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A Brief History of Modern India

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A Brief History of Modern India by Rajiv Ahir I.P.S. With contributions from R. Vidya Sabina Madan Shashi Kumar Saxena Kalpana Rajaram Editor Kalpana Rajaram Revised and Enlarged Edition 2019 SPECTRUM BOOKS (P) LTD. A1 291, First Floor, Janakpuri, New Delhi 110 058 www.OnlineStudyPoints.com Editor’s Note Several books have been written by justly famous authors and historians of India’s struggle for freedom which is the major strand in any consideration of the history of Modern India. But these volumes are extensive and in-depth studies, and often suffer from an overemphasis on one aspect at the cost of another. The present small effort, however, brings together various aspects of the turbulent period (from the arrival of the Europeans on Indian soil and the establishment of British rule in India to the day India won independence and the early years of freedom) in a systematic and succinct manner: major and important details and milestones are effectively discussed while several relevant but little known details are also highlighted. It is not just the mainstream freedom struggle that has been considered; the disparate efforts—small but significant— of several groups have also been discussed. The political and socio-economic developments that have influenced the growth of modern India have been dealt with in independent chapters. The endeavour has been to present complex and truly vast material in a brief and easy-to-understand manner, and we hope our readers find the book of use and interest. The present edition includes chapters on the advent of (iii) www.OnlineStudyPoints.com Editor’s Note the Europeans in India and the British consolidation of power in India besides incorporating additional information under several chapters. There are also chapters on the challenges that a newly independent nation faced in the wake of a brutal partition. The Nehruvian era is also briefly discussed. A new chapter on India after Nehru has been added that discusses various developments under the governments that came after 1964. A survey of personalities associated with various movements, peasant and tribal movements, tables and charts are also given for quick reference. Suggestions for improvement are welcome. Kalpana Rajaram July 2019 (iv) www.OnlineStudyPoints.com Contents UNIT 1 SOURCES AND APPROACHES 1 Chapter 1 Sources for the History of Modern India 1 Archival Materials 2 Central Government Archives 2 Archives of the State Governments 3 Archives of Three Presidencies 4 Archives of Other European Powers 4 Judicial Records 5 Published Archives 5 Private Archives 6 Foreign Repositories 6 Biographies, Memoirs and Travel Accounts 7 Newspapers and Journals 8 Oral Evidence9 Creative Literature 10 Painting 10 Summary 12 Chapter 2 13 Major Approaches to the History of Modern India 13 Colonial Approach/ Historiography14 Nationalist Historiography/ Approach 14 Marxist Historiography/ Approach 15 Subaltern Approach/ Historiography 16 Communalist Approach 17 Cambridge School 18 Liberal and Neo-Liberal Interpretations 18 (v) www.OnlineStudyPoints.com Contents Feminist Historiography 18 Summary 19 UNIT 2 ADVENT OF EUROPEANS AND 21 CONSOLIDATION OF BRITISH POWER IN INDIA Chapter 3 Advent of the Europeans in India 21 The Portuguese in India 22 The Quest for and Discovery of a 22 Sea Route to India From Trading to Ruling 23 Portuguese State 28 Portuguese Lose Favour with the Mughals 30 Decline of the Portuguese 32 Significance of the Portuguese 34 The Dutch 35 Dutch Settlements 35 Anglo-Dutch Rivalry 36 Decline of the Dutch in India 36 The English 37 Charter of Queen Elizabeth I 37 Progress of the English Company 38 The French 42 Foundation of French Centres in India 42 The Anglo-French Struggle for Supremacy: the 44 Carnatic Wars Causes for the English Success and the 51 French Failure The Danes 53 Why the English Succeeded against 53 Other European Powers Structure and Nature of the Trading Companies 53 Naval Superiority 54 Industrial Revolution 54 Military Skill and Discipline 54 Stable Government 54 (vi) www.OnlineStudyPoints.com Contents Lesser Zeal for Religion 55 Use of Debt Market 55 Summary 55 Boxes Portuguese Rise and Fall 33 Formative Years of the East India Company 41 Rise and Fall of Dupleix in India 47 About the Goods in Trade Initially 52 Chapter 4 India on the Eve of British Conquest 59 Challenges before the Mughals 59 External Challenges59 Weak Rulers after Aurangzeb—An Internal Challenge 62 Causes of Decline of Mughal Empire 64 Shifting Allegiance of Zamindars 65 Jagirdari Crisis 65 Rise of Regional Aspirations 68 Economic and Administrative Problems69 Rise of Regional States 69 Survey of Regional Kingdoms 70 Nature and Limitations of Regional States 73 Socio-Economic Conditions 74 Agriculture 74 Trade and Industry 74 Status of Education 76 Societal Set-up 76 Developments in Art, Architecture 78 and Culture Summary 79 Boxes Why Many Empire-shaking Battles at Panipat? 61 Causes of the Mughals’ Downfall in a Nutshell 68 Chapter 5 Expansion and Consolidation of British 81 Power in India The British Imperial History 81 Was the British Conquest Accidental or Intentional? 81 When did the British Period Begin in India? 83 (vii) www.OnlineStudyPoints.com Contents Causes of British Success in India 84 Superior Arms, Military and Strategy 84 Better Military Discipline and Regular Salary 84 Civil Discipline and Fair Selection System 85 Brilliant Leadership and Support of Second 85 Line Leaders Strong Financial Backup 85 Nationalist Pride 86 British Conquest of Bengal 86 Bengal on the Eve of British Conquest 86 Alivardi Khan and the English 87 Challenges Before Siraj-ud-daula 87 The Battle of Plassey 88 Mir Kasim and the Treaty of 1760 89 The Battle of Buxar 90 The Treaty of Allahabad 92 Dual Government in Bengal (1765-72) 93 Mysore’s Resistance to the Company 94 The Wodeyar / Mysore Dynasty 94 Rise of Haidar Ali 94 First Anglo-Mysore War (1767-69) 95 Second Anglo-Mysore War (1780-84) 96 Third Anglo-Mysore War 97 Fourth Anglo-Mysore War 98 Mysore After Tipu 100 Anglo-Maratha Struggle for Supremacy 101 Rise of the Marathas 101 Entry of the English into Maratha Politics 101 First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82) 102 Second Anglo Maratha War (1803-1805) 104 Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19) 106 Why the Marathas Lost 107 Conquest of Sindh 109 Rise of Talpuras Amirs 109 Gradual Ascendancy over Sindh 109 Criticisms of the Conquest of Sindh 113 Conquest of Punjab 113 Consolidation of Punjab under the Sikhs 113 Ranjit Singh and the English 115 Punjab After Ranjit Singh 116 First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-46) 116 (viii) www.OnlineStudyPoints.com Contents Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-49) 118 Significance of the Anglo-Sikh Wars 119 Extension of British Paramountcy Through 119 Administrative Policy The Policy of Ring-Fence 119 Subsidiary Alliance 120 Doctrine of Lapse 123 Relations of British India with Neighbouring 125 Countries Anglo-Bhutanese Relations 125 Anglo-Nepalese Relations 126 Anglo-Burmese Relations 126 Anglo-Tibetan Relations 128 Anglo-Afghan Relations 129 John Lawrence and the Policy of 130 Masterly Inactivity Lytton and the Policy of Proud Reserve 131 British India and the North-West Frontier 132 Summary 133 Boxes Robert Clive 92 Estimate of Tipu Sultan 99 Annexation of Awadh 124 UNIT 3 RISING RESENTMENT AGAINST 136 COMPANY RULE Chapter 6 People’s Resistance Against British Before 1857 136 People’s Resistance: Meaning 137 Genesis of People’s Resistance 137 Causative Factors for People’s Uprisings 138 Civil Uprisings 138 Major Causes of Civil Uprisings 138 General Characteristics of Civil Uprisings 139 Important Civil Uprisings 139 Peasant Movements with Religious Overtones 152 Tribal Revolts 153 Different Causes for Mainland and 153 (ix) www.OnlineStudyPoints.com Contents North-Eastern Tribal Revolts Characteristics of Tribal Revolts 155 Important Tribal Movements of Mainland 155 Tribal Movements of the North-East 160 Sepoy Mutinies 162 Causes 162 Important Mutinies 162 Weaknesses of People’s Uprisings 163 Summary 164 Boxes Tribal Movements: Period, Region, Causes at a Glance 159 North-East Frontier Tribal Movements: Year, 161 Region, Major Causes Chapter 7 The Revolt of 1857 167 Simmering Discontent 167 The 1857 Revolt: the Major Causes 168 Economic Causes 168 Political Causes 169 Administrative Causes 170 Socio-Religious Causes 170 Influence of Outside Events 170 Discontent Among Sepoys 170 Beginning and Spread of the Revolt 171 The Spark 171 Starts at Meerut 172 Choice of Bahadur Shah as Symbolic Head 172 Civilians Join 173 Storm Centres and Leaders of the Revolt 174 Suppression of the Revolt 176 Why the Revolt Failed 177 All-India participation was absent 177 All classes did not join 177 Poor Arms and Equipment 178 Uncoordinated and Poorly Organised 178 No Unified Ideology 178 Hindu-Muslim Unity Factor 179 Nature of the Revolt 179 (x) www.OnlineStudyPoints.com Contents Consequences 182 Significance of the Revolt 185 Summary 186 Box White Mutiny 184 UNIT 4 REFORM MOVEMENTS 188 Chapter 8 Socio-Religious Reform Movements: 188 General Features Factors Giving Rise to Desire for Reform 188 Impact of British Rule 189 Social Conditions Ripe for Reform 189 Opposition to Western Culture 190 New Awareness among Enlightened Indians 190 Social and Ideological Bases of Reform 191 Middle Class Base 191 The Intellectual Criteria 192 Two Streams 193 Direction of Social Reform 194 Fight for Betterment of Position of Women 195 Struggle Against Caste-Based Exploitation 199 Summary 204 Chapter 9 A General Survey of Socio-Cultural 206 Reform Movements Socio-Cultural
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