natural and natural habitats. Human exposure is the herbicide. Total global production capacity widespread and constantly recurring. Residues is more than twice the global demand, putting are widespread in foods, particularly those pressure on the industry to decrease prices and containing cereals (from pre-harvest use) or disperse GM Roundup Ready crops. GM corn or soy-derived products. It has been detected in drinking water, wine and beer, Highly Hazardous Pesticide and even in non-food products derived from GM cotton. The extent of human exposure IARC’s classification of glyphosate as a probable is reflected in the widespread presence of human carcinogen means that it now meets glyphosate in human urine wherever it has been the criteria for a Highly Hazardous Pesticide tested, principally in Europe. It has also been as defined by PAN (PAN International 2016b) found in urine and breast milk in the USA. and by FAO/WHO Joint Meeting on Pesticide Management as implemented by FAO in Very aggressive public relations and marketing Mozambique (Come et al 2013). by its developer, Monsanto, has resulted in the widespread belief that glyphosate is ‘safe’. For example, Monsanto claimed that glyphosate is Poisonings ‘biodegradable’ and that it ‘left the soil clean’. However, in 2009, France’s Supreme Court Glyphosate herbicides have been frequently upheld judgements by two previous courts used in self-poisonings and many deaths have that these claims were false (Anon 2009). occurred, especially in Asia, from as little as 3/4 Registration processes continue to allow the use of a cup of formulated product. of the herbicide without raising concerns about safety even as new data identifying adverse There have also been many cases of unintentional effects emerges. poisonings amongst users and bystanders, the former often experiencing severe chemical However, the 2015 classification by the burns and respiratory problems. International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of glyphosate as a probable human Widespread poisonings have occurred in Latin carcinogen is resulting in massive widespread America as a result of aerial spraying of GM concern about its continued use, especially soybean crops, and of coca crops in Colombia— preharvest and in public places. Additionally, effects being recorded as far as 10 km away independent scientific studies and widespread from the supposed spray zone. The coca poisonings in Latin America (resulting from aerial spraying (instigated by a US government-funded application) have begun to reveal numerous programme to eliminate cocaine production in acute and chronic effects of glyphosate-based Colombia) was reported to have also resulted in herbicides. widespread animal deaths. As a result, national bans and restrictions, Doctors in Argentina report vomiting, and voluntary action by local authorities and diarrhoea, respiratory problems and skin retailers to curb use are rising dramatically. Sri rashes in association with aerial spraying Lanka was the first country to ban it completely, of glyphosate on GM crops. Other acute although that ban may be partially relaxed. symptoms of poisoning commonly reported The European Union has extended approval from unintentional exposure include abdominal for glyphosate for only 18 months instead of pain, gastrointestinal infections, itchy or burning the usual 15 years, has banned the use of the skin, skin infections (particularly prevalent in surfactant POEA in formulations, and proposed children), blisters, burning or weeping eyes, minimised preharvest use and use in public blurred vision, conjunctivitis, headaches, fever, places. The European Food Safety Authority rapid heartbeat, palpitations, raised blood stated that there are so many data gaps for pressure, dizziness, chest pains, numbness, POEA that establishing acceptable exposure insomnia, depression, debilitation, difficulty in limits is impossible. Italy has also banned the breathing, respiratory infections, dry cough, preharvest use of glyphosate, its use in public sore throat, and unpleasant taste in the mouth. places and those frequented by children and the Less common effects reported include balance elderly, and non-agricultural use on soils with disorder, reduced cognitive capacity, seizures, high sand content to reduce the potential for impaired vision, smell, hearing and taste, drop contamination of groundwater. in blood pressure, twitches and tics, muscle paralysis, peripheral neuropathy, loss of gross Huge production capacity for glyphosate in China and fine motor skills, excessive sweating, and has resulted in the world being oversupplied with severe fatigue. 2 Acute toxicity Kidney Glyphosate has a low toxicity rating (WHO Kidney and liver are the main target organs Table 5) despite the substantial evidence of for glyphosate, and a wide range of adverse adverse health effects. Surfactants added to effects are reported from laboratory studies, formulated glyphosate products may be more including cell damage and death, DNA damage toxic: the surfactant POEA present in many and tumours. Glyphosate is implicated in an formulations is about 5 times more toxic than the epidemic of ‘chronic kidney disease of unknown glyphosate itself. There are a number of other cause’ (CKDu) amongst farmers in Sri Lanka, chemicals added to glyphosate formulations Andhra Pradesh (India), and Central America, in or contaminating them; some are known to be part because of the herbicide’s ability to chelate harmful, but many are regarded as trade secrets nephrotoxic metals. and it is unknown which might be contributing to the health effects. Cancer, genotoxicity Long-term toxicity The IARC monograph on glyphosate, published in 2015, concludes that “there is limited evidence Glyphosate-based herbicides can interfere with in humans for carcinogenicity of glyphosate” numerous mammalian organs and biochemical and “there is sufficient evidence in experimental pathways, including inhibition of numerous animals for the carcinogenicity of glyphosate”. enzymes, metabolic disturbances and oxidative Besides evidence from carcinogenicity studies stress leading to excessive membrane lipid in rats and mice, the IARC considered as a peroxidation, and cell and tissue damage. rationale “two key characteristics of known Genotoxicity and endocrine disruption also lead human carcinogens” and concluded that to chronic health and developmental effects. there is strong evidence that exposure to glyphosate or glyphosate-based formulations Glyphosate has long been known to have is genotoxic and can induce oxidative stress. antimicrobial properties, and was patented The latter mechanism was also ascribed to by Monsanto as an antimicrobial in 2010, with aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA), the major claims to be active against a very wide range metabolite of glyphosate. As a result the IARC of organisms. Recent studies show it can classified glyphosate as probably carcinogenic cause imbalances in the normal gastrointestinal to humans (Group 2A). microbiome, increasing vulnerability to pathogenic bacteria and influencing the In the same year, the European Food Safety response to antibiotics and intestinal functioning, Authority (EFSA) insisted on its evaluation in humans and animals. that glyphosate is neither carcinogenic nor genotoxic, thereby joining similar assessments Scientists have also found harmful effects on made earlier by the International Programme on human cells at levels of glyphosate too low Chemical Safety (IPCS) and the United States to have a herbicidal effect, some at levels Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). similar to those found in food. These effects This occurs in spite of substantial laboratory and are amplified by the adjuvants in the Roundup some epidemiological evidence that continues formulation, which assist penetration of the to accumulate and points to the opposite cells by glyphosate. Several researchers have conclusion. reported that glyphosate appears to accumulate in human cells. The evaluation of glyphosate by the European Chemicals Agency (ECHA) is still ongoing. Final Glyphosate at low concentrations damages liver, results are expected by end of 2017 when the kidney and skin cells; in the latter, it causes aging extension of the current approval for glyphosate and potentially cancer. Its ability to penetrate in the European union also expires. skin increases 5-fold when skin is damaged. Studies have demonstrated that glyphosate and/ Doctors in Argentina have reported a dramatic or Roundup cause genetic damage in human upsurge in long-term effects in areas where lymphocytes and liver cells; bovine lymphocytes; genetically modified soy crops are aerial- mouse bone marrow, liver, and kidney cells; fish sprayed with glyphosate. They include cancer, gill cells and erythrocytes; caiman erythrocytes; infertility, pregnancy problems, birth defects, and tadpoles; sea urchin embryos; fruit flies; root-tip respiratory diseases. cells of onions; and in Salmonella bacteria. Other studies have shown that it causes oxidative 3 stress, cell-cycle dysfunction, and disruption to Reproductive and developmental RNA transcription, all of which can contribute to carcinogenicity. Exposure to glyphosate-based herbicides, even at very low doses, may result in reproductive Several epidemiological studies have linked problems including miscarriages, pre-term exposure to glyphosate with non-Hodgkin’s deliveries, low birth weights, and birth defects. lymphoma, hairy cell leukaemia, multiple Laboratory studies have shown that very low