In the Australian Colonies

Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies

Akihiro Kindax

This paper examines how the systematic grid patterns were laid out, and why the systematic rectangular land survey was abandoned in the Australian colonies, with special reference to the perceptual ideas of the decision makers. The necessity of the rectangular land survey was occasioned by the rapid increase of settlers, and also for dealing with land sales, under the influence of the American township system and the scheme of systematic colonization. Square-mile sections and six-square-mile townships were laid out from 1822 to IBZ5, and the same size sections, five-square-mile parishes, l00-square-mile hundreds, 4o-square-mile counties were directed to be laid out in all of the Australian colonies from 1825 to the 1850's, excepting South Australia during 1836-1842. However, the process and the result of land survey in each colony differed because of the range of physical and social conditions, the characters of the Governors and Surveyors- General, and some combination of those factors. Town planning was also charact erized by the grid street patterns and sometimes by rectangular shapes or surrounding parklands. The most important factors were Darling's Regulation in New South Wales, Roe's long administration of the survey department in Western Australia and Light's town planning of Adelaide in South Australia. The local variations of the town planning paralleled those of the rectangular land survey.

of land survey. I . Introduction This paper examines how the systematic grid patterns were laid out, and why the systematic Various kinds of cadastral grid patterns have rectangular land survey was abandoned in each been found in the world. They seem to be regular colony. In addition, this research employs the and uniform, but they are quite different from comparative view of historical geography, and each other in size, time of establishment, purpose, focuses on the perceptual ideas of the decision- and so on. Grid patterns in Australia are not as makers such as governors, surveyors-general and typical as in North America where they are found other administrators. much more extensively and uniformly,r nor do they have as a long history as in Japanz or in some II. The Eve of Rectangular Land Survey Mediterranean countries,3 where grid patterns System were much more important in making or con- trolling the landscape. I Land grants and districts in early New South these variations, grid patterns in ) In spite of Wales Australia are most interesting for research. The reason is that processes of decision-making, est- From the first governor (Phillip) to the sixth ablishing rectangular land survey systems and governor (Brisbane), every governor was instruc- laying out grid patterns can be traced. Until the ted to "lay out townships of a convenient size and 1850's the six Australian colonies received basi- extent."a These instructions were similar to those cally the same instructions from London (ex- given to the governors of East Florida and cepting South Australia during 1836-1842), but Quebec in North America in 1763,5 but the size of each colony experienced a quite different process about 20,000 acres was replaced with "a conven-

* Department of Geography at Kyoto University, Kyoto.

3 Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda) ient size and extent." Instructions to the gover- 2 Surveyor-General Oxley's letter to Commis- nors of New South Wales also laid down the size ) sioner Bigge of land to be granted to the various settlers, including the emancipated convicts. Land grants In the Colony of New South Wales, the devel- were to be given in 10, 20, 30,50 or 100 acres lots. opment and the increase of population were re- These instructions were not carried out com- markable under Governor Macquarie's adminis- pletely, but the majority of the grants were small tration. The settlement totals in l82l were: until 1971.6 These lots were distributed on the 38,778 persons, 32,267 acres of cultivated land, alluvium along rivers, forming a patchwork pat- 290,158 sheep and 102,939 cattle.2o At the same tern as shown on the map attached to the Gov- time various confusions and inconsistencies ap- ernor Hunter's letter of 1796.1 peared, and a reexamination of future policies was By 1804, almost all good agricultural land on necessary. J. T. Bigge was sent to Australia as the the Cumberland Plain was occupied,s and grants Commissioner of Inquiry into the State of the had to be made on the shale and sand-stone areas Colony of New South Wales during l819-1821.21 which only had thin surface soil. Consequently J. Oxley, Surveyor-General since 1812, had been the number of large size grants gradually in- concerned with land policy, in particular land creased," and this tendency continued under the survey; he realised the limitation of the land new policy introduced by Governor King. "' policy and the land survey system and proposed During the several years after King's adminis- radical reform to Commissioner Bigge.22 tration the rate of granting was rather low, " but It had been the policy of that time to add allotments were increasing in numbers and were allotments for new settlers irregularly, and with- distributed in irregular shapes, sizes, and direc- out previous survey to the surrounding parts of tions.rr Under Governor Macquarie's adminis- the settled area as Oxley wrote in his letter to tration, the number of settlers increased consid- Bigge. Oxley explained that the increase in erably and the irregularity of allotments became a demands for land and the shortage of staff in the serious problem for the survey department of the Surveyor-General's Office made it difficult to colony after 1810. carry on without a systematic survey. In 1788, Governor Phillip named the sur- His new proposals for land division were: rounding area of Sydney Cove the County of (a) that the country intended for settlement Cumberland,'r but did not implement the policy should be surveyed and mapped before oc- of laying out "townships". By 1799, groups of cupation; allotments were called "districts": in total, 15 (b) that it should be laid out in districts, each districts were formed.'o In 1810, the boundaries containing not more than 36 square miles; of 2l districts were fixed in various shapes and (c) that each district should be subdivided into sizes.r5 The number of districts in the Cumber- farms which should form squares or rectan- land Plain and its surrounding area increased gles of similar proportions. gradually to 22 in 181 l, 29 in 1814, 34 in 1817 and Oxley realised the need for a grid and a regular 38 in l820.ro In 1821, Surveryor-General Oxley, pattern of land division because of the increase in after regulating and confirming the counties' and the demand for land and complimtion in laying districts' boundaries, made the proclamation of 3l out allotments during rapidly changing circum- districts in the County of Cumberland and 3 stances. Bigge accepted his basic proposals and districts in the County of Northumberland.'t inserted the above mentioned recommendations Similar processes have been recognised in Van (a) and (b) into his third report. Proposal (c) Diemen's Land. Small and irregularly shaped was not contained in Bigge's reports but Oxley's allotments were distributed along the rivers be- letter itself was attached to the report as an ap- tween Hobart and Launceston, and 23 districts pendix. were laid out in Buckinghamshire, an area located Oxley's proposals and Bigge's reports were very in the southern half of the island in 1821.'8 By influencial in shaping the land policy of New 1824, this practice had spread to Cornwall in the South Wales, but the process appeared to be northern half, and the number of districts amoun- rather haphazard as I shall show in the following ted to 39, with proper names as in mainland New section. South Wales.ro

4 Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

given to Governor Darling, who took the place of Brisbane. Governor Darling's Instruction of 17th One-Square-Mile Section, Township, III. July, 1825 was completely new, different from Parish and Hundred in New South previous Governors', and established Executive Wales in 1822-1855 and Legislative Councils.'tt Oxley and the Land Board discussed how to 1 Laying out townships and changing to par- ) maintain the change from the former policy of ishes Brisbane's administration, and the method for On 18th February, 1822, Governor Brisbane changing to the new survey system required by directed Surveyor-General Oxley to survey the the new administrative process." In 1825, town- Hunter River Valley and to lay out one-square- ships were changed to parishes of a 5-square-mile mile sections and six-square-mile townships. standard and 42 parrshes were laid out, as shown Sections were to be numbered from the north- in Figure I for the Hunter River Valley.3a All of west corner of each township.t' This township these parishes were retained on the county plans system was similar to the American counterpart of 1857.3s The famous map drawn by Dangar in in size, but used a different numbering system and 182836 is not accurate, and it shows only Dangar's did not have the base line and meridian system of ideal parishes.st the established American survey system. Brisbane On the plains near Bathurst, parishes were also had opportunities to examine American practice laid out, but the township unit was maintained before coming to Australia, and he might have just as it was found in the map drawn in 1829.38 been informed about the necessity of such regular Parishes and one square mile sections were laid land survey system from Oxley in the months out in various parts of New South Wales, but they prior to issuing this direction.2a were not strictly uniform. By 1823, 23 townships and one-square-mile 2 "Hundreds" and the breakdown of the rec- sections were laid out in the Hunter River Valley, ) tangular land survey as shown in Figure 7.25 By 1824, 14 townships and sections were also laid out near Bathurst,tu Sections and parishes were favored, but and similar surveys were carried out in Shoalha- "hundreds" were established only in very limited ven to the south and in the County of Argyle to areas. Two "hundreds" were laid out in the the southwest.2T These surveys answered urgent County of Gloucester in 1 825, as shown in Figure demands, as explained by Oxley's letter to his 1, and four "hundreds" were found in the same surveyor in 1824.28 Magnetic north was adopted county in 1843.3e In the County of Cumberland, for laying out grid patterns in each survey area 13 "hundreds" had been arranged by 1835. Each without confirming the latitude or the longitude. "hundred" of Cumberland consisted of 3 to 9 Inevitably, these conditions resulted in inaccuracy parishes; the total number of parishes was 57 .4o and irregularity of the direction of grid lines. Nineteen of them used the names of former Also, the poor surveying techniques with the cir- "districts," and many took up the areas of the cumferenter and the chain, being liable to gross former "districts".4r But the parish, the "hun- error, became one of the major reasons why the dred" and the county were merely cadastral units, rectangular grid survey broke down in New South though they were introduced as units of commu- Wales.2n Six-square-mile townships were not laid nity administration. Sometimes they had other out strictly, and natural boundaries such as rivers functions such as the base for applications for and creeks had priority over section lines, as constructing or repairing roads.ot Thirty police shown in Figure 1. districts were proclaimed in 184043 and 28 district On the contrary, new colonial policy was made councils were set up in 184344 were not based on after the examination of Bigge's Reports in counties,ot "hundreds" or parishes. London.r0 In a despatch of lst January, 1825, Surveyor-General Mitchell, who came to Aus- Earl Bathurst, as the Secretary of the State for the tralia in 1827 as Deputy Surveyor-General and Colony, directed Governor Brisbane to divide the took the place of Oxley who died in 1828, eagerly whole territory into about 40 square mile "coun- carried out trigonomical surveys and general ties", about 100 square mile "hundreds" and mapping.au But Mitchell had a negative attitude about 25 square mile "parish€s," and to lay out toward the rectangular land survey system, and he one square mile sections.rl sometimes ordered the section lines to be shifted The same Instruction was much more clearly to adjust for terrain. Mitchell criticized this

-5- Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

1O miles

RAVENSWOTH Parishes in 1825 MINGTO LIDDELL ditto s,PPoSed townships in 1823

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Fig. I Change from townships in 1823 to parishes in 1825 in the Hunter River Valley (Source: Map of the Suneyed Part of Hunter River, 1823, A.O.N.S.W. Map 6280' Plan of the Lands Located at Hunter River, New South Wales, A.O.N.S.W. 52410-S?4ll)

-6- Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda) survey system and directed surveyors to follow published as late as 1838.5e natural boundaries rather than section lines.aT In 1836 Surveyor-General Frankland published A new Land Regulation was published in 183 1 a detailed map of Van Diemen's Land showing which re-established the one-square-mile unit in counties, hundreds, parishes and townships,m but the land survey and introduced a sale by auction all of their shapes were quite irregular and there system with a preset minimum price.ot Mitchell were no one-square-mile sections. Frankland offered some criticisms of these Land Regulations explained why rectangular sections were not laid to the Colonial Secretary in the same year.on out in 1834: the steep terrain and thick forest Accordingly the Executive Council re-examined disrupted the survey.ut Those counties, hundreds the situation and consulted Deputy Surveyor- and parishes were found in many maps in the General Perry, who supported the rectangular 1840's and 1850's,6t but the new local government land survey system. The Council then decided to areas which were planned in 1849 and gazetted in continue with it on lSth January, 1832.50 But, 186f6363 were based on nine police districts Surveyor-General Mitchell kept his objections arranged in t827.64 The rectangular land survey and directed surveyors to follow natural bound- system was never carried out and the orthodox aries. The section system itself was inaccurate survey hierarchies were not established in Van and had various problems as already explained. Diemen's Land. Thus the rectangular land survey system in New 2 Western Australia South Wales gradually lost its coherence. ) At last in 1855, the Select Committee on the Lieutenant Governor Stirling of Western Aus- Management of Survey Department in Legislative traha was furnished with Governor Darling's In- Assembly decided to abandon the old grid structions regarding rectangular land survey, and system.sr One month after this, Mitchell died. In additionally directed to take care with division of 1858, the Draftsman of the Survey Department the water frontages so as to give access to as many was called to the Select Committee and reported settlers as possible.65 that there were no section lines on the land nor on Stirling and Surveyor-General Roe directed the map.52 that each settler be allowed a narrow frontage to the Swan and Canning Rivers, and as a result of this very long allotments appeared.6u Then similar for Carrying out the IV. Various Conditions systems were adopted elsewhere.ut In 1839, the Rectangular Land Survey System in Tas- length of each allotment was required to be not mania, Western Australia and Victoria longer than three times of the width, but the alignment of new allotments was to follow the I Tasmania ) existing ones.ut There were no one-square-mile The secretary's Office of Lieutenant Governor sections in Western Australia. Arthur of Van Diemen's Land and Deputy Sur- In London, the Colonial Office informed pro- veyor-General Evans used the word "township" spective settlers that one-square-mile sections, as the means for designating a town site or an area parishes, hundreds and counties were being laid for a town in 1824, under Governor Brisbane's out in 1831.6e However, as a result of its exami- administration.s3 Brisbane's direction to lay out nations and discussions, by 1839 the Colonial sections and townships of rectangular shape did Office had ceased to adhere to the one-square-mile not cover Van Diemen's Land, but districts were sections.To drawn on maps and used in the documents from Stirling, who returned home at once in 1832 the Governor.to and arrived in Western Australia in 1834 as the In 1825, Lieutenant Governor Arthur directed Governor, sent an elaborate report on his colony that the island be divided into counties, "hun- to London in 1837. In spite of the extensive dreds" and parishes, following the same instruc- report, no land survey or allotment was referred tions for New South Wales.5s The survey de- to, and only a general map was attached, which partment of the new colony began the survey and showed 15 proposed districts.Tt Such proposed I I counties, 3l hundreds, 124 parishes and 48 districts increased to 26 in 1839,72 and the same townships (townsites) were surveyed by 1829,s6 proposed districts were shown on various maps and were gazetted in 1836.57 But, Scott's ffiap, until 1850's.73 drawn in I 824 and showing "districts," continued In 1852, Surveyor-General Roe could still in use, and its revised versions were still being report to Colonial Secretary that the confirmation

-7- Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda) of boundaries of 28 "counties" and their subdi- similar process. By September 1840, sections and visions into "districts" and "parishes" were to be 18 parishes were laid out in the County of Botrrke completed by the Survey Department.Ta In other and another I I in the County of Grant.su words the policy of land survey set out in Gov- Sections usually measured the expected one- ernor Darling's Instruction, which should have square-mile or 640 acres, trut sometimes they were been put in practice in Western Austr alia, had not enlarged to include the broken sections divided by been carried out despite the very flat terrain. One rivers. Parishes were of course laid out by section of the main reasons why the rectangular land lines, and as a result their boundaries consisted of survey system was not adopted was a compara- straight lines and rivers, as shown in Figure 2. tively small population in Western Australia. Straight lines were based on magnetic north as in Western Australia had merely 2,032 persons in New South Wales, but sometimes confused di- 1837, and only 3,886 in 1850.7s In ft21, when rections appeared such as in the Port Phillip Surveyor-General Oxley wrote a letter to Bigge to County of Normandy.tt introduce the rectangular land survey, there were The County of Bourke was subdivided into 27,931 persons in the County of Cumberland Bourke and Grant in 1839, formally confirmed in alone.tu Another reason might be the very long 1,842, together with the County of Normandy.tt administration by the first Surveyor-General Roe The number of parishes increased to 57 rn 1843,8n who laid out extremely long strips along the rivers to 69 in l847,eo and kept oir increasing. The until 1872. population also increased rapidly. There were 10,291 persons in 1840, 38,334 in 1846 and 76,162 3 Victoria ) in 1850.e' Port Phillip District was the general name of In 1849, 13 counties were gazettedez and in the area of Victoria before the separation from 1871, another 21, when the whole territory of the New South Wales in 1851. Surveyor-General colony was divided into counties, and the number Mitchell explored the western part and named the of parishes reached 2,004.n3 There were no area Australia Felix in 1836,77 and Governor "hundreds" in Victoria, but the rectangular land Bourke sent three surveyors to Port Phillip Dis- survey, based on Bathrust's direction and Gov- trict in the same year." Governor Gipps named ernor Darling's Instruction of I 825, was carried the plain around the Port Phillip Bay the County out faithfully for a long period. This survey also of Bourke, after the name of his predecessor, and caused some confusion as already mentioned, but he separated almost all bureaucratic work on the Surveyor-General Ligar introduced a new system land of the Port Phillip District from New South of rectangular survey in 1858.e4 It consisted of Wales in 1838.7e His report on the sale of 640 one-square-mile sections and parishes whose sides acre-sections in 1839,80 crossed with new written were one-tenth of one degree of latitude and directions from London.sr This new advice was longitude, such as in the County of Rodney.nt that the laying out of sections was to be continued In this w&y, the typical rectangular land survey and that land was to be sold at fixed prices decided was carried out in Victoria. The main reasons for by the Instructions. It also prepared for the this are believed to be rather gentle physical fea- subsequent separation of Victoria and Queens- tures, rapid population increase necessitating a land. rapid systematic survey, and finally the intentions Surveyors such as R. Hoddle, who came to the of Surveyor Hoddle and Governor Gipps, who Port Phillip District in 1837, carried out the rec- established a system that was only slightly mod- tangular land survey faithfully except during a successive Surveyors-General and Gov- few months in 1839; Hoddle, who became the first :T:r:f Surveyor-General of Victoria,t2 laid out sections and 14 parishes, as found in Well's map.83 But V. Rectangular Land Surveys in South Aus- this map did not show parish boundaries in 1840. tralia In the case of the Parish of Kalkallo, its name was written in the southern half of the parish plan of 1 Backgrounds for laying out 8Q-acre sections five sections east-west and eight sections north- ) south in 1839,84 but was rearranged in seven sec- The idea of systematic colonisation advanced tions east-west and five sections north-south, over by E. G. Wakefield appeared first in the Morning the signature of Hoddle, in November, 1839.85 Chronicle in London in 1829,'u and was then Other parishes appear to have been laid out by a incorporated the act passed in 1834 establishing

8 Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

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Fig. 2 Parishes and sections in the County of Bourke (Source: County Plan, Department of Crown Lands and Surv€V, Victoria) the Colony of South Aust ralia.ei This act intro- Governors of New South Wales from Phillip to duced the sale of the land and subsidised emi- Brisbane. The unit of grant was instructed to be gration for British and Irish people of 30 years old 30 acres for a male, 2O acres for his wife and l0 and over. The Committee for the Colony decided acres for each child: thus, 80 acres would be to sell the land in one-acre town lots and 8O-acre allotted to a couple with three children. This farms for 50 pounds, and estimated 35,000 pounds seems to be the most likely theory in spite of rm revenus from 700 land applications on 15th May, various earlier speculations. 1835. But on24th June, the price was changed to Light, the first Surveyor-General, was instruc- one pound per acre, so the total price was 81 ted to lay out 134-acre units for 437 settlers who pounds for the same lands with 437 applications bought land before lst March, 1831, and then to to obtain the same revenue. Then, oil lst August, arrange the rest of land in 80-acre units.'o' Light the land price was changed back to the original laid out Adelaide at first and surveyed surround- level by enlargement of farmland to 134 acres ings area to caffy out this troublesome instruc- until lst March, 1831. Thereafter a 8O-acre unit tion. By 1838, he completed laying out 134-acre was fixed at one pound per acre.nt and 8O-acre lots, and 54 or 28-acre lots for the The 80-acre unit of farm land seems to have rest.lo2 been based on the Wakefieldian scheme of sys- 2 Sections and hundreds tematic colonisation. Wakefield mentioned the ) 8O-acre lot,en and its origins may be found in the Light retired and the first Governor Hindmarsh granted areas noted in the Instructions to the was recalled because of the continuing troubles.

-9- Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

Gawler, the second governor, arrived in 1838, and other colonies. new Surveyor-General Frome arrived in 1839. They surveyed and laid out 80-acre sections tot- VI. Town Planning alling approximately 500,000 acres by the end of r03 1840. This survey and 80-acre sections were I Trial to lay out grid street patterns criticised in London,rm but the policy was not ) changed and Governor Gray, who took Gawler's Sydney was established as the first colonial place in 1840, received identical instructions on town in 1788. Governor Phillip concerned him- land survey. tot self with well designed streets and buildings."t Sections of 80 acres were laid out, with as much However, his plan was soon abandoned in order regularity as possible, and the direction of section to establish the economy of the colony. As a 'main lines must have followed the existing result, street patterns and buildings were devel- roads.t* But the water frontage of rivers and oped irregularly, as found on a few maps before te coasts had to have priority for the boundary, as 1920. ' directed by Surveyor-General Frome in 1840. r07 In 1807, Governor Macquarie found a strag- This policy produced section lines running in gling settlement of crooked streets and irregular different directions, as appeared in surrounding buildings. He was determined to give Sydney areas in the north of Adelaide, as shown in Figure straight streets and good buildings. As a result, 3. The area of sections was not exactly 80 acres. streets were widened and some civil administra- They ranged from 7 6 to 84 acres in the south of tion buildings were reconstructed.r2O Macquarie's Adelaide.tot plan was illustrated much more regularly than it Since the 1850's the area of sections was en- actually appeared in 1822,'tt but in any event the larged to around 160 acres and to even larger sizes basic structure of the inner city of modern Sydney in the later years, as already examined in detail. rOe was established by him.r2' Macquarie also laid Thus, there are various sizes and directions of grid down the street plans of Bathurst and Hobart.r23 patterns in South Australia, as shown in Figure 3. Governors of New South Wales were instructed Early Governors and Surveyor-Generals of to plan a town in each six-square-mile township South Australia were instructed to lay out the since 1780.t24 Townships began to be laid out in "county" and the "township," but Surveyor- 1822 and were to be changed to about 25-square- General Light drew alphabetical districts in mile parishes in 1825, as already noted, but a t t 1841 . ' Frome reported 9 counties and added a village or town reserve was to be kept in each minor change by the Governor in 1842,tt2 but parish, such as 48 townships (townsites) arranged alphabetical districts were still being used.tt3 in Van Diemen's Land by 1829.t2s In 1842, Governor Grey was directed to make 2 Governor Darling's Regulation and the suc- the South Australian system conform with that of ) ceeding period the other Australian colonies-i.e. the survey hierarchy of county, hundred, parish and section On 30th Muy, 1829, Governor Darling pub- were to be introduced in the same way as in the lished a new regulation for laying out and main- other colonies.tto In 1846, Governor Robe de- taining town plans as follows: each allotment will clared that hundreds should be laid out and that consist of a half acre with the frontage of one local settlers should use waste land of hundreds chain and the depth of five chains; the width to be for grazing.ttt In the same year, ll hundreds in reserved for main streets is to be one hundred feet; the county of Adelaide and 8 hundreds in Hind- the distance between the main streets will be ten marsh were gazette4. t to They had irregular chains.r26 Surveyor-General Mitchell discussed shapes. The aim of laying out hundreds and its with Governor Darling and introduced such wide effect were reexamined in 1860, and thereafter streets.l2i many hundreds of rectangular shapes were laid East Maitland in the Hunter River Valley was out.rrT Currently, the number of hundreds is 526 laid out in the same year by Mitchell, but it was but parishes have not been introduced. not completely faithful to the regulation.'" The rectangular land survey system was carried Almost all towns surveyed by the government out in various sizes of sections and hundreds in were established in the 1830's in the Hunter River South Australia. It was under the powerful in- Valley, and they were all laid out as grid street fluence of the scheme of systematic colonization patterns, but had irregular shapes and irregular and was, therefore, quite different from that of the blocks.r2n Many of the locations of these towns

- 10- Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

Fig. 3 Road grid patterns in South Australia (Source: 1 :250,000 Topographic Maps)

1l Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda) were determined according to the requests of the 1838 and 1845.r4o Main streets of east-west were local people, and distance from navigable rivers planned to follow the direction of sand dunes, and and the existence of main roads, as well as the the additional plans also followed physical fea- physical features, were important factors in .'he tures such as sand dunes and swamps.'o' Each location of the towns.r3O By this time, the word town lot was open only to the main streets, ditr- "township" meant townsite, town or village,t3l ering from Melbourne and from Governor quite different from its former meaning in the Darling's Regulation. These characteristics were Governors' Instructions of before 1825. very typical of other West Australian towns such Besides government towns, some private towns as Fremantle, Guildford, York and Bunbury.'o' were developed, such as West Maitland and Adelaide in South Australia, as laid out Sur- Morpeth in the Hunter River Valley. West veyor-General Light, had very distinctive fea- Maitland became the largest center in the Valley tures. It was charact erized by the squares in the in spite of her inferior physical conditions, but centre of the town and at each quarter of the East Maitland was always smaller than the West, town, the grid street pattern, the square shaped due to the distance from the Hunter River, the "town acre" and the surrounding parkland.'o' high cost of town allotment and the shortage of This unique planning was supposed to be based on fresh water in the township.t" designs of R. Montgomery, G. Sharp and A. F. In the Port Phillip District, Governor Darling's Gardiner, and on the ideas of Robert Owen.r* Regulation seems to have been carried out much However, Light's planning of Adelaide was cor- more faithfully. responded closely to the physical features as Hoddle and Governor Bourke planned Mel- shown in Figure 4. Although the slopes of ter- bourne with 24blocks of 99 feet grid streetsrs' and races might have been unsuitable for the "town before long eight blocks were added in the nor- acre," they were suitable for parklands. Having a thern sector in 1837.'34 The shape of Melbourne kind of parkland or reserve surrounding the town was rectangular, and other townships such as was quite common not only in Adelaide but also Geelong were similar to Melbourne in their reg- in Macquarie's Sydney, Melbourne or York in ular shapes. Many townships of the Port Phillip Western Australia.tot These reserves or open District found in the "sydney Plans"t" have more spaces seem to have had similar functions, and regularity than townships in the rest of New their implementation represented a common South Wales. contemporary trend. Light incorporated such On the other hand, Brisbane, in the Moreton open spaces for common use into his planning as Bay District, started as a penal settlement in parklands. 1824.t36 However, Governor Gipps, who had In South Australia many miniatures of Adela- approved Hoddle's planning of Melbourne, gave ide were designed; in particular, Surveyor- an order to re-arrange Brisbane as a new colonial General Goyder drew a proposed town plan after town. In 1842, grid streets of I or l.2l chains Light's plan in 1864. '46 Two hundred and forty- width were determined,t3t and Brisbane changed nine of 370 government towns were parkland from the irregularly shaped penal settlement to a towns.'47 In the case of Victoria, the reserves bold grid pattern. surrounding a town also became popular and they The new Act, passed in 1 842, classified the land were not so different from the South Australian into "Town Lots", "Suburban Lots" and "Coun- version.tot Some parts of these were arranged, try Lots," and determined the minimum price.t" however, as suburban lots based on the Land The Land Regulation based on this Act was Regulation of 1843. gazetted in 1843, and it divided the land into three classes: town lots of a quarter or half acre, sub- VII. Concluding Remarks urban lots of 2 to 640 acres, and country lots.rsn These units were closely related to the one- This paper was intended to clarify when and square-mile section and brought the new plans for why the rectangular land survey was introduced town lots into synchronization with surrounding to Australian colonies, how it was carried out, suburban lots. and/or when and why it was decided to abandon it. Western Australia and South Australia 3 ) The necessity of the rectangular land survey Surveyor-Gen eral Roe laid out Perth in 1829, was occasioned by the rapid increase of settlers, and additional plans were found in the map of and also for dealing with land sales under the

l2 Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

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Fig.4 Planning of Adelaide (Contour drawn with 2 meters interval) scheme of systematic colonization in South Aus- first to meet the urgent demand of increasing tralia, and the influence of the American township settlers, but a new policy came from London in system. Since 1822 one-square-mile "sections" 1825 to divide the whole territory into about 40- and six-square-mile "townships" were laid out at square-mile "counti€s", about 1OO-square-mile

一- 13 -― Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

"hundreds" and about 25-square-mile "parish€s", and to lay out one-square-mile "sectiolls". Notes It seems that this survey hierarchy was instructed in all of the Australian colonies from Jordan, T. G., Division of land, in J. F. 1825 to the 1850's, excepting South Australia Rooney, Jr.,W. Zelinsky and D. R. Louder during 183G1842. However, the process and the (eds) , This Remarkable Continent: An Atlas Society and result of land -survey in each colony differed be- of United States and Canadian cause of the range of physical and social condi- Cultures, (College Station, 1982) 54-70. tions, the characters of the Governors and the Kinda, A., Jori to Sonraku no Rekishichir' Surveyors-General, and some combination of igaku Kenkyu (An Historical-Geographical those factors. Steep or complicated physical Study of the Jori Plan and the Rural Land- features presented difficulties. Sometimes the scape), (Tokyo, 1985), 487-504. opposition of key actors such as Surveyor-General 3. Dilke, O. A. W., The Roman Land Surtey- Mitchell, or the presence of a small population ors, (Newton Abbot, l97I) 201-211. militated against it. In contrast, flat physical 4. Phillip's Instructions re: Land Grants, I/H- features and the strong desire to create an orderly torical Records of Australia, Series I, Vol. I, system were very effective in carrying out the 124-128, (hereafter H.R.A. I-I), Governor rectangular land survey, such as in Victoria and in Hunter's Instructions , H.R.A. I-1, 52V527 , South Australia. Even so, there were variations Governor King's Instructions, H.R.A. I- within the rectangular land surveys of the colo- UI , 391-398, Instructions to Governor nies. Bligh, H.R.A. I-VI, 8-15, Governor Town planning itself was charactenzed by the Macquarie's Instructions, H.R.A. I-VII, grid street patterns and sometimes by rectangular l9Fl97, Instructions to Sir Thomas Bris- shapes or surrounding parklands. Governor bane, H.R.A. I-X, 596-603. Darling's Regulation for town planning was not 5. Jeans, D. N., The Breakdown of Australia's carried out faithfully in New South Wales, but it First Rectangular Grid Survey, Australian was typically laid out in Victoria. Town planning Geographical Studies, 4(1966), 1 1 9-128. in Western Australia showed another character- 6. Campbell, J. F., The Dawn of Rural Set- istic but variant pattern during the long admin- tlement in Austraha, The Royal Australian istration of the survey department under Roe. Historical Society (ed) , Journal and Pro' Parkland towns in South Australia showed still ceedings XI, II (1926), 83-134. another distinct version under the strong influ- 7. Governor Hunter, New South Wales, Sketch Records ence of Light's town planning of Adelaide. These of the Settlement ( 197 6), Historical local variations of the town planning paralleled of New South Wales,l, 72-75 (hereafter H. those of the rectangular land survey in Australia. R.N.S.w.). 8. Perry, T. M. , Australia's First Frontier, the Acknowledgements Spread of Settlement in New South Wales 1788-1829, (Melbourne, 1963)' 17-19. New I received research grants for visiting Australia 9. Walsh, G. P., The English Colony in from the Ministry of Education, Science and South Wales, A. D. 1803, New Zealand Culture, and from The Australia Japan Founda- Geographer 18( 1 962), 149-169. Land tion. I was appointed as a visiting research fellow 10. Roberts, S. H., History of Australian in 1983 and visiting fellow in 1986 at the Uni- Settlement 1788-1920, (Melbourne' L924), versity of Melbourne. I am grateful to Professor 7-t3. T. M. Perry, Professor M. Webber and other staff 11. Robinson, K. W., Population and Land Use members of the geography department of the in the Sydney District, 1788-1820, New University. Zealand Geographer 9( 1953), lM-160. Allot- I am also grateful to Professor D. N. Jeans and 12. Burr, J. & Ballisat, G., Plan of the Dr. J. M. Powell for many valuable suggestions. ments of Ground, Granted from Crown in Staff and officials at the state libraries and ar- New South Wales, (London, 1814)- chives, the national library, the state survey de- 13. Governor Phillip to Under Secretary partments and the geography departments were Nepean, H.R.A. /-/, 58. Plan always helpful. I thank them all most sincerely. 14. Grimes & Flinders,A Topographical of the Settlement of New South Wales, Inclu-

l4 Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

ding Port Jackson, Botany Bay and Broken xII , 379-413. Boy, (London, 1799). 34. Plan of the Lands Located at Hunter River, Booth, J., A New Plan of the Settlements in New South Wales, A.O.N.S.W. 5241V New South Wales, (London, 1810). 524tt. Kinda, A., Australia Rekishichiri (An His- Map of the County of Northumberland, torical Geography of Australia), (Kyoto, Map of the County of Durham, Map of the 1985), 106-112, (hereafter Kinda, A). County of Hunter, 1857, M. L. County Public Notice, in Sydney Gazette, and New Maps. South Wales Advertiser, 27 October 1821. 36. Dangar, H., Map of the River Hunter and its Evans, G. W., Chart of Van Diemen's Land, Branches, shewing the Lands resert ed there- from the best Authorities, (London, 1822). on for Church purposes, the Locations made Scott, T., Chart of Van Diemen's Land, to Settlers, and the Settlement and the Lands from the Best Authorities and from Actual of the Australian Agricultural Company at Surtteys & Measurements by Thomas Scott, Port Stephens, New South Wales, (London, Assistant Sunteyor General of Lands in the r 828 ). Island, (Edinburgh, 1824). 37 . Kinda, A., ibid., 151-159. 20. Roverts, S. H., ibid., 24. 38. Bemi, P. L., Map of the County of Bathurst 21. J. T. Bigge's three reports are as follows: I ) and Parts of the Adjacent Counties, to- Report of the Commissioner of Inquiry into gether with the Parallel Line on Sea Coast, the State of the Colony of New South Wales, and Roads thereto from Sydney, New South Commons paper 448, 19 June 1822; 2) Wales, 1829 M.L. M4, 812.2 gbbd/182911. Report of the Commissioner of Inquiry on the 39. Baker, W .,Baker's Australian Atlas,(Sydney, Judical Establishments of New South Wales I 843-6). and Van Deimen's Land, Commons paper 40. Michell, T. L., Map of the County of 33, 2l February 1823; 3) Report of the Cumberland: Shewing the Parishes and

Commissioner of Inquiry on the State of Hundreds,2T Mar. 1835, A.O.N.S.W. 6247 . Agriculture and Trade in the Colony of New 41. Kinda, A., ibid., 159-163. South Wales, Commons paper 136, 13 42. Cumberland Road Act, 9 Oct. 1835. March 1823. 43. Government Gazette, 19 Aug. 1840. 22. Oxley to Bigge, l5th January 1821, Ap- 44. Government Gazette,26 Jul. 1843, Gipps to pendix to Bigge's second report, The Mit- Lord Stanley,T Oct. 1843, H.R.A. I-XXIII, chell Library (hereafter M.L.) BT Box 25, t82. s657-5 667 . 45. Jeans, D. N., An Historical Geography of 23. Colonial Secretary to Surveyor General, 18 New South Wales to 1901, (Sydney, 1972) Feb. 1822, Archives Office of New South 106. Wales (hereafter A.O.N.S.W .) 21 1432. 46. Perry, T. M., ibid., 45. 24. Kinda, A., ibid., 132-134. 47 . Jeans, D. N., ( 1966), ibid. 25. Map of the Surveyed Part of Hunter River, 48. Land Regulations, 1831, in Note I16, 1823, A.O.N.S.W. Map 6280. H.R.A. I-XIV, 864-867. 26. Stewart, G. C., Plan of Land Located at 49. Surveyor General to Colonial Secretary, 9 Bathurst, M.L. ifo'dz, 812, 231182411. Sep. 1831, A.O.N.S.W. 4/5398. 27. Perry, T. M., ibid. , 95-120. 50. Executive Council Minute, 18 Jan. 1832, 28. For example, Oxley to Harper, 28 Aug. Minute No. 3. A.O.N.S.W. 4l|5l7. 1824, A.O.N.S.W. 41 6906. 51. Report from the Commissioners appointed 29. Jeans, D. N., ibid. to Inquire into the Surveyor General's De-

30. Earl Bathurst to Sir Thomas Brisbane, 1 partment, New South Wales Legislative Jan. 1825, H.R.A. I-XI, 434-444. Council, V. and P. 1855, Vol. 2. l:15. 31. ibid. 52. Report from the Select Committee on the 32. Governor Darling's Instruction, H.R.A. I- Management of the Survey Department, xII , to7-125. New South Wales Legislative Assembly, V. 33. Members of Land Board to Governor and P. 1858, Vol. 2. Minutes of Evidence, Darling, I I Mar. 1826, H.R.A. I-XII, 406- tt-12. 413, Governor Darling to Earl Bathurst, 22 53. Secretary's Office to Deputy Surveyor Jul. 1826, Enclosure No. 4 and 6, H.R.A. I- General, 26 May 1824, Archives Office of

l5 Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

Tasmania (hereafter A.O.Ta.), LSD 22, Ambition's Fire, (Perth, 1981) 107-159. Vol. 1, 3, Secretary's Office to Surveyor 68. Regulations for private land surveys, 3l General, 15 Nov. t824, A.O.Ta. LSD 22, Oct. 1839, in Western Australian Govern' Vol. l, 38. ment Gazette, 2 Nov. 1839. 54. Final Report of Lands Commissioners, 1 69. Colonial Office , Information for the use of Jan. 1834, A. Mckay (ed) , Journals of the those who may propose to embark as Settler Land Commissioners fo, Van Diemen's for the new Settlement in Western Australia, Land 1826-28, Appendix E, (Hobart, B.P.P.Col. Aus. 4, 145. re62). 70. J. Irving, Esq. to Lord John Russell , 14 55. Arthur to Surveyor General, 29 Jul. 1825. Nov. 1839, B.P.P.Col. Aus.6, 50, R. Venon A.O.Ta. LSD 22, YoL 2, 13. Smith, Esq. to James Irving, Esq., 4 Dec. 56. Journals of the Land Commissioners for 1839, B.P.P.Col. Aus. 6, 5G-51. Van Diemen's Land 1826-28, in A. Mckay 71,. Extract of Despatch from Governor Sir (ed), ibid., 1-100. James Stirling to Lord Glenelg, 15 Oct. 57. Frankland, G. , Report on the Transaction of 1837, B.P.P.Col. Aus. 5,233-251, Despatch the Surttey Department of Van Diemen's from Governor Sir James Stirling to Lord Land, from the Foundation of the Colony to Glenelg, 3 Dec. 1837, B.P.P.Col. Aus.5, the End of Colonel Arthur's Administration, 257-267. (Hobart, 1837), 10. 72. Arrowsmith, J., The Colony of Western 58. Scott, T., Chart of Van Diemen's Land, Australia: From the Survey of John Septimus from the Best Authorities and from Actual Roe Esq. Surteyor Gen., and from other Surveys & Measurements by Thomas Scott, Official Documents in the Colonial Office A.O.Ta. UDL 343164611. and Admiralty, (London, 1839). 59. Cross, J., Chart of Van Diemen's Land, 73. For example, Surveyor General to Colonial Compiled from the most Authentic Docu- Secretary, 21 Jul. 1852, B.P.P.Col. Aus. 15, ments Extant, (London 1826, 1832, 1838). 103- 105. 60. The Map of Van Diemen's Land is dedi- 74. ibid. cated to the Land Holders of the Colony, by 75. Battye, J. S., Western Australia, A History their faithful Servant George Frankland, its Discovery to the Inauguration of the , from Surveyor General & Sole Commissioner of Commonwealth, (Oxford, 1924) Appendix Crown Lands, (London, 1836). IX. 61. Final Report of Lands Commissioners, ibid. 76. Robinson, K. W., ibid. 62. For example, J. Wyld, Tasmania or Van 77. Despatch from Sir G. Gipps, Governor of Diemen's Land (London, 1854). New South Wales, to the Secretary of State 63. Power, R., Tasmania or Van Diemen's for the Colonies, Transmitting a Report of Land, 1849, British Parliamentary Papers, the Progressive Discovery and Occupation Colony of Australia, 15, (hereafter B.P.P. of that Colony during the period of his Col. Aus.). Administration of the Government, 28 Sep. 64. Australian Buredu of Statistics, Tasmanian 1840, B.P.P.Col. Aus. 6, 649-653. Office, Tasmanian Year Book, (Hobart, 78. Sir Richard Bourke to Lord Glenelg, 15 re82) 7r. Sep. 1836, H.R.A. I-XVIII, 540-542. 65. Murry to Stirling, 30 Dec/l828, H.R.A. IIF 79. Lord Glenelg to Sir George Gipps, 3 Apr. I/1, 6W-602. 1939, H.R.A. I-XIX, 353-354. 66. Surveyor General to Colonial Secretary, l7 80. Sir George Gipps to Marquess of Norman- Oct. 1835, B.P.P.Col. Aus., 5,279-280. dy, 10 Dec. 1839, H.R.A. I-XX,430-432. 67 . Tyman, J. L., Surveys and settlement in 81. Lord John Russell to Sir George Gipps, 3l Western Australia, Part l: Superstructure May 1840, H.R.A. I-XX,64l-648. and Setting, Geowest 9(1976), 1-35, J. M. 82. Tipping, M. J., Hoddle, Robert, in D. Pike R. Cameron, Coming to Terms: The De- (ed) , Australian Dictionary of Biography, l, velopment of Agriculture in Pre-Convict (Melbourne, 1966). Western Australia, Geowest I 1( 1977), 1-95, 83. Wells, W. H., A New Map of Port Phillip, J. M. R. Cameron, Patterns on Land, 1829- Compiled from the latest Authorities, 1840, 1850, in J. Gentilli (ed) , Western Land- A.O.N.S.W., 1,117. scapes, (Perth, 1979), J. M. R. Cameron, 84. Parish Plans of Kalkallo, Central Plan

16 Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

Office, Department of Crown Lands and r324l17O. Survey, Victoria (hereafter D.L.S.Vic.). lO2. Arrowsmith, J., The District of Adelaide, 85. ibid. South Australia: As divided into Country 86. Arrowsmith, J., Map Shewing the Surteyed Sections, from the trigonometrical Surt ey of Lands at Port Phillip from the Government Colonel Light, late Surv. Gen., (London, Surteys, made in 1840, (London, 1841). 1 83e). 87. Powell, J. M., The victorian Survey System, 103. Price, A. G., The Foundation and Settle- 1837-1860, New Zealand Geographer, 26, ment of South Australia 1829-1845, A Study ( 1970), 50-69. of the Colonization Movement, Based on the 88. Peel, L. J. , Rural Industry in the Port Phillip Records of the South Austalian Government Region 1835-1880. (Melbourne, 1974) 24. and on other Authoritative Documents, 89. Baker's Australian Atla.s, ibid. (Adelaide, 1924) 129-15 l. 90. Ham, T., A Map of Australia Felix, Compi- 104. Report on Sur.yeying; Considered with refer- led & Carefully Revised from the Colonial ence to New Zealand, and applicable to the Government Surt,eys, Crown Lands Com- Colonies generally, 22 Dec. 1840, Second missioners & Explores Map, Private Sumeys report of the Select committee on South & c, (Melbourne, 1847). Australia, l0 Jun. 1841, appendix 34, B.P.P. Clark, C. M. H., Select Documents in Aus- Aus., 12, 34V354. tralian History, 1788-1850, (London & 105. Letter of Instructions by the Colonization Sydney, 1950) 409. Commissioners for South Australia to His 92. Department of Crown Lands and Survey, Excellency George Grey Esquire Resident Alphabetical Lists of Townships Proclaimed Commissioner in South Australia, 1840, Under the Land Acts (Melbourne, 1955) 12. s.A.A. GRG 481s11840. Powell, J. M. and Duncan, J. S., History, in 106. For example, Penman & Galbraith, Map of J. S. Cuncan (ed) , Atlas of Victoria, (Mel- the County of Adelaide and Surrounding bourne, 1982). Districts, Prepared from the Government 94. Powell, J. M., ( 1970), ibid. Plans and Carefully Revised after the Newest 95. Kinda, A., ibid., 2t9-222. Sun,ey by Robt. Stephenson, Surtteyor, Ex- 96. Gouger, R. (ed), A letter from Sydney, in change Colonnade, (Adelaide, 1850), partly M. F. L. Pritchard (ed) , The Collected reprinted in A. Kinda, ibid., 252. Works of Edward Gibbon Wakefield, (Gla- lO7. Frome, E. C., Instructions for the Interior sgow & London, 1968). Surttey of South Australia, (Ldelaide, 1840). ,97. An Act to empower His Majesty to erect 108. The South Australian Government Gazette South Australia into a British Province or (hereafter S.A.G.G.), 17 Aug. 1843. Provinces, and to provide for the Coloni- 109. Williams, M., ibid., 95-118. zation and Government therof. 4 & 5 Will. 110. Instructions to Light, 1836, ibid. IV, c. 95. 15 Aug. 1834. I I l. Arrowsrnith, J., Preliminary districts and 98. Oldham,. W., The Land Policy of South special surneys in South Australia, (London, Australia from 1830 to 1842, (Adelaide, I 841 ). 19 19) 14-30. ll2. General Description of the Proposed Divi- 99. Wakefield, E. G., Plan of a Company to be sion of the Province of South Australia into Established for the Purpose of Founding a Counties,26 May 1842, S.A.A., A. 291.B,4, Colony in Southern Australia, Purchasing S.A.G.G., 2 Jvn. 1842. Land therein, and Preparing the Land so 1 13. S.A.G.G., 17 Jul. 1845. Purchased for the Reception of Immigrants, ll4. Stanley to Grey, 6 Sep. 1842, C. M. H. (London, 1832). Clark, ibid. , 357. 100. Williams, M., The Making of the South 115. S.A.G.G. 22 Dec. 1842, Act No. 11, Ordi- Australian Landscape-A Study in the His- nance, to Regulate the Occupation of torical Geography of Austalia, (London and Crown Lands in South Australia, 28 Aug. New York, 1974) 98-99. I 846. l0l. Instructions by the Colonization Commis- 116. S.A.G.G., 29 Oct. 1846. sioners for South Australia to Colonel ll7. Williams, M., ibid. , 73-95. William Light, 9 Mar. 1936, South Aus- 118. Phillip to Sydney,9 Jul. 1788, H.R.N.S.W. tralian Archives (hereafter S.A.A.) R.N. I-II, I47 , Sketch of Sydney Cove, Port Jac-

l7 Rectangular Land Survey and Town Planning in the Australian Colonies (Kinda)

kson in the County of Cumberland, New Grant & Serle (eds) , The Melbourne Scene South Wales, July 1788, (London, 1789). 1803-1956, M. Cannon (eds), Historical I19. Kelly, M. & R. Crocker, Sydney Takes Records of Victoria. Foundation Series 3 Shape, (Marrickville, 1977) 3-12. (Melbourne, 1984), 37-39. t20. ibid., 13. I34. Williamson, J., A Plan of the Melbourne, I2I. Plan of the Town and Suburbs of Sydney, Port Phillip, 1837, The Map Room in The reprinted in Sydney Takes Shape, ibid. State Library of Victoria, reprinted in A. 122. Robinson, K. W., Sydney, 182f1952-A Kinda, ibid., 59. Comparison of Developments in the Heart 135. D.L.S.Vic. of the City, The Australian Geographer, 136. Juy, L. J., The Origins and Early Growth of 7 (1952), 6-12. Brisbane, Queensland, Geography, 37 (1952), 123. Clark, C. M. H., A History of Austraiia, I, r 66-178. (Melbourne, 1962) 283, 296-302. I37. Steele, J. G., Brisbane Town in Convict Days t24. Phillip's Instruction re Land Grants, ibid. 1824-1845 , (Brisbane, 197 5) 259-261. 125. Frankland, G., ibid. 138. An Act for regulating the Sale of Waste 126. Sydney Gazette, 30 May 1829. Land belonging to the Crown in the Aus- 127. Jeans, D. N., Town Planning in New South tralian Colonies, 5 & 6 Vict. C. 36 (22nd Wales 1829-1842, Australian Planning In' June 1842). stitute Journal, October (1965), 188-196. 139. Land Regulations, I Mar. 1843, New South 128. ibid. Wales Government Gazette. t29. Townships 1829-40, A.O.N.S.W. 412519, A. 140. Morison, M. P., Settlement and Develop- Kinda, Town Planning in the Hunter River ment, the Historical Context, in M. P. Valley, New South Wales in the Former Morison and J. White (eds) Western Towns Half of the Nineteenth Century, The and Buildings, (Nedlands, 1979). Otemon Bulletin fo, Australian Studies t4t. Kinda, A., ibid., 5G-55. t2(1987), 115-132. r42. Morison, M. P., Country Towns, in M. P. 130. Jeans, D. N., Official Town-Founding Pro- Morison and J. White (eds), ibid. cedures in New South Wales. 1828-1842. 143. Urban Systems Corporation, The City of Journal of the Royal Australian Historical Adelaide Plan, (Adelaide, 1974) 42-44. Society, 67 ( 198 I), 227-237 . 144. WilliamS, M., ibid., 387-472. 131. Townships, ibid. 145. Kinda, A., ibid., 74-80. 132. King, H. W., The Urban Pattern of The 146. Represented in Handbook for Government Hunter Valley, A Study of Town Evolution, Surtteyors, (Adelaide, I 887) . Morphology and Aspect, The Hunter Valley I47. Williams, M., The Parkland Town of Aus- Research Foundation, Monograph, 17 traha and New Zealand, The Geographical (Newcastle, 1963) 46-65. Review, 56( 1966) , 67-89. 133. Diary of P. King (5 Mar. 1837) and The 148. Powell, J. M. , The Public Lands of Australia Chronicles of Early Melbourne (p. 14) in Felix, (Melbourne, 1970) 37-51.