Index

academic staff, 89–91, 119, 139–40, 170, bursaries, 32, 121, 124, 127, 131–5, 215, 200, 201, 206, 257, 307–8 221, 292, 303, 348–9 Accelerating Catch Up (World Bank), 3 businesses accountability, 126, 147, 169–70, 234 university partnerships with, 52–3, accreditation agency, 123–4 93–4, 125–6, 135–44, 173, 359 Adama University, 87 university-run, 5, 17 University (AAU), 59–64, 72, 86–7 Cadetship Scheme, 328, 332–48, 354 administrative staff, 57–8, 90, 91 capacity building, 41, 54, 173, 262, 271, admissions, 17, 42, 45, 76, 99, 108–12, 359, 360 123, 124, 170, 210, 217 capital funding allocations, 46, 55–7, affirmative action, 287 60–2 Africa, see specific countries; sub-Saharan Chancellor College, 190, 192, 204, 211 Africa Chile, 240–1 African Action Plan (World Bank), 163 China, 190 Agricultural-Development-Led Civil Society for Poverty Reduction Industrialisation (ADLI), 40–1 (CSPR), 309 agriculture, 2 colonial legacies, 150–1 alcohol levy, 33 community day secondary schools alumni networks, 360 (CDSS), 194–5 Amin, Idi, 248 complementary teaching hours, 159 artisans, 20 compulsory teaching hours, 159 Constructing Knowledge Societies (World Bahir Dar University, 87 Bank), 2, 352 birth rates, 1 consultancy services, 80–1, 84, 94 block-grant funding formula, 99 , 2, 298 , 5–6, 13–37 corruption, 126, 250, 280, 289, 292 alternative financing strategies, 27–34 cost-effectiveness, 169–71 community schools, 19 cost sharing, 4, 28–30, 51–2, 66, 76–7, education quality in, 17 82, 103–4, 135, 171, 193–4, 234–5, enrolment figures, 15, 21–4 252, 257, 271–2, 292, 304, 314–15, financial challenges in, 24–7 353–4, 358 government revenues, 21 Cote d’Ivoire, 46 history of education financing in, credit/unit based tuition-fee financing, 18–19 241 levies, 33–4 population, 15 delivery modes, 357–8 recommendations for, 34–5 demand-driven funding, 125 stakeholder roles in, 20 developing countries, 2 student sponsorships, 16, 20 see also specific countries tertiary education system, 13–18 development goals, 2 youth population, 15 development theories, 184 brain drain, 73, 82, 200, 308, 334, 339 diaspora bonds, 242, 360 budgeting models, 45–9, 99 digital divide, 2

365 366 Index disadvantaged students, 114–15 cost sharing, 51–2, 354 disincentives, 361 demand for higher education in, 38 distance education programs, 84, 161–2, Educational Sector Development Plans 190, 204 (ESDPs), 41–4 doctoral students, 120 efficiency of resource use, 57–64 donor funding, 148, 231–3, 236–7, enrolment figures, 1–2, 38, 44–5, 75–6 247–51, 256, 258, 260–73, 291 existing policies and strategies, 40–2 dropout rates, 360–1 expansion of higher education in, 39 dual-track funding, 7, 99–100, 109–20, external funding, 54 124, 260 government expenditures on education, 77–80, 81–2 earmarked funding, 46 higher education funding in, 38–70, economic development, 2, 13 71–95 economic structural adjustment illiteracy rate, 38 programme (ESAP), 13, 103, 221, patterns of expenditure, 54–7 257, 262, 328, 329 performance-based funding formula, educational institutions 45–9 see also specific institutions; universities primary education, 38 accountability for, 126 private funding in, 50–2 budgeting models, 45–6 private higher education institutions efficiency of resource use, 57–64 in, 53–4 private, 53–4 public financing in, 49–50 revenue generation by, 30–1, 87–9, 94, public universities in, 71, 80–1 109, 125–6, 135–44 recommendations for, 65–6, 95 Educational Sector Development Plans resource diversification in, 71–3, 80–9, (ESDPs), 41–4 93–4 Education and Training Policy (ETP), 41, resource utilisation in, 57–64, 71–3, 223–5 89–93, 95 education bonds, 240–1 state, scope and trend in funding in, Education for All, 2, 163 45–6, 76–81 e-learning programs, 84, 161–2, 190, 204 student expenditures in, 78 endowments, 359–60 tertiary education system in, 73–4 enrolment figures university-industry partnerships, 52–3 Botswana, 15, 21–4 Ethiopian Open University, 66 , 38, 44–5, 75–6 Evaluation Services Team--Bostwana increase in, 130 (BEST), 17 , 112–13 extension student programs, 83–4 Madagascar, 152–4, 160, 162 external funding, 54 , 189–90, 204–5 , 24 facility use, 90–1, 140 pressure to raise, 1–2, 38, 108–9 faculty recruitment and retention, 307–8 South Africa, 24 farming, 86 , 217 fee-paying students, 99–100 , 252–5, 277–8 fee regimes, 5, 135, 276–93 , 330–1, 332 see also tuition fees entrepreneurship, 8, 130–44 financial resources equipment, 91–2 efficiency of use of, 57–64 equity, 187–8, 204–5, 287 predictable and consistent, 357 Ethiopia, 3, 4, 6–7 flexibility, 93 challenges for, 49–64, 81–2 food expenses, 58–9, 60, 104 Index 367 for-profit private universities, 152, 270–1 demand-driven, 125 foundations, 359–60 donor funding, 231–3, 236–7, 247–51, France, 28–9 256, 258, 260–73, 291 funding contracts, 46 dual-track, 99–100, 109–20, 124, 260 furniture workshops, 86 education bonds, 240–1 Ethiopia, 38–70, 71–95, 354 gender equity, 112–13, 205, 277, 287 external funding, 54 , 3, 78 government-sponsored, 77–80, 231 global economy, 332 government-sponsored funding, governance, 168–9, 357 235–6, 255, 258–60, 265–9, 304 government-sponsored funding, 77–82, higher education-specific financing 98–102, 132–3, 135, 165–8, 191–3, facilities, 241 206–7, 231, 235–6, 255, 258–60, Kenya, 98–129, 130–44 265–9, 304 levy contribution, 33–4 see also public funding Madagascar, 147–83 graduate employment rate, 198, 208 Malawi, 184–213 graduate premium, 208–9 market model, 237–40 graduate tax, 34, 82 opportunities for, 356–61 grants, 291 philanthropy, 32 Gross Enrolment Ratios (GER), 38 private funding, 50–2 Growth and Transformation Plan private sector contributions, 31–2 (GTP), 41 prospect of, 354–6 public financing, 49–50 higher education reforms, 16–17 challenges of African, 3–4 resource diversification, 71–3, 80–1 cost of, 1, 4, 207–8 in sub-Saharan Africa, 1, 300–1, 327–8, demand for, 15, 22, 204–5 351–62 development of, 13 Tanzania, 214–46 enrolment pressures, 1–2 Uganda, 247–75, 276–93, 354 financing, 1 , 296–326 funding of, 3 Zimbabwe, 327–50 global demand for, 15 Higher Education in Developing Countries importance of, 130 (World Bank), 351 need for, 2, 3 Higher Education Loans Board (HELB), as public good, 16 104–9,112–14, 123–4, 132, 134 quality of, 17, 71, 99, 118, 197 Higher Education Loans Fund (HELF), Higher Education Development Bank, 101, 132 238–40 higher education-specific financing higher education funding facilities, 241 alternative financing strategies, 27–34, Higher Education Student Loan Scheme 71–3, 80–1, 82–9, 98–129, 158–62, (HELSB), 228–9 227–44, 353–4 HIV/AIDS epidemic, 15, 18, 344 Botswana, 13–37 housing services, 104 Cadetship Scheme, 332–48, 354 human capital, 2, 13, 139–40, 184, 296 challenges for, 135 Human Resource Development changes in, 300 Council, 17 cost sharing, 28–30, 51–2, 66, 76–7, human resources, 139–40 135, 171, 193–4, 227–31, 234–5, 252, 257, 271–2, 292, 304, 314–15, illiteracy rate, Ethiopia, 38 353–4, 358 impact investing, 242–4 368 Index information communication labour, low-wage, unskilled, 2 technology, 204, 271, 348 labs, 91 infrastructure, 3, 257, 309, 330–1, 347–8 least-developed countries (LDCs), 184 institutional accountability, 126 legal structure, 94 institutional autonomy, 274 levy contribution, 33–4, 82 internally generated revenue, 30–1, 87–9 loan schemes, 4, 200–1, 227–31, 234–5 International Monetary Fund, 13, see also student loans 135, 221 low-wage labour, 2 international student programs, 25 Internet services, 348 Madagascar, 8 irony, 361 alternative financing strategies, 158–62 Jimma University, 94 challenges for, 165–71 job creation, 16 colonial and post-colonial legacies, job opportunities, 198 150–1 justice, 187–8 communication strategy development, 179–80 Kenya, 3, 4, 7–8 cost sharing in, 171 admission process, 124 current issues, 162–5 alternative financing strategies, 120–6 distance education programs, 161–2 budget allocations, 107 economic crisis in, 162–3 cost of academic programs, 115–18 educational and funding policies, demand for higher education in, 165–7 108–9 educational institutions, 151–2, 160–2 dual-track funding, 99–100, educational reform programs, 163 109–20, 124 enrolment figures, 152–4, 160, 162, enrolment figures, 112–13 189–90 entrepreneurship in, 130–44 financial control, approaches to, 178 equity and quality issues in, 112–19 governance and management issues, government steering role in, 122–3 168–9 higher education funding in, 98–129, higher education funding in, 147–83 130–44 history of higher education in, 149–50 Higher Education Loans Board (HELB), internal inefficiencies in, 169–71 104–9, 112–14, 123–4, 132, 134 LMD system, 170, 171, 173 history of education financing in, opportunities in, 171–4 101–4 partnerships in, 172–3 institutional capacity, 125–6 reform activities, 179 private funding in, 133–5 resource mobilisation, 154–8 recommendations for, 122–6 tuition-paid programs, 158–60 research and knowledge production, Madagascar Action Plan (MAP), 177–8 119–20 maintenance workshops, 86 student expenditures, 78 Makerere University, 5, 94, 250, 263, tertiary education system in, 131–2 267–8, 272, 277 trends in funding, 102–4 Malawi, 4, 8–9 , 5 academic staff, 200, 201 knowledge-based economy, 2, 3, 13 budget allocations, 191–3 knowledge creation, 358–9 challenges for, 202–8 knowledge dissemination, 358–9 cost of education in, 207–8 knowledge divide, 2 cost sharing, 193–4 Kyambogo University, 268 country profile, 185–6 Index 369

Malawi – continued Nkrumah University, 2 distance education programs, 190, 204 non-academic staff, 90, 91, 119, 206 economy of, 184, 202–3 Norway, 359 effectiveness of system in, 196–9 enrolment figures, 204–5 Obote II, 248 funding sources, 203 operational expenses, 46 government commitment in, 199 outsourcing, non-core services, 92–3, higher education funding in, 184–213 125–6, 358 higher education in, 188–9 loan schemes, 200–1 parents, cost sharing with, 28–30, National Educational Sector Plan 82, 257 (NESP), 186 partnerships opportunities in, 208–10 university-industry, 52–3, 93–4, 125–6, politics and, 206–7 135–44, 172–3 primary education, 184–5 university-to-university, 359 program rigidity in, 201–2 performance-based funding formula, public universities, 188, 190–2 45–9 recommendations for, 210–11 performance contracts, 46 research funding in, 205–6 philanthropy, 32, 291 secondary schools, 194–5 policy frameworks, 223–7, 250–2, 304–5 student/lecturer ratios, 199–200, 206 politics, 206–7, 248 supply and demand in, 204–5 population growth, 2, 15, 327 university management in, 206–7, post-colonial legacies, 150–1 210–11 postgraduate programs, 347 weaknesses in, 200–2 poverty, 18, 202–3, 248 Malawi Growth and Development poverty eradication, 2, 262, 309 Strategy, 197 Poverty Eradication Action Plan management issues, 168–9 (PEAP), 262 market model, 237–40 primary education Mauritania, 46 Ethiopia, 38 Mauritius, 24 Malawi, 184–5 Medium-Term Expenditure Uganda, 256–7 Framework, 251 private funding, 50–2, 133–5 Mexico, 241 private higher education institutions, Millennium Development Goals, 2, 13, 53–4 147, 188–9 private sector Module II students, 99, 109–20 contributions by, 31–2 multinationals, 359 role of, 269–71 , 299 private universities, 152, 253, 269–71, Mzuzu University, 211 287, 357–8 privatisation, 4–5, 238, 269–71 National Council for Higher Education public funding, 17, 77–80, 81–2, 98–100, (NCHE), 276–7 101–2, 132–3, 135, 231, 255, National Educational Sector Plan (NESP), 258–60, 265–9, 304 186 see also government-sponsored National Higher Education Policy funding (NHEP), 223–7 public good, 16 nation building, 2 public-private partnerships, 173 neo-liberalism, 135, 280, 316–17 public universities, 3–4, 271–2 Nigerian Education Bank, 238–9 see also specific institutions 370 Index public universities – continued stakeholders, 3–5, 10, 17–20, 27, 65, 175, Ethiopia, 71, 80–1 176, 222, 226–7, 263 Kenya, 98–100 steering role, of government, 122–3 Madagascar, 151–2, 160–2 structural adjustment programmes, 13, Malawi, 188, 190, 191–3 103, 221, 257, 262, 328, 329 privatisation of, 4–5 student expenditures, 78 Tanzania, 217–19 student fees, 9–10, 276–93 Uganda, 252–5 student loans, 104–9, 113–14, 123–4, Zambia, 297–9 132–5, 193, 200–1, 227–31, 234–5, 241, 289–91 registrar services, 86–7 student protests, 279, 286–8, 291–3, 343 regulatory structure, 94 students research and development, 16, 93, cost sharing with, 28–30, 51–2, 76–7, 119–20, 205–6, 332, 359 82, 103–4, 135, 171, 193–4, 227–31, research budget, 59 257, 271–2, 292 research organisations, 173 disadvantaged, 114–15 resource utilisation, 357–8 doctoral, 120 Ethiopia, 57–64, 71–3, 89–93, 95 dropout rates, 360–1 Madagascar, 154–8, 169–71 fee-paying, 99–100 revenue diversification, 4–5 female, 112–13, 205, 277, 287 Ethiopia, 7, 71–3, 80–9, 93–4 financial contributions by, 17 opportunities for, 93–4 increasing in number of, 108–9 Tanzania, 227–44 Module II, 99, 109–20 Uganda, 268 perceptions of Zambian, 309–24 Zimbabwe, 331–2 privately sponsored, 80, 315–17 revenue generating enterprises, 7, 30–1, self-sponsored, 257 94, 109, 125–6, 135–44, 360 socioeconomic status of, 205 sponsorships, 16, 20, 287, 288–9, 304 salary expenses, 58, 60, 160, 170, 272 staff/student ratios, 81, 89–90, scholarships, 16, 133–5, 159 199–200, 206 secondary schools, 194–5 Track 1-Track 2/Mode I-Mode II, 4–5 Senegal, 46 student unrest, 16–17, 267–8, see also service outsourcing, 92–3, 125–6, 358 student protest short-term training programs, 84 sub-Saharan Africa South Africa, 4, 46 see also specific countries budgeting models, 45 development needs in, 136 tertiary education enrolment, 24 educational opportunities in, 147 Southern African Development higher education funding in, 1, 300–1, Community (SADC), 203 327–8, 351–62 Spain, 16 higher education in, 147–8, 165–6 staff population growth, 15 academic, 89–91, 119, 139–40, 170, tertiary education systems, 2–3 200, 201, 206, 257, 307–8 summer student programs, 84 administrative, 57–8, 90, 91 support staff, 57–8 development, 139 sustainable development, 2, 250 shortages, 81 synergies, 360 short-term training programs for, 84 Tanganyika Higher Education Trust staff/student ratios, 81, 89–90, 199–200, Fund, 220–1 206, 257 Tanzania, 9 Index 371

Tanzania – continued Uganda, 4, 9–10 budget allocations, 217–19, affirmative action and inequality 222–3, 224 in, 287 cost sharing, 227–31, 234–5 budget allocations, 265–9 donor funding, 231–3, 236–7 challenges for, 255–7 enrolment figures, 217 cost sharing, 257, 271–2 government-sponsored funding, 231, donor funding, 247–9, 250–1, 256, 235–6 258, 260–73, 291 higher education funding, 214–46 dual-track funding, 260 history of education financing, enrolment figures, 1, 252–5, 277–8 215–16, 219–22 expansion of higher education in, market model in, 237–40 256–7 policy frameworks, 223–7 higher education funding in, 247–75, public universities, 217–19 276–93, 354 recommendations for, 244 history of education financing in, revenue diversification, 227–44 249–52 student expenditures, 78 Medium-Term Expenditure tertiary education system in, 216–17 Framework, 251 undergraduate admission rates, 219 policy frameworks, 250–2 teacher education colleges, 328 policy reforms, 276–82 teacher/student ratios, 18 primary education, 256–7 teaching quality, 93 private universities, 269–71 teaching staff, 57–8, 89–91, 119, 170, public universities, 252–5, 271–2 200, 201, 257 recommendations for, 273–4, 293 Technical and Vocational Education and revenue diversification, 268 Training (TVET), 74, 80 state funding, 265–9 technology, 204 student fees, 276–93 technology institutes, 160 student loans, 289–91 tertiary education, see higher education unemployment, 18, 208 Tertiary Education Council (TEC), 13–14 UNESCO, 134 tertiary education systems United Kingdom, 16 Botswana, 13–18 universal basic education, 13 Ethiopia, 73–4 universities, 3 Kenya, 98–129, 131–2 see also private universities; public Madagascar, 147–83 universities; specific institutions Malawi, 184–213 businesses operated by, 5 sub-Saharan Africa, 2–3 private, 53–4 Tanzania, 216–17 privatisation of, 4–5, 269–71 Uganda, 247–75 public, 3–4 Zambia, 296–326 revenue generation by, 30–1, 109, third stream income revenue, 17 125–6, 135–44, 360 tied bursaries, 215, 221 University and Tertiary Eduction Act, tourism training levy, 34 250 Track 1-Track 2/Mode I-Mode II regimes, university-industry partnerships, 52–3, 4–5 93–4, 125–6, 135–44, 173, 359 Transparency International, 250 University of Antananarivo, 163–4, 173, tuition fees, 5, 17, 209–10, 260, 304 175, 361 credit/unit based, 241 University of Dar es Salaam, 217–19, dual track, 7, 99–100, 109–20 232, 233 tuition-paid programs, 158–60 University of Madagascar, 149–50 372 Index

University of Malawi, 188, 190, 191, Zambia, 4, 10 193–4, 195, 199, 204, 206, 211 accessibility and affordability in, University of Moi, 5 308–9 , 5, 94, 98, 101, budget allocations, 305–7 111, 120 challenges for, 309–11 , 297–8, 304 cost sharing, 314–15 , 329 economy of, 296–7 University Students Loan Scheme faculty recruitment and retention, (USLS), 132–3 307–8 unskilled labour, 2 higher education funding in, 296–326 USAID Higher Education Scholarship historical context, 301–4 Program, 133–4 infrastructure, 309 policy frameworks, 304–5 value added tax (VAT), 34 private universities, 297 Vietnam, 241 public universities, 297–9 vocational education, 74, 80, 222 recommendations for, 324 vocational training levy, 33 students’ perceptions in, 309–24 trends in funding, 304–7 wastage, 360–1 Zimbabwe, 4, 11 willingness to pay, 209–10, 291–2 budget allocations, 332–4 women, 112–13, 205, 277, 287 Cadetship Scheme, 332–48, 354 World Bank, 2, 13, 81, 103, 130, 135, economy of, 329–30 151, 163, 221, 233, 268, 300, 314, enrolment figures, 330–2 351–2, 354 higher education funding in, 327–50 World Conference on Higher Education, infrastructure, 330–1, 347–8 13, 16 recommendations for, 348–50 resource diversification, 331–2 youth population, 15 , 332