains throughout the community. responsibility packages, international development agencies and government grants. Considering recent unfortunate • Finally, it is evident from this study that tourism development, happenings such as the famine in East Africa, climate change just like training requires effective partnership with other pressures, popular uprisings around the world, and illegal industries and economic sectors in order to produce real gains migration, one can only hope that the international community for local communities. Education/training without relevant has learned to apply the common adage that “prevention is projects on which to apply the acquired knowledge will better than cure”. Assisting communities before a crisis should likely generate frustration and resentment. In the same vein, cost less and save more lives. development that does not involve the local people breeds a sense of alienation and is therefore not sustainable. • The voluntary transfer of skills, especially from the developed to the developing communities. This could take the form of Limitations working holidays. Despite the foregoing benefits of this experimental project, the • Donations of equipment in the form of used or new computers, following limitations to its successful implementation need to be noted: books and conference material (also used for workshops).

Page 7 of 7

Transport facilities in the form of four-wheel-drive vehicles 11. Tao CH, Wall G (2009) Tourism as a sustainable livelihood strategy. Tourism and buses to move people and goods around will also be very Management 30: 90-98. useful. 12. World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (2011) Travel and tourism economic impact: Cameroon. London: World Travel and Tourism Council. • It is also recommended that further research be conducted 13. United Nations Development Programme (2006) Beyond scarcity: Power, to establish the medium and long term impacts (economic, poverty and the global water crisis. Human development report 2006. New York environmental and socio-cultural) of this project on the United Nations Development Programme, Cameroon. development of the local communities and the quality of life of 14. Hall CM (2008) Tourism planning: policies, processes and relationships. the residents. (2ndedn), Edinburgh Gate: Pearson. References 15. Cooper C, Fletcher J, Fyall A, Gilbert D, Wanhill S (2008) Tourism: principles and practice. (3rdedn), Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education Limited. 1. World Travel and Tourism Council (WTTC) (2011) Travel and tourism economic impact: World. London, UK: World Travel and Tourism Council. 16. Spenceley A (2008) Responsible tourism: critical issues for conservation and development. London, UK: Earthscan. 2. Choi HC, Sirakaya E (2006) Sustainability Indicators for managing community tourism. Tourism Management 27: 1274-1289. 17. Viljoen J, Tlabela K (2007) Rural tourism development in South Africa: Trends and challenges. Human Sciences Research Council Press. 3. United Nations (2000) Global summit on peace through tourism. Amman, United Nation. 18. World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) (1987) Our common future, 1987. Oxford: Oxford University. 4. International Fund for Agricultural Development (2010) Rural poverty report 2011: The challenge of ending rural poverty. Oxford: Oxford University Press 19. Keyser H (2009) Developing tourism in South Africa: towards competitive for IFAD. destinations. (2ndedn), Cape Town, South Africa: Oxford University Press.

5. Erbes R (1973) International tourism and the economy of developing countries. 20. Butler RW (1991) Tourism, Environment, and Sustainable Development. Paris, France: OECD. Environmental Conservation 18: 201-219.

6. De Kadt E (1979) Tourism: Passport to Development? New York, USA: Oxford 21. World Tourism Organization (WTO) (2004) Sustainable development of University Press. tourism: conceptual definition. Madrid: World Tourism Organisation.

7. Jenkins CL (1994) Tourism in developing countries: The privatization issue. 22. Sebele LS (2010) Community-based tourism ventures, benefits and challenges: Chichester: John Wiley. Khama rhino sanctuary trust, central district, Botswana. Tourism Management 31:136-146. 8. Sinclair MT (1998) Tourism and economic development. The Journal of Development Studies 34: 1-51. 23. Hardy A, Beeton RJS, Pearson L (2002) Sustainable tourism: an overview of the concept and its position in relation to conceptualisations in tourism. Journal 9. Oh CO (2005) The contribution of tourism development to economic growth in of Sustainable Tourism 10: 475-496. the Korean economy. Tourism Management 26: 39- 44. 24. Tosun C (2006) Expected nature of community participation in tourism 10. Lee CC, Chang CP (2008) Tourism development and economic growth: A development. Tourism Management 27: 493-504. closer look at panels. Tourism Management 29: 180-192.

J Tourism Hospit ISSN: 2167-0269 JTH, an open access journal Volume 1 • Issue 5 • 1000107