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For King and What Country? Chinggisid-Timurid Conceptions of Rulership and Political Community in Relation to Territory, 1370–1530 by Shuntu Kuang A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto © Copyright by Shuntu Kuang 2020 For King and What Country? Chinggisid-Timurid Conceptions of Rulership and Political Community in Relation to Territory, 1370–1530 Shuntu Kuang Doctor of Philosophy Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations University of Toronto 2020 Abstract This thesis investigates Chinggisid-Timurid conceptions of rulership and political community in relation to territory, focusing on Perso-Islamic Central Asia and Iran during the period 1370–1530. It also discusses the thirteenth-century Mongol-ruled world for backdrop, and highlights the distinctiveness of the said conceptions through comparisons with contemporaneous European and East Asian/Ming Chinese conceptions of the same. This is a study of a chapter in the history of “international states system” before the European model of international states system became the global standard. The political culture of the Chaghatayids, Ilkhanids, and Timurids included conceptions of rulership and political community vis-à-vis territory that were rooted in a mix of Mongol and Perso-Islamic traditions. In the early thirteenth century, the Mongols conceived of a qan (khan) as leading an ulus, that is, a mobile demographic entity not defined by specific territory. Tājīk historians in Mongol service appeared to have understood this, though a number of them also attributed certain territorial characteristics to ulus. The matter becomes more complicated when Chinggisid-Timurid chancellery documents/diplomatic ii letters are considered, as unlike their European and East Asian counterparts, these documents lacked straightforward claims of rulership over politico-administrative territory. At the same time, a certain representation of rulership over territories, in the form of “pādeshāhs of wilāyats,” can be found in the histories, but this was evidently neither a formal nor a pronounced representation. By 1402, the Timurids no longer recognized a Chinggisid khan as their overlord, but they also did not clearly articulate what this meant in terms of the political community to which they belonged—especially, did they still belong to the ulus of Chaghatay? This study seeks answers to a basic question concerning the Chaghatayids, the Ilkhanids, and especially the fifteenth-century Timurids: “What was their country?” iii In memory of my mentor and 恩師 Professor Allison Busch (1969–2019) iv Acknowledgments I owe my education at the University of Toronto to many remarkable ladies and gentlemen. These brief acknowledgements could hardly express the extent of my gratitude to them. Had it not been for Alan Qo’a, there would not be Chinggisid-Timurid history as we know it. Thus, long before this humble thesis was conceived, nay, long before this worthless one chanced upon the world thirty-two years ago, an untold debt had already been owed to the blessing that is womanhood. Verily, this is beyond doubt! It is therefore fitting that this worthless one first acknowledges the great women who guided and supported him over the past six years. Professor Subtelny took this worthless one under her wings and performed the miracle of making a “researcher” out of him! Her course on the history of Iran was an indispensable foundation for my doctoral specialization. And when she was on sabbatical, she still took time every week to read Persian historical texts with me. During the years of my thesis writing, Prof. Subtelny closely reviewed every chapter, and did the same for the full draft—twice. Her care and guidance run through every vein of this thesis. In 2013, I came to the University of Toronto’s Department of Near and Middle Eastern Civilizations (NMC) because I knew for sure that I wish to concentrate in Timurid history under Prof. Subtelny’s mentorship. Which angel was it who guided the ignorant Shuntu to the wisest decision of his life?! Mrs. Anna Sousa, our graduate administrator until her retirement in 2019, was our mama bear, who made sure that every one of us cubs was given warmth. From the day I arrived at NMC, to my comprehensive exams, to the late stage of my thesis, it was Mrs. v Sousa who made sure that I had the best logistical backing, without which I would have become the dictionary’s picture for “unmitigated disaster.” I would also like to bow in salute to all the staff members who served at NMC from 2013 to 2020 for their amazing daily support. Professor Linda Northrup taught me early Islamic-world history, opening my eyes to historical narratives about the early Muslim community that I had failed to learn elsewhere. Prof. Northrup oversaw one of my comprehensive exams, and took time from retirement to be the internal examiner of my thesis. She was also my first TA supervisor. I am simply fortunate to have enjoyed Prof. Northrup’s guidance throughout my doctoral training. Professor Beatrice Manz is a most admired scholar of Timurid history. Her work The Rise and Rule of Tamerlane was for all intents and purposes my introductory textbook that opened the gates to the subfield. It was my distinct honor and privilege to have Prof. Manz as the external examiner of my thesis and to have her come from Tufts University, Boston, to attend my thesis defense amidst the harsh Toronto winter. Professor Tirzah Meacham was our graduate coordinator during the early years of my studies at NMC, and I am most grateful to Prof. Meacham for constantly making sure that I was on track at every stage. Professor Heather Baker was my TA supervisor, and she represented to me the highest standard of devotion to teaching. If I become a teacher one day, I will look to Prof. Baker as an example. Professor Azita Taleghani gave me the study abroad experience in Iran that I never had. Her course on Iranian historical linguistics, taught partially in Persian, was the neatest course I took at NMC. vi I now must acknowledge the great women of my own generation who gave me their caring support over the years. In my first year at NMC, bacım Lale was the leader of our Ottoman Turkish reading group. She generously read Ottoman Turkish with us, as I stumbled over the texts. In later years, Bacım took care of me on more occasions than I could possibly count. Whenever I had trouble, I could seek her advice and sympathy. During my preparation for comprehensive exams, Bacım sat with me to read Yazdī’s Ẓafarnāma. And during my years of nomadizing between summer and winter pastures, Bacım, bacı erim Samad, and Mary Jiejie gave me warm hospitality and refuge. Their kindness forms the most beautiful part of my memories in Toronto. My good sister Parisa has been a great friend since I arrived at NMC. In my first year as a PhD student, I enjoyed the Persian conversation group that she organized for us. And during my preparation for comprehensive exams, Parisa generously spent time with me to read Rashīd al-Dīn’s Jāmiʿ al-tawārīkh. Whenever I had questions about Persian, I could always count on her to show me the way. And we owe the incredible 21st Annual NMC Graduate Students’ Association Symposium to Parisa’s leadership and hard work. I cannot thank enough Maryna Kravets Hocam for aiding and supporting Dr. Lee Joo- Yup and me in our project “A Comparative Analysis of Chinese Historical Sources and Y- DNA Studies with Regard to the Early and Medieval Turkic Peoples.” A special thanks to Dr. Noha Abou-Khatwa for generously taking time to teach me the details of Arabic diacritics. vii As well, a great big shout out to Dr. Tracy Spurrier, Queen of Mesopotamia. I will never forget Tracy taking me and Usman to Costco in Toronto—an effective cure for American homesickness! At home in the US, my big sister, Jie, continued to be my unwavering pillar of stability and support. There will not be enough that I could do in this lifetime to thank her. Surely, it is now time to express gratitude to our ata-aqa! Professor Victor Ostapchuk spent countless hours teaching me to read Ottoman Turkish historical texts. For my comprehensive exams and thesis, Prof. Ostapchuk was a de facto supervisor. It is simply enjoyable to listen to Prof. Ostapchuk’s commentary on all things! He never holds back and has a most down-to-earth sense of humor. I hope I will always get to see Prof. Ostapchuk when I visit NMC. 師兄 Dr. Lee Joo-Yup has been a mentor, a supporter, and an elder brother of mine. He opened my eyes to historical facts via the scientific method, and enhanced my research training through opportunities to participate in his projects. At the same time, he uniquely helped me rethink important life questions. As a research historian, Dr. Hyeong represents to me the highest combined moral-and-academic standard of the profession. Furthermore, he, Hyeongsu, and the wonderful children, Jae-Hyeon, Jae-Jun, and Jae-In, gave me comfort and support throughout the years of my doctoral studies and during the most critical and meaningful of times. A special taʿẓīm to big barādar, Abolfazl, for his years of moral and tangible support! I could always count on him for help when I got stuck with Persian texts. Anecdote: One late afternoon, in the NMC Graduate Lounge, Abolfazl had but a small sandwich for lunch, but viii when I came, he did not hesitate to first offer it to me. May he continue on the Sufi path, ever closer to union with the Truth.
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