The Impact of Forced Migration on Women in Northern Uganda
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THE IMPACT OF FORCED MIGRATION ON WOMEN IN NORTHERN UGANDA By BABUGURA FIDELIS KEMIRERE Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY In the subject DEVELOPMENT STUDIES At the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROFESSOR L. CORNWELL DECEMBER 2007 i TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS i FIGURES AND TABLES iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v LIST OF ACRONYMS vi ABSTRACT viii CHAPTER ONE 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.2 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY 1 1.3 CONFLICT AND INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT IN NORTHERN UGANDA 7 1.4 RESEARCH PROBLEM 13 1.5 MAIN RESEARCH OBJECTIVES 15 1.6 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 15 1.7 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY 16 1.8 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND TECHNIQUES 18 1.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 21 1.10 CHAPTER LAYOUT 21 1.11 SUMMARY 22 CHAPTER TWO 23 GENDER AND FORCED MIGRATION: A LITERATURE REVIEW 23 2.1 INTRODUCTION 23 2.2 GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT CONCEPTS 24 2.3 FEMINIST THEORIES AND GENDER ANALYSIS 31 2.4 WOMEN AND INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT 35 2. 5 GUIDING PRINCIPLES ON INTERNAL DISPLACEMENT 36 2.6 FORCED MIGRATION AT INTERNATIONAL LEVEL 37 2.6.1 WOMEN AND FORCED MIGRATION: AN OVERVIEW OF SELECTED CASES 38 2.7 CAUSES OF FORCED MIGRATION 46 52 2.8 PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN IN ARMED CONFLICTS 52 52 2.9 EXPERIENCES OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED WOMEN 54 2.10 IMPACT AND CONSEQUENCES OF FORCED MIGRATION ON WOMEN 58 2.11 COPING STRATEGIES OF INTERNALLY DISPLACED WOMEN 69 2.12 INTERNATIONAL STRATEGIES FOR THE PROTECTION OF IDPS 70 2.13 CONCLUSION 74 ii CHAPTER THREE 75 HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF UGANDA: AN OVERVIEW 75 3.1 INTRODUCTION 75 3.2 TOPOGRAPHY 75 3.3 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND 77 3.4 UGANDA BEFORE INDEPENDENCE 81 3.5 INDEPENDENCE OF UGANDA 81 3.6 MILITARY RULE UNDER AMIN 82 3.7 SECOND OBOTE REGIME: 1981-85 84 3.8 RETURN TO MILITARY RULE: 1985 85 3.9 SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN UGANDA 88 3.10 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN UGANDA 93 3.11 ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT OF UGANDA 96 3.12 HUMAN RIGHTS 106 3.13 CONCLUSION 109 CHAPTER FOUR 110 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 110 4.1 INTRODUCTION 110 4.2 QUALITATIVE AND FEMINIST RESEARCH METHODS 110 4.3 GENDER DIFFERENCES IN RESEARCH 114 4.4 STUDY AREA - LIRA DISTRICT 118 4.5 PREPARATION BEFORE FIELDWORK 118 4.6 POPULATION AND SAMPLING 119 4.7 DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES 121 4.8 DATA ANALYSIS 127 4.9 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 128 4.10 SUMMARY 129 CHAPTER FIVE 130 EXPERIENCES OF DISPLACED WOMEN IN NORTHERN UGANDA: A CASE OF LIRA 130 5.1 INTRODUCTION 130 5.2 DEMOGRAPHY 130 5.3 IMPACT OF THE CONFLICT IN LIRA 133 5.4 FORCED MIGRATION IN LIRA 133 5. 5 POPULATION OF LIRA 134 5.6 WOMEN’S LIFE IN IDP CAMPS 139 5.7 MAJOR CAUSES OF FORCED MIGRATION 155 5.8 WOMEN’S EXPERIENCES DURING THE WAR 160 5.9 WOMEN’S PARTICIPATION IN ARMED CONFLICT 164 5.10 CONSEQUENCES OF FORCED MIGRATION ON WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT 169 5.11 COPING STRATEGIES OF THE DISPLACED WOMEN IN THE HOSTILE ENVIRONMENT 174 5.12 THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT AND HUMANITARIAN AGENCIES 181 5.13 PEACE AND RECONCILIATION 186 5.14 CONCLUSION 188 iii CHAPTER SIX 189 IMPACT OF FORCED MIGRATION ON WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT IN NORTHERN UGANDA: SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS 189 6.1 INTRODUCTION 189 6.2 FORCED MIGRATION CONCEPT 189 6.3 CAUSES OF FORCED MIGRATION 190 6.4 EXPERIENCES 191 6.5 PARTICIPATION OF WOMEN 192 6.6 IMPACT AND CONSEQUENCES OF FORCED MIGRATION ON WOMEN AND DEVELOPMENT 192 6.7 PEACE, RECONCILIATION AND RECONSTRUCTION 204 6.8 RECOMMENDATIONS 208 BIBLIOGRAPHY 215 APPENDICES 236 APPENDIX 1: 236 INTERVIEW SCHEDULE 236 APPENDIX 2: 239 OBSERVATION SCHEDULE 239 iv Figures and Tables Figure 1.1 Map of Uganda showing conflict areas in northern Uganda........................................11 Figure 3.1 Breakdown of costs relating to war in Northern Uganda.............................................88 Figure 5.1 Marital status of the respondents (n=50)....................................................................131 Figure 5.2 Woman's Literacy levels (n=50).................................................................................132 Figure 5.3 Types of housing before the war (n=50) ....................................................................132 Figure 5.4 Map of Lira District showing locations of IDP camps...............................................134 Figure 5.5 The remains of Barlonyo IDP camp that was burnt to ashes on 24/2/2004 ...............136 Figure 5.6 Erute IDP camp in Lira Township..............................................................................138 Figure 5.7 Livestock farming at Erute camp ...............................................................................141 Figure 5.8 Women and children lining up at the water source ....................................................143 Figure 5.9 Donated makeshift toilets to improve sanitation problems ........................................144 Figure 5.10 A Primary School at Erute Camp .............................................................................147 Figure 5.11 Rachele Rehabilitation Centre in Erute Camp..........................................................148 Figure 5.12 The women go to work while men and children stay home.....................................151 Figure 5.13 Single mothers leave children alone when they go to fetch water ...........................154 Figure 5.14 Fire burning one of the camps in Lira ......................................................................155 Figure 5.15 A female headed family of 13 including orphans from relatives .............................157 Figure 5.16 Women have no food to cook for their children.......................................................162 Figure 5.17 Mothers care and socialise all children ....................................................................164 Figure 5.18 Grandmother takes care of a child while daughter goes to work .............................168 Figure 5.19 Women and Vice President for Peace and Reconciliation in Lira ...........................169 Figure 5.20 Full Toilets are an environmental hazard .................................................................173 Figure 5.21 Brick laying one of the Income generating activities in IDPs..................................175 Figure 5.22 Fuel saving stove to save the environment...............................................................176 Figure 5.23 A woman and son selling outside her hut for some income.....................................177 Figure 5.24 Women selling at the market....................................................................................178 Figure 5.25 A canvas sheeting donated by UNICEF...................................................................184 Figure 5.26 Women in development and empowerment.............................................................185 Figure 5.27 Peace Talks and decision-making ............................................................................187 Table 1.1 Literacy levels in Uganda by region in 2001(%)...........................................................13 Table 2.1 Changing Perspectives on Women, Gender and Development .....................................30 Table 2.2 The Global and African Platforms for Action, Equality, Development and Peace.......71 Table 3.1 Education Attainment of Population Aged 6 Years and Above in Uganda 1991..........91 Table 3.2 Women and Men in Top Decision Making Positions in Uganda 1994-1997................95 Table 5.1 Camps and Households of IDPs within Lira Town .....................................................137 v Acknowledgements This thesis has been written with the support of the staff from the Department of Development Studies at University of South Africa (UNISA). I would like to acknowledge in a special way my supervisor and head of Department of Development Studies Professor Linda Cornwell for her guidance and encouragement. With the dedication and support of Prof. L. Cornwell, I have been able to widen my scope in understanding of Gender and Development Studies. I wish also to extend my sincere appreciation to the Financial Aid Bureau (FAB) for the Bursary that has helped me to advance in the academic field. Without them I would not have gone this far. Thank you very much for the kind support. I am also indebted to a number of people and institutions whose support made the writing process of this thesis a success. I am grateful to Lewis Kabanda of University of Botswana for supporting me in searching for literature. I would like to thank Dr. Okello Wengi who gave me ideas about the topic and provided some useful literature. My special thanks also go to the coordinator and staff of Elute IDPs Camp for allowing me access to the Camp and the Rehabilitation Centre. I am also grateful to my interpreter and research assistants Joseph, Sister Sofia Asiimwe and Sister Margret of St. Kizito Primary School in Lira. I would like to acknowledge my friends Professor Joy Kwesiga, Mrs Joy Turyagyenda and Mrs AlineMary Kemerwa who gave me moral support when I needed it. I also want to acknowledge Mr And Mrs Shyaka for availing their mail box and delivering my mail tirelessly. To all the women in Elute IDP camp who participated in providing the valuable information that made this thesis complete, I say “well done”. Thank you very much. Finally, I am very grateful to the members of my family: My husband for the financial sponsorship and motivation; my children Alex, Christine and Doreen for financing my upkeep; Agnes and Donald for technical support. Last but not least my thanks go to Celia, Richard, Steven, Lisa and Kito for love because love makes the world go