LADINO THEATRE :
TRAGEDY , CULTURAL POLITICS AND REPRESENTING THE PAST IN THE SEPHARDIC JEWISH DIASPORA
BY MARA MARIE LOCKOWANDT
DEPARTMENT OF DRAMA AND THEATRE ROYAL HOLLOWAY , UNIVERSITY OF LONDON
SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
SEPTEMBER 2012
1
DECLARATION OF AUTHORSHIP
I Mara Lockowandt hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it are entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated.
Signed: ______
Date: ___21 September, 2012 ______
2 - ABSTRACT -
This thesis considers the role of performances in the modern Sephardic diaspora. Live performances have been an integral part of Sephardic life for centuries: songs and narratives in Ladino (Judeo-Spanish) are performed to mark life cycle events, religious holidays, remember the past, and maintain cultural distinctiveness. Despite the decline of
Ladino throughout the twentieth century, the language continues to be utilized in singing, storytelling, and dramatic events, often as a means of connecting a community to their diasporic past. In light of the ongoing value of Ladino in performance, the present study undertakes a wide historical examination of Sephardic performances from the nineteenth century to the present day to consider the shifting significance of Ladino and representing the past in constructing ethnic and cultural identities. Two key periods in modern
Sephardi history are considered: 1) the emergence and development of modern Sephardi
Theatre in the Ottoman Empire; 2) the revitalisation of Sephardi theatre during the late twentieth century in Israel and the United States.
A relational approach is utilized throughout this work, as forwarded in contemporary scholarship on diaspora and performance, to draw connections between different migratory experiences and cross-cultural encounters. Through application of this approach we show how Sephardi Theatre and the use of Ladino developed through specific socio-historical and political circumstances - and especially through relations vis-à- vis the Ashkenazim. Within each period we demonstrate how particular social and political structures and interests impacted theatrical forms as well as the role of language in performance. During the twentieth century, we identify a shift in the performance work of Sephardic artists away from dramatic representations and towards musical or storytelling events intended to increase accessibility and interest in Sephardi culture.
3 While succeeding in bringing Sephardi traditions to international stages, it is argued that such performances overlook historical and contemporary experiences of marginalisation and conflate variegated Sephardic identities in a manner that risks homogenization and that may impede future linguistic and cultural usability. Nevertheless, this thesis points to the ongoing importance of performance-based events amongst the Sephardim in strengthening connections to their culture and diasporic histories.
4 - TABLE OF CONTENTS -
List of Figures ...... 8
Abbreviations ...... 9
I. INTRODUCTION:MODERN SEPHARDI THEATRE AND PERFORMANCE.13
DEFINING THE SEPHARDIM ...... 21
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK : INVESTIGATING A RELATIONAL APPROACH ...... 27 Jewish Historiography and Sephardic Modernity ...... 29 Diaspora and Performance ...... 34
TRADITIONS , CULTURAL AUTHENTICITY AND REPRESENTATIONS OF THE PAST ...... 44
METHODOLOGY ...... 48
Materials ...... 50
OVERVIEW OF THE CHAPTERS ...... 53
CONCLUSION ...... 56
II. THE SEPHARDIC CONTEXT: HISTORY AND PRESENT SITUATION...... 58
THE HISTORY OF THE SEPHARDIC DIASPORA ...... 58 Origins in Medieval Spain...... 58 Crisis in the Iberian Peninsula ...... 59 The Sephardim in the Ottoman Empire...... 62 Theatre Traditions in the Ottoman Empire...... 64 The Nineteenth Century ...... 66 Theatre in the Nineteenth Century...... 70
THE SEPHARDIC AMERICAN EXPERIENCE ...... 72 Sephardi Theatre in America...... 75
JUDEO -SPANISH , JUDEZMO , LADINO : THE LANGUAGE OF THE SEPHARDIM ...... 79
THE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE SEPHARDIM ...... 81
CONCLUSION ...... 83
III. ALLA FRANKA!: INVESTIGATING THE FRENCH IMPACT ON SEPHARDI THEATRE ...... 85
INTRODUCTION ...... 85
ALLIANCE ISRAÉLITE UNIVERSELLE : EDUCATIONAL REFORMS AND THEATRICAL
INFLUENCES ...... 89
5 TRANSLATING AND ADAPTING MOLIÈRE IN OTTOMAN SEPHARDIC THEATRE ...... 101 A Theatre of Morals...... 108
ASSIMILATION TO NATIONALISM : STAGING RACINE 'S ESTHER ...... 114
CONCLUSION ...... 126
IV. SEPHARDI ZIONIST THEATRE AND THE EMERGENCE OF MODERN TRAGEDIES...... 128
INTRODUCTION ...... 128
OVERVIEW OF THE DREYFUS AFFAIR ...... 132
DREYFUS NARRATIVES IN THE LADINO PRESS AND CULTURAL PRODUCTS ...... 134 The Press ...... 134 Novels ...... 138 Poetry ...... 139 Dramatic Dialogue ...... 140 Dramatic Representations...... 142
JAC LORIA 'S DREYFUS ...... 143 Dramatic Themes and Theatrical Styles ...... 146 Investigating the Influence of Dutch Theatrical Texts in Jac Loria's Dreyfus...... 153
RECEPTIONS TO DRAMATIZATIONS OF THE DREYFUS AFFAIR ...... 158
ZIONIST THEATRE : STAGING VIOLENCE , RACISM AND JEWISH NATIONALISM ...... 163
NARRATING A TRAGIC HISTORY ...... 174
CONCLUSION ...... 178
PART II ...... 179
V. THE LADINO PLAYERS: PERFORMANCES IN THE AMERICAN SEPHARDIC REVITALIZATION MOVEMENT...... 181
INTRODUCTION ...... 181
QUINCENTENNIAL COMMEMORATIONS AND THE SEPHARDI CULTURAL REVIVAL .. 185
THE EMERGENCE OF THE LADINO PLAYERS ...... 189
COEXISTENCE IN THE SEPHARDI -AMERICAN IMMIGRANT PLAYS ...... 191
LANGUAGE IDEOLOGIES IN PREZENTANDO DE UNA MEGILAH PARA MYESTROS DIYAS ...... 205
CODE -SWITCHING IN LADINO REVERIES ...... 211
LANGUAGE IMPACT ON AUDIENCE RECEPTION ...... 219
LEGITIMACY AND EXOTICISM WITH PERFORMANCES AT HERITAGE SITES ...... 224
CONCLUSION ...... 241
6 VI. PERFORMING SEPHARDI HISTORY ON THE ISRAELI STAGE ...... 244
INTRODUCTION ...... 244
HISTORICAL AND SOCIAL CONTEXT ...... 250
LANGUAGE POLICY IN ISRAEL AND THE LADINO REVITALIZATION MOVEMENT ..... 255
MATILDA KOEN -SARANO AND THE SEPHARDIC REVITALIZATION MOVEMENT ...... 258
THEATRE PERFORMANCES AT THE BAT YAM CULTURAL CLUB ...... 264
PERFORMING THE HOLOCAUST IN GOLGOTHA ...... 273
MUSIC AND COMMERCIAL SEPHARDI PERFORMANCES ...... 285
CONCLUSION ...... 291
VII. CONCLUSION ...... 294
WORKS CITED...... 303
NEWSPAPERS ...... 303
INTERVIEWS AND PERSONAL CORRESPONDENCE ...... 303
PRIMARY SOURCES ...... 304
BOOKS , JOURNAL ARTICLES AND NEWS ARTICLES ...... 306 APPENDIX A……………………………………………………………………………………………………343 APPENDIX B……………………………………………………………………………………………………345 APPENDIX C…………………………………………………………………………………………………...347 APPENDIX D…………………………………………………………………………………………………...347 APPENDIX E…………………………………………………………………………………………………...349 APPENDIX F…………………………………………………………………………………………………...351
7 --- LIST OF FIGURES ---
FIGURE 1: THE ALAFRANGA COUPLE ...... 69
FIGURE 2: SCENES FROM MY FAIR MUJER , GEORGIA (1961)...... 77
FIGURE 3: MARČH TRIUMFAL DE ESTER ...... 120
FIGURE 4: SAMI , JAMILA AND RIVKA IN ORCHARD STREET BLUES ...... 197
FIGURE 5: PROGRAMME COVER FOR FORSYTH STREET ...... 199
FIGURE 6: STORYTELLING AND SINGING IN AVIYA DE SER ...... 236
FIGURE 7: FLYER AND PRODUCTION IMAGE FROM A FUERSA DEL PALO ...... 266
FIGURE 8: VICTOR ATTAR IN REHEARSALS FOR GOLGOTHA ...... 277
FIGURE 9: AN INTIMATE PERFORMANCE OF CHI CHI BUNICHI AT THE NOTTING HILL
ARTS CLUB , LONDON 2009...... 301
8 --- ABBREVIATIONS ---
Alb La Alborada (Sarajevo) AmFam El Amigo de la Familla (Constantinople) AmPue El Amigo del Pueblo (Belgrade) Av El Avenir (Salonica) BuEsp La Buena Esperanza (Izmir) Bur El Burlón (Constantinople) Chak El Chaketón (Salonica) EJud El Eco Judaico (Sofia) Ep La Epoca (Salonica) Flam La Fambeau (Salonica) Imp El Imparcial (Salonica) Jud El Jidió (Constantinople) Jug El Jugetón (Constantinople) Lib El Liberal (Salonica) Nación La Nación (Salonica) Nac El Nacional (Constantinople) Nie Het Nieuws van den Dag (Amsterdam) Pol La Política (Vienna) Pue El Pueblo (Salonica) RenJud La Renacencia Judía (Salonica) Sem La Semana (Plovdiv) Tiem El Tiempo (Constantinople) Vara La Vara (Cairo)
AAJFT American Association of Jewish Friends of Turkey AIU The Alliance Israélite Universelle ASF The American Sephardi Federation BYCC Bat Yam Cultural Club CJH Center for Jewish History NAL La Autoridad Nasionale del Ladino (National Authority for Ladino) WSF World Sephardi Federation
9 - NOTE ON TRANSLATIONS AND TRANSCRIPTIONS -
In transcribing Ladino, I use the system adopted by the periodical Aki Yerushalayim , which is in essence the phonetic transcription in Latin letters of the former writing in Hebraic letters. Exceptions to this occur when quoting from various sources and are acknowledged within the text. All translations are mine unless otherwise noted. In spelling Sephardi proper names I have transcribed them according to general rules, with the exception of those widely used in scholarly work (i.e. La Amérika is written here La Am érica ). For Turkish words, proper names retain their Turkish spelling. All dates are according to the Gregorian calendar.
10 - ACKNOWLEDGMENTS -
This thesis would not have been possible without the generous support from several individuals. First and foremost, special thanks go to Daisy Sadaka Braverman who taught me Ladino and directed me to the rich resources of Ottoman and contemporary Sephardi Theatre practices. A number of conversations, interviews and personal materials contributed to the research and orientation of this study. Here, I would like to thank the Ladino Players, especially Braverman, Irwin Berkman, and Joshua Davidowtiz for providing me with materials and encouragement. In addition, I am grateful to the support of the Bat Yam Cultural Club, in particular Violet and Shlomo Bahar for their time and resources. I further benefitted from the support of several Israeli activists and artists including Shmuel Refael, Geula Jeffet-Attar, Victor Attar, Yossi Davara, Daphna Attias, and Matilda Koen- Sarano, all of whom contributed greatly to the theoretical positioning and materials of this project. This project also owes a debt to the financial and institutional support of Royal Holloway, University of London, and my supervisors Professor Helen Gilbert and Professor Matthew Cohen. Funding through the Reid scholarship and departmental grants provided the necessary support for my travel and research endeavours. Also a special thanks is owed to James Thornton and the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Many friends and colleagues have helped in the development of this project. In particular, I have benefitted greatly from the endless comments, critiques and wisdom provided by my dear friends Dr. Emer O'Toole and Eugénie Pastor. I am fortunate to have the company and insight of these wonderful, intellectually inspiring women, a very rare find to which I am grateful. In addition, I received immense support from my friends Gina Pierce, Alli Smith, Sofia Apospori, Felicity Gee, Karen Quigley, James Hawkey, and Dennis McBrearty. Special thanks also go to Oron Cohen for his translations assistance. Conducting such a research project is often difficult for those you care about most deeply and I am also very grateful to my family for their ongoing support. Special thank you to my Mom, who has patiently endured my prolonged absences and shipped me several packages full of homely treats and obscure publications, and to my Dad, whose early encouragement and playful questioning of my 'paper' helped in more ways than he knows. Also, thank you to my sister, Alaina, whose recipes reminded me there was more to eat than nachos, and whose humour lightened my days. A special thank you is extended to the van Houwelingens and Rosita Hartog for their ongoing and generous support. Finally, my special love and admiration goes to Pepijn van Houwelingen, who had the good fortune of simultaneously conducting a doctoral research project. His relentless critiques productively challenged the theoretical constructions of this project and his unwavering support helped me through even the darkest periods of research and writing. His support has helped in the completing of this project, to which I am ever-grateful.
11
Arvolés yoran por luvyas i montanyas por ayres Ansí yoran los mis ojos por ti kerido amante.
Torno I digo, ké va a ser de mi? En tyerras ajenas yo me vo a murir.
Trees cry for rain And mountains for air That is how my eyes weep For you, beloved.
I turn and ask what will become of me? In a far away lands I am going to die.