Paper 4, Module 24: Text
Role Name Affiliation
Principal Investigator Prof. Tutun Mukherjee University of Hyderabad
Paper Coordinator Prof. Hariharan Institute of English, University of
Balagovindan Kerala
Content Writer/Author Dr. Liji Varghese All Saints’ College,
(CW) Thiruvananthapuram
Content Reviewer (CR) Dr. Jameela Begum Former Head & Professor, Institute
of English, University of Kerala
Language Editor (LE) Prof. Hariharan Institute of English, University of
Balagovindan Kerala
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Philip Larkin
1.1 Philip Larkin: An Introduction
Philp Arthur Larkin (1922-1985) is an English poet who is associated with the
Movement School of poetry. His poetry is characterised by a pessimistic strain that offers
a rather dour commentary on contemporary life. His tone is never ecstatically emotional
and he maintains a composed poise in his renderings on post-war society. Though he was
offered the post of England’s Poet Laureate in 1984, Larkin preferred to stay away from
the limelight and consequently declined the offer. His shy and reclusive nature is reflected
in his works as well where his remote and lucid style offers a marked contrast with some
of his more vociferous counterparts. Many critics point out that Larkin’s early poetry
quite distinctly reflects the influences of W. B. Yeats and Thomas Hardy. Nevertheless,
Larkin manages to find his own unique and sensible ideal of articulation that helped him
to comment on the inadequacies of contemporary society in a darkly humorous tone.
Though despair is the predominant note in his works, he couches it in a wry and self-
deprecating humour. Alan Brown john aptly comments on Larkin’s uniqueness when he
says that the poet produced “the most technically brilliant and resonantly beautiful,
profoundly disturbing yet appealing and approachable, body of verse of any English poet
in the last twenty five years” (qtd. in Poetry Foundation).
For a poet who successfully captured the essence of post-war British society though
his poems, Larkin has left behind only a very slim legacy of verse. He was never a
copious writer and his meagre output astounds many as it has earned him a literary
reputation that will transcend generations to come. The North Ship (1945), The Less
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Deceived (1955), The Whitsun Weddings (1964) and High Windows (1974) are his poetic
collections that reflect his detached perspective. Though he has written a couple of
novels, they never attained the literary fame that his poems garnered. His poems highlight
his ideal of England and the poet often mourns the loss of this ideal. In fact, there is a
certain note of provinciality in his works as England remained his favourite subject. His
poems echo a cynical and yet strong assertion in those values that he believed to be
important in the evolution of the English society. According to Poetry Foundation,
“Larkin appealed primarily to the British sensibility; he remained unencumbered by any
compunction to universalize his poems by adopting a less regional idiom.”
1.2 Philip Larkin’s Style
Larkin is noted for his conversational tone and ordinary themes that earned him a
special place in the English Canon. His poems are noted for its intelligibility and Larkin
was lauded for his attempts to bring poetry closer to the people. He often adopts the
persona of a common English man in his works and reflects their broken dreams and
forlorn anguishes through his poems. The middle class perspective is celebrated in
Larkin’s works that cherish the image of a traditional and yet realistic England. His
imagery is noted for its sharpness and keen observations. His word pictures captivate the
reader and render a vivid poetic experience. Larkin is a very diligent poet when it comes
to rhyme and metre. A close perusal of his works show Larkin’s intricate and detailed
attention to rhyme schemes and syntax. In Larkin’s verses, these features add an extra
dimension to the comprehension of his poetry and only a discerning reader can appreciate
its technical brilliance.
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Larkin is first and foremost a realistic poet. Though he does make use of figures of
speech and symbols, his poetry is not crowded with these technical devices. The poetic
persona employed by Larkin often employs a colloquial tone, one that mirrors the
cadences of ordinary speech. His characters are also drawn from real life and therefore do
not employ elaborate or extremely eloquent language. Many critics have commented on
the drab nature of Larkin’s style and its tedious repetitions. One may conclude that
though Larkin has his share of detractors, nothing can diminish his significant role in
shaping postmodern British poetry.
1.3 Movement Poetry
Movement poetry is a term that is loosely used to refer to a group of poets who share
a few common objectives. The term was first coined by Jay D. Scott in 1954 to refer to
writers like Philip Larkin, Kingsley Amis, Thom Gunn, Elizabeth Jennings, Robert
Conquest, John Wain, Donald Davie and D. J. Enright whose primary goal was to take
English poetry to new heights, eschewing the influences of Imagists and the neo-
Romantic Symbolist poets. The Movement poets are primarily opposed to the manifold
traits exhibited by modernist poetry of the 1920s and 1930s. Through their works, they try
to establish the erstwhile tradition of the English Canon that had been displaced by the
onslaught of modernism. The Movement poets lay stress on formal verse and lucidity in
expression and are fervently anti-romantic in their tone and style. Irony and
understatement become their leading vehicles of self-expression and they never seek to
make grandiloquent claims regarding the superiority of the poet’s role in the creative
evolution of a literary work.
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The two representative anthologies associated with Movement poetry are Poets of the
1950’s edited by D. J. Enright and New Lines edited by Robert Conquest. Both these
anthologies reflect the spirit of the Movement poets and their ideal of poetry. These
works also offer a contrast between the Movement poems and the poems of the earlier
decades. According to Muhammad Naeem, the main difference is that they do not
subscribe to any “theoretical constructs or to any agglomerations of unconscious
commands” and is “free from both mystical and logical compulsions”, and “empirical in
its attitude to all things”. However, the Movement was not really a highly organised
group with a neatly sketched agenda and common principles. The poetry of its members
displays a marked difference in their poetic diction and treatment of themes. In spite of
their idiosyncratic differences on a creative level, they do agree on a few common tenets
that they tried to espouse through their poetry.
1.4 An Analysis of Larkin’s Major Poems
1.4.1 Church Going
“Church Going” is a poem that explores the ambivalent space occupied by religion in
the post-war society. The poetic persona is one who is unsure of the equation between
faith and humanity. The poem begins with a note of casual irreverence when the speaker
decides to visit a church on a random impulse. He emphasises that there is nothing
spiritual motivating his decision to visit the church. However, as the poem progresses,
this casual disregard for religion and conventions gives way to a more serious
questioning of the ideals that bind human life. The poem thus travels full circle, from
disbelief to a renewed acknowledgement of the uniqueness of human faith. The speaker’s
6 determined attempt to analyse the relevance of his value judgments attains a universal significance as he explores the niggling question in detail.
Larkin’s poem is not just a commentary on the decline of religious values but a sincereattempt to explain man’s fascination for it. The conversational tone and simple diction belies the seriousness of the poet’s intent. Larkin’s objective is to raise several pertinent issues regarding the nature of man’s relationship with religion. The narrative’s clumsy and awkward engagement with the traditions of the church eventually gives way to a meaningful commentary on the mysterious lure posited by faith. His actions initially convey a sense of mockery and dispassionate probing into the ritualistic significance of the traditions associated with church. However, he vacillates between this air of nonchalance and a grudging respect for the concept of “faith.” The church thus becomes an extended metaphor for the conflicting emotions that it arouses in the heart of the sensitive spectator.
The title of the poem is also emblematic of the ambiguous stance adopted by the poetic persona. It could either refer to the act of going to church or the tacit way in which the ritual of church going has become redundant in modern society. It can also be seen as a flippant commentary on the casual visits to church as one would visit a theatre or museum. At the same time, it may also be an attempt to indicate the crucial role played by customs in association with the act of going to church. Perhaps, Larkin wants to bring into stark relief the complexity of the theme with its seemingly innocuous title.
The poem also holds a mirror to contemporary society as Larkin is merely reflecting the predominant attitude towards religion. “Church Going” was written in 1954 and echoed post-war Europe’s spiritual and moral ennui. The erosion of Christianity in
Europe and the slow destruction of ritualistic practices gave rise to a detached atmosphere that was rife with alternate possibilities. Though Larkin conceded that faith
7 is closely allied to human existence, he does not regard “Church Going” as a religious poem. He is more interested in debating the nature of faith and the role played by institutionalised religion in shaping a societal structure. Larkin’s religious skepticism is predominantly displayed when he comments on how religion will inevitably lose its stronghold. Nevertheless, he asserts his belief in its emotional significance.
A serious house on serious earth it is,
In whose blent air all our compulsions meet,
Are recognized, and robed as destinies.
And that much never can be obsolete.
In “Church Going” Larkin introduces religion in his own terms. It is not something that he blindly believes in and yet it is not casually dismissed either. Larkin’s preoccupation is not with the concept of God but with the undue reverence accorded to such a concept. His comment on the imminent decay of religious edifices assumes a prophetic note as he seems to foreshadow the religious disillusionment that postmodern man will eventually face. Nevertheless, “Church Going” becomes a typical Movement poem as it tries to project a particular image of England that he wanted to emphasise.
The poetic persona assumes the role of a typical English man, one who is irreverent towards religion and yet unconsciously tied to its roots. The nostalgic images of a bygone era are captured with masterful strokes and Larkin’s eye for detail can be seen in the minute descriptions of the church. However, he does not unduly complicate the poem using archaic expressions or cumbersome diction. The poem remains true to the
Movement philosophy and becomes a wise exposition on human nature.
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1.4.2 The Whitsun Weddings
“The Whitsun Weddings” is one of Larkin’s longest poems and is distinguished by its
leisurely narration that reflects the poet’s train journey from Hull to London. It bears a
striking resemblance to “Church Going” in its initial dismissive tone and eventual change
of heart. The poet’s detached and ironical observation of the newly-wed couples (who
got married on a Whitsun Saturday) later gives way to a reluctant acceptance of the
institution of marriage. The poet’s casual and unhurried observation of the countryside
slides into a disdainful report of the working class weddings and this scornful attitude is
later replaced by an enlightened pondering of the sights he has witnessed. The poet dons
several personas throughout the poem; from a nonchalant observer he transforms into a
disinterested spectator and finally to a sage commentator. The gradual transformation of
the poet’s attitude becomes an extended metaphor for one’s changing perceptions of life.
The “I” of the poem almost becomes an extension of Larkin himself and it seems as if
he is addressing the reader directly rather than adopting one of his poetic personas.
Harvey Hallsmith comments that, “ ‘The Whitsun Weddings’ seems the only poem
where Larkin lets himself be directly involved with his fellow-men without the
distancing shield of a persona. By the end of the poem, ‘we’ has taken over from ‘I’ or,
rather, ’I’ has become blended with ‘we’ ” (77-78). Larkin’s description of the
countryside also becomes very personal and it brims with images of his idealised
England. The idyllic landscape is thoroughly enjoyed by the poet and the sudden
intrusion of civilisation in the guise of the wedding parties jars the poet’s sensibilities
and this distaste is mirrored in his scoffing remarks about their appearances and
mannerisms. Larkin here occupies the vantage point of the middle class intellectual
whose “finer sensibilities” are rudely disrupted by the bustling masses. The annoyance of
9 the poet is clearly enunciated in phrases like “mothers loud and fat” and “an uncle shouting smut.” It is almost as if the poet wishes to remain aloof from this rigmarole of emotional displays that he feels alienated from. However, the use of ‘we’ later on suggests that the poet accepts the bond of their shared humanity as he says, “We hurried towards London.”
The most remarkable aspect of “The Whitsun Weddings” is its shifting tones and the diverse nuances it deploys. The poem begins with an almost conversational ease that sets the tone for an anecdotal rendering. Soon the casual tone changes to one that is lined with a tinge of vexation on witnessing the disruption of his serene journey. Nevertheless, the poet soon becomes a willing participant in the teeming mass of humanity before him and his tone loses its harsh edge. It attains an ironic edge as he muses about the institution of marriage from a bachelor’s perspective. But as the poem draws to an end the tone again shifts to a reconciliatory one that endows the poem with a subtle poignancy.
And as the tightened brakes took hold there swelled
A sense of falling, like an arrow-shower
Sent out of sight, somewhere becoming rain.
As the poem comes to a close the poet juxtaposes the imagery of war (“an arrow shower”) that signals death with the image of rain, one that hails fertility and rejuvenation. The poet’s disapproval of the institution of marriage is suggested emphatically when he views the newlyweds with a strange apathy as they symbolise an aspect of life that he is unfamiliar with. The casual disregard of marriage and its aftermath is seen in the way the poet outlines the monotonous life that the couples will soon lead. He feels that marriage is an unceremonious closure to a life of adventure as the married couples do not seem to think of “the others they would never meet.” He
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implies that there is “a sense of falling” associated with marriage and the negative image
is re-emphasised. However, in a dramatic shifting of tone, he suddenly brings forth the
image of rain and the poem closes on a note of ambivalence as the final image is one that
holds the potency of life as contrasted with the earlier weariness. The monotony is
suggestively washed away by the fresh gust of rain and Larkin surprises the reader with
this abrupt reversal of tone and sense.
1.4.3 An Arundel Tomb
In “An Arundel Tomb” Larkin explores the themes of mortality and the inevitable
passage of time. He masterfully analyses the parameters of earthly love and its
significance in human life. The poem is said to be inspired from Larkin’s visit to the
tomb of the Earl of Arundel. The sculptures of the Earl and his Countess capture the
poet’s fancy and the poem tries to speculate on the transience of Time. The specific
detailing of the medieval tomb in the initial stanzas later gives way to a philosophic
analysis of larger issues concerning life. However, Larkin underscores the fact that
nothing, not even human passions remain static. Everything is in a state of constant flux
and it is futile to seek permanency in all aspects of life. Even the dictums set by a
particular society will be cast aside as a new age dawns. The socio-cultural norms that
we hail as sacrosanct are always subject to an endless array of changes. When the poet
comments on how succeeding generations have viewed the tomb and how their process
of signification has radically altered through the ages, we realise how meaning is
moulded by the act of interpretation. With the passage of time, the meaning that the
creators of the tomb had originally intended gets lost in the annals of history.
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The poet remarks on how the swift and ruthless passage of time has blurred the
minute details of the sculptures but the gesture of love symbolized by their entwined
hands become a testament of their fidelity and love. However, the poet ironically
wonders whether the Earl and the Countess had intended such a prolonged display of
fidelity. An emphatic and ostentatious display of power and wealth is thus re-interpreted
as a romantic ideal of love. The poet says:
. . . and to prove
Our almost-instinct almost true:
What will survive of us is love.
Larkin sarcastically comments on how “a sculptor’s sweet commissioned grace”is
transformed into a romantic ideal. The entwined hands might have been a gesture of love
created by the sculptor’s fancy, but as time passes, this becomes the most distinguishing
feature of the sculptures. The poem thus draws attention to the vagaries of interpretation.
By casually mocking the ideal of romantic love, Larkin re-emphasises his role as a
sceptic observer of the great drama of human life.
1.4.4 Going, Going
“Going, Going” is an evocative poem that mourns the destruction of England’s
beautiful landscapes. From a nostalgic rendering of his ideal England, Larkin progresses
on a prophetic note when he outlines the destruction that is yet to follow. Though the
poem has an innocuously conversational tone, the sheer desolation that Larkin conjures
through his words shakes the reader into awareness. The note of disillusionment and
impending doom is sustained till the very end of the poem. Larkin’s sarcastic comments
on the escapist tendencies of people when confronted with a disaster (“We can always
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escape in the car”) provides a sort of dark humour. Even when the tone is humorous, the
subject matter draws the reader’s attention with its urgency.
“Going, Going” becomes a testament to Larkin’s “England”, an ideal that is slowly
razed down by the emerging New England. The poet becomes somewhat hostile in his
indictment of the agents of modernization who have propagated the new ideal. He is sad
and yet helpless to stop the onslaught of technological evolution. He lingers on his image
of England; one that he cherishes:
And that will be England gone,
The shadows, the meadows, the lanes,
The guildhalls, the carved choirs.
The poetic persona says that after the passage of “the shadows and the meadows” one
will be left behind with “concrete and tyres.” Thus the poem takes on the tone of an
elegy; a song of mourning for the poet’s ideal England. Nevertheless, Larkin’s irony and
humorous presentation does not turn the poem into a vitriolic accusation. Rather, it takes
on the form of a casual reminder that draws our attention to an ecological calamity.
Larkin’s genius lies in the fact that even while discussing such a serious issue, he refrains
from adopting a preachy tone. The self-deprecating humour that he adopts becomes a
more powerful device than a lengthy sermon. “Going, Going” is hailed as a typical
specimen of the Movement as it cherishes an idyllic image of England that Larkin held
dear.
1.4.5 Aubade
Larkin’s “Aubade” gives voice to one of man’s oldest fears: the dilemma of death. As
the morning dawns, the speaker is not comforted by the pristine beauty of Nature, instead
13 he is haunted by visions of "unresting death.” An aubade is a morning love song which celebrates the notions of love and life. However, Larkin’s “Aubade” defies convention by its dark and dreary subject matter and persistent tone of pessimism. With his characteristic prosaicness, Larkin proceeds to outline the bleary routine of human life.
The thought of death thus becomes a jolt of awareness; a tremor that causes humans to stop and think about the futility of their existence. The poet is aware that there is nothing original about this relentless question. It has been haunting men from time immemorial and no one has been able to answer it in a satisfactory manner.
Making all thought impossible but how
And where and when I shall myself die.
Arid interrogation: yet the dread
Of dying, and being dead,
Flashes afresh to hold and horrify.
Larkin reveals his scepticism when he talks about how religion offers to tempt us with the lure of false promises. The poet believes that these wise lies will merely aggravate our fear of death than calm our minds. He claims that religion is a manipulative tool that tries to distract us with specious doctrines. Instead of deluding ourselves with such escapist beliefs, the poet urges one to face life as it comes. In its merciless critique of institutionalised religion, “Aubade” closely echoes “Church Going”. However, the poet does not reaffirm his faith in the emotional significance of religion as he does in “Church
Going”.
Death is an inevitable part of life and one cannot escape from its clutches and so the poet feels that it is only practical to go on with the comforting routines of life. These routines mask our fear of death and one gets engaged in the hurried and mechanical motions of everyday living. “Aubade” throws light on Larkin’s preoccupation with the
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theme of death. As Peter Hollindale aptly says, “ . . . Larkin’s poetry is dominated by the
longest perspective of all: death. And in this event he is not the spectator, not the
accidental sharer, but a helpless co-participant in the universal private fate” (59). The
poet warns us that death is lurking in the shadows, waiting to pounce on us as the time
approaches. However, in the meantime, human beings continue to enact the repetitive
drama of their quotidian existences.
1.4.6 Mr. Bleaney
“Mr. Bleaney” is a poignant commentary on the inescapable monotony of modern
life. Mr. Bleaney’s life of loneliness is seen from the perspective of the narrator who
might face a similar fate in his future. The life of Mr. Bleaney serves as a warning to the
speaker who understands that the drabness of such an existence can wipe away all traces
of his individuality. The narrative like style of the poem highlights the commonality of
Mr. Bleaney and emphasiseshow such lives are forgotten in the mundaneness of
everyday life. The sparse and frayed appearance of the room used by Mr. Bleaney is
suggestive of his character as well. There are millions like him, lost in the quagmire of
life and the poet seems to be making a commentary on the tedious monotony of human
life.
Bleaney’s idiosyncrasies (“preference for sauce to gravy”; “plugging at the four
aways”) are all drowned in the drabness of his life. The narrator is confused as to how to
place an individual like Mr. Bleaney. If he lived such an unremarkable life, should he
deserve anything more? He is unable to make up his mind and says:
That how we live measures our own nature,
And at his age having no more to show
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Than one hired box should make him pretty sure
He warranted no better, I don’t know.
The “I don’t know” resonates with the narrator’s self-doubt and agony. He realises that
he cannot be an arbitrary judge of Mr. Bleaney’s existence as he might be leading the
same drab and uninformed life that he had been so callously dismissive of. The speaker
is nonplussed by this stark realisationand this bewilderment is reflected in his telling
phrase, “I don’t know”. Bleaney thus becomes a striking symbol of the vulnerability of
the precarious modern existence.
1.5 Conclusion: Larkin’s Legacy
Larkin is still fondly remembered as a great poet because of his outstanding
ordinariness as a writer that went on to become his trademark. He cast no pretensions and
gave no airs, but believed ardently in the simplicity of poetry. Andrew Gibson comments
that, “Larkin cast himself as a resolutely ordinary and unpretentious poet” (9). His
allegiance to the ordinary people makes him a different literary persona; one who has
aggressively cultivated the image of an “anti-intellectual poet.” Such an image is
enhanced by his poems which celebrate the perspective of the common English man.
Larkin refused to make any intellectual claims for his poetry and this unassuming nature
brought him closer to the people. And it is this popularity which will ultimately sustain
his reputation in years to come.