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CRISES and RITUAL of ASCENSION to the THRONE (FIRST – THIRD CENTURY A.D.) Patrizia Arena Behaviours, Formulas, and Locations T

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CRISES and RITUAL of ASCENSION to the THRONE (FIRST – THIRD CENTURY A.D.) Patrizia Arena Behaviours, Formulas, and Locations T CRISES AND RITUAL OF ASCENSION TO THE THRONE (FIRST – THIRD CENTURY A.D.) Patrizia Arena Behaviours, formulas, and locations that would become the constitutive nucleus of the ritual of ascension to the throne emerged during the \ rst and the second centuries A.D., especially as a result of crises of succession and at critical moments of power vacancies. The ritual arose from such moments of transition and potential crises, determined by the speci c historical circumstances, differing tendencies inside the court concerning imperial succession, and contrasts between various social groups as to the election of a new princeps. This paper concentrates on one speci c aspect of the impact of crises on the Roman Empire: the birth of the ‘ritual of accession’. This phenomenon is best understand- able in relation to speci c functions of courts’ rituals in different societies throughout history. The prime function of rituals was to create stability in crises of power; this purpose could be obtained through symbolic gestures and well de ned formulas, through orderly interaction between various social groups, controlled by precise regulations on behaviour.1 Further functions were to create legitimacy and assent, to consolidate the social hierarchy, and to establish relationships of dependence and subordination between the emperor and his subjects. It thus seems worth analyzing the development of the ritual of ascension to the throne, and the ways in which elements of past tradi- tions were used in this respect from the rst to the early third century. Although the expression ‘ascension to the throne’ may seem improper for this period, I use it for several reasons: (1) it appears in the account of Herodianus about the accession of Pertinax and again when he discusses 1 On the functions of the ceremonial, cf. E.J. Hobsbawm, ‘Introduction: Inventing Tradition’, in E.J. Hobsbawm and T. Ranger (eds.), The Invention of Tradition (Cambridge 1983), 3 ff.; D. Cannadine, ‘The Context, Performance and Meaning of Ritual: the British Monarchy and the “Invention of Tradition”, c.1820–1977’, in Hobsbawm and Ranger 1983, op. cit. (n. 1), 104 ff.; D. Cannadine and S. Price (eds.), Rituals of Royalty: Power and Ceremonial in Traditional Societies (Cambridge 1992). Patrizia Arena - 9789047420903 Downloaded from Brill.com10/03/2021 02:29:43AM via free access 328 patrizia arena the rst senatorial meeting at the accession of Septimius Severus;2 (2) it corresponds to the development of the imperial insignia, especially of the sella, and of the court’s rituals during the rst two centuries of the Empire;3 (3) the image and the symbolic meaning of the throne change during the second century.4 From my research it emerges that the phases and places of emper- ors’ assumptions of power during the early Empire at Rome can be usefully compared to the parts of the fully developed ceremony at Constantinople during the fth – sixth century A.D.5 According to the De Ceremoniis, four successive phases in the ritual of accession can be distinguished: the choice of the candidate to the throne ( ), the proclamation of the chosen emperor by acclamations (`"&$#), the coronation ($%c)#), and the acclamation of recognition shouted to the new emperor (μ).6 The proclamation, coronation and acclamation at rst took place in the μ % %" & & at the Hebdomon, but later in the Hippodrome.7 The Hebdomon was a place that could be clearly identi ed with the army and formed a symbol of the military victory. During the fth century it was substituted by the Hippodrome, the new civilian setting for the imperial accession, where the soldiers symbolized the army’s participation and joined the crowd in acclaiming the new emperor.8 It must be observed that the ritual of 2 Herodianus, Ab excessu divi Marci 2.3.3–4; 3.8.6; I am grateful to Professor W. Eck for the interesting discussion on the use of the expression ‘ascension to the throne’ and its implicit meaning. 3 A. Alföldi, Die monarchische Repräsentation im römischen Kaiserreiche (Darmstadt 1970), 242 ff.; S. Weinstock, ‘The image and chair of Germanicus’, Journal of Roman Studies 47 (1957), 150 ff.; Idem, Divus Julius (Oxford 1971), 283 ff.; P. Zanker, Augustus und die Macht der Bilder (München 1987), 242 ff. 4 See also BMC II H 18, V; N. Hannestad, Roman Art and Imperial Policy (Aarhus 1988), 276 ff. 5 On the accession during the Tetrarchic period and the Byzantine age and the different elements involved, see S. MacCormack, Art and Ceremony in Late Antiquity (Berkeley 1981), 248 ff. On the De Ceremoniis, see A. Cameron, ‘The Construction of Court Ritual: the Byzantine Book of Ceremonies’, in Cannadine and Price 1992, op. cit. (n. 1), 103–136. 6 On the phases of the ceremony and on the insignia, see A. Pertusi, ‘Insegne del potere sovrano e delegato a Bisanzio e nei paesi di in uenza bizantina’, in Simboli e simbologia nell’Alto Medioevo, XXIII Settimana di Studio del Centro Italiano di Studi sull’Alto Medioevo (Spoleto 1976), 481 ff. 7 De Ceremoniis 1.91–93. 8 MacCormack 1981, op. cit. (n. 5), 363 ff. On the symbolic system and the ideologi- cal aspects connected to the Hippodrome, see G. Vespignani, ‘Aspetti della relazione tra l’ippodromo e la città, dalla Tarda Antichità al sec. XI”, Rivista di Bizantinistica 2 (1992), 4–30; Idem, Simbolismo, magia e sacralità dello spazio circo (Bologna 1994); Idem, Patrizia Arena - 9789047420903 Downloaded from Brill.com10/03/2021 02:29:43AM via free access crises and ritual of ascension to the throne 329 accession during Late Antiquity was still characterized by many different elements. They ranged from a con ict between civilians and soldiers to the shouts of acclamation to the emperor, to the attribution to a superior authority of the election of a new emperor. Yet, these same factors – although confused, fragmentary, and result of crisis – during the Byzantine period formed an elaborate and formalized ceremony. Three of the essential phases of acquiring power, which would be standardised in the ceremony of the fth – sixth century, seem already to have developed in Rome from the rst to the early third century. The choice and designation of the new emperor corresponds to the , his proclamation corresponds to the , and the assent through acclamations by soldiers, senate, and people to legitimate the emperor’s rule corresponds to the μ. Furthermore, by the rst century in Rome, speci c sites within the urban space emerged where aforesaid phases of the emperors’ assumption of power took place: gradus Palatii or area Palatina, castrum, curia. They can be compared to corresponding sites of the Byzantine ceremony through their peculiar features and symbolic values. This paper concentrates on three peculiar aspects of the ritual of accession. First, the role of the acclamation as Imperator and of the formulaic acclamations. Second, the relations between acclamations, places, and social groups taking part in the ritual of assumption of power, and nally the real and symbolic signi cance of the places in the ritual procedure. As already argued by W. Ensslin long ago, the ceremony of ascension to the throne seems to have been standardised by the end of the third century and was characterized by acclamations chanted in unison by the senate in the curia.9 Although only few examples of these acclamations survive in our sources for the early Empire, it is a reasonable assump- tion that the rst and the beginning of the second century A.D. were crucial for the origin and development of the ritual of accession. At \ rst, the praetorians used the acclamation as Imperator for their choice of the new emperor and his proclamation. They thus transformed the acclamation into a new political (and ritual) behaviour, constitu- tive of the emperor’s assumption of power. The praetorians, after all, Il circo di Costantinopoli nuova Roma (Spoleto 2001); Idem, ‘Il cerimoniale imperiale nel circo (sec. IV–VI)’, Rivista di Studi Bizantini e Slavi, Ser. 2°, 4 (2002), 13–37. 9 W. Ensslin, ‘The end of the Principate’, in CAH 12 (Cambridge 1939), 656 ff. Patrizia Arena - 9789047420903 Downloaded from Brill.com10/03/2021 02:29:43AM via free access 330 patrizia arena used the traditional form by which soldiers had recognized the virtus of a triumphator in the triumph ceremonies of the Republican age in a new context. For this development, the rst century seems to have been the crucial period. The soldiers’ behaviour, in turn, undoubtedly in uenced the form in which other social groups participated in the emperor’s assumption of power, displayed their approval to the emperor and legitimized his rule.10 By the early Principate the praetorians, the senators, and the people proclaimed and legitimized a new emperor by acclamations in an increasingly standardized imperial ritual. The acclamations progressively shaped a ritual by which the dangerous moments of power vacancies could be bridged whilst at the same time the new relationships between emperor and subjects were de ned. They also ensured stability in the ritual of accession, much like their function in the Byzantine age. From ancient sources about the elections of Claudius and of Nero it follows that the various social groups played an important role in behaviours and actions, which in the future would become formalised ritual acts. Thus, claudius was driven by force out of his house, %N# (#, inside the Palace and was taken (*= % (area Palatina) by Gratus and other praetorians, who decided to make him emperor. There, he was proclaimed emperor through praetorian acclamation for the rst time. After they had proceeded towards the castrum, (# , he was acclaimed a second time.11 Hence, the praetorian guard removed the acclamation as Imperator from the battle eld (and military victory), using it instead as a ritualistic way to indicate the proclamation of a new princeps.12 In the Palatium and the castrum, they bestowed to Claudius the title of Imperator, explicitly sup- porting the monarchical shape of government.
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