Higher Geography Physical Environments Lithosphere

Higher Geography

Physical Environments

Lithosphere

Glaciated Landscapes

Glacial History

About every 200 million years the Earth experiences a major period of ice activity - an ice age. The most recent of these started about 2 million years ago and finished about 10,000 years ago. An ice age consists of glacials (cold periods ) separated by interglacials (warmer periods).

About 30% of the world was covered by glacial ice when the last ice age was at its maximum. The UK was covered by ice between 1-3km thick as far south as a line from London to Bristol.

Causes of Glaciation

There are many theories as to the cause of glaciations:

1. Milankovitch cycle – changes in incoming solar radiation due to changes in orbit, tilt and position in space.

2. Variations in sunspot activity

3. Changes in the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere

4. Changes in the movement of the ocean currents

5. Periods of extreme volcanic activity which put huge amounts of ash into the atmosphere

Formation of Glaciers

 During the onset of a glaciation, more and more precipitation falls as snow  In addition, less and less snow melts each summer so that successive layers of snow gradually build up until there is a year-round snow cover in more and more places.  As snow becomes more compacted, the air is driven out and density increases.  Eventually, this process forms neve or firn (compacted snow).  After 20-40 years the firn will turn into glacial ice which contains little air  Glacial ice can begin to flow downhill under the influence of gravity as a glacier

Cross Profile of a Glacier

Glaciers, like rivers, behave as a system with inputs, outputs, stores and transfers.  The main input for glaciers is falling snow but avalanches can add considerable volumes of ice and snow.  The glacier itself is the store in the form of frozen water.  The outputs include evaporation, calving (where ice breaks off into water) and melting.  The upper part of a glacier where inputs exceed outputs is called the zone of accumulation.  The lower part of a glacier where outputs exceed inputs is called the zone of ablation.  In between the two is the line of equilibrium which is the same as the snow line.

Processes

Ice is capable of transporting huge quantities of rock. Some rocks fall on to the surface of the ice from the valley sides and are transported as supraglacial debris.

Some material finds its way into the ice via crevasses to be transported as englacial debris. Where there is basal sliding, debris may also be picked up below the ice and be transported as subglacial debris.

Glaciers that move relatively quickly and that transport large amounts of debris at the base, are capable of powerful physical erosion which can drastically alter the pre-glacial landscape.

Types of Glacial Erosion

Exam tip: these should be described and explained in detail when asked about the formation of erosional features.

1. Abrasion If debris is incorporated into the sides and base of the ice, abrasion becomes active, sandpapering the rock surfaces to produce smooth, gently sloping landforms. Striations, scratches or grooves are found on bare rock surfaces and are useful to indicate direction of glacier movement. 2. Plucking Plucking occurs when rocks and stones become frozen to the base or sides of the glacier and are plucked from the ground or rock face as the glacier moves. Plucking produces jagged slopes to landforms.

Due to cold temperatures, weathering also has an impact on glaciated landscapes. The main type of weathering found in these locations is freeze-thaw action.

Freeze-thaw Action  Water (e.g. from rainfall or melting snow and ice) becomes trapped in a crack or joint in the rock  If the air temperature drops below freezing, the water will freeze and expand by 9-10% putting pressure on the rock.  The ice will melt when the temperature rises above freezing.  If this process happens repeatedly, the rock will weaken and eventually shatter into angular fragments.  The fragments may then be deposited as scree at the foot of a slope.

Rates of Erosion Rates of erosion will vary considerably but are greatest where:  temperatures fluctuate around freezing point  where rocks are more jointed and faulted providing weaknesses  where slopes are slightly steeper leading to more rapid glacier movement (very steep slopes can lead to extended flow, a thinning of the ice and reduced erosive power  two or more glaciers meet and combine to give an increased depth of ice  ice moves by rotational flow in corrie glaciers leading to over-deepening of the hollow

Features of Glacial Erosion

Corries, Cirques or Cwms Cirques (France), corries (Scotland) or cwms (Wales) are glacial hollows with a very steep backwall and a basin that may contain a lochan or tarn when the glacier retreats and melts.

Formation of a Corrie

Snow accumulates in mountain hollows when more snow falls in winter than melts in the summer. North/north-east facing slopes are more shaded so snow lies longer and builds up. The accumulated snow compresses into neve/firn and eventually glacial ice. Plucking (when ice freezes on to bedrock, pulling loose rocks away) makes the backwall steeper. Abrasion (when the angular rock embedded in the ice grinds the hollow) makes the hollow deeper.

Freeze thaw action continues to steepen the sides of the hollow when water in cracks in the rock turns to ice when temperatures drop below freezing; expansion and contraction weakens the rock until fragments break off. Rotational sliding further deepens the central part of the hollow floor as gravity causes the ice to move. Friction causes the ice to slow down at the front edge of the corrie, allowing a rock lip to form, which traps water as ice melts, leaving a lochan or tarn. During spring/summer, thawing takes place, allowing water to penetrate cracks in the rocks at the base of the hollow. The broken fragments build up over time and are removed by meltwater, further enlarging the hollow. Frost shattering on the backwall supplies further abrasion material as loose scree falls down the bergschrund. This is a large crevasse separating moving ice from the ice still attached to the backwall.

Landforms caused by Corries Where a series of corries form around a mountain peak, they create other unique landforms.

Two corries eroding into the mountain eventually leave a narrow, knife-edged ridge or arête between them. Striding Edge in the Lake District (UK) provides a classic example.

Where three or more corries erode backwards around a mountain, they create a characteristic triangular pyramidal peak or horn. One of the most spectacular examples is the Matterhorn.

Identifying Corries & Associated Landforms on an OS Map

Contour lines form a horseshoe Peak found shape. Contours between 3 or close together on more corries = steep back wall pyramidal peak and sides.

Water in rock basin = lochan / tarn Bare rock in- between 2 corries = arete

Glacial Troughs & Associated Landforms

In mountain environments, valley glaciers severely modify former river valleys to produce very deep, steep- sided, flat-floored U-shaped valleys or glacial troughs.

Glacial Trough

During glaciation, glaciers follow the paths of existing V-shaped valleys. Plucking (when ice freezes on to bedrock, pulling loose rocks away) wears away the valley sides making them steeper and abrasion (when the angular rock embedded in the ice grinds the rock beneath) deepens and widens the valley. As glaciers ‘flow’ downhill, they erode the ends off the interlocking spurs found previous to glaciation forming truncated spurs.

Tributary valleys flowing into the main valley will also be glaciated, but as the glaciers in these valleys are much smaller, the erosive power is less. This results in the formation of hanging valleys - valleys that are not eroded as deeply and so are post-glaciation are left ‘hanging’ above the main glacial trough.

Sections of the valley floor can be over-deepened due to differential erosion, rotational sliding or a confluence of glaciers increasing erosive power. These sections can be filled with meltwater to form a ribbon lake.

After glaciation, a steep sided glacial trough is left, rivers may return to the valley forming misfit streams. Freeze thaw action (water in cracks in the rock turns to ice when temperatures drop below freezing; expansion and contraction weakens the rock until fragments break off) continues on the valley sides loosening rock and forming scree slopes.

Identifying Glacial Troughs & Associated Landforms on an OS Map

Small valley flowing into Lake in base main trough = of valley = hanging valley ribbon lake

Bare rock on

steep valley

side =

truncated

spur River running

through

valley= misfit

stream Flat valley

floor and

steep sides =

U shaped valley

Depositional Landforms

Material eroded and subsequently transported by glacial ice may be deposited as unsorted till as the ice melts or it may be further transported by glacial meltwater and then deposited as sorted fluvioglacial material.

Till deposits, sometimes referred to as boulder clay, are a mixture of unsorted sand, clay and rock particles. The rock fragments are sub-angular in shape. The majority of this material has been transported as supraglacial debris and is dropped in situ at the glacier snout or more generally at the ends of ice ages when glaciers disappear. Some of the till deposits form distinctive landforms but much of it is simply deposited as a layer which masks the former pre-glacial landscape.

Sometimes glaciers pick up and transport rocks with distinctive geological characteristics. Once deposited, these erratics can be used to trace back the route followed by the glacier.

The photo shows a sandstone Norber Erratic in Yorkshire (UK) lying on top of limestone which has been chemically eroded by acidic rainwater in the 13,000 years since the boulder was deposited.

Terminal Moraine Model Answer Moraine is material transported by a glacier. As a glacier moves downstream it bulldozes moraine in front of it. As the glacier continues to move forward, material is constantly being added to the terminal moraine. When the glacier reaches lower altitudes (or the temperature rises) the ice melts and deposits the moraine at its snout. Terminal moraine marks the furthest point reached by the glacier. It forms a jumbled mass of unsorted material that stretches across the valley floor. Once the ice has retreated, the terminal moraine can often form a natural dam creating a ribbon lake.

Other Depositional Features

Drumlins are elongated hills of glacial deposits. They can be 1 km long and 500 metres wide, often occurring in groups. A group of drumlins is called a drumlin swarm, eg the West End of Glasgow. These would have been part of the debris that was carried along and then accumulated under the glacier. The long axis of the drumlin indicates the direction in which the glacier was moving. The drumlin would have been deposited when the glacier became overloaded with sediment. However glaciologists still disagree as to exactly how they were formed.

Eskers are long, winding ridges of layered sand and gravel similar to railway embankments. They are formed inside the ice, in tunnels in which meltwater streams flowed.

Outwash plains are areas of sorted sand and gravel deposited at the mouth of meltwater rivers which were often braided. Kettle holes may be found if a block of 'dead ice' is partially buried by fluvio-glacial deposits. When the ice melts a 'hole' is left which may fill with water to form a kettle-hole lake.

Coastal Landscapes

The coastline is the most varied and rapidly changing of all landforms. No part of the coast is stable - it is a series of dynamic landscapes which is retreating, due to erosion, or advancing as a result of deposition.

Waves

Waves are created by the transfer of energy from the wind blowing across the surface of the sea.

The size and strength of individual waves depends on:

 the velocity or speed of the wind  the period of time that the wind has been blowing  the maximum distance over the sea that the wind can blow (the fetch)

Local or sea waves travel only short distances and are created by local winds. Swell waves travel huge distances and are created by large storms in the middle of the oceans.

Constructive and Destructive Waves

The movement of waves toward the shore is known as the swash and the movement of waves back to the sea is called the backwash.

Constructive waves  Are created in calm weather and are less powerful than destructive waves  Break on the shore and deposit material, building up beaches  Have a swash that is stronger than the backwash  Have a long wavelength, and are low in height

Destructive Waves  Destructive waves are created in storm conditions  Are created from big, strong waves when the wind is powerful and has been blowing for a long time  Occur when wave energy is high and the wave has travelled over a long fetch  Tend to erode the coast  Have a stronger backwash than swash  Have a short wave length and are high and steep

Types of Coastal Erosion

 Hydraulic action: Air may become trapped in joints and cracks on a cliff face. When a wave breaks, the trapped air is compressed which weakens the cliff and causes erosion  Abrasion: Bits of rock and sand in waves grind down cliff surfaces like sandpaper  Attrition: Waves smash rocks and pebbles on the shore into each other, and they break and become smoother  Solution: Acids contained in sea water will dissolve some types of rock such as chalk or limestone

Features of Coastal Erosion

1. Headlands and Bays

Headlands are formed when the sea attacks a section of coast with alternating bands of hard and soft rock. The bands of soft rock, such as sand and clay, erode more quickly than those of more resistant rock, such as chalk. This leaves a section of land jutting out into the sea called a headland. The areas where the soft rock has eroded away, next to the headland, are called bays.

Geology is the study of the types of rocks that make up the Earth's crust. Coastlines where the geology alternates between strata (or bands) of hard rock and soft rock are called discordant coastlines. A concordant coastline has the same type of rock along its length. Concordant coastlines tend to have fewer bays and headlands.

2. Cliffs

One of the most common features of a coastline is a cliff. Cliffs are shaped through a combination of erosion and weathering - the breakdown of rocks caused by weather conditions. Soft rock, eg sand and clay, erodes easily to create gently sloping cliffs. Hard rock, eg chalk, is more resistant and erodes slowly to create steep cliffs.

The process of cliff erosion 1. Weather weakens the top of the cliff through processes such as freeze thaw action 2. The sea attacks the base of the cliff forming a wave-cut notch through the processes of hydraulic action and abrasion 3. The notch increases in size causing the cliff above to collapse 4. The backwash carries the rubble towards the sea forming a wave-cut platform 5. The process repeats and the cliff continues to retreat

3. Caves, Arches, Stacks and Stumps

Caves are most likely to occur where the coastline consists of hard rock and is attacked by prolonged wave attack along a line of weakness such as a joint or fault. The waves attack the weakness by abrasion (bits of rock and sand in waves grind down cliff surfaces like sandpaper), hydraulic action (air may become trapped in joints and cracks on a cliff face, when a wave breaks, the trapped air is compressed which weakens the cliff and causes erosion) or solution (acids contained in sea water will dissolve some types of rock) forming a sea cave. Erosion on the roof of the cave can cause a vertical shaft to form connecting the cave to the top of the cliff via a blowhole. Over time, horizontal erosion of the cave may cut through the headland to form a natural arch. Continued erosion of the foot of the arch will form wave cut notches and this may eventually cause the roof to collapse leaving a stack, isolated from the cliff. Waves continue to erode the base of a stack, over time the stack will collapse leaving a stump.

Coastal Deposition

Beaches

Deposition along a coast occurs in areas of low-energy waves where the swash is stronger than the backwash. Beaches tend to be composed of either sand or shingle but sometimes both occur at different places along the beach profile. Shingle beaches tend to be steeper than sandy beaches. At the upper end of the beach, storm ridges occur. As these are often beyond the reach of waves except in the highest tides, they may become colonised by salt-tolerant plants. Lower down the beach, there are ridges or berms which correspond to successively lower tides. The profile of a beach is constantly changing but will show the greatest contrast between spring and neap tides and between summer and winter seasons.

Longshore Drift

The transport of sand and pebbles along the coast is called longshore drift.

The prevailing wind (the direction the wind usually blows from) causes waves to approach the coast at an angle. The swash carries the sand and pebbles up the beach at the same angle (usually 45º). The backwash, however carries the material back down the beach at right angles (90°) as this is the steepest gradient. if a pebble was placed in the water it would be carried along the coastline in a zig-zag motion and would eventually be deposited when the waves lose energy.

Features of Deposition

Spits

A spit is a long, narrow ridge of sand or shingle. One end of the spit is attached to the land and the other end extends out into the sea.

The process of longshore drift carries material along the beach. When the coastline changes direction or where there is a river estuary material is deposited. In this way, a ridge of deposited material gradually builds up in the deeper water.

If the winds sometimes blow from a different direction, this can cause material to be moved in a different direction and the spit develops a ‘hooked’ or curved end. Behind the spit, in the calm water, mud is deposited and a salt marsh will develop. On the spit itself, sand can be piled up by the wind to form sand dunes.

Sand Bars and Tombolos

Sand bars are formed when a spit extends across a bay and reaches the headland. The water trapped behind a sand bar is called a lagoon. Spits can also extend across open water to join an island - this is called a tombolo.

Rural Land Use Conflicts

National Parks

A National Park is an area of beautiful and relatively wild country in which, for the nation’s benefit:

 The landscape beauty is strictly conserved  There is access and facilities for open air activities  Wildlife and buildings are suitably protected  Established farming is effectively maintained

There are 13 in England and Wales, dating from 1949 and, more recently, 2 in Scotland: Loch Lomond and the Trossachs (2001) and the Cairngorms (2003).

Key Facts

The Aims of National Parks

1. To conserve and enhance the natural beauty, wildlife and cultural heritage of the area

2. To provide facilities for recreation

National Parks are located:

1. In areas of great natural beauty

2. Where there is a great variety of scenery

3. Not too remote from conurbations (cities surrounded by clusters of towns)

4. In areas under great pressure from tourists or developments

Advantages

1. The National Parks Authority has power to refuse planning permission to any development not in harmony with the area

2. The Authority can place conditions on new buildings (e.g. type of materials used, usually favouring local stone)

3. They use wardens to look after the countryside

4. They pay farmers to maintain stiles, walls and footpaths (Environmentally Sensitive Area grants)

Disadvantages

1. They do not own land and have no power over the Forestry Commission, Ministry of Defence or local services

2. Once designated a National Park, the area becomes even more attractive to tourists and second home owners, and so conflicts increase

3. They have no powers to close down already existing buildings and developments such as quarries and HEP schemes which are not in harmony with the area

Differences in Ownership of Land in the National Parks

The individual National Park authorities, who manage the national parks, own only a small percentage of the land in them.

Within each park there are many people involved in land ownership such as farmers, estate owners, water authorities, the Forestry Commission, National Trust, Ministry of Defence and county councils.

The pattern of land ownership can make management difficult for the National Park Authorities who have, for example, to make special arrangements with landowners to allow visitor access.

North Land Brecon Lake Northum- Peak Pembroke- Yorkshire Dartmoor Exmoor York Snowdonia Ownership Beacons District berland District shire Coast Dales Moors Private 69.6% 57.3% 79.1% 58.9% 56.4% 79.9% 72.3% 85.7% 69.9% 96.2% Forestry 8.0% 1.8% 1.8% 5.9% 18.9% 16.6% 0.5% 1.3% 15.8% 0.0% Commission Ministry 0.1% 14.0% 0.0% 0.2% 22.6% 0.5% 0.3% 4.0% 0.0% 0.3% of Defence Water 4.0% 3.8% 0.6% 6.9% 1.2% 0.1% 13.0% 0.0% 0.9% 0.3% Companies National 3.5% 3.7% 10.1% 24.2% 0.7% 1.2% 9.6% 4.2% 8.9% 2.5% Trust National Park 13.0% 1.4% 4.4% 3.9% 0.2% 0.6% 4.2% 2.3% 1.2% 0.1% Authority

Local farmers

Farmers wish to farm without the fear of gates being left open, crops trampled and livestock worried by dogs. Farmers remove hedges and dry-stone walls, drain marshes and bogs and overgraze on pasture in an attempt to increase production. This presents the NPA with problems. (16.6% owned by farmers in North York Moors).

Forestry commission

Plant single species of conifers in regimented rows- ‘green blankets thrown over the landscape’ and in doing so restrict access to previously open fells and dales.

The Ministry of Defence

Is responsible for military training, and attempts to restrict this by the NPA have failed. During this the public is excluded for long periods. Live ammunition may be used, (22.6% Northumberland)

Water Authorities

Have dammed reservoirs flooding farmland and wildlife habitat. The NPA has had little effect in reducing this due to huge demand for water for Sellafield Nuclear Power Station and urban areas such as Manchester, Lake District (6.8%).

Quarries

These are privately owned and are a source of conflict due to noise, dust and heavy road haulage, as well as scarring the landscape. NPA’s measures reduce disturbances, limit the time scale and insist on restoration of the quarry site before planning permission is granted, and have made a difference without sacrificing jobs.

The Lake District: An Upland Case Study

Land Uses Found in the Lake District

1. Farming

Mainly hill sheep farming due to the physical difficulties e.g. relief, climate. Beef cattle graze in the U-shaped valley floors, which are too marshy for crop growing.

2. Forestry

11% of the Park is forested providing wood for furniture, building materials and Christmas trees and the area is increasing because:

 The land is marginal (hilly) land, and so there is less competition from other land uses  Forestry reduces soil erosion on steep slopes and around lakes  Forestry slows rapid run-off and reduces flooding

3. Quarrying

Slate: only 2 remain open, but old slate quarries scar the landscape.

Granite: large quarry at Shap

4. Water Supply

The lakes and reservoirs provide water for Manchester, and Sellafield nuclear power station. There are many reservoirs due to the following factors:  reliable, heavy rainfall

 impermeable rocks reduce loss by infiltration  natural reservoirs in the lakes  near to large conurbations of Greater Manchester

5. Tourism & Recreation

The Lake District is the second most popular National Park, with 14.8 million visitors per year. People visit due to:

(a) Natural attractions

 the highest mountains in England (Scafell Pike 978m, Helvellyn 950m)  some of the most beautiful scenery in the country  upland glacial features e.g.12 of the largest lakes in England, waterfalls, U-shaped valleys  the contrast with city life; it is quiet and much less polluted

(b) Human attractions

 M6 allows easy access from Liverpool, Manchester, Leeds and Scotland providing an influx of visitors - 90% using cars  A number of attractive villages such as Keswick and

Ambleside  Historical attractions: o Beatrix Potter’s farmhouse o Dove Cottage o Muncaster Castle

 hill walking and rock climbing e.g. Langdale and Hellvellyn  sailing on Windermere  mountain bike and orienteering courses  forest walks, nature and picnic sites 

Benefits of Tourism in the Lake District

 50% of local jobs are in tourism  Income to be made from selling to tourists (craft shops) or catering- tea rooms, farm teas, sale of farm produce  Income from providing tourist accommodation (B&B, holiday cottages, camp or caravan sites)  Increased job prospects (permanent and part-time) in tourist industry which might reduce rural depopulation  General improvement to local economy- more money in circulation - multiplier effect for local shopkeepers/ tradesmen  Amenities / facilities developed to encourage tourism able to be used by local population throughout the year (swimming pools, cinemas)  Sale of land / property to developers.

Land Use Conflicts and Management in the Lake District

Conflict 1: Tourism and Local People

Problem Solution Effectiveness Traffic Congestion  “Go Lakes Travel” programme It is anticipated the Programme  occurs on narrow, rural  £6.9M initiative will save 11,000 tonnes CO2 in roads and in carparks  aims to encourage 2015 especially during holiday more sustainable types periods of travel  87% of visitors arrive by car  “Cross Lakes Experience” Generally speaking, despite the  a particular problem in  Park and ride scheme introduction of these measures, honeypots such as Keswick  One ticket allows an overwhelming majority of and Grasmere transport on ferries and visitors will continue to arrive by  increases air and noise busses around car and honeypots such as pollution Bowness, Hawkshead, Ambleside, Grasmere and  can spoil the attraction of Coniston and Grizedale Windermere will continue to be many local villages  “Fresh Air is Free” popular.  elderly residents may have  Encourages car free difficulties crossing the visits by providing free Even with the new measures it road itineraries using public will be difficult to encourage  local people will struggle to transport/bikes/walking people to use other forms of park and drive to work routes transport over the convenience of  Widen trunk roads e.g. A66 the car.

 One way systems and traffic

lights in honeypots e.g. Keswick

Second / Holiday Homes  Build affordable housing  As the Lake District is a  House prices are  Increase the availability of ‘local National Park it can be significantly higher than occupancy’ housing very difficult to obtain the national average while o Properties sold to planning permission for rural wages are people who work new housing significantly lower locally or have lived developments  2006-2011 figures show locally for 3 years or  Materials used and that there are 7,374 more building design have to ‘fit second homes in Cumbria in’ with the landscape  Local people may have to  In 2012-2013 the LDNPA move away from the area granted permission for (rural depopulation) 172 new homes for local o Closure of local people services e.g. Primary Schools

Conflict 2: Farmers and Tourists

Problem Solution Effectiveness Footpath Erosion “Fix the Fells” programme Resurfacing with stone is effective  10 million people use  Aims to resurface the worst but requires skilled craftsmen and is footpaths in the Lake affected paths e.g. at expensive. District Gowbarrow Fell  This creates scars in the  Paths are resurfaced with Using steps on hillsides may make landscape and a loss of hard wearing materials such paths more popular. grazing land for farmers as local stone which ‘fits in’ with the landscape  Steep, incised paths can be fitted with steps

Gates left open by walkers  Use signs on gates to Effective to a point – difficult to  Can allow livestock to encourage people to close police such a large area escape gates  Install spring loaded gates / kissing gates / stiles

Litter  Signs to make tourists aware Effective to a point – difficult to  Can ruin scenery of countryside code police such a large area  Can present a choking risk  Removal of bins e.g. to livestock Yorkshire Dales  Employ wardens  Volunteer litter picks

Conflict 3: Local residents and tourist developments

Problem Solution Effectiveness Development of unsightly tourist  Ensure new developments Measures put in place are attractions and car parks are built with local stone somewhat effective but local  Locals feel that  Screen car parks with trees businesses are important for the developments such as  “Nurture Lakeland” work local economy and to provide jobs. Hayes Garden World look with businesses to ensure out of place in small villages that tourism in the Lake like Ambleside District is sustainable  These developments can lead to an increase in visitor numbers and traffic congestion

Coastal Case Study: Pembrokeshire National Park

Land Use in Pembrokeshire

1. Tourism Tourist attractions in Pembrokeshire:  Features of coastal erosion o Pembrokeshire coastal path, walkers can take in views including St Davids Head and the Green Bridge of Wales (a natural arch)

 Features of coastal deposition o several beautiful beaches e.g. Tenby o a number of blue flag beaches e.g. Poppit Sands o bays provide good conditions for water sports e.g. surfing

 Wildlife o Skomer Island: world famous for it’s colonies of sea birds – puffins, guillemots, razorbills and manx shearwaters o Elegug Stacks and the Green Bridge of Wales: Elegug is the Welsh for guillemot, and two colonies of these birds occupy two limestone stacks on the south coast of Pembrokeshire, the largest just 40 metres from the mainland cliff o Cemaes Head and Traeth Godi’r Coch: At 167 metres, Cemaes Head, in the most northerly part of Pembrokeshire, is the highest sea cliff in Wales. The inaccessible pebbly beach below is the location for the largest Atlantic grey seal haul out (when the seals leave the water) 25

2. Farming  Pembrokeshire's mild climate means that crops such as new potatoes (which have protected geographical status under European law) can grow well. As well as arable crops such as potatoes, the other main agricultural activities are dairy farming, sheep farming, beef production and some other arable crops, such as rapeseed  Falling farm incomes have led to diversification into other novel farming and tourism related activities  74% of Pembrokeshire is used for agriculture, the majority of this land (60%) is used for permanent grassland and 26% is arable  Farming provides 7,000 jobs

3. Military  the Ministry of Defence have a number of training areas in Pembrokeshire National Park including: o Castlemartin Ranges o Manorbier Air Defence Range o Pembrey Sands Air Weapons Range 4. Industry  The coastal location, flat land and deep estuary of Milford Haven provides an excellent location for heavy industries. o Milford Haven . Oil refineries: Chevron and Murco . two large liquefied natural gas (LNG) terminals . a new gas fired power station is under construction

Land Use Conflicts and Management in Pembrokeshire

Tourism and local people

Problem Solution Effectiveness Acute traffic congestion especially Encourage the use of public transport It is estimated that the coastal on narrow roads and around car e.g. coastal buses to popular beached buses have reduced the number parks. This is a particular problem including the Puffin Shuttle and the of cars in the National Park by over 30,000 in one year. in popular areas such as Tenby. Celtic Coaster.

Queues of cars, air and noise pollution can spoil honey-pot Some tourists may find this type towns. Pembrokeshire NPA have produced a of travel restrictive, more car free guide to the park convenient to take a car.

St Justinian’s is a very popular site Recently the NPA have agreed to for boat trips but has very limited operate a 'park and ride' bus running parking. Cars are very destructive from St. Davids. both in terms of physical damage and pollutants, but also because of their intrusive and unsightly appearance in the wild landscape. Development of unsightly caravan Within the Pembrokeshire Coast This does not solve the problem of parks: National Park there are already a large the large number of existing  Spoil the natural beauty of number of camp and caravan sites caravan parks. the area and make it less which are not used to their full attractive as a tourist capacity. Given this, and the destination disadvantages listed above, the  People staying in caravan National Park Authority's policy is not to sites often bring their food allow any new caravan sites. with them and so do not spend much in local shops and restaurants  Many of the access roads to the coast are narrow country lanes where touring caravans can cause serious traffic congestion  The local infrastructure e.g. sewage facilities, has not been built to cope with the extra influx of people in the summer

Large numbers of second homes The NPA have policies in place to Well –off city dwellers will push house prices beyond the provide affordable housing for local continue to buy up property reach of local people leading to people e.g. 60% of housing in Tenby which will provide an investment depopulation and the closure of must be affordable. as well as a holiday home. services. Only local people can have access to this housing. Local people are defines as:  People who have continuously lived within the Community Council area for the previous 3 years  People who have lived in the Community Council area for five out of the past ten years.

Different groups of tourists

Problem Solution Effectiveness Large number of different tourists The National Park Authority works with This does not solve the key in honey-pots such as Porthclais: local recreational providers, problem which is too many people  Walkers visiting the areas landowners and conservation groups. in the one place. Some have campaigned for restricting access for peace and quiet are Codes of conduct are in place, such as in Porthclais but this would only competing with lively the Marine Code and Agreement for push the problem further up the coasteering youngsters Climbers, which encourage users to coast.  The large volume of boats behave thoughtfully and responsibly, in the water can cause and to avoid damage and disturbance. conflict e.g. kayaks and fishing boats  Loss of habitat for wildlife: Seals prefer quiet secluded locations, but these places are being explored by walkers and coaststeerers.  Litter, both that dropped inadvertently or deliberately, or that which had fallen from full bins.

Tourism and Environmentalists

Problem Solution Effectiveness Disruption of fragile bird breeding Monitoring was introduced where This has been a very effective grounds by cliff climbers e.g. at St and when birds were nesting. In this solution due to the involvement Govans Head. way it has been possible to adapt and of several groups of people in

refine restrictions on the cliff. dealing with the problem.

A ranger was appointed. This ranger not only monitors the ranges with the MoD and National Park Authority, but works closely with climbers. The climbers are able to inform the ranger about where species are nesting, and about potential hazards on the cliffs. The introduction of a cliff top marker scheme. This marks where climbing is restricted.

Footpath erosion: Where bedrock is exposed it is Improving path has worked well  275,000 people use the possible to cut stone away and create but can lead to increased visitor Pembrokeshire coastal path each a smooth surface, encouraging numbers and it is difficult to year walkers to stay on the path. keep up with the problem.  Where the soil is thin it can be worn away to expose the Reintroduction of turf and vegetation bedrock. This is uncomfortable to deter people from using side to walk on. Walkers tend to walk paths. This occurred at Freshwater on either side of an affected East where the sand dunes had been area, widening the path, and heavily eroded over many years. The trampling the vegetation area, in this instance, was fenced off to allow regeneration. Now re- opened, there is a designated trail through the dunes.

The cutting of gullies and introduction of deflectors to divert and manage rainwater and run off

Fencing off of areas of higher

sensitivity such as archaeological sites or areas with rare flora and fauna. Where this occurs the National Park Authority display information to inform Path users.