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2011-01-01 Nummulites Biofabrics as Tool for Quality Evaluation of the Eocene Jdeir Formation Reservoirs NW Offshore, Libya Abdusalam Ali Agail University of Texas at El Paso, [email protected]

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This is brought to you for free and open access by DigitalCommons@UTEP. It has been accepted for inclusion in Open Access Theses & Dissertations by an authorized administrator of DigitalCommons@UTEP. For more information, please contact [email protected]. NUMMULITES BIOFABRICS AS TOOL FOR QUALITY EVALUATION OF

THE EOCENEC JDEIR FORMATION RESERVOIR NW OFFSHORE, LIBYA

ABDUSALAM ALI AGAIL

Department of Geological Sciences

Approved:

______Richard P. Langford, Ph.D., Chair

______Diane Doser, Ph.D.

______Haithem Minas, Ph.D.

______Benjamin C. Flores, Ph.D Acting Dean of the Graduate School

Abdusalam Agail

2011 NUMMULITES BIOFABRICS AS TOOL FOR QUALITY EVALUATION OF

THE EOCENEC JDEIR FORMATION RESERVOIR NW OFFSHORE, LIBYA

ABDUSALAM ALI AGAIL

THESIS

Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School of

The University of Texas at El Paso

in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements

for the Degree of

MASTER OF SCIENCE

Department of Geological Sciences

THE UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS AT EL PASO

August 2011

Acknowledgements

I am so thankful to my supervisors whose help and assistance form initial work to the final steps to accomplish my thesis work.

Richard P. Langford, Ph.D

Diane Doser, Ph.D

Haithem Minas, Ph.D

I am very grateful for their support during the work of this thesis, and I offer my great thanks to all of those who supported me in any respect during the completion of my project including

Dr. Terry L Pavlis

Dr. Yousf Abotraoma (Secretary of Geological Society of Libya)

Eng. Salah Mohammed (Zueitina Oil Company)

Eni Oil Company

Lastly, special thanks to my mother and my family for their encouragement all the time.

Abstract

The southern Tethys margin constitutes an important hydrocarbon reservoir. It is formed mainly of Nummulite rich facies of the Jdeir Formation deposited during the Eocene epoch (Late

Ypresian age) in the giant El-Bouri oil field-Sabratah Basin-NW Libya. Deposits of the Jdeir

Formation directly overlay the Jirani dolomite and Bilal Formation, and unconformably underlay the Tellil Group and Ghallil Formation.

Nummulite accumulations are good indicators for hydrocarbon studies and they have been targets for numerous studies around the world. Nummulite ―Large foraminifera‖ tests are usually identified by two forms: A-form and B-form. Previous studies have highlighted many different aspects of foraminifers including taxonomy, test structure, test transport, abrasion, biofabric, climate, and ecological studies, and test morphology. However, previous studies have not studied in detail the distribution of A-form and B-form. This present study aims to use A/B

Ratio distributions within facies and relate that to two aspects; depositional environments and physical processes. The present study will use a Minas`s chart which summaries the relationship between A/B ratio, depositional environment, and physical processes. In addition, classification of death assemblages will be evaluated to distinguish the physical processes.

This could provide insight into the vertical and lateral distribution of porosity and permeability, as well as understanding the relationships between Nummulite biofabrics and the physical processes. In addition, diagenesis processes will also be evaluated and examined within the Nummulittic texture of the Jdeir Formation.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgements...... iv

Abstract...... v

Table of Contents...... vi

List of Tables...... x

List of Figures...... xi

Chapter One Introduction

1-1 Introduction ...... 1

1-1-1 Study Area...... 3

1-1-2 Geological Setting...... 4

1-1-3 Stratigraphy of the Northwestern offshore Libya...... 8

1-1-4 Jdeir Formation...... ….10

1-2 Previous Studies...... 12

1-3 Objectives of the Study ...... 15

1-4 Data and Materials...... 16

1-5 Methods and Approaches...... 18

Chapter Two Classification of Nummulites (Shape, size, A/B ratios and Imbrication)

1-2 Classification of Nummulites-Results...... 22

1-2-1 Small Robust Nummulites...... 25

1-2-2 Small Flat Nummulites...... 27

1-2-3 Large Robust Nummulites...... 29

1-2-4Large Flat Nummulites...... 30

2-2 A/B ratio – Results...... 32

2-3 Nummulites Imbrication Classification – Result ...... 33

2-3-1 Chaotic Stacking...... 34

2-3-3 Linear Accumulations...... 36

2-3-3 Edgewise Contact Imbrication...... …...38

2-3-4 Edgewise Isolate Imbrication...... 40

2-3-5 No Imbrication...... 41

Chapter Three Facies and Biofabric Analysis-Results

3-1Facies and Biofabrics-Analysis and Results...... …...43

3-1-1 Numulithoclast...... 43

3-1-2 Grainstone-packstone...... 47

3-1-3 Wackstone-Mudstone...... 50

3-2 Biofabric analysis and Results ...... ….....52

3-2-1Autochthonous biofabric...... …....54

3-2-2 Parautochthonous biofabric or Residual fossil assemblages...... …....56

3-2-3 Allochthonous biofabric or Transported Assemblages ...... …...57

3-3 Depositional Texture, Imbrication Structure, and Porosity Response...... …...61

3-4 A/B ratio and Depositional Model of the Jdeir formation...... …...70

Chapter Four Diagenesis Processes of the Jdeir Formation

4-1Diagenesis of the Jdeir Formation ...... ….....73

4-1-1 Micritization and Precipitation of micrite...... 75

4-1-2 Dissolution ...... 78

4-1-3 Compaction...... 81

4-1-4 Dolomitization...... 84

vii

4-1-5 Precipitation of Calcite Spar Cement...... 86

4-2Diagenesis History and Events of the Jdeir Formation...... 88

4-2-1Early marine diagenesis...... 90

4-2-2 Early meteoric diagenesis (precipitation of calcite spar)...... 92

4-2-3 Burial diagenesis...... 94

4-2-4 Late meteoric diagenesis (Second Stage of dissolution)...... 96

Reservoir Quality and Discussion

Reservoir Quality...... 98

Diagenetic Processes and Reservoir Quality...... 102

Future Discoveries...... 104

Discussion...... 106

Reference...... 107

Appendix

Nummulite Classification-B2-NC41...... 107

Nummulite Classification-B3NC41...... 111

Nummulite Classification-B4NC41...... 118

Nummulite Classification-B7NC41...... 128

Nummulite Classification-B8NC41...... 129

Nummulite Classification-C3-NC41...... 133

Nummulite Classification-C7-NC41...... 138

Classification of Imbrication Structure B2-NC41...... 146

Classification of Imbrication Structure-B3-NC41...... 147

Classification of Imbrication Structure-B4-NC41...... 149

viii

Classification of Imbrication Structure-B7-NC41...... 150

Classification of Imbrication Structure-B8-NC41...... 151

Classification of Imbrication Structure-C3-NC41...... 152

Classification of Imbrication Structure-C7-NC41...... 153

A/B ratio of B2-NC41...... 156

A/B ratio of B3-NC41...... 156

A/B ratio of B4-NC41...... 157

A/B ratio of B7-NC41...... 157

A/B ratio of B8-NC41...... 157

A/B ratio-C3-NC41...... 158

A/B ratio-C7-NC41...... 158

Curriculum Vita...... 166

List of Tables

Table1. A/B ratio Average Results...... 32

Table2. The average porosity of all the wells based on thin sections point counting...... 99

List of Figures

Figure1. Location map of the selected oil wells within Sabratah Basin-Bouri Oil field….…...... 3

Figure2. Illustrates the Sabratah basin location and the boundary of the basin in addition to some

Tectonic elements of the adjacent areas………………………….…………………..... 5

Figure3.Illustrations of the lithostratigraphic relationship of the late Eocene in NW Libya (Jdeir

Fm.) And the lateral equivalents in Tunisia (El Garia Fm)

modified from (Racy, 2001)...... 6

Figure4. The distribution of the Jdeir and Jirani formation in Sabratah basin………...…….…. 6

Figure5. The distribution of Metlaoui group Jdeir (El Garia) formation...... …..7

Figure6. The lithofacies map of the Libya and Tunisia...... …....11

Figure7. Shape and size classification of Nummulites, on the based on dimentions………...... 19

Figure8. (A)Imbrications structures of nummulites, as tool for Interpretation of paleo-depth and

The dominance of currents or waves (modified from, Racey, 1994). (B) Additional

Nummulites accumulation patterns used to define imbrication types for Biofabric

Analysis, modified from (Beavington et, al, 2005)...... 20

Figure9. Percentage of nummulites size and shape classification results...... 23

Figure10. Grainstone facies shows very low percentage (4.16 %) of robust nummulite tests....24

Figure11. Grainstone facies is enriched in B-form biofabric. Robust nummulites are absent in

This biofabric...... 24

Figure12. Contour map of the percentage of small robust nummulites (SRN). Countour interval

is 2 %...... 26

Figure13. Contour map of the small flat nummulite distribuion in the study area. Contour

interval is 5 %...... 28

Figure14. 14 Contour map of the large robust nummulites in the study area. Contour interval is

0.5 %……………………………….…………...... …29

Figure15. Contour map of the abundance of large flat nummulites in the study area. Contour

interval is 4 %...... 31

Figure16. Imbrications types recognized within the studied wells...... 33

Figure17. Contour map of the concentration of chaotic stacking in the study area. Contour

Interval is 1%...... 35

Figure18. Contour map of the linear accumulation biofabric in the study area. Contour interval is

2 %...... 37

Figure19. Contour map of the edgewise contact imbrication in the study area. Contour Interval is

1 %...... 39

Figure20. Contour map of the edgewise isolate imbrications in the study area. Contour interval

Is 1%...... 40

Figure21. Contour map of no imbrication structure in the study area. Contour interval is 4 %..42

Figure22. Nummulithoclast biofabric. Nummulithoclast is common in the top of the Jdeir

Formation. Numulithoclast contains nummulite fragments and other large fossils have

Been Reworked a transported...... 45

Figure23. Damage appears on the surface of a nummulite test. Abrasion and transport may be

Responsible for creating bioclasts facies...... 45

Figure24 Numulithoclast with matrix supported, bioclasts are common. This fabric may indicate

Transport seaward, B-forms are absent. This may indicate also transport below

Palaeohigh...... 46

Figure25. Numulithoclast rich facies with debris and fragments shows deposition in a high

xii

Energy environment...... 46

Figure26. Grainstone facies (grain supported). This facies is mainly common in nummulites

Banks. This facies may interchange with packstone facies. Large robust nummulites

Are randomly distributed...... 49

Figure27. Packstone facies consists mainly of B-forms in lime mud matrix...... 49

Figure28. Grainstone facies. This fabric suggests that deposition in this environment has been

Influenced by high energy processes...... 49

Figure29. Mudstone facies shows laminated structure (parallel laminated) which is a typical for

Back bank environments...... 51

Figure30. Wackstone autochthonous fabric associated with A-forms and other biota. Large

Fossils have been recrystallized in later digenetic processes...... 51

Figure31. Modified model for the main physical processes, imbrication structure, shape and

Size and death fossil assemblages. This model will be used to interpret the effects of

The physical processes of the Jdeir formation. Modified from (Racey, 1995) and

Minas, 2010)...... 53

Figure32. Wackstone Autochthonous biofabric associated with A-forms and B-forms...... 55

Figure33. Wackstone Autochthonous biofabric associated with A-forms and other biota. Large

Fossils have been recrystallized in later diagenetic processes...... 55

Figure34. Parautochthonous biofabrics accumulation represents accumulation of material close

To its source. This can be observed from the abundance of B-forms and A-forms

Where energy environments insufficient to sort these accumulations...... 56

Figure35. Parautochthonous biofabrics accumulation shows residual assemblages. This may

Occur in relatively high energy environment Few A-forms appear associated with

xiii

B-forms...... 56

Figure36. Nummulithoclasts biofabric indicates transportation dominated where some biota are

Reworked seaward into deep basin...... 58

Figure37. Storm wave related to material initially deposited at the middle shelf and then

Transported into outer shelf. This facies dominates in the upper part of the

Reservoir...... 58

Figure38. Allochthonous enriched with B-forms. Some bioclasts appear associated with this

Facies. Grain supported fabric indicates transportation and sorting of B-forms.

Nummulite accumulation probably is an indication of shell bank environments...... 59

Figure39. Allochthonous enriched with B-forms and grain supported facies. B-form nummulites

Have been transported and sorted. Orientation of B-forms indicates linear imbrication

Structure...... 59

Figure40. Grainstone Allochthonous enriched A-form. A-forms always dominate over B-forms

In the back-bank environments...... 60

Figure41. Grainstone- Another example of Allochthonous enriched A-form...... 60

Figure42. Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B2-NC41...... 62

Figure43. Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B3-NC41...... 63

Figure44. Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B4-NC41...... 64

Figure45. Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B5-NC41...... 65

Figure46. Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B7-NC41...... 66

Figure47. Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B8-NC41...... 67

Figure48. Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-C3-NC41...... 68

Figure49. Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-C7-NC41...... 69

xiv

Figure50. A/B ratio` s scheme and depositional environment interpretation, modified from

(Minas, 2010, personal communication)...... 71

Figure51. A, B, &C Rimmed Shelf Carbonate Depositional model of Jdeir formation in the

Study area...... 72

Figure52. Percentage of thin sections showing different diagenesis processes based on thin

Sections point counting estimation...... 74

Figure53. Micritized limestone filling a stylolite...... 76

Figure54. Micritized limestone rich with soluble materials...... 76

Figure55. Microstylolite and micritization of small fossil occurred in the early Stage of

Mechanical Compaction...... 77

Figure56. Deposition of micrite cement as matrix. The precipitation of micrite believed to

Reduce overall porosity...... 77

Figure57. Shows vuggy porosity created by leaching of fluids in mudstone facies. This

Secondary Generation of calcite created in later stages...... 79

Figure58. Leaching has washed matrix components in the upper part where huge affect of pore

Fluids cause Interparticle porosity in grainstone facies...... 79

Figure59. Nummulite test has been affected by leaching in the upper part of the Jdeir formation.

Most dissolution occurs in the middle of the nummulite test. Dissolution has destroyed

The Internal structure of the nummulite test and produced intraparticle porosity and

Fractures. The Amount of dissolution may be influenced by flux amount of fluids in

The formation in Meteoric environments above the water table...... 80

Figure60. Grain selective dissolved by solutions creating intercrystalline porosity. This

Associated with bioclasts facies and this might not create connected pores due to

Heterogeneity of fossil Remains that formed this fabric in the upper part of the Jdeir

Formation ...... 80

Figure61. Shows compaction and stylolite in burial environment in the early stage...... 82

Figure62. Fitted grainstone biofabric, Compaction leads to crate fractures...... 82

Figure63. Closer packing of nummulite tests oriented and influenced by mechanical

Compaction in the early stage. Primary porosity being filled with Precipitation

Of spar calcite...... 82

Figure64. Chemical compaction shows a large amplitude stylolite in late stage...... 83

Figure65. Chemical compaction has created large amplitude stylolite in mudstone facies

Pressure solutions according to Mriheel provide pathways for oil migration...... 83

Figure66. Nodule bounding stylolite occurs in limestone rich with insoluble material.

Compaction has destroyed the depositional fabric. Fluids escaped around nummulittic

Grains...... 83

Figure67. Dolomite and lime contact. Dolomite has been precipitated in mudstone facies.

Precipitation of dolomite as cement is very rare and it is suggest that may be deposited

In back bank facies...... 85

Figure68. Dolomite-Anhydrite facies precipitated in mudstone facies-Jirani Member...... 85

Figure69. Dolomite is being precipitated as matrix in mudstone facies. Dolomite is

Mainly restricted in the study area and it is basically encountered in a B5. Dolomite is

Characterized by a fine crystals associated with micrite...... 85

Figure70. Micrite filling the primary and secondary pores of nummulite tests

This may reduce the porosity of the reservoir. Precipitation of cement has taken place

After dissolution. This produced irregularity of secondary porous. Filling intraskeletal

xvi

Porous May occur in subtidal environments...... 87

Figure71. Precipitations of microspar and dolomite in mudstone facies

Occurred after dissolution...... 87

Figure72. The paragenetic sequence of the Jdeir Formation...... 89

Figure73. Precipitation of Micrite as matrix in the secondary porosity. Nonselective

Pores were filled by micrite...... 91

Figure74. Precipitation of Micrite as matrix in the secondary porosity. Nonselective

Pores were filled micrite...... 91

Figure75. Dissolution in meteoric environments which is Consider to constructive Processes for

Secondary porosity. A second generation of equant

Calcite is partially precipitated...... 93

Figure76. Circumgranular calcite shows equidimensional crystals. This type of cement fabric is

Usually an indication of precipitation in meteoric phreatic Environments. Pore were

Completely filled with water that was supersaturated with CaCo3...... 93

Figure77. Nummulite tests are being compacted as a response of mechanical compaction.

Matrix is almost absent and fractures begin to occur due to high pressure...... 95

Figure78. Mechanical compaction is is common in the burial diagenesis of the Jdeir Formation.

Compaction processes believed to occur after marine diagenesis or meteoric

Diagenesis and reduce the initial high porosities. Reduction of bulk is a product of this

Environment...... 95

Figure79. Precipitation of equant calcite in late meteoric diagenesis which shows non selective

Fabric porosity reduced by precipitation of calcite in late processes. Facies has been

modified by diagenesis in late meteoric environments...... 97

xvii

Figure80. Dissolution of skeletal grains in late meteoric environments creates

Non-selective porosity. Dissolution occurs above phreatic zone...... 97

Figure81. Death Assemblages and reservoir quality based on Racey`s model, (Racy, 1994). He

Examined the porosity and permeability of 200 samples for different nummulite

Accumulations and presented this model. This study used this model to infer an

Approximate porosity and permeability. The data has showed highest values

Recognized with Jdeir Formation...... 100

Figure82. Nummulite shape, size, imbrication, and porosity distribution in study area...... 101

Figure83. Contour map of the average porosities in the study area Contour interval

Is 0.2 %...... 105

xviii

Chapter One

1-1 Introduction

Nummulites are large foraminifera that accumulated to form banks in shallow marine environments commonly during the Eocene in North Libya and Tunisia (Racey, 1994).

Nummulite tests are usually identified by two different forms A- form, which are sexual tests and

B-form asexual tests. This has made them good indicators of environments and useful for hydrocarbon studies (Blondeau, 1972) and (Aigner, 1985). Nummulites (Large benthic

Foramnifera LBF) have a significant value because of their ability to create hydrocarbon reservoirs with high porosity 10 % to 26 % and permeability 40 to 100 milli-Darcies (Racey,

1995). In addition, nummulites are widely distributed within carbonate sediments and can constitute about 15 % of the fragments or debris (numulithoclast) associated with the carbonate build ups (Maxwell, 1968).

Nummulites build ups in NW Libya and Tunisia form an excellent reservoir for oil and gas as represented by the Eocene nummulitic limestone of the Jdeir Formation (Flugel, 2004).

According to Racey, (1995) these accumulations (Libya and Tunisia) produce 20,000 to 150,000 barrels of oil per day and these accumulations have potential reserves of up to 700 million barrels.

The Jdeir Formation of lower Eocene age established by Hammuda et.al, Hallett, (2004) is considered the main reservoir in the Sabratah Basin, in the Mediterranean Sea offshore of

Libya. This Formation is rich in nummulite facies and it forms an important hydrocarbon reservoir with high porosity throughout the basin. Nummulites and other Foramnifera are common in the Formation. The thickness and facies of the nummulites strata shape the

distribution of porosity and permeability of the reservoir. Nummulite accumulations have been a target not only within the Sabratah Basin but also in adjacent areas of Tunisia and Egypt.

Nummulite accumulations refer to the tests or skeletal accumulations of the death assemblages of bioclasts and other types of fossil accumulations as in response to the wave and current actions. Generally, the accumulations exhibit various biofabrics, which are defined as the three-dimensional arrangements includes tests orientation, packing, and sorting by shape and size

(Kidwell et, al, 1986). Biofabrics are a reflection of hydrodynamic factors and the sedimentological history of skeletal carbonates. In addition, biofabric analysis of Foraminiferal accumulations is a promising tool for microfacies studies and it has been applied with good results (Flugel, 2004). The orientation pattern of bioclasts and intraclats are an essential factor for providing accurate interpretation of paleocurrent directions. However, different fossil types respond differentially to these factors based on the morphology of the tests and this is recognized in the elongated fossils. Some studies have focused on the significance of the abrasion of nummulite tests and the origin of numulithoclast sediments as an indication for autochthonous and allochthonous accumulations (Beavington, 2004).

However, previous studies of nummulite accumulations (biofabric) have not paid enough attention on the details of the distribution of nummulite tests (A/B ratio) in nummulite assemblages and how that relates to depositional environments. Therefore, this study seeks to use the distribution of nummulite tests (A/B Ratio) and relate that to two aspects; depositional environments and physical processes to help present a depositional model and understand the quality of the Reservoir.

1-1-1 Study Area

The study area is located in the Sabratah Basin (the Pelagian Basin) around 120 km north of Tripoli offshore Libya in the Mediterranean Sea. The study area is located between Longitude

12˚27‘40‘‘E and Latitude 33˚55'10''N, (Figure 1). The Bouri oil field located within the basin was discovered in 1976 by Eni Oil Company and it produces both gas and oil. The Bouri Oil

Field discovered offshore of Libya is located in the Mediterranean Sea is one of the giant fields with great potential for oil and gas. In this study eight oil wells have been selected to analyze the

Jdeir Formation. The Jdeir Formation constitutes a reservoir 5 to 30 m thick in the study area.

Core samples from these wells cover most of the Jdeir Formation stratigraphically. The locations of these wells are within block NC41 of the Bouri oil field.

Figure 1 Location map of the selected oil wells within the Sabratah Basin-Bouri Oil field.

1-1-2 Geological Setting

The Sabratah Basin or Gabes-Triopli-Misratah basin formed during the Jurassic period as part of the opening of the Tethys Sea during the Mesozoic period as part of the separation of the

African and European Plates (Guiraud, 1998) and (Mriheel, et. al, 2000). The subsidence of the basin was caused by the stretching of the lithosphere and subsequent cooling. After rifting stopped in the Middle Jurassic period the basin developed as a continental passive margin

(Mriheel, et. al, 2000).

The boundaries of the Sabratah Basin are represented by a variety of different structures

(figure 2). It is bounded on the north Medina and Lampedusa plateau and it is deformed on the south by the Gafsa-Jifarah Hercynian normal fault found onshore in Libya (figure 2). The basin was initiated in the Paleozoic era (Goudarzi, 1980). The tectonic history of the basin shows that it was developed in four subsidence stages during Upper Triassic, Middle Jurassic, Upper

Jurassic, and Miocene (Finetti, 1982). Left lateral, left stepping, and strike-slip movement between the fault zone and the south Graben fault zone were also initiated in the basin during the

Upper Triassic and Middle Jurassic period (McCrossan et, al, 1989) (figure 2).

Fault

Figure 2 illustrations of the location of the Bouri oil field in the Sabratah basin. Some tectonic elements of the adjacent areas are also shown (Modified; Hallett, 2002).

By the Tertiary, tectonism had subsided and deposition occurred on a north sloping passive margin. Figure (3) shows the stratigraphy of the main groups in the basin at this time and their equivalent units in Tunisia. The deposition of the Farwah group, including the Jdeir

Formation occurred during a quiet tectonic phase and changes in sea level during this time were the main factors controlling the facies distribution of the Nummulites facies (El-Ghoul, 1991).

The Farwah group is the equivalent to the Metlaoui group of Tunisia (Mriheel et. al, 2000). The

Jdeir Formation is the main reservoir in offshore Libya, and is the equivalent of the El Garia

Formation in Tunisia. Figure 4 shows the distribution of the Jdeir Formation over the Sabratah basin.

Figure 3 Illustrations of the lithostratigraphic relationship of the late Eocene in NW Libya (Jdeir Fm.) And the lateral equivalents in Tunisia (El Garia Fm) modified from (Racy, 2001).

Figure 4 Distribution of the Jdeir and Jirani Formation in the Sabratah basin Modified from (Hallett, 2002).

The Jdeir Formation is rich in nummulite carbonates. Nummulites and other foraminifera are also common that suggest a late Ypresian age (Hallett, 2002). The depositional environment for this Formation is inferred to be a shallow ramp margin in water depth around 30-60 m

(Hallett, 2002). The distribution of the Metlaoui group of the Jdeir Formation (El Garia

Formation) is shown in figure 5 along with mapped fault and oil/gas discoveries.

11 00 14 00 17 00 35 00

Mediterranean Sea

33 00

El Garia Nummulitic Facies Oil Fields Gas and Gas-Condensate Discoveries 0 50 100 Oil Discoveries 31 00 Km

Figure 5 Distribution of Metlaoui group Jdeir (El Garia) Formation, Modified from (Rusk, 2001).

1-1-3 Stratigraphy of the Northwestern offshore Libya

The Northwestern offshore Libyan stratigraphy has been described by Gregory (1911),

Barr and Hammuda (1971), Hammuda (1973), and Abdulsamad (1999). Generally, the Cenozoic exposures in Libya are predominantly characterized by shallow water carbonate accumulations.

These rocks have major hydrocarbon accumulations in the subsurface. According to the age of the sedimentary basins, and their sedimentary fill, Libya is divided into two distinct geological regions:

- Region I encompasses two intracratonic basins in western and southwestern Libya

(Ghadames and Murzuq basins).

- Region II encompasses the tectonically active and currently unstable basins of Mesozoic-

Cenozoic age. This includes the Sirt Basin which is the largest in the north central region,

and smaller basins located northwest offshore, and northeast onshore and offshore Libya

(Tarabulus and Cyrenaica basins).

The stratigraphic fill of Sabratah basin ranges from Triassic to the Cenozoic and the sedimentary strata are 10 km thick (Mriheel, et. al, 2000). In general, the basin was divided into three stages of deposition:

I- Pre-rift with marine to non-marine clastics.

II- Syn-rift with deposits of shallow marine carbonates and evaporites.

III- Post-rift deposits dominated by marine carbonates and clastics (Mriheel, et. al, 2000).

The stratigraphic succession in the offshore area is composed of carbonate and terrigenous sediments of shallow to relatively deep in open marine environments, with an episode of restricted water circulation during the Messinian time (Hammuda et al, 1985).

Different names have been used in Libya and Tunisia to identify and correlate the stratigraphic units.

In the offshore, the Jdeir Formation directly overlay the Jirani dolomite and Bilal

Formation, and unconformably underlay the Tellil Group and Ghallil Formation which form the cap rocks of the reservoir. The Eocene sediments represent a prolific period for the development of carbonate ramps, comprised of nummultie, gastropod, discocyclina, echinoderms-rich, and alveolina-orbitolites facies (Racy, 1995). These carbonate ramps are distributed along the continental passive margin of the North African plate in northwestern offshore and northeastern onshore Libya, as well as in the central part of the Sirt Basin (Hallett, 2002).

1-1- 4 Jdeir Formation

The Jdeir Formation has previously subdivided into three main regional lithofacies

(Mriheel, et al, 2000) which are Orbitolites-Alveolina wackstone-packstone, nummulitic packstone- grainstone, and Fragmental-Discocyclina-Assilina wackstone-packstone. The depositional model for the Jdeir Formation suggests that the facies were deposited in a lagoonal or restricted shallow platform with moderate circulation and normal marine salinities (Mriheel, et al, 2000). These regional facies represent overall trends within the Jdeir and do not reflect stratigraphic or local variations within the formation. The Orbitolites-Alveolina wackstone- packstone lithofacies occurs in the southern part of the Sabratah basin and occupies the Jifarah trough. This lithofacies disappears in some areas and it may be influenced by salt movement.

The thickness of the facies varies from 14-175 m (Mriheel, et al, 2000).

The second facies, nummulitic packstone-grainstone is very common within the Jifarah

Platform in the NW parts of the Sabratah basin and includes the entire study area. This facies is widely distributed within the basin, especially in the NW of the Libyan offshore, and extends

EW for 230 km (Mriheel, et al, 2000). This facies is mainly topographically and structurally controlled. In the Bouri field study area, it is 180 m thick in well B7-NC41, and 169 m at well

B4-NC41. The least widely distributed facies is the fragmental-Discocylina-Assilina wackstone- packstone lithofacies. This lithofacies occurs in the far Northern portion of offshore Libya, passing to the north of the Bouri field close to the well B7-NC41. The thickness of this lithofacies varies from 183m to 126 m (Hallett, 2002). The facieses strata are mainly dominated by medium to coarse-grained packstone-wackstone and some abundant fragments of different types of fauna are common such as Echinoderm. Figure (6) shows the lithofacies distribution within the basin. In addition, this study will provide a more detailed facies description of the 10

Jdeir in the Bouri field, which can be used to infer facies changes within the nummulitic packstone- grainstone belt.

In addition to the stratigraphic variations within the Formation, diagenesis varied with both time and depth, influencing porosity of the Formation. Jdeir Formation has undergone some diagenetic process including micritization, cementation, dissolution, neomorphism, dolomitization, compaction, and silicification (Mriheel, et al, 2000).

STUDY AREA

Figure 6 lithofacies map of Libya and Tunisia modified from (Klett, T.R. 2001).

1-2 Previous Studies

The petroleum systems in Libya have been comprehensively reviewed by several authors e.g. Sbeta, (1991), Bernasconi et al. (1991), Hammuda et al. (1991), Mriheel and Anketell,

(1995) including source rocks, traps, hydrocarbon generation, migration, and entrapment. The principal petroleum system in the Sabratah basin comprises the Eocene-Oligocene Petroleum

System, which includes the offshore Farwah Carbonates in the Sabratah (Tarabulus) Basin. In addition, Eocene deposits in Tunisia have been studied; many papers have been published about the El Garia Formation which is the equivalent of the Jdeir Formation. However, very few papers have been published regarding the nummulite accumulations in the offshore of northwest Libya

(Beavington-Penney et al, 2008). The following history of the published papers illustrates the studies that have been completed on Eocene nummulites of El Garia Formation and Jdeir formation.

Bernasconi et al. (1991) studied the sedimentology, petrography and diagenesis of the

Metlaoui Group in the offshore northwest of Tripoli. They recognized three Formations in the

Metlaoui group (Jdeir, Jirani, and Bilal Formations). In addition, Bernasconi et al (1991) recognized two sedimentary cycles; regressive in the first cycle and transgressive and regressive in the second cycle. The study also distinguished three phases of diagenetic processes which led to a wide range of primary and secondary porosity.

El Ghoul (1991) studied the stratigraphy and sedimentation of Farwah group NC35A in the Sabratah basin. Based on detail studies lithologic, petrographic, and paleontological criteria for the well B2-NC41 El Ghoul was able to modify some aspects of this group. First, the top of

Bilal Formation was lowered 142 ft from 8638 to 8780 ft. Second, the Jirani Formation was given member status within the Jdeir Formation. The third, the base of Farwah group was raised 12

145 ft from 9082 to 8937 ft. Furthermore, the age of the Farwah group in this study was redefined as of the Ypresian age. However, detailed paleontological studies showed that the

Hallab Formation is not equivalent to the Farwah group. El Ghoul recognized five different environmental facies including; dolomite facies within the Jirani member deposited in a peritidal innermost shelf environment. The second environment is an innermost shelf facies dominated by wackstone-packstone in the lower part of Jdeir Formation. The third facies is middle shelf facies which is wackstone-grainstone to wackstone-packstone. The fourth facies is a shelf-edge bank and shelf slope facies which is dominated by packstone-grainstone in the uppermost part of the

Jdeir Formation. The last recognized facies include micritic, argillaceous, limestone of the Bilal

Formation.

Mriheel and Anketell (1995) described the diagenetic history of the Jirani dolomite, the basal facies of the Jdeir Formation. This study recognized two main facies: The first facies is an anhydritic-dolomite facies that is dominated by dolomitic limestone and anhydrite nodules. The second facies is Non-anhydritic-dolomite facies that is mostly composed of dolomite and dolomitic limestone. Additionally, this study described three stages of dolomitization, 1) penecontemporaneous dolomitization; 2) mixing zone at shallow water depth, 3) the third stage produced mouldic and vuggy porosity.

Mriheel and Anketell (2000) also described the dolomitization of the Jirani Formation in the offshore of western Libya and two stages of dolomitization were recognized. In the first stage two kinds of dolomite were produced that are associated with anhydrite and non-anhydrite. This suggests that the dolomitization was affected by refluxed evaporative seawater and developed in a transitional lagoon zone to open marine shelf environment.

The second stage of the dolomitization was distinguished by dissolution and recrystallization which helped to establish an excellent secondary porosity that included vuggy and mouldic porosity similar to the third stage as described by Mriheel and Ankketell (1995).

Mriheel and Anketell (2000) also discussed the depositional environmental of the Jdeir

Formation. This study identified three lithofacies in Jdeir Formation which are nummulites packstone-wackstone, Alveolina-Orbitolites wackstone-packstone, and Fragmental Discocyclina-

Assilina wackstone-packstone. These lithofacies were deposited in back-bank, and fore-bank environments. In addition, the petrographic studies have shown that porosity was controlled by the depositional environment, tectonic, and diagenesis processes. The highest porosity recorded in the basin is where the packstone-grainstone facies dominate.

Jorry et al. in (2003) studied the depositional facies and sequence stratigraphy of reservoir nummulite bodies in central Tunisia (in Kesra), and show that the El Garia (equivalent to Jdeir Formation) Formation is characterized by frequent facies and thickness variations, from the nummulitic facies in the SW to thick nummulithoclastic accumulations in the NE.

Beavington-Penney et, al (2005) studied the El Garia Formation in Tunisia by integrating many different data include taphonomic, biometric, biofabric, and palaeoecological characterization of the nummulite tests. This study has divided the Formation into many classes based on different data sets, including the D/T ratio or A/B ratio. However, this study concluded that the highest rates of nummulitic limestone sediment occurred in euphotic water within a shallow water environment. In addition, large quantities of nummulites (numulithoclast) were transported into deeper environments by turbidity flows. Bioturbation was also observed in the mid and outer ramp deposits which had destroyed the biofabric.

1-3 Objectives of the Study

This study seeks to use a technique based on study of nummulite‘s test size and shape variation for A and B forms of nummulite tests. The A/B ratio represents a response to a certain physical processes according to hydrodynamic behavior of different types of nummulite forms.

Understanding the physical processes occurring during the time of deposition can be used to understand the depositional environments. Accumulations of nummulite death assemblage will be used to evaluate the reservoir quality indicated by the variation of porosity and permeability.

In addition, diagenesis processes will be considered to understand the significance of these processes on depositional texture and the effects of texture on reservoir quality. The objectives of this study can be illustrated as below:

1) Use A/B ratios to interpret the depositional environments and present a depositional

model based on A/B ratios. In addition, this study will use Minas ‗chart (Minas, 2010;

personal communication) which summarizes and interpret the relationship between A/B

ratio, depositional environment, and physical processes.

2) Use orientation, packing, and sorting of nummulites to interpret the hydrodynamics and

the depositional environment of skeletal accumulation.

3) Consider biofabric variations in the context of environmental factors.

4) Identify the major limestone textural types (depositional, biological and digenesis) within

Jdeir Formation according to Wright`s (1992) classification scheme.

5) Use biofabric variation as a tool to evaluate Jdeir reservoir quality in wells, B2#NC41,

B3#NC41, B4#NC41, B5#NC41, B7#NC41, B8#NC41, C3#NC41, and C7#NC41,

according to Racey‘s (1994) scheme.

6) Determine the diagenesis history and evaluate the porosity.

1-4 Data and Materials

This study integrates variable data including core samples, thin sections, well logs for eight wells B2#NC41, B3#NC41, B4#NC41, B5#NC41, B7#NC41, B8#NC41, C3#NC41, and

C7#NC41 in the Bouri oil field NW offshore, Libya. This data was offered by ENI oil Company,

Tripoli Branch, Libya in 2007. Core samples were studied in detail and divided into units according to changes in depositional texture, biofabric, color, pressure solution, and nummulite size and then images have been taken for all the nummulites accumulation from the core samples in order to classify the nummulite shape and size using Jmicrovision software. 270 Thin sections were also taken according to a variety of different representations of all facies changes and nummulites biofabrics variations. This data can be described as follows:

1- Core Samples:

Core samples cover almost the entire reservoir intervals of all the selected wells. These intervals vary within each well (8130-8680 ft) in B2, (8090-8950 ft) in B3, (8145-8850 ft) in B4,

(8390-8620 ft) in B5, (8250-8650 ft) in B7, (8285-8900 ft) in B8, (8420-8990 ft) in C3, and

(8430-8940 ft) in C7. Most of the core samples are represented by nummulite banks which can be observed very clearly from the core samples.

2- Thin Sections:

270 thin sections were cut and were selected to allow analysis of many factors such as depositional texture, biofabric, lithology, imbrication structure, and nummulite assemblages. The number of thin sections varies from 56 thin sections in B2 to 11 thin sections in B5. The description of theses samples included grain types, cement, matrix types, diagenetic minerals, depositional texture, and stylolite types. 200 points were counted in thin sections of the samples in order to estimate the percentages of grains and different porosity types. 16

3- Well Logs:

Well logs also cover almost the entire depths of the wells. Detail descriptions of the reservoir lithology with different facies that are given. Log suites included resistivity and gamma rays are provided on logs for reservoir interval.

1-5 Methods and Approaches

The approaches to this study can be divided into parts; A/B ratio which includes (shape and size classification, classification of imbrication structures, and Classification of nummulite

Accumulations (biofabric). The second part; petrographic study which includes (microfacies, estimating porosity, and evaluating the diagenesis processes). The following is a description in detail for the approaches of this study.

1- A/B Ratio:

The A/B ratio is a technique which shows the distribution of A-form and B-forms of nummultie tests. These ratios reflect many different factors which can be used in the present study to understand two aspects; depositional environments and physical processes that were dominated in the time of deposition. The interpretation of the present study was based on Mina`s chart, 2010 that summarizes the relationship between A.B ratio, facies, biofabric, and physical processes. In addition, Racey`s model that relates the death assemblages to porosity and permeability was used to predict the reservoir quality of Jdeir Formation. However, in order to use the A/B ratio some steps had to be applied which included classification of nummulite, imbrication structure and nummulite accumulation.

I- Classification of Nummulites Shape and Size:

The classification of Racey (2001) divides nummulites tests according to their width and thickness. This simply can be estimated by measuring the width (W) and thickness (Th). In the present study the classification was based on the scheme of Jorry, Davaud, and Caline, 2003

(figure 7). Nummulites were divided into four types small robust nummulites (A forms with widths less than 1 cm and with to thickness ratio of less than 2), small flat nummulites (A forms with a width to thickness ratio greater than 4), large robust nummulites (B forms with width

greater than 1 cm), and large flat nummulites (B forms). When W is less than 1 cm and the ratio of W/Th is less than 2 the nummulite would be classified as a small robust form.

Figure 7 Shape and size classification of Nummulites, based on dimensions Modified from Jorry, Davaud, and Caline; (2003).

This task was accomplished by using the core sample images taken during the study of core samples and then the short and long axes of a maximum 30 nummulite tests were measured in approximately 1 foot depth. Thin section images were used to assist with this classification. The measurement was done by Jmicrovision software. The A/B ratio was estimated from the percentages of different forms, A/B ratio comes from the relative percentages of the number of

A-forms and the number of B-forms. Samples were classified using ratios 10:1 and 7:1 following the usage of Racey (1995). According to Racey (2001) these ratios have been assumed by many workers according to sexual and asexual of generations where usually the life cycle produces A and B forms of 10:1. In addition, these ratios were described in Racey`s and Aigner`s studies. 19

II- Classification of Imbrication Structures:

Imbrications types are a function of currents and waves which were dominated in the time of deposition. Special terms were used to describe some biofabric patterns such as imbrication, edgewise, stacking, linear accumulation, and edgewise isolate (Kidwell, 1986)

(figure 8 A). However, there are other different types of biofabrics that have been recognized in nummulites banks (figure 8B). In this study only the basic biofabric types that were introduced by Racey (1994) will be used.

Imbrication Structures

e t

Chaotic a n Stacking i

v a

Linear W

g r Accumulations e

E n i g

w n

i o s l Edgewise l a

a e r h Contact c S n Imbrication I

Edgewise

Isolate

d e

Imbrication t

i m

No t n

e r

Imbrication r u

A B A Figure 8 (A) Imbrications structures of nummulites, as tool for Interpretation of paleo-depth and the dominance of currents or waves (modified from, Racey, 1994). (B) Additional Nummulites accumulation patterns used to define Imbrication types for Biofabric analysis, modified from (Beavington et, al, 2005).

III- Classification of Nummulites Accumulations (Biofabric):

Nummulites assemblages were closely studied from the biofabric of the nummulitic limestone and divided into classes that introduced by Scott, (1970) which are Autochthonous,

Parautochthonous, and Allochthonous. According to Scott, (1970) there are some procedures that should be considered in order to distinguish fossil assemblages. These procedures include distribution, position of fossils, transported or in original place, homogeneous or heterogeneous, and the physical or ecological processes that have affected these concentrations (Kidwell, 1986).

Additional factors were considered also these factors included A/B ratio, imbrication type, fossil content, sorting, energy level, microfacies, fossil fragments, and depositional texture. This was accomplished by evaluating core samples according to the mentioned factors with focus on transportation processes and imbrication structure, In addition, Racey`s model which was modified by Minas (2010) will be used to identify nummulite assemblages as the model explains physical processes with imbrication types and accumulations types. Racey`s model applied both physical and ecological processes, but the ecological processes will be ignored here in this study.

2- Petrographic study

The petrographic study divided units according to variations of depositional textures, color, lithology, and fossil contents. The depositional texture was classified based on (Wright‘s classification, 1992). In addition, the porosity was estimated by point counting 200 points on the thin section images using ImageJ software and counting the observed components. Cements were examined by staining thin sections with alizarin red which helps to differentiate between carbonates and dolomites. Cement morphologies were closely defined to evaluate the affect of diagenesis on porosity and biofabric.

Chapter Two

1-2 Classification of Nummulites-Results

The percentage of the different nummulite classes were recorded and summarized in various ways. An average of the percentages of the nummulite classes in each well illustrates the gross lateral variability in reservoir quality in the Jdeir Formation (Figure 9). The data showed that the dominant forms in most wells are the large flat forms which compose 74% to 100% of the nummulties. These forms were most abundant in wells B7, B8, B3, B4, and C3 and least abundant in wells B2 and C7 in the NW and NE part of the study area.

There was considerable variation in robust vs. flat forms in the recognized facies and biofabrics within the Jdeir Formation (figures 10 and 11). These ranged from 0% in B7 to 26% in

B2 for robust forms in the northern parts of the study area. On the other hand in the NW, NE, and SW parts of the study area, the values ranged from 7 % in B8 to 91% in B7. Contour maps

(figures 12-15) illustrate the distribution and abundances of the different classes in the study area.

B2-NC41 B3-NC41

No Data

B4-NC41 B5-NC41

B7-NC41 B8-NC41

C3-NC41 C7-NC41

Figure 9 Percentage of nummulites size and shape classification results.

Large Flat Nummulite Large Robust

Nummulite

Large Flat

Nummulite

Figure 10 Grainstone facies shows very Figure 11 Grainstone facies is enriched

low percentage (4.16 %) of robust in B-form biofabric. Robust nummulites

nummulite tests. are absent in this biofabric.

1-2-1 Small Robust Nummulites.

Small robust nummulites observed in all the studied wells vary from 0 % to 26.49 %. Small robust nummulites were mainly concentrated between B2-NC41 and B4-NC41 (figure 12). Areas around C3 are represented by low percentages of small robust nummulites in the biofabric of the

Jdeir formation. The small robust A-form is found in low energy environments as indicated by a lack of winnowing of these small forms. This implies a part of the Jdeir was below the fair- weather wave base, in contrast to well C3, which is dominated by large flat forms. Biofabrics rich with A-forms may indicate lag deposits left by winnowing, where the small tests were removed.

The geometry of depositional environments is an important factor that influences the diversity and distribution of nummulites. Some depositional models have proposed that small robust nummulites are common in back bank environments where beach barriers protect these environments from open marine currents (Jorry et, al, 2006). Wackstone-mudstone facies are preferentially common in low-energy tidal flat and lagoon environments and are enriched in A- forms. Wells B2 and B4 have the highest percentages of small robust forms and more of the reservoir intervals may have been formed in quiet water settings.

Figure 12 shows contour map of the percentage of small robust nummulites (SRN). Countour interval is 2 %.

1-2-2 Small Flat Nummulites.

Small flat nummulites vary from 0 % to 62.2 % in the wells with the greatest concentration observed in well C7-NC41 in the SW portion of the study area

(figure 13). This type is also common in the Jdeir biofabric and may be due to the hydrodynamic properties of nummulite tests in terms of its susceptibility to water currents. Selective waves and currents can produce grainstone facies with high primary porosity that eventually lead to increases in a certain type of accumulation fabric. Small flat nummulites are usually associated with large flat ones. However, small flat nummulites do not have as much potential for forming biofabrics as compared to the large ones. This will be explained later and can be easily seen in the contour maps of accumulation fabrics in the study area.

Small nummulite tests respond differently to water conditions than large ones. Large tests may contain gases from the decay of protoplasm in the internal chambers of death tests. This helps lower the density of nummulite fossils and makes them more responsive to water motion (Jorry et, al, 2006). In addition, pick up velocity varies from 18 to 34 cm/sec for the A-form type, compared to 31-77 cm/sec for B-forms

(Racy, 2001).

Figure 13 shows contour map of the small flat nummulite distribuion in the study area. Contour interval is 5 %.

1-2-3 Large Robust Nummulites.

The percentage of large robust nummulites varied from 0 % to 4.16 % with the highest distribution found around B8-NC41 and B3-NC41 (figure 14) in the northern part of the study area. The large robust nummulites in the studied wells are not well represented in the biofabric.

In very few cases large robust nummulites are observed with grainstone-packstone facies (figure

14). The absence of this type of nummulite may be controlled by ecological processes, not only by physical processes. Large robust types may have not been as commonly abundant as life assemblages in the environment before their deposition (Racey, 1995). Therefore, this may affect the distribution of this type in the biofabric.

Figure 14 shows contour map of the large robust nummulites in the study area. Contour interval is 0.5 %.

1-2-4 Large Flat Nummulites.

The large flat nummulites are the most common type recognized in Jdeir formation.

These vary from 0.23 % to 91.17 % (figure10). This type is more common around the area of the wells B3, B7, and B8 (figure 15) in the NE and NW parts of the study area. Large flat nummulite is associated with high energy environments which make nummulites larger in order to accommodate the harsher conditions (Racey, 1995). In these high energy environments nummulite tests may suffer a variety of different processes such as transportation and selective removal (Racey, 1995). Storm and wave dominance lead to accumulations of death tests of nummulite skeletons and this is favored by the lower density of large sizes which can be moved easily by weaker currents.

The study showed that there are two main nummulite assemblages (banks) concentrated in NE and NW. These accumulations are characterized by linear imbrication which is identical for currents (figure 8A). These two concentrations can be interpreted as nummulites banks. The large forms are absent in B5, which can be related to unfavorable environments such as water supersaturated with Mg with respect to Ca. However, interpretations of B5 must be made with caution as a lower percentage of the Jdeir reservoir is cored in this well.

Figure 15 shows contour map of the abundance of large flat nummulites in the study area. Contour interval is 4 %.

2-2 A/B Ratio - Results

The A/B ratio was evaluated at all depths from the images which usually represented

1foot intervals of core samples. The actual ratios were provided and these ratios were averaged in order to get a representative ratio for the two different ratios (7:1 and 10:1) for each well in the reservoir. The results of A/B ratio are shown in table 1 which indicates that the most common ratio is <7:1. This indicates that B-forms are the most dominant in the nummulite banks.

However, A-forms are also common including ratios 10:1. A/B ratio cannot be estimated in some mudstones and that is common in some wells, particularly in well B5. Detailed information in the appendix includes the number of A and B forms and the ratio of A/B for each well according to the depositional texture, in addition to the samples that were taken.

Table 1 A/B ratio Average Results

Average A/B Ratio compared No. Well Number Actual Ratio to (10:1 and 7:1) 1 B2-NC41 3:1 < 7:1 2 B3-NC41 1:4 < 7:1 3 B4-NC41 7:8 < 7:1 4 B5-NC41 No data No data 5 B7-NC41 1:8 < 7:1 6 B8-NC41 2:7 < 7:1 7 C3-NC41 6:5 < 7:1 8 C7-NC41 3:1 < 7:1

2-3 Nummulites Imbrication Classification – Results

The classification of imbrication was based on comparing imbrication types recognized by Racey (1995) to the core samples‘ depositional texture. Thin sections were used to assist in the classification of core samples. Five different types of accumulations have been identified.

Figure 16 shows the percentage of samples with each type of biofabric. Isolated nonimbricated fabrics were the most common, accounting for 1/3 to 2/3 of the samples in each well. The chaotic and linear accumulations which form when there are higher concentrations of nummulites in higher energy environments accounted for 17%-50% of the wells. Figures 17

Through 21 show the distributions of different biofabrics in the studied wells.

Figure16 Imbrications types recognized within the studied wells.

2-3-1 Chaotic Stacking

Chaotic stacking is an imbrication structure that reflects randomly oriented nummulite tests and is a response to high energy environments. This stacking geometry can create a high porosity system with high reservoir quality regardless of any late diagenesis processes. The architecture of this type of accumulation indicates that waves may be responsible for this biofabric. Different directions of waves could act upon death assemblages and orient the tests into many directions. As wave action increases, the removal of B-forms increases and tends to create a randomly oriented pore system associated with this imbrication. The highest percentage of chaotic stacking observed in this study is 21 % in well B7-NC41 in the SW of the study area

(figure 17). Nummulite banks of this structure are concentrated around B7 (~18 m) and C7 (~30 m). Chaotic stacking is common in grainstone-packstone facies. The thickness of this type varies from 15 m in B8 to its complete absence in B5, B7, and C3, while it is around 2 m in B4, 6 m in

C7, 3 m in B3, and 10 m in B2.

The large-forms are very common giving an A/B ratio of less than 7:1 where. The increase in B-forms probably results from to the deposition of these assemblages in fore-bank environments. The concentrations in the north may suggest mid shelf to outer shelf environments where tests accumulated on a palaeohigh.

Figure 17 shows contour map of the concentration of chaotic stacking in the study area. Contour interval is 1%.

2-3-2 Linear Accumulations

In this type of imbrication structure nummulites tests are shingled in a certain direction due to the high energy effect of waves in the depositional environment. This serves as an indicator for the paleo-current direction of the waves. Linear imbrication indicates transportation and selective removal of hydrodynamically equivalent tests that responds to water motion. This structure represents around 8 % to 44 % of the biofabrics observed in the Jdeir formation. This imbrication of the biofabrics is highest in wells B8 and B4 in the NW of the study area and well

B4 in the NE part of the area (figure 18).

A/B ratio results is <7:1 which indicates the abundance of B-forms over A-forms. The thickness of this biofabric varies and it reaches its greatest thickness of 42 m in B8 in the north and it is relatively absent from B5 and B7 to less common in C3 (10 m), B2 (15 m) and C7 (20 m). In wells B3 and B4 it ranges from 36 to 27 m. The grain supported biofabric has increased the primary porosity, but this imbrication biofabric has been modified later by diagenesis processes as it is explained later in chapter four.

The distribution of this imbrication in the study area can help distinguish where waves dominated the depositional environment. The increase in B-forms suggests increasing wave action toward the NW part of the study area. This suggests the area may be near the outer shelf where some nummulties have been transported.

Figure 18 shows contour map of the linear accumulation biofabric in the study area. Contour interval is 2 %.

2-3-3 Edgewise Contact Imbrication

The edgewise contact imbrication structure refers to the feature where nummulite tests are connected with each other but are not oriented in a certain direction. In general, edgewise contact imbrication is less common than any other type of imbrication in the study area. The highest percentage recorded is about 14% in well B7-NC41 in the NE part of the study area and

10% in well C32 in the SE (figure 19). This imbrication structure is not a grain-supported biofabric and the matrix is lime mud. The thickness of this biofabric varies between 20 to 50 m.

This biofabric appears to be associated with chaotic imbrication. A/B ratio in this biofabric shows <7:1 to >7:1. This may indicate that A-forms become more dominant and may occasionally interchange with B-forms. This biofabric may suggest in situ winnowing in relatively low energy environments where some autochthonous biofabrics may occur. This can be observed in wells B7 and C3.

Figure 19 shows contour map of the edgewise contact imbrication in the study area. Contour Interval is 1 %.

2-3-4 Edgewise Isolate Imbrication

The edgewise isolate imbrication structure tends to show floating nummulite tests of A- forms and B-forms in lime mud matrixes. Edgewise isolate structures represent a small percentage compared to the other four types and occur in about 8 % to 16 % of the samples in the study area (figure 20). This biofabric may change into a ―no imbrication‖ structure when water energy becomes low. This biofabric is associated with the wackstone-packstone facies. A-forms may become dominant. Generally, this biofabric indicates a shallow, quiet water environment with current dominant deposition (figure 8A). The A/B ratio here is 7:1 which may represent a response to transport from winnowing currents. Favorable depositional environments may be near bank locations (Minas, 2010).

Figure 20 shows contour map of the edgewise isolate imbrications in the study area. Contour interval is 1%.

2-3-5 No Imbrication

No imbrication structure is the most common type of imbrication in the Jdeir formation and it covers a huge percentage (38 % to 73 %) compared to the other imbrications (figure 21).

This biofabric type reflects mudstone-wackstone facies texture-matrix support. In this biofabric,

A-forms are observed within autochthonous biofabrics and disappear from the depositional texture within massive or laminated mudstone facies. Therefore, the A/B ratio is also meaningless in this type of imbrication. Well B5 is completely characterized by this facies and its abundance of dolomitic limestone. The study area shows no clear pattern distribution for this imbrication. The thickness of the non imbricated structure varies laterally within the studied wells. While it is up to 137 m thick in B3 it reaches only 12 m in B7.

The environmental preference of this fabric is back bank environments supported by few

A-forms. This indicates that currents that carry sediments (nummulites & bioclasts) or remove grains in the depositional environment are less common which may form autochthonous biofabrics (Aigner, 1984 and Minas 2010). This imbrication type has no potential for obtaining good porosity unless it is influenced by post-depositional alteration, such as diagenesis processes seen in B5.

Figure 21 shows contour map of no imbrication structure in the study area. Contour interval is 4 %.

Chapter Three

3-1 Facies and Biofabrics-Analysis-Results

This chapter discusses different aspects of the Jdeir Formation including texture, A/B ratios, facies, microfacies, death assemblage‘s classification, and biofabric analysis. Detailed explanations will be presented for the nummulitic limestone (reservoir) in each well studied.

Based on this description and the integrated data this study presents a depositional model and estimates the porosity and permeability according to Racey`s model. Based on the petrographic analysis and core description of the Jdeir formation the main facies can be divided into three different parts which include; nummulithoclast, grainstone-packstones, and wackstone-mudstone facies. The following is a description of each facies.

3-1-1 Numulithoclast

Nummulithoclasts are composed of abraded nummulites (reworked) and fragmented large benthic nummulite tests and may contain layers of nummulitic packstone-grainstone. The fragmented nummulites are the result of reworking of the nummulite tests during transport (Jorry et, al, 2006) (figure 22). Other features of transport and reworking of nummulite tests are dominant (figure 23). The nummulithoclast facies are mainly grain supported fabric, however, matrix supported fabric may appear in packstone facies. The A/B ratio cannot be determined in this facies due to fragmentation and the damage to the tests (figure 24 and 25). This facies is mostly dominant in the upper part of Jdeir formation and laterally distributed in the studied wells, except in B5, which is characterized by mudstone facies. Thickness of this facies varies from 17 m in B2, 34 m in B3, and 24 m in B4. However, this facies is not well preserved in the other wells B5, B7, B8, C3, and C7.

Coarse grain calcite matrixes are common, in some cases interbedded with a micrite matrix that may have formed in late diagenesis processes. A detailed description of the biofabric in this facies will be discussed later under the death accumulations classification. Moreover, diagenesis had a significantly affected nummulithoclast facies by the processes of dissolution, micritization and cementation as discussed in next chapter. Dissolution has modified this biofabric by increasing fracture processes and fossil fragments in this facies.

The Numulithoclast facies generally indicate high energy environments where transport or reworking is common in turbidity currents (figure 25). Loucks et, al (1998) suggests that bioturbation may be responsible for breakage of nummulites. Depositional texture may show chaotic imbrication with grain-supported facies which is usually an indication of high energy environments (Jorry, et al, 2006). Favorable environments in this case might be fore-bank environments characterized by storm deposits. Nummulite debris may be transported seaward and deposited near outer ramp. Others have suggested that nummulithoclast facies tend to concentrate on palaeohighs in shallow environments and are transported toward the basin

(Loucks et, al 1998).

The study of Mriheel and Anketell (2000) suggested a different name for this facies which is ‗fragmental-Discocyclina-Assilina wackstone-packstone‘. In addition, they considered that this facies occupies the northern part offshore of Libyan and passes north of the Bouri oil

Field near well B7. Their study also indicated that this facies tends to change into an open marine facies. However, this facies only occupies a small interval of the upper part of well B7 and is better represented in wells B2, B4 and B3 as indicated earlier.

Figure 22 Numulithoclast biofabric. Nummulithoclasts are common in the Jdeir

Formation. Numulithoclast contains nummulite fragments and other large fossils that

have been reworked and transported.

Figure 23 Damage appears on the surface of a nummulite test. Abrasion and transport may be responsible for creating bioclasts facies.

Figure 24 Numulithoclast with matrix Figure 25 Numulithoclast rich facies supported bioclasts are common. with debris and fragments shows This fabric may indicate transport seaward deposition in a high energy environment. B-forms are absent. This may also indicate transport below a palaeohigh.

3-1-2- Grainstone-Packstone:

This facies is dominated with nummulites of B-forms (large flat Nummulites) and A- forms. Grainstone-packstone facies turn into completely grain-supported textures once they are affected by transportation and selective removal of A-forms (figure 26). A/B ratios are commonly <7:1 and may change into > 10:1 when A-forms occupy the biofabric. In addition, it may consist of nummulites tests and test fragments with thin intervals of large pelycopods

(Ostrea). The tests are cemented with calcite spar with isolated patches of micrite cement in some cases.

The occurrence of this facies is abundant in wells B4, B3, B7, and B8, the northwestern and northeastern wells, where it forms up to 67% of the Jdeir Formation. Where it is abundant, this facies forms the upper 1/2 to 2/3 of the Jdeir forming a unit up to 130-m-thick in well B3. In wells B2 and C3 grainstone-packstone forms less than 1/3 of the formation, occurring as 1.5-m- to 15-m-thick intervals scattered throughout the Jdeir. In well B5 dolomite cement had filled the porosity. Both primary and secondary porosity are present and total porosity ranged from 14% to 26 %, making this the highest quality reservoir facies in the Jdeir. The grainstones-packstones in some intervals are macroscopically identical to mudstones and required thin-section analysis to differentiate them. Diagenetic processes have progressively modified this facies as will be discussed in the next chapter. The most significant processes include compaction, dissolution, and cementation. Compaction processes have affected these facies by producing modified facies including fitted grainstone.

Clasts formed a much lower percentage of the grainstones than that of any other facies, including the interbedded packstones. The grainstone-packstone facies show chaotic (figure 27) and linear imbrication structure fabric in some cases. This facies also includes a compacted

grainstone (fitted grainstone facies) in the upper part of the formation where burial diagenesis took place and pressure solution reduced Interparticle pores (figure 28). The grainstone- packstone facies is represented by flat large nummulites and this has created some types of porosity including interporosity and intraparticle porosity.

Grainstone-packstone facies represents the nummulitic bank which contains the highest primary porosity in the Jdeir formation. The common nummulite accumulations in this facies are explained further in this chapter. Generally, grainstone-packstone facies with increasing B-forms are an indication of transportation processes dominating the depositional environment. This depositional environment may vary from marginal bank to shell bank and this is a dependent of biofabric accumulation type.

The previous study of Mriheel and Anketell (2000) has suggested that this facies is found in much of the NW offshore region of Libya and that this facies is structurally-topographically controlled. This is affected by the Jifarah platform and the salt domes in the study area. In my study this facies reaches the highest thickness in wells B7 and B4. This partially agrees with the observation of Mriheel and Anketell (2000) where the maximum thickness was seen in B8 and

B3. The thickness of this facies in B8 is 120 m and in B3 is 114 m while in B4 and B7 the thickness is around 90 m.

Figure 26 Grainstone facies (grain Figure 27 Packstone facies consists supported). This facies is mainly mainly of B-forms in lime mud matrixes. common in nummulite banks. It may interchange with packstone facies. Large robust nummulites are randomly distributed.

Figure 28 Grainstone facies. This biofabric suggests that deposition in this environment has been influenced by high energy processes. 49

3-1-3- Wackstone-Mudstone:

Wackstone-mudstone is composed mainly of massive and laminated mudstone (figure

29) and it may include nummulites tests of A-forms in very few cases where it is interstratified with the previous facies (figure 30). This facies is found extensively throughout the study area.

Wackstone-mudstone facies are most abundant in well B5-NC41where it is represented by dolomitic limestone. Wackstone-mudstone facies usually change with grainstone facies. The primary porosity of this facies is low unless it is affected by diagenetic processes creating secondary porosity, as in B5. Therefore, wells with thick mudstone intervals have lower porosity.

In the study area, this facies is encountered below the grainstone facies with mainly micritic-microspar matrixes. This facies occurs in all the studied wells which attain ―no imbrication‖ biofabrics (lime matrix-supported), and nummulites completely disappear with the abundance of dolomitic limestone. The thickness of this facies reaches a thickness of 137 m in

B3 and a minimum of 22 m in B7.

Wackstone-mudstone microfacies suggest that this facies was mainly deposited in a quiet environment. The absence of the nummulite accumulations may be due to unfavorable water conditions. Microfacies are characterized by very fine carbonate grains usually ranging from micritic to microspar matrixes. This facies is influenced by diagenetic processes such as burial and dissolution. Common features observed in mudstone-wackstone facies include pressure solution and dissolution effects. This suggests that wackstone-mudstone facies were probably deposited in back bank shallow marine environments where winnowing is not common.

The wackstone-mudstone facies are interpreted to represent an authochonous assemblage of nummulites. The facies is composed of different sizes of nummulite tests with very few bioclasts (figure 33). These palaeocommunities assemblages usually have randomly distributed

nummulites of both A-forms and B-forms. The presence of few nummulithoclast associations mixed with both A-forms and B-forms suggest that these biofabrics represent autochthonous assemblages where transportation was not common. Since the autochthonous accumulations are associated with the wackstone-packstone this biofabric observes the same thickness in the reservoir. This fabric suggests little winnowing by currents. Similar biofabrics have been interpreted as lagoonal, low energy inner shelf environments where there is little disturbance by currents (Minas, 2010). Mriheel and Anketell (2000) suggested that this facies grades from packstone-wackstone facies and it shows a decrease in microfossils. Their study covers a huge area with other concessions, in addition to NC41, and this may explain some differences with the observations of this study. They assume that the best depositional model for the Jdeir formation is a rimmed shelf model while Loucks et, al (1998) in their study of the El Garia formation of the

Tunisian offshore suggested a ramp model.

Figure 29 Mudstone facies show a Figure 30 Wackstone autochthonous fabric laminated structure (parallel laminated) associated with A-forms and other biota. which is typical for back bank Large fossils have been recrystallized in later environments. diagenetic processes. 51

3-2 Biofabric Analysis and Results

The previous description has shown that there are 3 different facies presented in the Jdeir formation. The study of the biofabric was based on assemblage‘s classification of Nummulites and the evaluation of the biofabric of each facies described earlier. The classification of these biofabrics was defined according to the terms that have been used by Scott, (1970) which are: autochthonous, parautochthonous, and allochthonous. This classification will be used in distinguishing depositional environments and to infer the porosity-permeability based on these assemblages. The A/B ratio will also be applied in the depositional model. Three different

Nummulites accumulations have been identified according to texture, imbrication, physical processes, A-forms, and B-forms.

Accumulations of nummulties tests have formed through transport by currents and waves.

However, some accumulations are interpreted as residual assemblages accumulated by winnowing processes (Winnowing). Wave action and tidal currents are commonly responsible for the orientation of the intraclasts or nummulithoclast in the peritidal and shallow subtidal environments (no winnowing or limited winnowing observed). Racey`s model (1995) modified by Minas (2010) was used to identify the relationship between biofabric, imbrication structure and physical processes (figure 31). The following is a detailed description of the Nummulite accumulations recognized within the Jdeir formation.

Minas, 2010).Minas,

( and and

(Racey, (Racey, 1995)

pe and size,pe and and assemblages. death Fossil This model usedbe will

Jdeir formation.(Modified from the

of physical the processesof

effects

to interpret the

Modified modelModifiedforthe main Physical processes, imbrication structure, sha

Figure 31

3-2-1 Autochthonous Biofabric

The autochthonous assemblages show no evidence of transportation of the nummulite

Tests. This biofabric consists mainly of wackstone-mudstone which is mixed accumulations of

A-forms and B-forms (figure 32). This type is explained as below:

The autochthonous biofabrics are concentrations of mudstone-wackstone biofabrics.

These assemblages are composed of different sizes of nummulites tests with very few bioclasts appearing occasionally (figure 33). The A/B ratio is poorly distinguished which can be > 10:1 or

>7:1. The presence of few nummulithoclast associations mixed with both A-forms and B-forms suggest that these biofabrics represent autochthonous assemblages where transportation is not common or limited.

This biofabric suggests that the abundant physical processes are mainly weak winnowing or currents. The fossil content may be less common and would substrate the lime mud with foraminifera tests as lag deposits. This biofabric is favorable in environments behind a beach barrier where waves do not observe much effect on the deposition environments. This environment usually has low potential to observe fossil content where salinity increases.

However, large fossils may appear which indicates deposition in situ.

Figure 32 Wackstone Autochthonous Figure 33 Wackstone Autochthonous biofabric associated with A-forms and biofabric associated with A-forms and B-forms. other biota. Large fossils have been recrystallized in later diagenetic processes.

3-2-2 Parautochthonous Biofabrics or Residual Fossil Assemblages

Parautochthonous fabrics are composed of nummulite tests that have been reworked but not transported out of the original place. This biofabric usually shows transportation, reorientation, and redistribution by physical processes. This causes some sorting that removes some to all of the A-forms by winnowing creating B-form enriched facies (figure 34). The residual biofabric is represented by the packstone-grainstone facies (figure 35). Parautochthonous assemblages have biofabrics that show edgewise contact or edgewise isolate. This suggests relatively high energy oscillatory currents. In addition, high-energy Nummulites facies are usually defined by local sub aerial exposure (Jorry, 2003).

Figure 34 Parautochthonous biofabrics Figure 35 Parautochthonous biofabrics accumulation represents accumulation accumulation show residual assemblages.

of material close to its source. This can This may occur in relatively high energy be observed from the abundance of B- environment. Few A-forms appear forms and A-forms where energy associated with B-forms. environments are insufficient to sort these accumulations.

Figure 35 Packstone- Grainstone 56

3-2-3 Allochthonous Biofabric or Transported Assemblages

These assemblages show nummulite tests have been transported from the original depositional environment and reworked. The transportation processes depend on many different factors related to the pickup velocity and the density of the nummulite tests. This type of assemblage is characterized by high energy waves and common transport processes including sorting and reworking. The most common types of imbrication are the chaotic pattern and linear imbrication. This biofabric is a good place for primary porosity with grain-supported biofabric.

Allochthonous assemblages can be divided into three different types: nummulithoclast, allochthonous with enriched B-form, and allochthonous with A-form. The following is a description of all these three assemblages.

1- Nummulithoclasts

This biofabric is distinguished by reworked fossils and the abundance of bioclasts with grainstone-packstone (figure 36). Nummulithoclasts are characterized by storm wave biofabric texture with grain-supported fabric. This biofabric is found in the upper part of the reservoir. The contents of this biofabric may have been removed or redistributed into deeper water seaward of the mid-shelf to outer-shelf. The main feature of this biofabric is its heterogeneity of the depositional texture. B-forms and A-forms are hard to observe due to the storm waves biofabric.

Transportation inflicts some damage and abrasion to the nummulites tests due to sliding, saltation, and rolling. The nummulithoclast in the upper part of the Jdeir formation show a relatively extensive damage of the tests (figure 37). Sorting of the bioclasts is observed and the large flat nummulites usually have a linear imbrication.

Figure 36 Nummulithoclasts biofabric Figure 37 Storm wave related to material indicates transportation dominated where initially deposited in middle shelf and some biota are reworked seaward into then transported into outer shelf. This deep basin. facies dominates the upper part of the reservoir.

2- Allochthonous Enriched Biofabric with B-form or Residual B-form

The enriched B-form consists mainly of grainstone-B-forms facies with linear to chaotic imbricated structure and some bioclasts appear associated with the matrix (figure 38). The A/B ratio maintains high in this biofabric usually <7:1. Linear and chaotic imbrications structure show dominance of sorting and transportation processes. The A-forms have been removed by transportation processes (figure 39). The distribution of this biofabric is greatest in the north where the thickness reaches 128 m in B4, 119 m in B3, and 82 m in B2. On the other hand, C7 and C3 showed thinner accumulations of 36 m in C7 and 45 in C3. The other wells are also characterized by thicknesses around 33 m in B8 and 8 m in B7. However, this biofabric is absent in B5. Primary porosity tends to be very high in this biofabric. This biofabric indicates high energy deposition in marginal bank environments or mid to outer shelf environments.

Bioclasts

B-forms

Figure 38 Allochthonous enriched with B- Figure 39 Allochthonous enriched with forms. Some bioclasts are associated with B-forms and grain supported facies. B- this facies. Grain supported fabric indicates form nummulites have been transported transportation and sorting of B-forms. and sorted. Orientation of B-forms Nummulite accumulation probably is an indicates linear imbrication structure. indication of shell bank environments. 59

3- Allochthonous Enriched Biofabric with A-form

This biofabric is characterized by the abundance of A-forms where B-forms were

removed by transportation, giving an A/B ratio from >7:1 to >10:1 (figure 51 to 52). This

biofabric is uncommon and is restricted to very few wells (C7, C3, B8, B4, and B2). The

thickness of this biofabric is greatest in C7 (15 m) and it is around 12 m in B2 and B4. In

addition, it is also observed in C3 and is very limited. The A-form enriched usually has a chaotic

imbrication (figure 40).

Enriched A-forms biofabric does not obtain high porosity due to high amount of matrix-

supported material and decrease in fossil content. The sorting of A-forms is common in back

bank facies or inner shelf depositional environments where tidal flat currents leave A-forms

behind and move B-forms through tidal channels (figure 41). A-forms are always dominated in

back-bank environments (Aigner, 1984).

B-form

A-form

Figure 40 Grainstone Allochthonous enriched Figure 41 Grainstone- Another example of A-form. A-forms always dominate over B- Allochthonous enriched A-form. forms in the back-bank environments. 60

3-3 Depositional Texture, Imbrication Structure, and Porosity Response

The relationship between imbrication structures and the porosity of the Jdeir Formation was represented in graphs to represent the influence of the described imbrications structures

(biofabrics) and porosity values recorded at different depths. Theses graphs showed that high porosity values were associated with Chaotic, linear, and edgewise contact imbrication. For example, in B2 the interval between 8400 ft to 8500 ft showed an increase in porosity where the most common imbrication structure is linear structure (figure 42). This is also common in well

B3 at depth 8230 ft to 8400 ft (figure 43). These common imbrications are mainly associated with grainstone facies that enriched with B-forms. In addition, other facies including no imbrication structures are common, which usually observe low porosity.

In addition, the highest porosity recorded 26 % at 8330 ft in the studied wells is associated with linear imbrication structure in well B4 (figure 44). This shows that high porosity values are mainly preserved in environments dominated by waves and storms. This can be observed in grainstone facies. On the other hand, low porosity values seem to be adhered to no imbrication structure where nummulites banks are limited as in B5 (figure 45) where currents common in depositional environments. Generally, the estimated porosity showed that is mainly influenced by the type of biofabrics. However, in well B7 (figure 46) curves do not show a good connection between porosity and imbrication structure due to lack of sampling. In the other wells, (figures

47, 48, and 49) porosity curves show good values within high energy imbricated structures mentioned earlier.

1.5 to 100ft

Figure 42 Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B2-NC41.

1.5 to 100ft

Figure 43 Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B3-NC41.

1.5 to 100ft

Figure 44 Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B4-NC41.

1.5 to 100ft

Figure 45 Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B5-NC41.

1.5 to 100ft

Figure 46 Depositional textures, imbrication structure and porosity responses-B7-NC41.

1.5 to 100ft

Figure 47 Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-B8-NC41.

1.5 to 100ft

Figure 48 Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity responses-C3-NC41.

1.5 to 100ft

Figure 49 Depositional textures, imbrication structure, and porosity response-C7-NC41.

3-4 A/B ratio and Depositional Model of the Jdeir Formation

Based on the study of the A/B ratio, the best model that would fit the depositional environments of the study area is a rimmed shelf model. Minas‘ chart (figure 50) illustrates some of the aspects of the interpretations. The previous observations (Mriheel and Ankketell, 2000) completely agree with the interpretation I have made. In addition, this interpretation is supported by the following observations, which seem to be compatible with the depositional model:

1- A transition from dolomitic mudstone to grainstone that form topographic thickness in the northern part of the study area to the south.

2- A/B ratios of <7:1 have showed that B-forms increase toward the NW and NE parts of the study area. A/B ratios indicated that A-forms were common in C7 and C3 and absent from B7,

B3, & B5. In addition, the thickness of B-forms biofabrics increases towards the north (figure

51A). This indicates that Nummulite banks are mainly concentrated in the northeast and west near wells B8, B3, B4, and B7. In addition, the imbrication structures have shown that linear and chaotic imbrication increased toward the NW and NE portions of the area. This suggests transportation and selective removal were more common, implying a mid to outer shelf environment (figure 51B).

3- The wave dominated features were common. Previous studies have inferred that an abundance of B forms is consistent with deposition in fore-bank or marginal environment because B-forms responses easily to waves which is more common in fore-bank environment

(figure 51C). In addition, reworking by waves is the main factor responsible for nummulite accumulations (Mriheel and Ankketell, 2000).

4- Nummulithoclasts biofabrics showed dominance in the north part and are decreases in the

South part of the study area. These biofabrics are common in B2, B3, B4, and it is limited in B7.

However, several authors have interpreted this facies as a ramp deposit because of the transition of facies from shallow to deep marine environments, which may be best fitted by ramp model (Loucks, et, al 1998).The rimmed shelf model is preferred because nummulite can create build ups to form barriers that may form lagoon environments dominated by A-forms. I therefore infer that C7 and C3 are wells in a back bank environment and B7, B3, & B5 are wells in a fore- bank environment.

Figure 50 A/B ratio`s scheme and depositional environment interpretation, modified from (Minas, 2010, personal communication).

8% 10% 45% 8% 21% 45% 30% 13% 42% 40% 6% 8% 58%

Legend: 27% 2% 30% 46% 30%= Linear Accumu. 15% 15%= Chaotic stacking 58%= No imbrications A Physical Processes and Fossil Assemblages of Jdeir Formation

A/B=1:8 A/B=7:8 A/B=3:1 A/B=2:7 A/B=6:5 A/B=1:4

A/B=3:1

B 3D Rimmed Carbonate Shelf - Depositional Model of Jdeir Formation

Shelf break

C Cross Section of the Depositional Model of Jdeir Formation-Rimmed Carbonate Shelf

Figure 51, A, B, &C Rimmed Shelf Carbonate Depositional model of Jdeir formation in the study area.

Chapter Four

4-1 Diagenesis of the Jdeir Formation

Diagenesis refers to a variety of different processes that influence depositional textures in rocks which include physical, chemical, and biological processes (Flugel, 2004). Understanding diagenesis is important due to its influence on many petrophysical properties of a reservoir

(Flugel, 2004). Six different processes were recognized in the Jdeir formation including: 1) dolomitization, 2) compaction, 3 micritization, 4) dissolution, 5) cementation, and 6) neomorphism. Figure 51 shows the percentage of these processes in the studied thin sections.

However, neomorphism does not present itself well in thin sections where these processes were observed.

The present study clarified 3 different types of cement (calcite, dolomite, and gypsum) and each point in a thin section was classified according to the type and generation of cement at the point, (matrix micrite, microspar, and calsisiltite) and then for each thin section these components were estimated as a percent. Additional descriptions of thin sections took into account the timing and type of porosity (primary and secondary), presence of diagenetic minerals

(glauconitic, clay, hematite, and pyrite), cement morphologies, matrix, and depositional texture.

The following is a detailed description of each diagenetic process observed in petrographic study in addition to examples show the impact of these processes on porosities of the Jdeir formation.

The diagenesis history will be explained in detail with a scheme shows the early and late processes further in this chapter.

Figure 52 Percentage of thin sections showing different diagenesis processes based on thin sections point counting estimation .

4-1-1 Micritization and Precipitation of Micrite

Micritization is the alteration of coarser grained calcite to micrite, usually during early diagenesis. Bathurst (1971), suggests that biological action may lead to generate a micritization of grain surfaces. Micritization (microbial) is common in nummulitic limestone of Jdeir formation (Figure 52) Micritization is mainly common in marine environments diagenesis and observed in areas where the seawater becomes less saturated with CaCo3. Mudstone facies associated with rich soluble materials in stylolite seams are common (figure 53 and 54). This usually happens in zones of mid-high latitudes which is the not the case in here. Thin sections showed Grainstone and packstone facies are altered by both micritization and deposition of micrite and it varies from to 52 % to 27.59 % in the studied wells. Generally, micritization is predominated in the upper part of the Jdeir formation (figures 55) where it is caused a destruction of the biofabric of the original texture in the formation.

On the other hand, the deposition of micrite is common as matrix in the depositional texture and this commonly occurred in wells C7, C3, B3, B2, and B4 (figure 56). Micrite is deposited in secondary pores in wells C3 at 8421 ft and B3 at 8094 ft. However, precipitation is limited in wells B7, B8, and B5. Filling the pores may cause a decrease in porosity and to a decrease in permeability. This is due to decreasing in rate flow of fluids between interconnected pores (Flugel, 2004).

Figure 53 Micritized limestone filling a Figure 54 Micritized limestone rich with stylolite. soluble materials.

Figure 55 Microstylolite and micritization of small fossil occurred in the early Stage of mechanical compaction.

Figure 56 Deposition of micrite cement as matrix. The precipitation of micrite believed to reduce overall porosity.

4-1-2 Dissolution

Carbonate sediments are dissolved by undersaturated solutions such as meteoric water

Tucker, (1981). Dissolution is common in the bottom and the upper part of the formation. Two types of carbonate minerals are replaced in carbonate dissolution aragonite (unstable phase) and calcite (high Mg and low Mg calcite). Replacement of aragonite with calcite is usually observed in mixing zone between fresh water and marine environments (Flugel, 2004). Dissolution in

Jdeir formation is significant and has created large secondary porosity (figure 57). This includes leaching which is common in grainstone facies producing vuggy porosity as in (figure 58 and

59). Different types of porosities are observed including selective and non selective porosity.

Selective porosity includes intercrystalline porosity (figure 60). Both porosities are associated with grainstone facies especially Allochthonous biofabrics. Dissolution varies in each well; it is high in B4 compared to other diagenesis processes but is limited in B5.

In the upper part of the Jdeir reservoir, dissolution is common within the bioclasts facies and pores are usually occluded by deposition of other minerals such as micrite and gypsum in later diagenesis processes. Precipitation of drusy calcite may occur occasionally and this may happen in phreatic environments or in the mixed zone after dissolution.

Figure 57 Shows vuggy porosity created Figure 58 Leaching has washed matrix by leaching of fluids in mudstone facies. components in the upper part where huge This secondary Generation of calcite affect of pore fluids cause interparticle created in later stages. porosity in grainstone facies. .

Figure 59 Nummulite tests have been affected by leaching in the upper part of the Jdeir formation.

Most dissolution occurs in the middle of the nummulite test. Dissolution has destroyed the

internal structure of the nummulite test. This produced intraparticle and fractures porosity. The

amount of dissolution may be influenced by flux amount of fluids in the formation in

meteoric environments above the water table.

Figure 60 Grain selective dissolved by solutions creating intercrystalline porosity. This associated with Bioclasts facies and this might not create connected pores due to heterogeneity of fossil remains that formed this fabric in the upper part of the Jdeir formation. 80

4-1-3 Compaction

Compaction in general leads to a reduction in initial porosity and that due to the decrease in bulk volume under pressure leading to produce a new depositional texture (Flugel, 2004). In this study two zones (upper and lower) of compaction were recognized within the Jdeir

Formation in wells B4 and C7. Generally, observations were supported by compacted texture which is common in facies and microfacies (figures 61, 62, and 63). Pressure solutions

(stylolites) are well seen, which represent evidence of mechanical and chemical processes in burial stage of the diagenetic history of Jdeir Formation (figures 64, 65, and 66). These features were common in grainstone and mudstone facies. In grainstone facies new depositional textures were represented by fitted fabrics and they occur in depths between 8443ft to 8466 ft in B2,

8342ft to 8495ft in B3, 8300ft to 8614ft in B4, 8573ft in B7, and 8312ft to 8403ft in B8. In this, facies features of pressure are easily observed due to distortion and breakout of nummulite tests.

However, some types of pressure solution such as small amplitude, nodule bounding stylolite and non sutured seams (figure 66) occurred in mudstone facies at the following depths

(8286ft, 8394ft, 8402ft, 8475ft, 8663ft, and 8664ft in B2), (8445ft, 8677ft, 8737ft, and 8752ft in

B3), (8521ft, 8557ft, 8561ft, 8597ft, and 8607ft in B5), (8227ft, 8512ft, 8518ft, 8612ft in B7),

(8487ft, 8545ft, 8960ft, 8976ft, and 880ft in C3) while these features are absent in B8 and C7.

Porosity has been affected largely by compaction for example, at depth 8612ft in B7 porosity equals to 3.22 % and at depth 8722ft in B4 porosity equals to 8.53ft. However, in some cases compaction may produce fracture porosity which occasionally appears in thin sections in the lower part of the formation (figure 70). This type of porosity is associated with grainstone facies.

Generally, fracture porosity does not have much influence on the porosity of the Jdeir Formation.

Figure 61 Shows compaction and stylolite. Figure 62 Fitted grainstone fabric. This is common in burial environment in the Compaction leads to crate fractures. early stage.

Figure 63 Closer packing of nummulite tests oriented and influenced by mechanical compaction in the early stage. Primary porosity is being filled with precipitation of spar calcite.

Figure 64 Chemical compaction shows Figure 65 Chemical compaction has created a large amplitude stylolite in late stage. large Amplitude Stylolite in mudstone facies pressure solutions according to Mriheel provide pathways for oil migration.

Figure 66 Nodule bounding stylolite occurs in limestone rich with insoluble material. compaction has destroyed the depositional fabric. Fluids escaped around nummulittic grains.

4-1-4 Dolomitization

Dolomite is pervasive in the mid-North of the area and it is common in B5 where it reaches up 16.67 % within mudstone facies Dolomite is also partially common in wells B3 and

C3 as nodules and as a cement. Generally, dolomitization is less common in the study wells compared with micritization and that is shown by the previous where dolomitization percentage is 0 %. Pervasive dolomitization is restricted in few parts of the reservoir, notably the base of the formation (figure 67). However, dolomite has also been precipitated as nodules in cores in B5,

C3 and B3.

Dolomitization is considerably less common in the nummulithoclast facies, which is in the upper part of Jdeir Formation, except in some cases such as in well B5-NC41 and it represents about 16.67 %. Dolomitization reaches its highest amount in the Jirani dolomite member at the bottom of Jdeir formation (Mriheel et.al, 2000). Mriheel identified two different facies anhydritic dolomite facies (figure 68) and non anhydritic facies. Precipitation of dolomite as cement is associated with other minerals such as gypsum and micrite (figure 69). Previous studies on Jdeir formation have also concluded that the dolomitization effect is limited in distribution The Precipitation of dolomite indicates deposition in shallow, near shore environments (Anketell and Mriheel, 2000).

-Anhydrite

Nodule

Figure 67 Dolomite and lime contact. Figure 68 Dolomite-Anhydrite facies Dolomite has been precipitated in mudstone precipitated in mudstone facies-Jirani facies. Precipitation of dolomite as cement is Member. very rare and it is suggested that may be deposited in back bank facies.

Figure 69 Dolomite is being precipitated as matrix in mudstone facies. Dolomite is mainly restricted in the study area and it is basically encountered in a B5. Dolomite is characterized by a fine crystals associated with micrite.

4-1-5 Precipitation of Calcite Spar Cement

Carbonate cementation processes are influenced by temperature and Ph concentrations.

Different carbonates minerals involved in cementation include aragonite and calcite (high Mg and Low Mg). The precipitation of spar cement reaches 27.59 % in well B7. It is most common in grainstone facies precipitated in both primary (figure 70) and secondary pores as a matrix and cement and it is less common in wackstone and mudstone facies. Calcite cement was precipitated mostly after the formation of secondary porosity and is commonly found in the bottom of the formation below the compaction zone where the formation was exposed to fresh water.

Deposition of calcite is commonly associated with precipitation of gypsum-anhydrite and dolomite (figure 71). Precipitation of both calcite and evaporate mineral suggests that the formation was partially affected by an influx of meteoric environments which usually happens in subaqeusoly shallow marine environments.

Several generations of calcite are found in the Jdeir Formation, both before and after formation of secondary porosity. The primary calcite was deposited as cement and sometimes it recrystallized as microcrystalline (micrite) from a nummulite test which originally generated the micrite. Blocky, Drusy, and microcryorstalyineine calcite morphologies were observed.

Fracture porosity

Figure 70 Micrite filling the primary and secondary pores of nummulite tests. This may reduce the porosity of the reservoir. However, fracture porosity may enhance the overall porosity later. Precipitation of cement has taken place after dissolution produced irregularity of secondary porous. Filling intraskeletal porous may occur in subtidal environments.

Figure 71 Precipitations of microspar and dolomite in mudstone facies occurred after dissolution.

4-2 Diagenesis History and Events of the Jdeir Formation

The Jdeir Formation underwent a complex diagenetic history during its post-depositional burial. Near surface diagenesis affected different parts of the formation. The basal Jdeir (Jirani member) underwent dolomitization including dolomitic limestone with anhydrite nodules and non anhydrite dolomite-dolomitic limestone (Mriheel and Ankketell, 1995). This event is inferred to have occurred near the surface because of the relative fall in sea-level in the early

Eocene. Also, the dolomitization is restricted to the basal formation and in B5. Mriheel and

Ankketell, (1995) have inferred that early dolomitization was related to hypresaline lagoons on restricted shallow platform.

The upper part of the Jdeir underwent leaching and dissolution. As this largely influenced the uppermost Jdeir, post depositional exposure and meteoric digenesis is inferred to be the source of the enhanced porosity (Mriheel and Anketell, 2000). Micritization and formation of micrite cements effected almost the entire formation and were the earliest cements deposited.

This is inferred to have formed syndepositionally in a shallow marine environment. The diagenesis processes of the Jdeir formation can be grouped into phases of early marine diagenesis, near-surface diagenesis, and burial diagenesis. The following is a paragenetic sequence of the Diagenetic history of the formation that shows the main processes related to the porosity (figure 72). A brief description of diagenesis environments is also provided with some examples.

And Migration

Figure 72 The paragenetic sequence of the Jdeir Formation.

4-2-1 Early Marine Diagenesis:

Micrite was precipitated as a matrix in few cases, especially in the top of the formation

(figure 73). In addition, minor amounts of micritic cement were precipitated in the pores of nummulite tests (figure 74). Subsequent recrystallization to microspar or minimicrite affected nummulite tests as well as the micrite cement. A second generation of early micrite filled irregular vugs that are only found in the upper part of the formation and are inferred to have formed through meteoric leaching. This contrasts with Louck‘s (1998) observations in the El

Garia Formation to the west, where no micrite cements were deposited, and early leaching and spar cementation were absent. This coincides with Bernasconi`s (1991) observations that leaching of bank tops significantly enhanced the reservoir quality of the Jdeir formation.

Micrite as cement

Figure 73 Precipitation of Micrite as a matrix in the secondary porosity. Nonselective pores were filled by micrite.

Micrite filling secondary pores

Figure 74 Precipitation of Micrite as a matrix in the secondary porosity. Nonselective pores were filled by micrite.

4-2-2 Early Meteoric Diagenesis (precipitation of calcite spar):

In the meteoric diagenesis the Jdeir formation was exposed to different potential processes including leaching, dissolution and cementation. With the subaerial exposure of the sequence, the rocks were subjected to meteoric water diagenesis, including massive dissolution influenced by fresh water that is supersaturated with CaCo3 and precipitation of two types of calcite cement that accumulated in the intra-skeletal pores of the Nummulites walls. Dissolution is a main feature in meteoric environments where fluids dissolve unstable phases of minerals such as aragonite. Dissolution is of great importance which enhances reservoir porosity by creating non selective secondary porosity. Progressive leaching and dissolution has produced non selective fabric porosity (figure 75) and later secondary porosity was filled by precipitation of calcite and micrite. At the top of the reservoir dissolution took place in all the wells accept B3 where it is limited. The observed dissolution mostly associated with grainstone-packstone facies and vuggy porosity-moldic is irregularly distributed within the formation.

Precipitation of cements is varied with this environment. The first type is the coarse calcite rims or circumgranular cements (figure 76), which was followed by precipitation of equant calcite cement as a complete infilling of the intraskeletal pores. Also in this stage the calcite crystals, which lined the large nummulite walls, were precipitated. Stabilization and recrystallization of the shell components began.

Dissolution created Non-Selective porosity

Figure 75 Dissolution in meteoric environments which is considered to be constructive process for secondary porosity. A second generation of equant calcite is partially. precipitated

Figure 76 Circumgranular calcite shows equidimensional crystals. This type of cement may indicate precipitation in meteoric environments. Pores were filled with water which was supersaturated with CaCo3. 93

4-2-3 Burial Diagenesis:

Burial processes are recognized within two different intervals of the Jdeir (figure 71).

This is represented by mechanical compaction resulting in the breakage of some nummulite shells (figure 77), and also recrystallization of some of the nummulite walls. Mechanical compaction also created fracture porosity through breakage of bioclasts. Loucks et al., (1998) noted that mechanical compaction was the most important factor in reducing porosity in the El

Garia Formation. However, in the Jdeir Formation chemical compaction through pressure solution of the grains seems to have more influence on porosity (figure 78).

Pressure solution creates two fabrics; indented and serrate grain boundaries, where individual grains are dissolving in contact with stylolites. Stylolites are serrate bands of pressure solution that observe a variety of seams and structures through the rock. The petrographic study has shown that two burial depths are represented in the formation at two different intervals with stylolites. Stylololites are pervasive in the Jdeir formation. However, they are more evident in the mudstone facies where they are obvious in core samples (Figure 64 and 65). Burial diagenesis is distributed within grainstone and mudstone facies. The modified facies includes fitted grainstone which is described earlier in this chapter. Fracture porosity is not well observed in the reservoir

Figure 77 Nummulite tests are being compacted as a response to mechanical compaction. matrix is almost absent and fractures begin to occur due to high pressure.

Figure 78 Mechanical compaction is common in the burial diagenesis of the Jdeir Formation. Compaction processes are believed to occur after marine diagenesis or meteoric diagenesis and reduce the initial high porosities. Reduction of bulk is a product of this environment.

4-2-3 Late Deep Leaching Diagenesis Stage (Second Stage of dissolution):

With the re-exposure of the beds to a freshwater lens, a few small irregular pores were formed, cutting the nummulite walls, and were filled by coarse crystalline blocky calcite and gypsum. This pore-filling cement postdated the formation of early meteoric intraskeletal equant calcite cement. Stabilization and recrystallization of the shell components probably occurred during this stage. The stage has occurred in the bottom of the Jdeir formation which suggests that the formation was partially exposed to a fresh water and flux of fluids because of leaching.

Leaching environments are a good place for dissolution due to the affect of diluted water which is undersaturated with CaCo3 (Tucker, 1989). In the late stage dissolution seems to affect the Formation around depths from ~ 8700 ft to ~ 8900 ft in some wells such as B4 (figure 79).

However, this is absent wells B7, B5, and B2 where the compaction and pressure solutions took place. Precipitation of gypsum as a matrix and calcite suggests that gypsum probably precipitated in subaqueous shallow environments. Non-selective porosity is common and is associated with precipitation of calcite cement (figure 80).

Dissolution creating porosity

Figure 79 Precipitation of equant calcite in late meteoric diagenesis which shows non selective fabric porosity reduced by precipitation of calcite in late processes. Facies have been modified by diagenesis in late meteoric environments.

Coarse calcite crystals

Porosity

Figure 80 Dissolution of skeletal grains in late meteoric environments creates non-selective porosity. Dissolution occurs above the phreatic zone.

Reservoir Quality

Both primary porosity and secondary porosity were recognized within the Jdeir

Formation. Primary porosity includes interparticle porosities and intraskeletal porosity within the nummulites tests. A high percentage of primary porosity is preserved within the tests, and was enhanced by early dissolution. Primary porosity is laterally extensive over the banks within the study area, especially in the NW of the area. Stratigraphic variations of porosity are influenced by the interbedded mudstone facies. The highest porosity is associated with grainstone-packstone facies and it varies between biofabrics. It is very high within the nummulithoclast and allochthonous enriched B-forms grainstone-packstone facies (GST-PST). This high porosity is influenced by transportation of nummulite tests, where a matrix was left behind during transportation and reworking. Grain fabric support is a major source for porosity in Jdeir formation with good porosities mainly occurring in the packstone-grainstone facies with linear and chaotic imbrication structures. According to Jorry, et al, (2003) good reservoir porosity can be generated by storm events. This supports that idea that good potential reservoirs may be located on banks on the top of paleo-highs as suggested by Bernasconi et al. (1991).

In addition, microporosity was encountered in the B-form nummulite tests. The average porosities estimated from the thin sections have an average range of 10.98 % to 17.21 % (table

2). Racey`s (1994) model was used to infer porosity and permeability based on the biofabrics

(figure 81). Assuming that the accumulations described in this study attain the same relationship between porosity and permeability, results showed that there were four types of accumulation that can be plotted on the model (nummulithoclast, allochthonous enriched B-forms GST-PST, allochthonous enriched A-forms GST-PST, and allochthonous enriched B-forms GST). The

contour map of porosity shows some consistentency with the other contour maps of the nummulite shape, size, and imbrication structures (figure 82A, B, and C).

Table 2 the average porosity of all the wells based on thin sections point counting Porosity Standard Well Number Longitude Latitude Averages % Deviation B2-NC41 12.57 33.93 14.38 5.04 B3-NC41 12.48 33.90 14.42 4.84 B4-NC41 12.65 33.92 16.39 4.48 B5-NC41 12.54 33.93 15.62 7.67 B7-NC41 12.71 33.92 10.98 4.88 B8-NC41 12.46 33.92 17.21 6.11 C3-NC41 12.62 33.74 15.82 3.83 C7-NC41 12.43 33.68 16.45 4.16

Table 2 shows a good relationship between the estimated porosity obtained from the point counting of thin sections and the porosity estimated from the death concentrations. In addition, figure 81 shows good permeability between 45-90 milli-Darcies. In addition, the secondary porosity is influenced by diagenesis, especially in well B5 where an extensive amount of dissolution was encountered in the upper part of the formation (nummulithoclast facies).

Common types of secondary porosities include vuggy porosity and moldic porosity. Different types of porosity have been recognized in previous studies including primary intra and inter porosity, in addition to microporosity represented by the internal structure of the nummulite tests

(Mriheel and Anketell, 1995).

Figure 81 Death assemblages and reservoir quality based on Racey`s model, (Racy, 1994). He examined the porosity and permeability of 200 samples for different nummulite accumulations and presented this model. This study used this model to infer an approximate porosity and permeability. The data has shown the

highest values recognized with the Jdeir Formation.

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Large Flat Small Flat Small Robust Legend Nummu. Nummu. Nummu. (A)Average Nummulites Size and Size

Chaotic Linear No Legend Stacking Accumu Imbrication (B) Imbrication types Distribution .

10.98% 16.39%

15.62% 14.38% 15.82% 17.21% 14.42%

16.45%

Figure 82 Nummulite shape, size, imbrication, and porosity distribution in study area. 101

Diagenetic Processes and Reservoir Quality

Understanding the diagenesis is critical in determining the reservoir quality and increasing future discoveries of oil. Dissolution on the grainstone-packstone in the upper part of the formation has the greatest impact on reservoir quality. Dolomitization has only affected a minor portion of the reservoir and also enhanced quality in the lower part of the formation, particularly in well B5. Dissolution had a significant effect on the upper part of the formation where leaching created vuggy porosity. Dissolution has been interpreted to have created vuggy porosity which is inferred to have developed on the distal side of the nummulitic reservoir

(Beavington-Penney et al., 2008).

Furthermore, digenesis processes may reduce the porosities and permeability and due to the non-uniform distribution of the diagenesis processes. Bernasconi, et al., (1991) suggested that in some cases the higher porosities may not be associated with high permeabilities. This agrees with the observation of this study where non selective porosity occurred. In addition, different types of porosities were observed in the formation with porosities reaching more than 25 % in some cases and permeabilities reaching up to 90 milli-Darcies.

However, others have presented different values for both porosity and permeability.

Loucks et al, (1998) had estimated that porosity in the coeval El Garia Formation may reach up to 35% and the permeability can reach up to 1 Darcy and as low as < 10 milli-Darcies, (Penny, et, al, 2008). However, these lower permeabilities are associated with compaction dominated diagenesis and a lower amount of secondary porosity (Loucks et al., 1998). Generally, interparticle, intraparticle, vuggy, and moldic porosity produce good overall porosity values.

Several studies (e.g. Bernasconi et al., 1991; Bishop et al. 1988; Bailey et al., 1989; Anketell and

Mriheel, 2000; Loucks et al., 1998; Reali et al., 2003) have identified different pore systems in 102 the El Garia formation (Jdeir Formation). Dissolution has affected both the bioclasts and the matrix and, according to Loucks et al. (1998), the primary porosity has shown that it was locally affected by dissolution. However, as suggested by Bernasconi (1991), early dissolution on paleotopographic highs seems to have enhanced both porosity and permeability in the Jdeir

Formation. This study, including the biofabrics and facies analysis suggests that paleotopographic highs in the Northeast and Northwest corners of the study area formed as nummulite banks and were exposed after deposition, resulting in meteoric dissolution. This finding concurs with the interpretations of Bernasconi et al. (1991).

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Future Discoveries

According to the depositional models presented in this study, nummulites accumulations, and porosity indicates that any future plans for oil discoveries in the drilling area should be in the

NW of the study area where grainstone-packstone may be encountered due to a possible lateral extension of mid-outer shelf facies of the paleo-high. In addition, a possible target would be the nummulite banks that had been enhanced. Investigation of their lateral extent is recommended where grainstone-packstone is encountered above the mudstone facies. Figure 83 shows a contour map for average porosities (primary and secondary) in the study area. The depositional model of this study suggests that grainstone-packstone is more likely to be encountered in the

NW part of the study area. The study also suggests that these areas of high topography and porosity are discontinuous and probably formed in a shelf-margin setting. Delineation of the margin trends and seismic recognition of the paleotopographic highs could contribute to enhanced recovery.

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Figure 83 Contour map of the average porosities in the study area Contour interval is 0.2 %.

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Discussion

The present study has shown that nummulitic banks are hydrodynamically controlled by the physical processes controlling the accumulation of the large foraminifera. For example, bulk densities range from 0.0305 (for living larger foramnifera) to 2.71 g/cm (for the fossilized larger foramnifera) and entrainment velocity varies from 18 to 34 cm/sec for the A-form type (2-7 mm). On the other hand, nummulites with diameters of (20-35mm) B-form have entrainment velocities of 31-77 cm/sec (Racy, 2001).

Study of biofabrics identified the main types of accumulations that affect the porosity and permeability of the reservoir. The A/B ratio was applied successfully as a tool to predict a depositional model and clearly helped delineate the architecture of the facies encountered in the

Jdeir formation. The A/B ratio showed huge influence by physical processes and that has provided a very good source for predicting depositional environments based on A/B ratios. In addition A/B ratios provided insight into predicting the lateral extension of different facies. This can be done by evaluating the nummulite banks and the distribution of nummulites based on size and shape. However, a complete understanding of the physical processes that lead to the observed imbrication structures remains elusive.

This study has identified two nummulite banks in the NE and NW of the study area. The rimmed shelf model agrees with the previous study of the Jdeir formation by Mriheel and

Ankketell (2000). However, this study has shown that actual study and examination for nummulite forms can be used with confidence to understand depositional environments according to the change in A/B ratios. In addition, this study has applied biofabrics and compared them to a general model that was presented by Racey (1994).

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112

Appendix

113

Nummulite Classification-B2-NC41

Measurements Nummulite Classification No. W axis Th axis A- B- depth W/Th LFN SFN SRN LRN (cm) (cm) form form 1 1.8 0.48 8133 3.75 1 0 1

2 2.04 0.27 8133 7.56 1 0 1

3 2.28 0.57 8133 4.00 1 0 1

4 2.1 0.31 8133 6.77 1 0 1

5 1.53 0.4 8133 3.83 1 0 1

6 1.72 0.38 8133 4.53 1 0 1

7 1.49 0.25 8133 5.96 1 0 1

8 1.46 0.53 8133 2.75 1 0 1

9 1.8 0.38 8133 4.74 1 0 1

10 1.27 0.36 8133 3.53 1 0 1

11 2.1 0.32 8133 6.56 1 0 1

12 1.28 0.22 8133 5.82 1 0 1

13 1.4 0.33 8133 4.24 1 0 1

14 1.93 0.28 8133 6.89 1 0 1

15 1.59 0.25 8133 6.36 1 0 1

16 1.7 0.34 8133 5.00 1 0 1

17 1.45 0.32 8133 4.53 1 0 1

18 0.84 0.34 8164 2.47 1 1 0

19 0.83 0.34 8164 2.44 1 1 0

20 1.05 0.35 8164 3.00 1 0 1

21 2.46 0.3 8164 8.20 1 0 1

22 0.96 0.32 8164 3.00 1 1 0

23 0.69 0.13 8164 5.31 1 1 0

24 0.35 0.15 8164 2.33 1 1 0

25 0.47 0.21 8164 2.24 1 1 0

26 1.15 0.25 8164 4.60 1 0 1

27 0.33 0.15 8164 2.20 1 1 0

28 0.85 0.24 8164 3.54 1 1 0

29 0.23 0.14 8164 1.64 1 1 0

30 0.28 0.18 8164 1.56 1 1 0 sum 20 8 2 0 10 20

114

31 0.3 0.25 8191 1.20 1 1 0

32 0.3 0.4 8191 0.75 1 1 0

33 0.44 0.4 8191 1.10 1 1 0

34 0.49 0.27 8191 1.81 1 1 0

35 0.5 0.26 8191 1.92 1 1 0

36 0.29 0.22 8191 1.32 1 1 0

37 0.34 0.13 8191 2.62 1 1 0

38 0.36 0.16 8191 2.25 1 1 0

39 0.32 0.21 8191 1.52 1 1 0

40 0.38 0.12 8191 3.17 1 1 0

41 0.46 0.28 8191 1.64 1 1 0

42 0.45 0.21 8191 2.14 1 1 0

43 0.28 0.16 8191 1.75 1 1 0

44 0.39 0.21 8191 1.86 1 1 0

45 0.24 0.17 8191 1.41 1 1 0

46 0.22 0.25 8191 0.88 1 1 0

47 0.35 0.15 8191 2.33 1 1 0

48 0.36 0.14 8191 2.57 1 1 0

49 0.28 0.18 8191 1.56 1 1 0

50 0.31 0.15 8191 2.07 1 1 0

51 0.28 0.15 8191 1.87 1 1 0

52 0.59 0.19 8191 3.11 1 1 0

53 0.4 0.14 8191 2.86 1 1 0

54 0.32 0.16 8191 2.00 1 1 0

55 0.4 0.13 8191 3.08 1 1 0

56 0.34 0.22 8191 1.55 1 1 0

57 0.23 0.16 8191 1.44 1 1 0

58 0.29 0.12 8191 2.42 1 1 0

59 0.25 0.14 8191 1.79 1 1 0

60 0.31 0.12 8191 2.58 1 1 0 sum 13 17 30 0

115

61 0.81 0.3 8232 2.70 1 1 0

62 0.72 0.25 8232 2.88 1 1 0

63 0.71 0.23 8232 3.09 1 1 0

64 0.91 0.54 8232 1.69 1 1 0

65 0.82 0.29 8232 2.83 1 1 0

66 0.54 0.4 8232 1.35 1 1 0

67 0.69 0.29 8232 2.38 1 1 0

68 0.63 0.29 8232 2.17 1 1 0

69 0.71 0.35 8232 2.03 1 1 0

70 0.59 0.19 8232 3.11 1 1 0

71 0.55 0.19 8232 2.89 1 1 0

72 0.47 0.42 8232 1.12 1 1 0

73 0.45 0.25 8232 1.80 1 1 0

74 0.47 0.23 8232 2.04 1 1 0

75 0.23 0.1 8232 2.30 1 1 0

76 0.31 0.12 8232 2.58 1 1 0

77 0.2 0.15 8232 1.33 1 1 0

78 0.25 0.2 8232 1.25 1 1 0

79 0.31 0.14 8232 2.21 1 1 0

80 0.24 0.17 8232 1.41 1 1 0

81 0.29 0.15 8232 1.93 1 1 0

82 0.24 0.15 8232 1.60 1 1 0

83 0.26 0.12 8232 2.17 1 1 0

84 0.31 0.17 8232 1.82 1 1 0

85 0.22 0.12 8232 1.83 1 1 0

86 0.28 0.11 8232 2.55 1 1 0

87 0.23 0.09 8232 2.56 1 1 0

88 0.24 0.12 8232 2.00 1 1 0

89 0.22 0.09 8232 2.44 1 1 0

90 0.18 0.1 8232 1.80 1 1 0 sum 18 12 30 0

116

91 0.72 0.17 8443 4.24 1 1 0

92 1.03 0.16 8443 6.44 1 0 1

93 1.57 0.24 8443 6.54 1 0 1

94 1.11 0.21 8443 5.29 1 0 1

95 0.74 0.18 8443 4.11 1 1 0

96 0.83 0.23 8443 3.61 1 1 0

97 0.79 0.2 8443 3.95 1 1 0

98 1.17 0.21 8443 5.57 1 0 1

99 0.94 0.19 8443 4.95 1 1 0

100 2.3 0.37 8443 6.22 1 0 1

101 0.77 0.18 8443 4.28 1 1 0

102 0.71 0.11 8443 6.45 1 1 0

103 1.1 0.14 8443 7.86 1 0 1

104 0.76 0.17 8443 4.47 1 1 0

105 0.46 0.11 8443 4.18 1 1 0

106 0.73 0.15 8443 4.87 1 1 0

107 1.34 0.27 8443 4.96 1 0 1

108 0.72 0.17 8443 4.24 1 1 0

109 0.61 0.17 8443 3.59 1 1 0

110 0.92 0.2 8443 4.60 1 1 0

111 0.67 0.22 8443 3.05 1 1 0

112 1.11 0.18 8443 6.17 1 0 1

113 0.96 0.17 8443 5.65 1 1 0

114 0.78 0.33 8443 2.36 1 1 0

115 0.48 0.17 8443 2.82 1 1 0

116 1.02 0.28 8443 3.64 1 0 1

117 0.99 0.24 8443 4.13 1 1 0

118 0.68 0.31 8443 2.19 1 1 0

119 0.84 0.19 8443 4.42 1 1 0

120 0.69 0.26 8443 2.65 1 1 0 sum 9 21 21 9

117

Nummulite Classification-B3NC41

Measurements Nummultie Classification No. W axis (cm) Th axis (cm) depth W/Th LFN SFN SRN LRN A-form B-form 1 2.65 0.38 8099 6.97 1 0 1

2 2.93 0.36 8099 8.14 1 0 1

3 1.87 0.29 8099 6.45 1 0 1

4 1.82 0.21 8099 8.67 1 0 1

5 1.99 0.32 8099 6.22 1 0 1

6 1.71 0.42 8099 4.07 1 0 1

7 2.85 0.23 8099 12.39 1 0 1

8 2.17 0.3 8099 7.23 1 0 1

9 2.23 0.35 8099 6.37 1 0 1

10 2.13 0.36 8099 5.92 1 0 1

11 1.3 0.46 8099 2.83 1 0 1

12 1.75 0.29 8099 6.03 1 0 1

13 1.87 0.31 8099 6.03 1 0 1

14 2.28 0.24 8099 9.50 1 0 1

15 1.27 0.31 8099 4.10 1 0 1

16 1.43 0.47 8099 3.04 1 0 1

17 1.78 0.48 8099 3.71 1 0 1

18 1.2 0.38 8099 3.16 1 0 1

19 2.03 0.17 8099 11.94 1 0 1

20 0.85 0.54 8099 1.57 1 1

21 1.32 0.33 8099 4.00 1 0 1

22 1.6 0.32 8099 5.00 1 0 1

23 1.44 0.18 8099 8.00 1 0 1

24 2.12 0.41 8099 5.17 1 0 1

25 2 0.28 8099 7.14 1 0 1

26 0.49 0.35 8099 1.40 1 1 0

27 0.82 0.47 8099 1.74 1 1 0

28 0.8 0.38 8099 2.11 1 1 0

29 1.5 0.22 8099 6.82 1 0 1

30 2.69 1.1 8099 2.45 1 0 1

Sum 4 26

118

31 1.33 0.15 8121 8.87 1 0 1

32 1.1 0.22 8121 5.00 1 0 1

33 2.32 0.44 8121 5.27 1 0 1

34 2.15 0.26 8121 8.27 1 0 1

35 0.8 0.3 8121 2.67 1 1 0

36 2.24 0.31 8121 7.23 1 0 1

37 1.07 0.26 8121 4.12 1 0 1

38 0.83 0.28 8121 2.96 1 1 0

39 0.89 0.46 8121 1.93 1 1

40 1.32 0.25 8121 5.28 1 0 1

41 1.25 0.21 8121 5.95 1 0 1

42 1.39 0.22 8121 6.32 1 0 1

43 1.11 0.22 8121 5.05 1 0 1

44 0.72 0.4 8121 1.80 1 1 0

45 0.77 0.22 8121 3.50 1 1 0

46 0.93 0.35 8121 2.66 1 1 0

47 1.12 0.34 8121 3.29 1 0 1

48 1.77 0.22 8121 8.05 1 0 1

49 0.98 0.31 8121 3.16 1 1 0

50 0.81 0.29 8121 2.79 1 1 0

51 0.74 0.26 8121 2.85 1 1 0

52 0.66 0.4 8121 1.65 1 1 0

53 0.62 0.23 8121 2.70 1 1 0

54 0.83 0.21 8121 3.95 1 1 0

55 0.52 0.48 8121 1.08 1 1 0

56 1.22 0.28 8121 4.36 1 0 1

57 0.72 0.28 8121 2.57 1 1 0

58 0.6 0.21 8121 2.86 1 1 0

59 1 0.34 8121 2.94 1 0 1

60 0.7 0.36 8121 1.94 1 1 0

Sum 16 14

119

61 1.92 0.16 8171 12.00 1 0 1

62 1.51 0.23 8171 6.57 1 0 1

63 1.59 0.33 8171 4.82 1 0 1

64 1.36 0.2 8171 6.80 1 0 1

65 1.44 0.26 8171 5.54 1 0 1

66 2.42 0.93 8193 2.60 1 0 1

67 2 0.77 8193 2.60 1 0 1

68 2.4 0.63 8193 3.81 1 0 1

69 2.15 0.64 8193 3.36 1 0 1

70 2.06 0.36 8193 5.72 1 0 1

71 1.73 0.55 8193 3.15 1 0 1

72 1.69 0.41 8193 4.12 1 0 1

73 2.36 0.75 8193 3.15 1 0 1

74 1.81 0.43 8193 4.21 1 0 1

75 1.65 0.49 8193 3.37 1 0 1

76 1.75 0.63 8193 2.78 1 0 1

77 1.44 0.58 8193 2.48 1 0 1

78 2.33 0.61 8193 3.82 1 0 1

79 2.43 1.09 8198 2.23 1 0 1

80 2.62 1.1 8198 2.38 1 0 1

81 2.69 0.99 8198 2.72 1 0 1

82 2.65 0.65 8198 4.08 1 0 1

83 2.24 0.67 8198 3.34 1 0 1

84 1.9 0.78 8198 2.44 1 0 1

85 1.79 0.63 8198 2.84 1 0 1

86 1.63 0.52 8202 3.13 1 0 1

87 2.17 0.68 8202 3.19 1 0 1

88 1.43 0.53 8202 2.70 1 0 1

89 2.73 0.99 8209 2.76 1 0 1

90 2.75 1.19 8209 2.31 1 0 1

Sum 0 30

120

91 1.46 0.81 8230 1.80 1 0 1

92 2.19 1.1 8230 1.99 1 0 1

93 2.44 0.78 8230 3.13 1 0 1

94 2.38 0.84 8230 2.83 1 0 1

95 2.21 0.75 8230 2.95 1 0 1

96 1.9 0.92 8230 2.07 1 0 1

97 2.03 0.85 8230 2.39 1 0 1

98 1.47 0.86 8230 1.71 1 0 1

99 2.06 0.73 8230 2.82 1 0 1

100 1.96 0.4 8230 4.90 1 0 1

101 1.84 0.42 8230 4.38 1 0 1

102 1.85 0.39 8230 4.74 1 0 1

103 1.91 0.34 8230 5.62 1 0 1

104 1.8 0.49 8230 3.67 1 0 1

105 1.2 0.63 8230 1.90 1 0 1

106 1.27 0.31 8230 4.10 1 0 1

107 1.71 0.41 8230 4.17 1 0 1

108 1.32 0.51 8230 2.59 1 0 1

109 0.98 0.36 8230 2.72 1 1 0

110 1.35 0.49 8230 2.76 1 0 1

111 1.52 0.32 8230 4.75 1 0 1

112 1.91 0.85 8230 2.25 1 0 1

113 0.87 0.27 8230 3.22 1 1 0

114 1.6 0.73 8230 2.19 1 0 1

115 1.69 0.68 8230 2.49 1 0 1

116 1.88 0.64 8230 2.94 1 0 1

117 1.74 0.35 8230 4.97 1 0 1

118 1.96 0.64 8230 3.06 1 0 1

119 1.68 0.56 8230 3.00 1 0 1

120 1.49 0.57 8230 2.61 1 0 1

Sum 2 28

121

121 2.55 0.84 8346 3.04 1 0 1

122 1.7 0.45 8346 3.78 1 0 1

123 1.61 0.6 8346 2.68 1 0 1

124 1.53 0.44 8346 3.48 1 0 1

125 1.43 0.39 8346 3.67 1 0 1

126 1.46 0.48 8346 3.04 1 0 1

127 1.29 0.34 8346 3.79 1 0 1

128 1.72 0.44 8346 3.91 1 0 1

129 1.6 0.4 8346 4.00 1 0 1

130 1.24 0.38 8346 3.26 1 0 1

131 1.64 0.74 8352 2.22 1 0 1

132 2.54 0.77 8352 3.30 1 0 1

133 1.9 0.63 8352 3.02 1 0 1

134 1.81 0.49 8352 3.69 1 0 1

135 2.44 0.71 8352 3.44 1 0 1

136 1.9 0.44 8352 4.32 1 0 1

137 2.37 0.93 8352 2.55 1 0 1

138 1.49 0.4 8352 3.73 1 0 1

139 1.92 0.39 8352 4.92 1 0 1

140 2.13 0.63 8352 3.38 1 0 1

141 2.02 0.71 8352 2.85 1 0 1

142 2.2 0.64 8352 3.44 1 0 1

143 2.11 0.88 8381 2.40 1 0 1

144 1.64 0.53 8381 3.09 1 0 1

145 2.58 0.47 8381 5.49 1 0 1

146 1.28 0.51 8381 2.51 1 0 1

147 2 0.54 8389 3.70 1 0 1

148 1.81 0.79 8389 2.29 1 0 1

149 0.99 0.57 8389 1.74 1 1 0

150 2.09 0.5 8389 4.18 1 0 1

Sum 1 29

122

151 2.22 0.87 8415 2.55 1 0 1

152 1.34 0.31 8415 4.32 1 0 1

153 1.28 0.52 8415 2.46 1 0 1

154 1.6 0.42 8415 3.81 1 0 1

155 1.39 0.76 8415 1.83 1 0 1

156 1.29 0.62 8415 2.08 1 0 1

157 1.1 0.46 8424 2.39 1 0 1

158 1.14 0.62 8424 1.84 1 0 1

159 0.85 0.6 8424 1.42 1 1 0

160 2.41 0.49 8433 4.92 1 0 1

161 1.4 0.47 8433 2.98 1 0 1

162 2.37 0.47 8433 5.04 1 0 1

163 1.5 0.48 8433 3.13 1 0 1

164 1.98 0.41 8433 4.83 1 0 1

165 2.7 0.43 8433 6.28 1 0 1

166 1.67 0.49 8433 3.41 1 0 1

167 1.11 0.38 8433 2.92 1 0 1

168 1.11 0.68 8433 1.63 1 0 1

169 1.59 0.39 8433 4.08 1 0 1

170 1.21 0.37 8433 3.27 1 0 1

171 1.94 0.36 8433 5.39 1 0 1

172 1.71 0.36 8433 4.75 1 0 1

173 1.61 0.37 8433 4.35 1 0 1

174 0.77 0.38 8433 2.03 1 1 0

175 1.46 0.39 8433 3.74 1 0 1

176 2.19 0.5 8433 4.38 1 0 1

177 1.52 0.43 8433 3.53 1 0 1

178 1.34 0.23 8433 5.83 1 0 1

179 1.25 0.37 8433 3.38 1 0 1

180 0.93 0.48 8433 1.94 1 1 0

Sum 3 27

123

181 0.59 0.32 8490 1.84 1 1 0

182 0.96 0.35 8490 2.74 1 1 0

183 0.32 0.19 8490 1.68 1 1 0

184 0.45 0.26 8490 1.73 1 1 0

185 0.32 0.16 8490 2.00 1 1 0

186 0.58 0.12 8490 4.83 1 1 0

187 0.31 0.18 8490 1.72 1 1 0

188 0.52 0.29 8490 1.79 1 1 0

189 0.41 0.14 8490 2.93 1 1 0

190 0.48 0.17 8490 2.82 1 1 0

191 0.57 0.21 8490 2.71 1 1 0

192 0.45 0.25 8490 1.80 1 1 0

193 0.35 0.19 8490 1.84 1 1 0

194 0.47 0.22 8490 2.14 1 1 0

195 0.39 0.25 8490 1.56 1 1 0

196 0.42 0.17 8490 2.47 1 1 0

197 0.4 0.21 8490 1.90 1 1 0

198 0.44 0.17 8490 2.59 1 1 0

199 0.36 0.2 8490 1.80 1 1 0

200 0.66 0.2 8490 3.30 1 1 0

201 0.27 0.16 8490 1.69 1 1 0

202 0.35 0.15 8490 2.33 1 1 0

203 0.43 0.17 8490 2.53 1 1 0

204 0.4 0.19 8490 2.11 1 1 0

205 0.33 0.21 8490 1.57 1 1 0

206 0.36 0.24 8490 1.50 1 1 0

207 0.59 0.22 8490 2.68 1 1 0

208 0.37 0.2 8490 1.85 1 1 0

209 0.38 0.16 8490 2.38 1 1 0

210 0.41 0.14 8490 2.93 1 1 0

Sum 30 0

124

Nummulite Classification-B4NC41

Measurements Nummultie Classification No. W axis (cm) Th axis (cm) depth W/Th LFN SFN SRN LRN A-form B-form 1 2.55 0.8 8142 3.19 1 0 1

2 2.73 0.37 8142 7.38 1 0 1

3 2.32 0.38 8142 6.11 1 0 1

4 1.83 0.37 8142 4.95 1 0 1

5 1.78 0.4 8142 4.45 1 0 1

6 1.7 0.37 8142 4.59 1 0 1

7 1.33 0.33 8142 4.03 1 0 1

8 2.26 0.33 8142 6.85 1 0 1

9 1.34 0.4 8142 3.35 1 0 1

10 1.88 0.26 8142 7.23 1 0 1

11 2.84 0.58 8142 4.90 1 0 1

12 1.12 0.48 8142 2.33 1 0 1

13 2.11 0.53 8142 3.98 1 0 1

14 0.43 0.13 8142 3.31 1 1 0

15 0.59 0.35 8142 1.69 1 1 0

16 0.53 0.1 8142 5.30 1 1 0

17 1.71 0.28 8144 6.11 1 0 1

18 1.31 0.26 8144 5.04 1 0 1

19 1.14 0.53 8144 2.15 1 0 1

20 1.16 0.66 8144 1.76 1 0 1

21 1.53 0.36 8144 4.25 1 0 1

22 1.51 0.46 8144 3.28 1 0 1

23 1.87 0.28 8144 6.68 1 0 1

24 0.52 0.2 8144 2.60 1 1 0

25 1.74 0.23 8144 7.57 1 0 1

26 0.46 0.16 8144 2.88 1 1 0

27 0.51 0.16 8144 3.19 1 1 0

28 0.58 0.22 8144 2.64 1 1 0

29 1.64 0.25 8144 6.56 1 0 1

30 0.54 0.18 8144 3.00 1 1 0

Sum 8 22

125

31 0.58 0.31 8153 1.87 1 1 0

32 0.72 0.26 8153 2.77 1 1 0

33 0.62 0.29 8153 2.14 1 1 0

34 0.63 0.34 8153 1.85 1 1 0

35 0.56 0.39 8153 1.44 1 1 0

36 0.58 0.4 8153 1.45 1 1 0

37 0.72 0.28 8153 2.57 1 1 0

38 0.66 0.3 8153 2.20 1 1 0

39 0.48 0.36 8153 1.33 1 1 0

40 0.52 0.24 8153 2.17 1 1 0

41 0.58 0.21 8153 2.76 1 1 0

42 0.73 0.23 8153 3.17 1 1 0

43 0.4 0.26 8153 1.54 1 1 0

44 0.58 0.31 8153 1.87 1 1 0

45 0.47 0.33 8153 1.42 1 1 0

46 0.63 0.22 8153 2.86 1 1 0

47 0.6 0.26 8153 2.31 1 1 0

48 0.4 0.34 8153 1.18 1 1 0

49 0.78 0.26 8153 3.00 1 1 0

50 0.53 0.33 8153 1.61 1 1 0

51 0.35 0.2 8153 1.75 1 1 0

52 1.34 0.24 8153 5.58 1 0 1

53 0.36 0.12 8153 3.00 1 1 0

54 0.41 0.17 8153 2.41 1 1 0

55 0.33 0.18 8153 1.83 1 1 0

56 0.28 0.19 8153 1.47 1 1 0

57 0.26 0.14 8153 1.86 1 1 0

58 0.2 0.12 8153 1.67 1 1 0

59 0.27 0.16 8153 1.69 1 1 0

60 0.31 0.11 8153 2.82 1 1 0

Sum 29 1

126

61 1.36 0.37 8182 3.68 1 0 1

62 1.4 0.21 8182 6.67 1 0 1

63 1.25 0.2 8182 6.25 1 0 1

64 1.82 0.29 8182 6.28 1 0 1

65 1.08 0.25 8182 4.32 1 0 1

66 2.09 0.35 8182 5.97 1 0 1

67 1.07 0.24 8182 4.46 1 0 1

68 1.07 0.2 8182 5.35 1 0 1

69 1.31 0.21 8182 6.24 1 0 1

70 1.87 0.15 8182 12.47 1 0 1

71 0.44 0.16 8182 2.75 1 1 0

72 0.47 0.14 8182 3.36 1 1 0

73 0.38 0.1 8182 3.80 1 1 0

74 0.35 0.16 8182 2.19 1 1 0

75 0.28 0.15 8182 1.87 1 1 0

76 0.31 0.1 8182 3.10 1 1 0

77 0.39 0.13 8182 3.00 1 1 0

78 0.29 0.17 8182 1.71 1 1 0

79 1.19 0.35 8182 3.40 1 0 1

80 1.83 0.3 8182 6.10 1 0 1

81 1.57 0.21 8182 7.48 1 0 1

82 0.87 0.18 8182 4.83 1 1 0

83 0.58 0.09 8182 6.44 1 1 0

84 0.3 0.12 8182 2.50 1 1 0

85 0.87 0.13 8182 6.69 1 1 0

86 0.72 0.96 8182 0.75 1 1 0

87 1.01 0.21 8182 4.81 1 0 1

88 0.32 0.11 8182 2.91 1 1 0

89 0.33 0.11 8182 3.00 1 1 0

90 0.4 0.12 8182 3.33 1 1 0

Sum 16 14

127

91 1.69 0.39 8223 4.33 1 0 1

92 1.87 0.4 8223 4.68 1 0 1

93 1.75 0.3 8223 5.83 1 0 1

94 1.43 0.31 8223 4.61 1 0 1

95 1.95 0.28 8223 6.96 1 0 1

96 1.74 0.22 8223 7.91 1 0 1

97 1.78 0.28 8223 6.36 1 0 1

98 1.03 0.15 8223 6.87 1 0 1

99 1.16 0.2 8223 5.80 1 0 1

100 1.86 0.27 8223 6.89 1 0 1

101 0.66 0.13 8223 5.08 1 1 0

102 0.54 0.27 8223 2.00 1 1 0

103 1.46 0.22 8223 6.64 1 0 1

104 1.28 0.16 8223 8.00 1 0 1

105 0.52 0.19 8223 2.74 1 1 0

106 0.88 0.27 8223 3.26 1 1 0

107 2.44 0.31 8223 7.87 1 0 1

108 1.07 0.25 8223 4.28 1 0 1

109 0.72 0.18 8223 4.00 1 1 0

110 1.87 0.22 8227 8.50 1 0 1

111 1.05 0.25 8227 4.20 1 0 1

112 0.8 0.15 8227 5.33 1 1 0

113 1.05 0.19 8227 5.53 1 0 1

114 1.15 0.12 8227 9.58 1 0 1

115 1.64 0.37 8227 4.43 1 0 1

116 1.05 0.2 8227 5.25 1 0 1

117 1.32 0.23 8227 5.74 1 0 1

118 0.47 0.2 8227 2.35 1 1 0

119 0.42 0.17 8227 2.47 1 1 0

120 0.38 0.27 8227 1.41 1 1 0

Sum 9 11

128

121 0.36 0.18 8230 2.00 1 1 0

122 0.39 0.15 8230 2.60 1 1 0

123 0.23 0.13 8230 1.77 1 1 0

124 0.37 0.17 8230 2.18 1 1 0

125 0.33 0.12 8230 2.75 1 1 0

126 0.32 0.19 8230 1.68 1 1 0

127 0.26 0.13 8230 2.00 1 1 0

128 0.3 0.1 8230 3.00 1 1 0

129 0.35 0.11 8230 3.18 1 1 0

130 0.3 0.18 8230 1.67 1 1 0

131 0.29 0.13 8230 2.23 1 1 0

132 0.24 0.11 8230 2.18 1 1 0

133 0.25 0.14 8230 1.79 1 1 0

134 0.26 0.3 8230 0.87 1 1 0

135 0.25 0.15 8230 1.67 1 1 0

136 0.2 0.1 8230 2.00 1 1 0

137 0.87 0.2 8247 4.35 1 1 0

138 0.41 0.2 8247 2.05 1 1 0

139 0.4 0.17 8247 2.35 1 1 0

140 0.6 0.18 8247 3.33 1 1 0

141 0.8 0.26 8247 3.08 1 1 0

142 0.71 0.34 8247 2.09 1 1 0

143 0.73 0.2 8247 3.65 1 1 0

144 0.42 0.16 8247 2.63 1 1 0

145 0.59 0.26 8247 2.27 1 1 0

146 0.5 0.32 8247 1.56 1 1 0

147 0.43 0.19 8247 2.26 1 1 0

148 0.55 0.21 8247 2.62 1 1 0

149 0.45 0.17 8247 2.65 1 1 0

150 0.3 0.18 1.67 1 1 0

Sum 30 0

129

151 0.94 0.32 8270 2.94 1 1 0

152 1.29 0.33 8270 3.91 1 0 1

153 0.37 0.18 8270 2.06 1 1 0

154 0.39 0.18 8270 2.17 1 1 0

155 0.41 0.22 8270 1.86 1 1 0

156 0.36 0.16 8270 2.25 1 0

157 0.34 0.15 8270 2.27 1 1 0

158 0.28 0.13 8270 2.15 1 1 0

159 0.41 0.13 8270 3.15 1 1 0

160 0.31 0.12 8270 2.58 1 1 0

161 0.24 0.14 8270 1.71 1 1 0

162 0.38 0.11 8270 3.45 1 1 0

163 0.43 0.16 8270 2.69 1 1 0

164 0.23 0.13 8270 1.77 1 1 0

165 0.24 0.15 8270 1.60 1 1 0

166 0.23 0.11 8270 2.09 1 1 0

167 0.31 0.13 8270 2.38 1 1 0

168 0.16 0.13 8270 1.23 1 1 0

169 0.27 0.14 8270 1.93 1 1 0

170 0.18 0.16 8270 1.13 1 1 0

171 0.3 0.11 8270 2.73 1 1 0

172 0.15 0.07 8270 2.14 1 1 0

173 0.16 0.1 8270 1.60 1 1 0

174 2 0.43 8270 4.65 1 0 1

175 0.67 0.27 8270 2.48 1 1 0

176 0.79 0.29 8270 2.72 1 1 0

177 1.8 0.48 8270 3.75 1 0 1

178 0.59 0.3 8270 1.97 1 1 0

179 2.41 0.47 8270 5.13 1 0 1

180 0.39 0.23 8270 1.70 1 1 0

Sum 26 4

130

181 1.71 1.29 8296 1.33 1 0 1

182 1.72 0.58 8296 2.97 1 0 1

183 1.56 0.95 8296 1.64 1 0 1

184 0.96 0.39 8296 2.46 1 1 0

185 1.64 0.2 8296 8.20 1 0 1

186 1.21 0.18 8296 6.72 1 0 1

187 1.33 0.25 8296 5.32 1 0 1

188 1.02 0.34 8296 3.00 1 0 1

189 1.31 0.25 8296 5.24 1 0 1

190 1.07 0.27 8296 3.96 1 0 1

191 0.97 0.27 8296 3.59 1 1 0

192 1.03 0.31 8296 3.32 1 0 1

193 1.21 0.19 8296 6.37 1 0 1

194 1.07 0.21 8296 5.10 1 0 1

195 0.42 0.18 8296 2.33 1 1 0

196 1.41 0.28 8296 5.04 1 0 1

197 1.36 0.45 8300 3.02 1 0 1

198 1.47 0.49 8300 3.00 1 0 1

199 1.24 0.43 8300 2.88 1 0 1

200 0.94 0.38 8300 2.47 1 1 0

201 1.21 0.34 8300 3.56 1 0 1

202 1.53 0.48 8300 3.19 1 0 1

203 1.68 0.41 8300 4.10 1 0 1

204 1.5 0.42 8300 3.57 1 0 1

205 1.38 0.52 8309 2.65 1 0 1

206 1.39 0.46 8309 3.02 1 0 1

207 1.47 0.44 8309 3.34 1 0 1

208 1.23 0.42 8309 2.93 1 0 1

209 1.26 0.45 8309 2.80 1 0 1

210 1.31 0.48 8309 2.73 1 0 1

Sum 4 26

131

211 1.64 0.26 8327 6.31 1 0 1

212 1.33 0.28 8327 4.75 1 0 1

213 0.89 0.18 8327 4.94 1 1 0

214 1.22 0.19 8327 6.42 1 0 1

215 1.35 0.22 8327 6.14 1 0 1

216 1.79 0.24 8327 7.46 1 0 1

217 1.38 0.13 8327 10.62 1 0 1

218 1.66 0.15 8327 11.07 1 0 1

219 1.34 0.17 8327 7.88 1 0 1

220 1.01 0.21 8327 4.81 1 0 1

221 1.35 0.21 8327 6.43 1 0 1

222 1.04 0.16 8327 6.50 1 0 1

223 1.11 0.17 8327 6.53 1 0 1

224 0.95 0.16 8327 5.94 1 1 0

225 1.01 0.23 8327 4.39 1 0 1

226 1.15 0.18 8327 6.39 1 0 1

227 0.95 0.16 8327 5.94 1 1 0

228 0.84 0.17 8327 4.94 1 1 0

229 0.54 0.18 8327 3.00 1 1 0

230 1.27 0.23 8337 5.52 1 0 1

231 1.16 0.16 8337 7.25 1 0 1

232 0.84 0.14 8337 6.00 1 1 0

233 1.1 0.19 8337 5.79 1 0 1

234 1.02 0.19 8337 5.37 1 0 1

235 0.95 0.19 8337 5.00 1 1 0

236 0.69 0.19 8337 3.63 1 1 0

237 1.17 0.39 8337 3.00 1 0 1

238 1.31 0.21 8337 6.24 1 0 1

239 1.32 0.41 8337 3.22 1 0 1

240 1.03 0.21 8337 4.90 1 0 1

Sum 8 22

132

241 1.32 0.79 8354 1.67 1 0 1

242 1.52 0.37 8354 4.11 1 0 1

243 1.51 0.5 8354 3.02 1 0 1

244 1.69 0.81 8354 2.09 1 0 1

245 1.82 0.77 8354 2.36 1 0 1

246 1.49 0.38 8354 3.92 1 0 1

247 1.46 0.53 8354 2.75 1 0 1

248 1.46 0.32 8354 4.56 1 0 1

249 1.7 0.34 8354 5.00 1 0 1

250 1.24 0.27 8354 4.59 1 0 1

251 1.86 0.33 8354 5.64 1 0 1

252 1.32 0.38 8354 3.47 1 0 1

253 1.31 0.21 8354 6.24 1 0 1

254 1.01 0.31 8354 3.26 1 0 1

255 1.52 0.33 8354 4.61 1 0 1

256 1.29 0.6 8354 2.15 1 0 1

257 1.34 0.29 8354 4.62 1 0 1

258 1.22 0.29 8354 4.21 1 0 1

259 1.8 0.6 8354 3.00 1 0 1

260 1.65 0.27 8354 6.11 1 0 1

261 1.18 0.21 8354 5.62 1 0 1

262 1.17 0.2 8354 5.85 1 0 1

263 1.15 0.18 8354 6.39 1 0 1

264 1.28 0.36 8354 3.56 1 0 1

265 1.08 0.22 8354 4.91 1 0 1

266 1.24 0.17 8354 7.29 1 0 1

267 1.2 0.25 8354 4.80 1 0 1

268 1.59 0.15 8354 10.60 1 0 1

269 1.38 0.24 8354 5.75 1 0 1

270 1.09 0.18 8354 6.06 1 0 1

Sum 0 30

133

271 0.97 0.25 8603 3.88 1 1 0

272 1.09 0.11 8603 9.91 1 0 1

273 0.72 0.2 8603 3.60 1 1 0

274 0.94 0.25 8603 3.76 1 1 0

275 1.38 0.14 8603 9.86 1 0 1

276 0.84 0.17 8603 4.94 1 1 0

277 0.61 0.12 8603 5.08 1 1 0

278 1.18 0.21 8603 5.62 1 0 1

279 0.93 0.14 8603 6.64 1 1 0

280 1.05 0.13 8603 8.08 1 0 1

281 0.72 1.01 8603 0.71 1 1 0

282 0.72 0.17 8603 4.24 1 1 0

283 1.08 0.14 8603 7.71 1 0 1

284 1.4 0.16 8603 8.75 1 0 1

285 1 0.17 8603 5.88 1 0 1

286 0.78 0.19 8603 4.11 1 1 0

287 0.65 0.24 8603 2.71 1 1 0

288 1.02 0.28 8603 3.64 1 0 1

289 1.06 0.11 8603 9.64 1 0 1

290 0.67 0.17 8603 3.94 1 1 0

291 1.04 0.12 8603 8.67 1 0 1

292 1.02 0.13 8603 7.85 1 0 1

293 1.11 0.16 8603 6.94 1 0 1

294 0.98 0.19 8603 5.16 1 1 0

295 1.08 0.36 8603 3.00 1 0 1

296 0.88 0.41 8603 2.15 1 1 0

297 0.89 0.37 8603 2.41 1 1 0

298 0.74 0.38 8603 1.95 1 1 0

299 0.81 0.35 8603 2.31 1 1 0

300 0.81 0.3 8603 2.70 1 1 0

Sum 17 13

134

Nummulite Classification-B7NC41

Measurements Nummulite Classification No. W axis (cm) Th axis (cm) depth W/Th LFN SFN SRN LRN A-form B-form 1 1.87 0.73 8573 2.56 1 0 1

2 1.92 0.72 8573 2.67 1 0 1

3 1.87 0.57 8573 3.28 1 0 1

4 1.52 0.4 8573 3.80 1 0 1

5 1.82 0.59 8573 3.08 1 0 1

6 1.55 0.44 8573 3.52 1 0 1

7 1.5 0.47 8573 3.19 1 0 1

8 1.99 0.55 8573 3.62 1 0 1

9 1.62 0.65 8573 2.49 1 0 1

10 1.25 0.49 8573 2.55 1 0 1

11 2.09 0.75 8573 2.79 1 0 1

12 1.4 0.39 8573 3.59 1 0 1

13 1.5 0.44 8573 3.41 1 0 1

14 1.51 0.61 8573 2.48 1 0 1

15 1.75 0.34 8573 5.15 1 0 1

16 1.38 0.3 8573 4.60 1 0 1

17 0.93 0.33 8573 2.82 1 1 0

18 1.76 0.56 8573 3.14 1 0 1

19 1.78 0.46 8573 3.87 1 0 1

20 1.19 0.49 8573 2.43 1 0 1

21 1.19 0.37 8573 3.22 1 0 1

22 0.85 0.39 8573 2.00 1 1 0

23 1.25 0.38 8573 3.29 1 0 1

24 1.1 0.28 8573 3.93 1 0 1

25 1.16 0.34 8573 3.41 1 0 1

26 1.82 0.44 8573 4.14 1 0 1

27 1.26 0.43 8573 2.93 1 0 1

28 0.95 0.32 8573 2.97 1 1 0

29 1.04 0.34 8573 3.06 1 0 1

30 1.62 0.5 8573 3.24 1 0 1

31 1.37 0.54 8599 2.54 1 0 1

32 1.48 0.71 8599 2.08 1 0 1

33 1.35 0.45 8599 3.00 1 0 1

34 1.95 0.82 8599 2.00 1 0 1

Sum 3 31

135

Nummulite Classification-B8NC41

Measurements Nummulite Classification No. W axis (cm) Th axis (cm) depth W/Th LFN SFN SRN LRN A-form B-form 1 1.47 0.5 8407 2.94 1 0 1

2 2.05 0.61 8407 3.36 1 0 1

3 2.14 0.43 8407 4.98 1 0 1

4 1.73 0.4 8407 4.33 1 0 1

5 1.76 0.54 8407 3.26 1 0 1

6 1.96 0.38 8407 5.16 1 0 1

7 1.94 0.61 8407 3.18 1 0 1

8 1.65 0.3 8407 5.50 1 0 1

9 1.97 0.32 8407 6.16 1 0 1

10 1.81 0.37 8407 4.89 1 0 1

11 2.02 0.33 8407 6.12 1 0 1

12 2.19 0.57 8407 3.84 1 0 1

13 3.03 1.03 8407 2.94 1 0 1

14 2.28 0.71 8407 3.21 1 0 1

15 2.48 0.94 8407 2.64 1 0 1

16 3.38 1.25 8407 2.70 1 0 1

17 1.68 0.7 8407 2.40 1 0 1

18 1.89 0.81 8407 2.33 1 0 1

19 2.81 0.92 8407 3.05 1 0 1

20 2.66 0.64 8407 4.16 1 0 1

21 1.52 0.41 8407 3.71 1 0 1

22 1.77 0.52 8407 3.40 1 0 1

23 1.95 0.38 8407 5.13 1 0 1

24 1.09 0.56 8407 1.95 1 0 1

25 1.71 0.65 8407 2.63 1 0 1

26 1.57 0.57 8407 2.75 1 0 1

27 1.75 0.33 8407 5.30 1 0 1

28 1.46 0.51 8407 2.86 1 0 1

29 1.47 0.43 8407 3.42 1 0 1

30 1.86 0.2 8407 9.30 1 0 1

Sum 0 30

136

31 2.58 0.89 8402 2.90 1 0 1

32 2.21 1.04 8402 2.13 1 0 1

33 2.39 1.46 8402 1.64 1 0 1

34 2.52 0.71 8402 3.55 1 0 1

35 2.89 1 8402 2.89 1 0 1

36 2.82 1.02 8402 2.76 1 0 1

37 2.76 0.92 8402 3.00 1 0 1

38 2.76 1.04 8402 2.65 1 0 1

39 2.4 0.74 8402 3.24 1 0 1

40 2.1 0.91 8402 2.31 1 0 1

41 2.52 0.98 8402 2.57 1 0 1

42 2.27 0.8 8402 2.84 1 0 1

43 2.96 0.73 8402 4.05 1 0 1

44 2.93 1.06 8402 2.76 1 0 1

45 2.19 0.65 8402 3.37 1 0 1

46 2.03 0.38 8402 5.34 1 0 1

47 1.6 0.75 8402 2.13 1 0 1

48 2.53 0.7 8402 3.61 1 0 1

49 2.59 0.94 8402 2.76 1 0 1

50 2.32 0.43 8402 5.40 1 0 1

51 1.72 0.37 8391 4.65 1 0 1

52 2.08 0.34 8391 6.12 1 0 1

53 1.09 0.33 8391 3.30 1 0 1

54 1.69 0.29 8391 5.83 1 0 1

55 1.33 0.47 8391 2.83 1 0 1

56 0.66 0.29 8391 2.28 1 1 0

57 1.01 1.03 8366 0.98 1 0 1

58 0.86 0.23 8366 3.74 1 1 0

59 0.77 0.3 8366 2.57 1 1 0

60 0.56 0.21 8366 2.67 1 1 0

Sum 4 26

137

61 1.17 0.59 8305 1.98 1 0 1

62 2.33 0.44 8305 5.30 1 0 1

63 1.16 0.31 8305 3.74 1 0 1

64 1.32 0.35 8305 3.77 1 0 1

65 2.15 0.57 8312 3.77 1 0 1

66 1.94 0.43 8312 4.51 1 0 1

67 0.92 0.42 8312 2.19 1 1 0

68 1.68 0.32 8312 5.25 1 0 1

69 2.47 0.47 8312 5.26 1 0 1

70 2.19 0.41 8312 5.34 1 0 1

71 1.06 0.43 8312 2.47 1 0 1

72 2.3 0.68 8312 3.38 1 0 1

73 1.42 0.53 8312 2.68 1 0 1

74 0.82 0.57 8332 1.44 1 1 0

75 0.86 0.6 8332 1.43 1 1 0

76 1.16 0.84 8332 1.38 1 0 1

77 1.4 0.43 8332 3.26 1 0 1

78 1.15 0.42 8332 2.74 1 0 1

79 0.84 0.44 8332 1.91 1 1 0

80 1.03 0.43 8335 2.40 1 0 1

81 0.55 0.35 8335 1.57 1 1 0

82 0.85 0.67 8335 1.27 1 1 0

83 0.62 0.32 8335 1.94 1 1 0

84 0.52 0.35 8335 1.49 1 1 0

85 1.78 0.36 8335 4.94 1 0 1

86 0.96 0.3 8350 3.20 1 1 0

87 0.35 0.21 8350 1.67 1 1 0

88 0.77 0.26 8350 2.96 1 1 0

89 0.59 0.21 8350 2.81 1 1 0

90 0.87 0.44 8350 1.98 1 1 0

Sum 13 17

138

91 1.01 0.42 8298 2.40 1 0 1

92 2.7 0.35 8298 7.71 1 0 1

93 3.12 0.45 8298 6.93 1 0 1

94 2.71 0.38 8298 7.13 1 0 1

95 2.57 0.4 8298 6.43 1 0 1

96 2.6 0.41 8298 6.34 1 0 1

97 2.37 0.3 8298 7.90 1 0 1

98 1.92 0.35 8298 5.49 1 0 1

99 2.41 0.35 8298 6.89 1 0 1

100 1.19 0.42 8298 2.83 1 0 1

101 2.31 0.49 8292 4.71 1 0 1

102 2.62 0.7 8292 3.74 1 0 1

103 2.86 0.96 8292 2.98 1 0 1

104 2.46 0.45 8292 5.47 1 0 1

105 2.09 0.53 8292 3.94 1 0 1

106 2.11 0.39 8292 5.41 1 0 1

107 1.94 0.44 8292 4.41 1 0 1

108 2.49 0.37 8292 6.73 1 0 1

109 2.28 0.39 8292 5.85 1 0 1

110 2.55 0.35 8292 7.29 1 0 1

111 2.13 0.5 8292 4.26 1 0 1

112 1.85 0.46 8292 4.02 1 0 1

113 2.72 0.67 8292 4.06 1 0 1

114 2.06 0.53 8292 3.89 1 0 1

115 2.19 0.45 8292 4.87 1 0 1

116 2.05 0.47 8292 4.36 1 0 1

117 2.01 0.41 8292 4.90 1 0 1

118 2.09 0.45 8292 4.64 1 0 1

119 2.34 0.33 8292 7.09 1 0 1

120 2.49 0.43 8292 5.79 1 0 1

Sum 0 30

139

Nummulite Classification-C3-NC41

Measurements Nummulite Classification No. W axis (cm) Th axis (cm) depth W/Th LFN SFN SRN LRN A-form B-form 1 0.79 0.37 8427 2.14 1 1 0

2 0.48 0.27 8427 1.78 1 1 0

3 0.6 0.27 8427 2.22 1 1 0

4 0.49 0.24 8427 2.04 1 1 0

5 0.49 0.22 8427 2.23 1 1 0

6 0.27 0.23 8427 1.17 1 1 0

7 0.65 0.31 8427 2.10 1 1 0

8 0.34 0.17 8427 2.00 1 1 0

9 0.4 0.23 8427 1.74 1 1 0

10 2.01 0.33 8430 6.09 1 0 1

11 2.03 0.43 8430 4.72 1 0 1

12 2 0.46 8430 4.35 1 0 1

13 1.22 0.33 8430 3.70 1 0 1

14 1.84 0.36 8430 5.11 1 0 1

15 1.37 0.35 8430 3.91 1 0 1

16 0.62 0.3 8430 2.07 1 1 0

17 1.62 0.25 8430 6.48 1 0 1

18 1.07 0.6 8430 1.78 1 0 1

19 0.51 0.27 8430 1.89 1 1 0

20 0.47 0.28 8430 1.68 1 1 0

21 2.26 0.37 8434.7 6.11 1 0 1

22 1.52 0.36 8434.7 4.22 1 0 1

23 0.78 0.48 8434.7 1.63 1 1 0

24 0.8 0.4 8434.7 2.00 1 1 0

25 0.82 0.38 8434.7 2.16 1 1 0

26 0.97 0.29 8434.7 3.34 1 1 0

27 0.8 0.39 8434.7 2.05 1 1 0

28 0.62 0.3 8434.7 2.07 1 1 0

29 0.85 0.26 8434.7 3.27 1 1 0

30 0.75 0.2 8434.7 3.75 1 1 0

Sum 20 10

140

31 1.47 0.43 8469 3.42 1 1

32 0.42 0.2 8469 2.10 1 1 0

33 0.52 0.13 8469 4.00 1 1 0

34 0.41 0.11 8469 3.73 1 1 0

35 0.28 0.16 8469 1.75 1 1 0

36 0.41 0.19 8469 2.16 1 1 0

37 0.35 0.23 8481 1.52 1 1 0

38 0.48 0.23 8481 2.09 1 1 0

39 0.34 0.2 8481 1.70 1 1 0

40 0.34 0.32 8481 1.06 1 1 0

41 0.56 0.26 8481 2.15 1 1 0

42 0.28 0.31 8481 0.90 1 1 0

43 0.34 0.16 8481 2.13 1 1 0

44 0.35 0.16 8481 2.19 1 1 0

45 0.48 0.22 8481 2.18 1 1 0

46 0.66 0.33 8481 2.00 1 1 0

47 0.33 0.22 8481 1.50 1 1 0

48 0.34 0.2 8481 1.70 1 1 0

49 0.3 0.11 8481 2.73 1 1 0

50 0.23 0.15 8481 1.53 1 1 0

51 0.26 0.15 8481 1.73 1 1 0

52 0.17 0.13 8481 1.31 1 1 0

53 0.23 0.14 8481 1.64 1 1 0

54 0.19 0.16 8481 1.19 1 1 0

55 0.23 0.15 8481 1.53 1 1 0

56 0.23 0.16 8481 1.44 1 1 0

57 0.29 0.22 8481 1.32 1 1 0

58 0.18 0.08 8481 2.25 1 1 0

59 0.29 0.17 8481 1.71 1 1 0

60 0.22 0.17 8481 1.29 1 1 0

Sum 29 1

141

61 0.84 0.33 8497 2.55 1 1 0

62 1.14 0.33 8497 3.45 1 0 1

63 2 0.34 8497 5.88 1 0 1

64 1.67 0.24 8497 6.96 1 0 1

65 1.84 0.18 8497 10.22 1 0 1

66 0.85 0.25 8497 3.40 1 1 0

67 0.77 0.2 8497 3.85 1 1 0

68 0.83 0.23 8497 3.61 1 1 0

69 0.58 0.33 8497 1.76 1 1 0

70 0.6 0.3 8497 2.00 1 1 0

71 0.6 0.28 8497 2.14 1 1 0

72 0.46 0.3 8497 1.53 1 1 0

73 0.53 0.19 8497 2.79 1 1 0

74 0.58 0.15 8497 3.87 1 1 0

75 0.73 0.26 8497 2.81 1 1 0

76 1.97 0.37 8497 5.32 1 0 1

77 1.49 0.32 8497 4.66 1 0 1

78 1.22 0.29 8497 4.21 1 0 1

79 1.8 0.39 8497 4.62 1 0 1

80 1.19 0.24 8497 4.96 1 0 1

81 1.72 0.47 8497 3.66 1 0 1

82 1.47 0.22 8497 6.68 1 0 1

83 1.61 0.23 8497 7.00 1 0 1

84 1.16 0.26 8497 4.46 1 0 1

85 1 0.17 8497 5.88 1 0 1

86 0.96 0.25 8497 3.84 1 1 0

87 1.24 0.28 8497 4.43 1 0 1

88 1.12 0.3 8497 3.73 1 0 1

89 0.82 0.2 8497 4.10 1 1 0

90 0.94 0.32 8497 2.94 1 1 0

Sum 14 16

142

91 1.95 0.26 8512 7.50 1 0 1

92 2.01 0.44 8512 4.57 1 0 1

93 1.7 0.32 8512 5.31 1 0 1

94 2.03 0.24 8512 8.46 1 0 1

95 1.65 0.22 8512 7.50 1 0 1

96 1.5 0.28 8512 5.36 1 0 1

97 1.72 0.28 8512 6.14 1 0 1

98 1.68 6.26 8512 0.27 1 0 1

99 1.38 0.13 8512 10.62 1 0 1

100 1.04 0.21 8512 4.95 1 0 1

101 0.73 0.32 8512 2.28 1 1 0

102 1.51 0.31 8512 4.87 1 0 1

103 1.63 0.2 8512 8.15 1 0 1

104 1.52 0.26 8512 5.85 1 0 1

105 1.41 0.21 8512 6.71 1 0 1

106 1.53 0.2 8512 7.65 1 0 1

107 0.79 0.29 8513 2.72 1 1 0

108 0.89 0.39 8513 2.28 1 1 0

109 0.46 0.22 8513 2.09 1 1 0

110 0.89 0.32 8513 2.78 1 1 0

111 0.83 0.23 8513 3.61 1 1 0

112 0.43 0.17 8513 2.53 1 1 0

113 0.32 0.24 8513 1.33 1 1 0

114 0.31 0.27 8513 1.15 1 1 0

115 0.95 0.31 8523 3.06 1 1 0

116 0.56 0.22 8523 2.55 1 1 0

117 0.79 0.25 8523 3.16 1 1 0

118 0.25 0.18 8523 1.39 1 1 0

119 0.34 0.21 8523 1.62 1 1 0

120 0.37 0.21 8523 1.76 1 1 0

Sum 15 15

143

121 2.15 0.71 8562 3.03 1 0 1

122 1.86 0.56 8562 3.32 1 0 1

123 2.17 0.66 8562 3.29 1 0 1

124 2.23 0.79 8562 2.82 1 0 1

125 1.48 0.48 8562 3.08 1 0 1

126 2.32 0.55 8562 4.22 1 0 1

127 2.14 0.74 8562 2.89 1 0 1

128 2.72 0.82 8562 3.32 1 0 1

129 1.03 0.44 8562 2.34 1 0 1

130 1.7 0.66 8562 2.58 1 0 1

131 1.55 0.47 8562 3.30 1 0 1

132 2.19 0.33 8562 6.64 1 0 1

133 1.71 0.34 8562 5.03 1 0 1

134 1.55 0.48 8562 3.23 1 0 1

135 1.11 0.44 8562 2.52 1 0 1

136 1.55 0.77 8577 2.01 1 0 1

137 1.4 0.53 8577 2.64 1 0 1

138 1.45 0.35 8577 4.14 1 0 1

139 1.35 0.49 8577 2.76 1 0 1

140 1.34 0.73 8577 1.84 1 0 1

141 1.62 0.27 8577 6.00 1 0 1

142 1.56 0.38 8577 4.11 1 0 1

143 1.36 0.45 8577 3.02 1 0 1

144 1.1 0.64 8577 1.72 1 0 1

145 1.4 0.35 8577 4.00 1 0 1

146 1.66 0.57 8577 2.91 1 0 1

147 1.47 0.6 8577 2.45 1 0 1

148 1.04 0.39 8577 2.67 1 0 1

149 1.54 0.71 8577 2.17 1 0 1

150 1.65 0.28 8577 5.89 1 0 1

Sum 0 30

144

Nummulite Classification-C7-NC41

Measurements Nummulite Classification No. W axis (cm) Th axis (cm) depth W/Th LFN SFN SRN LRN A-form B-form 1 1.19 0.22 8431 5.41 1 0 1

2 1.55 0.18 8431 8.61 1 0 1

3 1.01 0.23 8431 4.39 1 0 1

4 1.01 0.11 8431 9.18 1 0 1

5 0.8 0.17 8431 4.71 1 1 0

6 1.06 0.25 8431 4.24 1 0 1

7 0.85 0.14 8431 6.07 1 1 0

8 1.14 0.16 8431 7.13 1 0 1

9 0.99 0.48 8431 2.06 1 1 0

10 1.28 0.15 8431 8.53 1 0 1

11 0.84 0.2 8431 4.20 1 1 0

12 0.78 0.17 8431 4.59 1 1 0

13 0.58 0.15 8431 3.87 1 1 0

14 1.04 0.22 8431 4.73 1 0 1

15 0.66 0.22 8431 3.00 1 1 0

16 0.97 0.18 8431 5.39 1 1 0

17 1.09 0.19 8431 5.74 1 0 1

18 0.82 0.21 8431 3.90 1 1 0

19 0.61 0.24 8431 2.54 1 1 0

20 0.96 0.23 8431 4.17 1 1 0

21 0.66 0.16 8431 4.13 1 1 0

22 0.46 0.18 8431 2.56 1 1 0

23 0.51 0.36 8431 1.42 1 1 0

24 0.63 0.16 8431 3.94 1 1 0

25 0.52 0.15 8431 3.47 1 1 0

26 1.04 0.1 8431 10.40 1 0 1

27 0.52 0.18 8431 2.89 1 1 0

28 0.26 0.12 8431 2.17 1 1 0

29 0.35 0.2 8431 1.75 1 1 0

30 1 0.13 8431 7.69 1 0 1

Sum 19 11

145

31 0.79 0.43 8432 1.84 1 1 0

32 0.9 0.24 8432 3.75 1 1 0

33 1.1 0.31 8432 3.55 1 0 1

34 0.7 0.27 8432 2.59 1 1 0

35 0.65 0.38 8432 1.71 1 1 0

36 0.83 0.26 8432 3.19 1 1 0

37 0.47 0.24 8432 1.96 1 1 0

38 0.67 0.21 8432 3.19 1 1 0

39 0.77 0.22 8432 3.50 1 1 0

40 0.94 0.22 8432 4.27 1 1 0

41 0.45 0.18 8433 2.50 1 1 0

42 0.77 0.34 8433 2.26 1 1 0

43 0.48 0.13 8433 3.69 1 1 0

44 0.66 0.31 8433 2.13 1 1 0

45 0.65 0.2 8433 3.25 1 1 0

46 0.42 0.18 8433 2.33 1 1 0

47 0.63 0.14 8433 4.50 1 1 0

48 0.59 0.1 8433 5.90 1 1 0

49 0.24 0.13 8433 1.85 1 1 0

50 1.54 0.58 8434 2.66 1 0 1

51 0.71 0.22 8434 3.23 1 1 0

52 1.35 0.33 8434 4.09 1 0 1

53 1.19 0.31 8434 3.84 1 0 1

54 1 0.25 8434 4.00 1 0 1

55 0.77 0.3 8434 2.57 1 1 0

56 1.2 0.18 8434 6.67 1 0 1

57 0.51 0.26 8434 1.96 1 1 0

58 1 0.2 8434 5.00 1 0 1

59 0.64 0.2 8434 3.20 1 1 0

60 0.53 0.15 8434 3.53 1 1 0

Sum 23 7

146

61 0.71 0.16 8439 4.44 1 1 0

62 0.84 0.17 8439 4.94 1 1 0

63 0.93 0.2 8439 4.65 1 1 0

64 0.47 0.15 8439 3.13 1 1 0

65 0.38 0.13 8439 2.92 1 1 0

66 0.56 0.1 8439 5.60 1 1 0

67 0.55 0.17 8439 3.24 1 1 0

68 0.46 0.14 8439 3.29 1 1 0

69 0.35 0.18 8439 1.94 1 1 0

70 0.22 0.07 8439 3.14 1 1 0

71 0.27 0.09 8439 3.00 1 1 0

72 0.75 0.23 8445 3.26 1 1 0

73 0.46 0.1 8445 4.60 1 1 0

74 0.77 0.2 8445 3.85 1 1 0

75 0.5 0.2 8445 2.50 1 1 0

76 0.63 0.18 8445 3.50 1 1 0

77 0.55 0.11 8445 5.00 1 1 0

78 0.55 0.15 8445 3.67 1 0

79 0.48 0.13 8445 3.69 1 1 0

80 0.4 0.11 8445 3.64 1 1 0

81 0.42 0.14 8445 3.00 1 1 0

82 0.87 0.33 8458 2.64 1 1 0

83 1.15 0.24 8458 4.79 1 0 1

84 0.78 0.18 8458 4.33 1 1 0

85 1.45 0.23 8458 6.30 1 0 1

86 1.2 0.2 8458 6.00 1 0 1

87 0.89 0.17 8458 5.24 1 1 0

88 0.71 0.15 8458 4.73 1 1 0

89 1.05 0.18 8458 5.83 1 0 1

90 0.83 0.12 8458 6.92 1 1 0

Sum 26 4

147

91 1.11 0.29 8466 3.83 1 0 1

92 0.72 0.21 8466 3.43 1 1 0

93 0.38 0.08 8466 4.75 1 1 0

94 0.34 0.09 8466 3.78 1 1 0

95 0.28 0.08 8466 3.50 1 1 0

96 0.23 0.17 8466 1.35 1 1 0

97 0.26 0.09 8466 2.89 1 1 0

98 0.44 0.11 8466 4.00 1 1 0

99 0.3 0.11 8466 2.73 1 1 0

100 0.39 0.14 8468 2.79 1 1 0

101 0.4 0.12 8468 3.33 1 1 0

102 0.41 0.16 8468 2.56 1 1 0

103 0.3 0.11 8468 2.73 1 1 0

104 0.31 0.08 8468 3.88 1 1 0

105 0.39 0.1 8468 3.90 1 1 0

106 0.26 0.1 8468 2.60 1 1 0

107 0.36 0.11 8468 3.27 1 1 0

108 0.34 0.1 8468 3.40 1 1 0

109 0.22 0.11 8468 2.00 1 1 0

110 0.21 0.09 8468 2.33 1 1 0

111 0.37 0.1 8468 3.70 1 1 0

112 0.25 0.08 8468 3.13 1 1 0

113 0.23 0.09 8468 2.56 1 1 0

114 0.22 0.07 8468 3.14 1 1 0

115 0.45 0.11 8468 4.09 1 1 0

116 0.3 0.11 8468 2.73 1 1 0

117 0.28 0.07 8468 4.00 1 1 0

118 0.31 0.1 8468 3.10 1 1 0

119 0.2 0.1 8468 2.00 1 1 0

120 0.27 0.1 8468 2.70 1 1 0

Sum 29 1

148

121 0.85 0.45 8518 1.89 1 1 0

122 0.65 0.18 8518 3.61 1 1 0

123 0.68 0.28 8518 2.43 1 1 0

124 0.59 0.22 8518 2.68 1 1 0

125 0.78 0.25 8518 3.12 1 1 0

126 0.71 0.23 8518 3.09 1 1 0

127 0.6 0.14 8518 4.29 1 1 0

128 0.65 0.22 8518 2.95 1 1 0

129 0.54 0.15 8518 3.60 1 1 0

130 0.81 0.19 8518 4.26 1 1 0

131 0.68 0.14 8518 4.86 1 1 0

132 0.99 0.22 8518 4.50 1 1 0

133 0.76 0.22 8518 3.45 1 1 0

134 0.69 0.19 8518 3.63 1 1 0

135 0.61 0.24 8518 2.54 1 1 0

136 0.59 0.14 8518 4.21 1 1 0

137 0.59 0.14 8518 4.21 1 1 0

138 0.61 0.19 8518 3.21 1 1 0

139 0.65 0.22 8518 2.95 1 1 0

140 0.56 0.15 8518 3.73 1 1 0

141 0.68 0.13 8518 5.23 1 1 0

142 0.48 0.14 8518 3.43 1 1 0

143 0.52 0.15 8518 3.47 1 1 0

144 0.56 0.13 8518 4.31 1 1 0

145 0.89 0.25 8518 3.56 1 1 0

146 0.88 0.12 8518 7.33 1 1 0

147 0.54 0.15 8518 3.60 1 1 0

148 0.93 0.16 8518 5.81 1 1 0

149 0.48 0.19 8518 2.53 1 1 0

150 0.51 0.16 8518 3.19 1 1 0

Sum 30 0

149

151 1.88 0.7 8518 2.69 1 0 1

152 1.8 0.76 8518 2.37 1 0 1

153 2 0.8 8518 2.50 1 0 1

154 2 0.78 8518 2.56 1 0 1

155 1.9 0.94 8518 2.02 1 0 1

156 1.63 0.61 8518 2.67 1 0 1

157 1 0.43 8518 2.33 1 0 1

158 0.85 0.32 8518 2.66 1 1 0

159 1.23 0.32 8518 3.84 1 0 1

160 0.54 0.25 8518 2.16 1 1 0

161 1.79 0.89 8518 2.01 1 0 1

162 1.51 0.51 8525 2.96 1 0 1

163 1.78 0.61 8525 2.92 1 0 1

164 1.51 0.53 8525 2.85 1 0 1

165 1.3 0.67 8525 1.94 1 0 1

166 0.99 0.58 8525 1.71 1 1 0

167 1.3 0.52 8525 2.50 1 0 1

168 0.98 0.38 8525 2.58 1 1 0

169 0.93 0.35 8525 2.66 1 1 0

170 0.67 0.27 8525 2.48 1 1 0

171 0.82 0.43 8525 1.91 1 1 0

172 0.47 0.23 8525 2.04 1 1 0

173 0.71 0.25 8525 2.84 1 1 0

174 0.88 0.2 8525 4.40 1 1 0

175 0.8 0.26 8525 3.08 1 1 0

176 1.5 0.74 8525 2.03 1 0 1

177 1.42 0.5 8525 2.84 1 0 1

178 1.17 0.5 8525 2.34 1 0 1

179 0.99 0.5 8525 1.98 1 1 0

180 1.15 0.45 8525 2.56 1 0 1

Sum 12 18

150

181 0.75 0.38 8548 1.97 1 1 0

182 0.78 0.28 8548 2.79 1 1 0

183 0.89 0.35 8548 2.54 1 1 0

184 0.77 0.27 8548 2.85 1 1 0

185 0.77 0.31 8548 2.48 1 1 0

186 0.74 0.28 8548 2.64 1 1 0

187 1.11 0.3 8548 3.70 1 0 1

188 0.73 0.36 8548 2.03 1 1 0

189 0.49 0.22 8548 2.23 1 1 0

190 0.61 0.26 8548 2.35 1 1 0

191 0.8 0.22 8548 3.64 1 1 0

192 0.78 0.28 8548 2.79 1 1 0

193 1.12 0.3 8548 3.73 1 0 1

194 0.9 0.2 8548 4.50 1 1 0

195 0.6 0.24 8548 2.50 1 1 0

196 0.85 0.45 8551 1.89 1 1 0

197 0.99 0.5 8551 1.98 1 1 0

198 0.72 0.25 8551 2.88 1 1 0

199 0.83 0.27 8551 3.07 1 1 0

200 0.89 0.29 8551 3.07 1 1 0

201 1.11 0.25 8551 4.44 1 0 1

202 0.82 0.23 8551 3.57 1 1 0

203 1.27 0.45 8556 2.82 1 0 1

204 1.44 0.39 8556 3.69 1 0 1

205 1.22 0.45 8556 2.71 1 0 1

206 1.84 0.43 8556 4.28 1 0 1

207 1.45 0.27 8556 5.37 1 0 1

208 1.23 0.31 8556 3.97 1 0 1

209 1.53 0.41 8556 3.73 1 0 1

210 1.55 0.45 8556 3.44 1 0 1

Sum 19 11

151

211 1.16 0.19 8579 6.11 1 0 1

212 0.9 0.26 8579 3.46 1 1 0

213 0.97 0.15 8579 6.47 1 1 0

214 0.69 0.26 8579 2.65 1 1 0

215 0.52 0.19 8579 2.74 1 1 0

216 0.95 0.17 8579 5.59 1 1 0

217 0.74 0.2 8579 3.70 1 1 0

218 0.62 0.19 8590 3.26 1 1 0

219 0.63 0.16 8590 3.94 1 1 0

220 0.49 0.18 8590 2.72 1 1 0

221 0.57 0.24 8590 2.38 1 1 0

222 0.8 0.29 8590 2.76 1 1 0

223 0.76 0.2 8590 3.80 1 1 0

224 0.85 0.26 8590 3.27 1 1 0

225 0.6 0.24 8590 2.50 1 1 0

226 0.72 0.23 8590 3.13 1 1 0

227 0.64 0.29 8590 2.21 1 1 0

228 0.56 0.19 8590 2.95 1 1 0

229 0.58 0.2 8590 2.90 1 1 0

230 0.77 0.25 8590 3.08 1 1 0

231 0.68 0.22 8590 3.09 1 1 0

232 0.66 0.29 8590 2.28 1 1 0

233 0.62 0.23 8590 2.70 1 1 0

234 0.46 0.21 8590 2.19 1 1 0

235 0.68 0.29 8590 2.34 1 1 0

236 0.73 0.19 8590 3.84 1 1 0

237 0.76 0.19 8590 4.00 1 1 0

238 0.79 0.25 8590 3.16 1 1 0

239 0.56 0.22 8590 2.55 1 1 0

240 0.99 0.25 8590 3.96 1 1 0

Sum 29 1

152

Classification of Imbrication Structure B2-NC41 Depth No Edgewise Edgewise Linear Chaotic No. ft Imbrication Isolate Contact Accumulations Stacking 1 8133 1

2 8164 1

3 8191 1

4 8232 1

5 8286 1

6 8346 1

7 8376 1

8 8394 1

9 8402 1

10 8443 1

11 8466 1

12 8475 1

13 8509 1

14 8513 1

15 8517 1

16 8547 1

17 8572 1

18 8605 1

19 8647 1

20 8663 1

21 8664 1

22 8664 1

23 8664 1

24 8664 1

25 8664 1

26 8664 1

27 8664 1

28 8664 1

29 8664 1

30 8664 1

31 8664 1

32 8664 1

Sum 21 3 3 3 2

% 65.625 9.375 9.375 9.375 6.25

153

Classification of Imbrication Structure-B3-NC41 Depth No Edgewise Edgewise Linear Chaotic No. ft Imbrication Isolate Contact Accumulations Stacking 1 8090 1

2 8106 1

3 8121 1

4 8122 1

5 8130 1

6 8138 1

7 8171 1

8 8193 1

9 8198 1

10 8200 1

11 8202 1

12 8209 1

13 8218 1

14 8230 1

15 8272 1

16 8291 1

17 8329 1

18 8342 1

19 8344 1

20 8346 1

21 8352 1

22 8365 1

23 8381 1

24 8389 1

25 8405 1

26 8408 1

27 8414 1

28 8415 1

29 8423 1

30 8424 1

31 8433 1

32 8445 1

33 8455 1

34 8490 1

154

35 8503 1

36 8507 1

37 8550 1

38 8553 1

39 8558 1

40 8565 1

41 8580 1

42 8587 1

43 8591 1

44 8593 1

45 8601 1

46 8621 1

47 8671 1

48 8677 1

49 8684 1

50 8685 1

51 8689 1

52 8722 1

53 8737 1

54 8741 1

55 8752 1

56 8780 1

57 8822 1

58 8862 1

59 8919 1

60 8922 1

61 8952 1

62 8955 1 sum 35 11 4 12 1

% 55.56 17.46 6.35 19.05 1.59

155

Classification of Imbrication Structure-B4-NC41 Depth No Edgewise Edgewise Linear Chaotic No. ft Imbrication Isolate Contact Accumulations Stacking 2 8144 1

3 8150 1

4 8153 1

5 8154 1

6 8182 1

7 8223 1

8 8227 1

9 8230 1

10 8247 1

11 8250 1

12 8265 1

13 8267 1

14 8270 1

15 8296 1

16 8300 1

17 8309 1

18 8327 1

19 8337 1

20 8354 1

21 8470 1

22 8477 1

23 8495 1

24 8520 1

25 8603 1

26 8610 1

27 8614 1

28 8617 1

29 8623 1

30 8627 1

31 8651 1

32 8691 1

33 8722 1

34 8746 1

35 8771 1

36 8803 1

SUM 14 9 4 8 1

% 38.89 25.00 11.11 22.22 2.78

156

Classification of Imbrication Structure-B7-NC41 Depth No Edgewise Edgewise Linear Chaotic No. ft Imbrication Isolate Contact Accumulations Stacking 2 8512 1

3 8518 1

4 8535 1

5 8562 1

6 8573 1

7 8599 1

8 8612 1

SUM 5 2 2

% 55.56 22.22 22.22

157

Classification of Imbrication Structure-B8-NC41 Depth No Edgewise Edgewise Linear Chaotic No. ft Imbrication Isolate Contact Accumulations Stacking 1 8292 1

2 8297 1

3 8298 1

4 8305 1

5 8312 1

6 8319 1

7 8326 1

8 8330 1

9 8332 1

10 8335 1

11 8336 1

12 8338 1

13 8340 1

14 8350 1

15 8366 1

16 8369 1

17 8377 1

18 8380 1

19 8385 1

20 8391 1

21 8399 1

22 8402 1

23 8403 1

24 8407 1

Sum 6 4 2 12 1

% 24.00 16.00 8.00 48.00 4

158

Classification of Imbrication Structure-C3-NC41 Depth No Edgewise Edgewise Linear Chaotic No. ft Imbrication Isolate Contact Accumulations Stacking 1 8324.7 1

2 8427 1

3 8430 1

4 8434.7 1

5 8437 1

6 8446 1

7 8450 1

8 8467 1

9 8469 1

10 8481 1

11 8484.5 1

12 8487 1

13 8497 1

14 8504 1

15 8507 1

16 8512 1

17 8513 1

18 8523 1

19 8532 1

20 8545 1

21 8562 1

22 8575 1

23 8577 1

24 8593 1 1

25 8923 1

26 8924 1

27 8931 1

28 8960 1

29 8971 1

30 8976 1

31 8980 1

32 8982 1

33 8895 1

SUM 25.00 3.00 2.00 5.00

% 71.43 8.57 5.71 14.29

159

Classification of Imbrication Structure-C7-NC41 Depth No Edgewise Edgewise Linear Chaotic No. ft Imbrication Isolate Contact Accumulations Stacking 1 8427 1

2 8428 1

3 8431 1

4 8432 1

5 8433 1

6 8434 1

7 8435 1

8 8436 1

9 8437 1

10 8439 1

11 8441 1

12 8445 1

13 8454 1

14 8456 1

15 8458 1

16 8460 1

17 8462 1

18 8464 1

19 8466 1

20 8468 1

21 8470 1

22 8471 1

23 8472 1

24 8473 1

25 8474 1

26 8476 1

27 8479 1

28 8480 1

29 8481 1

30 8482 1

31 8488 1

32 8489 1

33 8491 1

34 8496 1

35 8497 1

160

36 8499 1

37 8507 1

38 8514 1

39 8518 1

40 8520 1

41 8522 1

42 8523 1

43 8524 1

44 8525 1

45 8526 1

46 8532 1

47 8541 1

48 8547 1

49 8548 1

50 8550 1

51 8551 1

52 8552 1

53 8553 1

54 8554 1

55 8556 1

56 8559 1

57 8560 1

58 8564 1

59 8571 1

60 8579 1

61 8590 1

62 8595 1

63 8601 1

64 8628 1

65 8629 1

66 8635 1

67 8637 1

68 8640 1

69 8642 1

70 8644 1

71 8645 1

72 8691 1

73 8693 1

74 8694 1

161

75 8704 1

76 8707 1

77 8709 1

78 8710 1

79 8714 1

80 8718 1

81 8772 1

82 8782 1

83 8784 1

84 8794 1

85 8826 1

86 8828 1

87 8830 1

88 8842 1

89 8862 1

90 8875 1

91 8876 1

92 8885 1

93 8904 1

94 8907 1

95 8913 1

96 8914 1

97 8915 1

98 8917 1

99 8918 1

100 8924 1

101 8928 1

102 8938 1

103 8998 1

SUM 60 16 3 21 4

% 57.69 15.38 2.88 20.19 3.85

162

A/B ratio of B2-NC41 No. Depth Samples Facies A-form B-form Actual Ratio A:B 1 8133 17 Packstone 1 18 1:18 < 7:1 2 8164 13 Grainstone 11 3 11:3 < 7:1 3 8191 30 Packstone 31 1 31:1 > 10:1 4 8232 30 Packstone 30 1 30:1 > 10:1 5 8443 30 Grainstone 21 9 7:3 < 7:1

A/B ratio of B3-NC41 No. Depth Samples Facies A-form B-form Actual Ratio A:B 1 8099 30 Grainstone 4 26 2:13 < 7;1 2 8121 30 Grainstone 16 14 8:7 < 7:1 3 8171 5 Grainstone 1 6 1:6 < 7:1 4 8193 13 Grainstone 1 14 1:14 < 7:1 5 8198 7 Grainstone 1 8 1:8 < 7:1 6 8202 3 Grainstone 1 4 1:4 < 7:1 7 8209 2 Grainstone 1 3 1:3 < 7:1 8 8230 30 Grainstone 3 29 3:29 < 7:1 9 8346 10 Grainstone 1 11 1:11 < 7:1 10 8352 12 Grainstone 1 13 1:13 < 7;1 11 8381 4 Grainstone 1 5 1:5 < 7;1 12 8389 4 Grainstone 1 3 1:3 < 7;1 13 8415 6 Grainstone 1 7 1:7 < 7:1 14 8424 3 Grainstone 1 2 1:2 < 7;1 15 8433 21 Grainstone 2 19 2:19 < 7:1 16 8490 30 Packstone 31 1 31:1 > 10:1

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A/B ratio of B4-NC41 No. Depth Samples Facies A-form B-form Actual Ratio A:B 1 8142 16 Grainstone 3 13 3:13 < 7:1 2 8144 14 Grainstone 5 9 5:9 < 7;1 3 8153 30 Packstone 29 1 29:1 > 10:1 4 8182 30 Grainstone 16 14 8:7 < 7:1 5 8223 19 Grainstone 5 14 5:14 < 7;1 6 8227 11 Grainstone 4 7 4:7 < 7:1 7 8230 16 Packstone 17 1 17:1 > 10:1 8 8247 14 Packstone 15 1 15:1 > 10:1 9 8270 30 Packstone 26 4 13:2 > 10:1 10 8296 16 Grainstone 3 13 3:13 < 7:1 11 8300 8 Grainstone 1 7 1:7 < 7:1 12 8309 6 Grainstone 1 7 1:7 < 7:1 13 8327 19 Grainstone 4 15 4:15 < 7:1 14 8337 11 Grainstone 3 8 3:8 < 7:1 15 8354 30 Grainstone 1 31 1:31 < 7;1 16 8603 30 Grainstone 17 13 17:13 < 7:1

A/B ratio of B7-NC41 No. Depth Samples Facies A-form B-form Actual Ratio A:B 1 8573 30 Grainstone 3 27 1:9 < 7:1 2 8599 4 Grainstone 1 5 1:5 < 7:1

A/B ratio of B8-NC41 No. Depth Samples Facies A-form B-form Actual Ratio A:B 1 8292 20 Packstone 1 21 1:21 > 10:1 2 8298 10 Grainstone 1 11 1:11 > 7:1 3 8305 4 Grainstone 1 5 1:5 < 7:1 4 8312 9 Grainstone 1 8 1:8 < 7:1 5 8332 6 Grainstone 3 3 1:1 < 7:1 6 8335 6 Grainstone 4 2 2:1 < 7;1 7 8350 5 Grainstone 6 1 6:1 < 7:1 8 8366 4 Grainstone 3 1 3:1 < 7:1 9 8391 6 Grainstone 1 5 1:5 < 7:1 10 8402 20 Grainstone 1 21 1:21 < 7;1 11 8407 30 Grainstone 1 31 1:31 < 7:1

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A/B ratio-C3-NC41 No. Depth Samples Facies A-form B-form Actual Ratio A:B 1 8427 9 Grainstone 10 1 10:1 > 7:1 2 8430 11 Grainstone 3 8 3:8 < 7:1 3 8434 10 Grainstone 8 2 4:1 < 7:1 4 8469 6 Grainstone 5 1 5:1 < 7:1 5 8481 24 Packstone 25 1 25:1 > 10:1 6 8497 15 Grainstone 11 4 11:4 < 7:1 7 8507 15 Grainstone 2 13 2:13 < 7:1 8 8512 16 Grainstone 1 15 1:15 < 7:1 9 8513 8 Grainstone 9 1 9:1 > 7:1 10 8523 6 Packstone 7 1 7:1 < 7:1 11 8562 15 Grainstone 1 16 1:16 < 7:1 12 8577 15 Grainstone 1 16 1:16 < 7:1

A/B ratio-C7-NC41 No. Depth Samples Facies A-form B-form Actual Ratio A:B 1 8431 30 Grainstone 19 11 19:11 < 7:1 2 8432 10 Packstone 9 1 9:1 > 7:1 3 8433 9 Packstone 10 1 10:1 > 7:1 4 8434 11 Grainstone 5 6 5:6 < 7:1 5 8439 11 Packstone 12 1 12:1 > 10:1 6 8445 10 Packstone 11 1 11:1 > 7:1 7 8458 9 Grainstone 5 4 5:4 < 7:1 8 8466 9 Packstone 8 1 8:1 > 7:1 9 8468 21 Packstone 22 1 22:1 > 10:1 10 8518 30 Packstone 31 1 31:1 > 10:1 11 8523 11 Grainstone 2 9 2:9 < 7:1 12 8525 19 Grainstone 10 9 10:9 < 7:1 13 8548 15 Grainstone 13 2 13:2 < 7:1 14 8551 7 Grainstone 6 1 6:1 < 7:1 15 8556 8 Grainstone 1 9 1:9 < 7:1 16 8579 7 Grainstone 6 1 6:1 < 7:1 17 8590 23 Packstone 24 1 24:1 > 10:1

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Curriculum Vita

Abdusalam A. Agail was born in S. Khamis-Al Khoms, Libya and he is the second son of

Ali Agail and the Salmah Alabed family. He finished high school in 1996 and started his

Bachelor degree in the same year at the University of Elmergib-Department of Geology and

Environmental Sciences. He graduated in 2000 with honors and later he got an offer in 2002 to work at General Water Authority-Libya as a hydrogeologist. Abdusalam`s job was as a drilling supervisor for different projects of many water wells. In 2005 he got another opportunity to work at the University of Elmergib as an assistant member where taught different labs such as sedimentology, field geology, paleontology, and petroleum geology. In 2007 he was granted a scholarship to pursue his master degree in Geology. Later in 2008 he moved to United States. He started his master program in the fall of 2009 at the University of Texas at El Paso- Department of Geological Sciences.

Permanent Address: Abdusalam Agail P.O.Box: 40169 Al-Khoms-Libya

Abdusalam A. Agail, El Paso, Texas July 11, 2011

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