International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Reviews Vol.9 No.1, January 2019; p.239 – 250, (ISSN: 2276-8645)

SEASONAL VARIATIONS IN PHYSICO-CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER IN OGOCHIE RIVER IN NGOR OKPALA L.G.A.,

ONYENECHERE, E.C. Department of Geography & Environmental Management, Imo State University, . Email address: [email protected]

&

CHUKWUKERE, P.O. Department of Geography & Environmental Management, Imo State University, Owerri.

ABSTRACT This study assesses the water quality of Ogochie River in Ngor Okpala L.G.A., Imo State in order to ascertain any seasonal variation. Particularly, it investigated the following physico-chemical parameters of the river water namely pH, Conductivity, Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Calcium (Ca), Magnesium (Mg), Iron (Fe), Ammonia (NH4), Chloride (Cl), Total Hardness, Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Dissolved Oxygen (DO). These were determined from water samples collected using the composite method at four locations (points) along the river, in the dry season and rainy season using recommended standard. The data obtained were further analyzed using Post hoc statistical test. The result showed that some of the values of the sample parameters were above or below the WHO standards. The p- value for locations (points) 1 to 4 against WHO standards are 0.043, 0.038, 0.040 and 0.034 respectively for the dry season; while the p-value for locations (points) 1 to 4 against WHO standards for the rainy season are 0.046, 0.049, 0.037 and 0.033 respectively. This result showed that there are significant variations in the water quality at different sample locations (points) and at different seasons. The water is not considered safe for drinking either in the rainy season or dry season. It is therefore recommended that the river water be treated locally by boiling and filtering before consumption.

KEYWORDS: Water quality, Ogochie River, Imo State, Season, Variation, Physico-chemical

INTRODUCTION Water is an important constituent of the biotic community and it plays a significant role in the continuity of life due to its unique qualities (Kelgley and Andrews, 1998; Narayana, 2009). However, there is increased exploitation of fresh water resources especially the surface water such as rivers in most parts of the world. This is because rivers are the most important freshwater resources for man. In Nigeria, and especially in Imo state, many communities do not have potable drinking water (Ahamefule and Mbagwu, 2007). They depend heavily on river water for cooking, drinking and other domestic uses/purposes. Unfortunately, water in river channels are being polluted by indiscriminate disposal of sewage, industrial waste and wastes from a plethora of other human activities, which affects their physicochemical characteristics and microbiological quality (AIRBDA, 2014). Most surface water bodies are gradually becoming the most available places for dumping of wastes, both industrial and domestic. Most of the surface water sources in Nigeria have recorded both total coliform counts and fecal coliform counts high above the limits of WHO maximum contamination levels of drinking water (Ezenwaji et al., 2014). The rate at which water bodies are being polluted is a thing of concern to all stakeholders (Ogidi and Nwadiaro, 1998). Pollution of the aquatic environment is therefore, a serious and growing problem that 239

International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Reviews Vol.9 No.1, January 2019; p.239 – 250, (ISSN: 2276-8645) requires a continuous survey. The impact of such polluted water on human health is quite enormous (Chukwu, 2008). There are several previous studies on physico-chemical properties of rivers in Nigeria. There are those on Otamiri River (Obodo, 2002; Ogbulie et al., 2008; Nwanebu et al., 2011; Duru et al., 2012a; Okeke and Adinna, 2013; and Okoro et al., 2016), Nworie River (Obodo, 2002; Acholonu, 2008; Duru et al., 2012b; Nwagbara et al., 2013; Onyekwuru et al., 2014; Umunnakwe and Nnaji, 2015 and Okoro et al., 2016), Imo River (Obodo, 2002; and Okorie and Nwosu, 2014), Mbaa River (Obodo, 2002) and lastly River (Ahiarakwem and Onyekuru, 2011); but till date there is no known water quality study of the Ogochie River in Imo State. It is therefore necessary to study the quality of Ogochie river water, on the basis of physico- chemical parameters in order to assess its potability both in the rainy season and dry season.

AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY This work is therefore aimed at studying the water quality of Ogochie River as well as its seasonal variation. The study has one central objective which is; i) to examine the physico-chemical characteristics of the Ogochie River water during the rainy season and the dry season for the four (4) sample locations

RESEARCH HYPOTHESES The following are the research hypotheses Hypothesis 1 The results of water quality parameters at each of the four sampling locations during the dry season as well as the WHO control are not significantly different from each other.

Hypothesis 2 There is no significant difference between the result of water quality parameters obtained during the rainy season at the four sampling locations and WHO control standard.

MATERIALS AND METHODS The Ogochie River is mainly located in Ngor Okpala L.G.A. (see Fig. 1), but continues its flow to Etche community in Rivers State. The Ogochie River which flows southwards is governed by both the Otamiri and the Imo Rivers. It is actually one of the many tributaries of Otamiri River which flows directly into Imo River. Its origin or source is at Umuneke Ngor community in Ngor Okpala L.G.A., Imo State (Okoro et al., 2014). With respect to coverage, this study limited itself to only the portion of Ogochie River that flows through Ngor Okpala L.G.A of Imo state (i.e. the upper and middle course of the river). It certainly did not cover the portion of Ogochie River which flows through Rivers State before emptying itself into the sea (i.e. the lower course of the river).

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Fig. 1: Imo State Drainage showing Ogochie River and its tributaries Source: Imo State Ministry of Lands and Survey (2005). This study on Ogochie river employed laboratory investigation. The laboratory investigation was to analyze water samples collected from different points along the river. The first step was making a reconnaissance visit to the river, for a physical assessment of the river being studied. After that activity, four points A, B, C and D were selected for sampling along the river. Point A was upstream close to the source, and it also acted as control. Points A, B and C were 4km apart except for the last one D which was 3.75km, since the length of the Ogochie river within Ngor Okpala L.G.A. is 15.75km. The sampling was carried out in both dry season (February/March) and rainy season (July/August), from depths of 20 cm, and in the evening. Four clean and sterile plastic containers of a litre capacity were

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International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Reviews Vol.9 No.1, January 2019; p.239 – 250, (ISSN: 2276-8645) used in collecting the samples using hand gloves. This was in duplicates in order to improve reliability of data. This was also done by first rinsing the containers with the river water before collection. Each sample was immediately covered and properly labeled before preserving them at low temperature of 40C using ice chest. The samples were taken to the laboratory for analysis. Standard analytical procedures were used in the determination of selected physical and chemical water quality parameters of the samples. Conductivity was measured by conductivity meter. The pH was determined using electronic pH meter. The hardness of the water, dissolved oxygen (DO), biological oxygen demand (BOD) and total dissolved solid (TDS) were measured as well. The chemical parameters such as Nitrate and Ammonia was determined in the laboratory using appropriate methods/procedures, likewise zinc, iron, calcium, magnesium, chlorine and copper. Statistical analysis was performed on data sets. The inferential statistical analysis conducted was a Post Hoc test analysis. This was used to test for the significant difference or variation in the water quality result obtained from Ogochie river and WHO control standard. The Post Hoc analysis was considered fit for the study as the study intended to compare the different locations from WHO control standard and as well see how they differ among the four (4) locations in the different seasons. Concerning the testing of the hypotheses, the p-value scores were used in the decision making. The statistical analysis was done using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 21 (SPSS 21) package. Previous studies by Ezenwaji, Eduputa and Uwadiegwu (2014) and Ebin and Effiong (2017) utilized the Post Hoc test in assessing surface water quality, and because this study considered it suitable it adopted it.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION It is a known fact that some rural dwellers resort to rivers and streams for their drinking water in many parts of Nigeria (Igbozurike et al., 2010). In pursuance of the investigation to establish the water quality of River Ogochie and its potability, physicochemical parameters of the river’s water samples were collected, analyzed and compared with World Health Organization (WHO) standards. The results obtained for the physico-chemical parameters in the locations studied during the dry season are shown in Table 1. Table 1 presents the result for the physicochemical parameters inherent in water samples from Ogochie River during the dry season. The pH of a water body is very important in the determination of water quality since it affects other chemical reactions such as solubility and metal toxicity (Fakayode, 2005). The result showed that the pH result analysis from the sample of water obtained during the dry season from the different locations in Ogochie River ranged from 4.6 to 4.96 with a mean of 4.80 while the WHO control standard reports to be 6.5. The pH is lower at location 1 meaning the water is acidic. This could be as a result of the amount of plant growth and organic material within the body of the water. When this material decomposes carbon dioxide is released. The carbon dioxide combines with water to form carbonic acid. Although this is a weak acid, large amounts of it will lower the pH. However, the coastal plain soils on which runoff into the Ogochie River flows are ferralitic soils. The ferralitic soils of the coastal plains sands occupy 61% of the total area of Imo State which includes the study area. The chemical properties are somewhat unfavourable. The pH value is low with a range of 4.8 to 5.5 as seen in literature. It is considered the influence of natural factors on water quality. Generally, the pH is acid, and on average its value is around 5.0 (Government of Imo State of Nigeria, 1984). Conductivity obtained ranges from 28 to 31 during the dry season with a mean of 29.5 while the WHO control standard reports to be 1000. Although conductivity is higher in location 4 followed by location 3, the result of the conductivity is far way below the WHO standard which is 1000. This indicates that the water does not contain too much ions. TDS ranges from 13 to 18 during the dry season with a mean of 16, and is higher in

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Table 1: Physico-chemical Properties of Ogochie River for the Dry Season WHO Location Average of Location 1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 Guideline sample Sample value pH 4.96 4.6 4.8 4.83 4.7975 6.5 Conductivity 28 29 30 31 29.5 1000 TDS 13 14 19 18 16 100 Zn2+ 0.17 0.16 0.18 0.19 0.175 3 Cu2+ 0.15 0.13 0.15 0.18 0.1525 0.10 Ca2+ 0.6 0.76 0.78 0.69 0.7075 2 Mg2+ 0.2 0.33 0.23 0.24 0.25 0.5 Fe2+ 0.04 0.08 0.06 0.07 0.0625 1.14 + NH4 0.64 0.67 0.74 0.7 0.6875 0.5 Total Hardness 3.2 3.6 3.75 3.57 3.53 0.45 Dissolved Oxygen 6.2 6.22 6.22 6.33 6.2425 4 Cl- 0.08 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.0725 600 BOD 231.6 189.8 200.1 147.8 192.325 0.1 Source: Authors’ Laboratory Investigation, 2017. location 3 and 4 while the WHO control standard reports to be 100. Ammonia, which ranges from 0.64 to 0.74 during the dry season with a mean of 0.6875, is way higher than the WHO standard which accounts to be 0.5, and is also higher in locations 3 and 4. Zinc ranges from 0.16 to 0.19 during the dry season with a mean of 0.175 while the WHO control standard reports to be 3. Zinc is highest in location 4, followed by location 3. Copper ranges from 0.13 to 0.18 during the dry season with a mean of 0.1525 and is highest in location 4. Calcium ranges from 0.6 to 0.78 during the dry season with a mean of 0.71 and is highest at location 4 while the WHO control standard reports to be 2. Magnesium ranges from 0.2 to 0.33 during the dry season, and is highest at location 2 with a mean of 0.25 while the WHO control standard reports to be 0.5. Iron ranges from 0.04 to 0.07 during the dry season with a mean of 0.0625 and is highest at location 2 while the WHO control standard reports to be 1.14. Dissolved oxygen ranges from 6.2 to 6.33 during the dry season with a mean of 6.2425 and is highest at location 4 while the WHO control standard reports to be 4. Dissolved oxygen result obtained from the laboratory test of Ogochie river water is said to be higher than WHO control standard. This may be due to copious growth of phytoplankton with less water flow, disturbance and uprooting leading to increased generation of oxygen by photosynthesis activities as corroborated by Ezenwaji et al. (2014). According to Fakayode (2005), dissolved oxygen is very crucial for survival of aquatic organisms and it is also used to evaluate the degree of freshness of a river. Chlorine ranges from 0.06 to 0.08 during the dry season with a mean of 0.0725 and is highest at location 1 while the WHO control standard reports to be 600. This is far lesser than WHO standard and may be as a result of the weathering of some sedimentary rocks around the river, agricultural and road run-offs (Okonko et al, 2008). BOD ranges from 147.8 to 231.6 during the dry season with a mean of 192.325 and it is highest at location 1 while the WHO control standard reports to be 0.1. This is relatively higher than WHO limit. This may be an indication of significant bacteriological action on the river. The details needed to show seasonal variation or fluctuation of all the chosen parameters can be seen in Table 2. Table 2 shows the result for the physicochemical parameters carried out during the rainy season. The result showed that the pH result analysis from the sample of water obtained during the raining season from the different locations in Ogochie River ranged from 5.67 to 5.96 with a mean of 5.815 while the WHO control standard reports to be 6.5. The location with the highest pH is location 1.

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Table 2: Physico-chemical Properties of Ogochie River for the Rainy Season WHO Location Average of Location 1 Location 2 Location 3 Location 4 Guideline sample Sample value pH 5.96 5.67 5.8 5.83 5.815 6.5 Conductivity 30 31 30 31 30.5 1000 TDS 15 16 18 17 16.5 100 Zn2+ 0.19 0.19 0.18 0.17 0.1825 3 Cu2+ 0.17 0.18 0.16 0.17 0.17 0.10 Ca2+ 0.68 0.7 0.72 0.65 0.6875 2 Mg2+ 0.22 0.23 0.21 0.23 0.2225 0.5 Fe2+ 0.04 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.0525 1.14 + NH4 0.64 0.67 0.72 0.68 0.6775 0.5 Total Hardness 2.58 2.6 2.75 2.57 2.625 0.45 Dissolved Oxygen 5.2 5.2 5.21 5.3 5.2275 4 Cl- 0.07 0.08 0.07 0.06 0.07 600 BOD 241.4 261.4 167.2 126.3 199.075 0.1 Source: Authors’ Laboratory Investigation, 2017. Conductivity obtained ranges from 30 to 31 during the raining season with a mean of 30.5 and the highest point being location 2 while the WHO control standard reports to be 1000. The result of the conductivity is far way below the WHO standard which is 1000. This indicates that the water does not contain too much ions. TDS ranges from 15 to 18 during the raining season with a mean of 16.5 and location 3 being the highest while the WHO control standard reports to be 100. Ammonia, which ranges from 0.64 to 0.72 during the raining season with a mean of 0.6775 and the highest point being location 3, is way higher than the WHO standard which accounts to be 0.5. Zinc ranges from 0.17 to 0.19 during the rainy season with a mean of 0.1825 and the highest points being locations 1 and 2 while the WHO control standard reports to be 3. Copper ranges from 0.16 to 0.17 during the raining season with a mean of 0.17 and location 2 the area with the highest concentration. Calcium ranges from 0.65 to 0.7 during the raining season with a mean of 0.6875 with location 3 the highest point while the WHO control standard reports to be 2. Magnesium has location 2 has the area with the highest concentration and ranges from 0.21 to 0.23 during the raining season with a mean of 0.2225 while the WHO control standard reports to be 0.5. Iron ranges from 0.04 to 0.06 during the raining season with a mean of 0.0525 and has locations 2 and 4 the most concentrated while the WHO control standard reports to be 1.14. Dissolved oxygen ranges from 5.2 to 5.3 during the raining season with a mean of 5.2275 but the most concentrated area is location 4 while the WHO control standard reports to be 4. The result of dissolved oxygen obtained from Ogochie river is said to be higher than WHO control standard and may again be due to copious growth of phytoplankton with less water flow, disturbance and uprooting leading to increased generation of oxygen by photosynthesis activities. Chlorine ranges from 0.06 to 0.08 during the raining season with a mean of 0.07 while the WHO control standard reports to be 600. This is far lesser than WHO standard and may again be as a result of the weathering of some sedimentary rocks around the river, agricultural and road run-offs. BOD ranges from 126.3 to 261.4 during the raining season with a mean of 199.075 while the WHO control standard reports to be 0.1. This is relatively higher than WHO limit. This may be an indication of significant bacteriological action on the river as well. These obtained results agree with Adesoji’s (2017) assertion that human activities in the watershed degrade the water quality. TDS in all locations both in the dry and rainy season is far below the permissible limit by WHO. The findings however disagree with the study of Ekulu River by Ezenwaji et al. (2014), which had figures above the maximum permissible level by WHO. Generally there is a water quality decline both in the dry season and rainy season. The variable- Dissoved Oxygen was also reported as critical in similar work by Gonzales de Souza (2003). He indicated the anthropogenic impacts that occurred along the river. Electrical

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International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Reviews Vol.9 No.1, January 2019; p.239 – 250, (ISSN: 2276-8645) conductivity is seen as low, it ranged between 28- 31 in the dry season and between 30 and 31 in the rainy season. This trend corroborates the report of Ernest and Onweremadu (2016). This trend has been reported by them to be associated with the Non saline nature of the soils and the fresh water status of the hydrology of the study site which is along Ogochie river flood plain. Total hardness increases downstream both in the dry season and in the rainy season. This trend corroborates the report of Okorie and Nwosu (2014). In their study of Imo River, they found that the total hardness increased downstream. The first null hypothesis formulated for this study which states that the results of water quality parameters at each of the four sampling locations during the dry season as well as the WHO control are not significantly different from each other, was tested using Post-Hoc statistical tool. The result in Table 3 presents multiple comparison test of the water quality in each sample location and WHO Standard using Post Hoc test for the period of dry season. In the interpretation of Post Hoc result, if the p-value is more than 0.05, it indicates that the value of the means of samples are not statistically different, while when it is below 0.05, it indicates that a difference occurred. The result in Table 3 has shown that location 1 against WHO guideline standard (which is represented with 5) shows a p-value of 0.043, while location 2 against WHO guideline standard accounts for a p-value of 0.038, location 3 against WHO guideline standard accounts for a p-value of 0.040, and finally location 4 against WHO guideline standard accounts for a p-value of 0.034. These results therefore reject the null hypothesis (H0) and accept the alternative (H1) concluding that the results of water quality parameters at each of the four sampling locations during the dry season compared to WHO control are significantly different from each other. These results also confirm that the water quality during the dry season for the different locations was polluted as they do not meet with WHO guideline standard.

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Table 3: Multiple Comparison Test of the water Quality in Each Sample Location during the dry season and WHO Standard using Post Hoc test Multiple Comparisons Dry Season LSD

(I) (J) Mean Difference (I- 95% Confidence Interval Location Location J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound 1 2 3.03154 57.32597 .958 -111.6775 117.7405 3 1.75077 57.32597 .976 -112.9582 116.4598 4 5.78308 57.32597 .920 -108.9259 120.4921 5 -120.96404* 58.50808 .043 -238.0384 -3.8897 2 1 -3.03154 57.32597 .958 -117.7405 111.6775 3 -1.28077 57.32597 .982 -115.9898 113.4282 4 2.75154 57.32597 .962 -111.9575 117.4605 5 -123.99558* 58.50808 .038 -241.0700 -6.9212 3 1 -1.75077 57.32597 .976 -116.4598 112.9582 2 1.28077 57.32597 .982 -113.4282 115.9898 4 4.03231 57.32597 .944 -110.6767 118.7413 5 -122.71481* 58.50808 .040 -239.7892 -5.6404 4 1 -5.78308 57.32597 .920 -120.4921 108.9259 2 -2.75154 57.32597 .962 -117.4605 111.9575 3 -4.03231 57.32597 .944 -118.7413 110.6767 5 -126.74712* 58.50808 .034 -243.8215 -9.6727 5 1 120.96404* 58.50808 .043 3.8897 238.0384 2 123.99558* 58.50808 .038 6.9212 241.0700 3 122.71481* 58.50808 .040 5.6404 239.7892 4 126.74712* 58.50808 .034 9.6727 243.8215 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. Source: SPSS 21 Output

Table 3 has also presented the p-value result between location 1 and 2 accounting for 0.958, location 1 and 3 accounts for 0.976, and location 1 and 4 accounts for 0.920 in the dry season. These results indicate that the result for the four (4) different location during the dry season are nearly the same meaning that the existing water quality for the four different location in Ogochie River are almost the same. The second null hypothesis formulated for this study which states that there is no significant difference between the results of water quality parameters obtained during the rainy season at the four sampling locations and WHO control standard, was tested using Post-Hoc statistical tool. The result in Table 4 presents multiple comparison test of the water quality in each sample location and WHO Standard using Post hoc test for the period of rainy season. In the interpretation of Post Hoc result, if the p-value is more than 0.05, it indicates that the value of the means of samples are not statistically different, while when it is below 0.05, it indicates that a difference occurred. The result in Table 4 has shown a comparison between WHO standard

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(i.e. location 5) and the four different locations. Location 1 against WHO guideline standard (5) shows a p- value of 0.046 for rainy season, while location 2 against WHO guideline standard (5) accounts for a p-value of 0.049 for rainy season, location 3 against WHO guideline standard (5) accounts for a p-value of 0.037 for rainy season, and finally location 4 against WHO guideline standard (5) accounts for a p-value of 0.033 for rainy season. These results therefore reject the null hypothesis (H0) and accept the alternative (H1) stating that that the results of water quality parameters at each of the four sampling locations during the raining season as well as the WHO control are significantly different from each other. These results also confirm that the water quality during the raining season for the different locations was polluted as they do not meet with WHO guideline standard. The result in Table 4 has also further shown that the p-value result between location 1 and 2 accounts for 0.977 in the rainy season, location 1 and 3 accounts for 0.925 in the rainy season, and location 1 and 4 accounts for 0.882 in the rainy season. These results indicate that the result for the four (4) different location are nearly the same meaning that the existing water quality for the four different location in Ogochie River are the same. The result in Table 4 has also further shown that the p-value result between location 1 and 2 accounts for 0.977 in the rainy season, location 1 and 3 accounts for 0.925 in the rainy season, and location 1 and 4 accounts for 0.882 in the rainy season. These results indicate that the result for the four (4) different location are nearly the same meaning that the existing water quality for the four different location in Ogochie River are the same.

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Table 4: Multiple Comparison Test of the water Quality in Each Sample Location During the Rainy season and WHO Standard Using Post Hoc Test Multiple Comparisons Rainy Season LSD

(I) (J) Mean Difference 95% Confidence Interval Location Location (I-J) Std. Error Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound 1 2 3.03154 57.32597 .958 -111.6775 117.7405 3 1.75077 57.32597 .976 -112.9582 116.4598 4 5.78308 57.32597 .920 -108.9259 120.4921 5 -120.96404* 58.50808 .043 -238.0384 -3.8897 2 1 -3.03154 57.32597 .958 -117.7405 111.6775 3 -1.28077 57.32597 .982 -115.9898 113.4282 4 2.75154 57.32597 .962 -111.9575 117.4605 5 -123.99558* 58.50808 .038 -241.0700 -6.9212 3 1 -1.75077 57.32597 .976 -116.4598 112.9582 2 1.28077 57.32597 .982 -113.4282 115.9898 4 4.03231 57.32597 .944 -110.6767 118.7413 5 -122.71481* 58.50808 .040 -239.7892 -5.6404 4 1 -5.78308 57.32597 .920 -120.4921 108.9259 2 -2.75154 57.32597 .962 -117.4605 111.9575 3 -4.03231 57.32597 .944 -118.7413 110.6767 5 -126.74712* 58.50808 .034 -243.8215 -9.6727 5 1 120.96404* 58.50808 .043 3.8897 238.0384 2 123.99558* 58.50808 .038 6.9212 241.0700 3 122.71481* 58.50808 .040 5.6404 239.7892 4 126.74712* 58.50808 .034 9.6727 243.8215 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. Source: SPSS 21 Output.

CONCLUSION From the study, we may conclude that Ogochie river is polluted. The study revealed the degree of pollution of the water of the Ogochie river by each of the results of the physico-chemical parameters. For instance, it showed that the mean pH of the river water is lower than the permissible limit, meaning that the water is not good for human consumption without treatment. The study equally showed the spatial and seasonal dispositions of the water quality of the Ogochie River by means of the post hoc statistical test. In Umuneke Ngor area, Ogochie River has been the source of drinking water, water for processing agricultural produce and an area for sand excavation for years. Therefore the need to continuously study the quality of water from rivers which pass through rural areas cannot be over laboured because of the importance of such rivers to the health and general development of the areas. It is being suggested that those who use the water for drinking, cooking and domestic hygienic uses should endeavour to locally treat it by boiling and filtering

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International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities Reviews Vol.9 No.1, January 2019; p.239 – 250, (ISSN: 2276-8645) before use. Government should implement existing environmental laws and ensure that no part of the river or its watershed is used either by residents or industries to dump wastes.

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