Martha Graham: the Other Side of Depression

Martha Graham: The Other Side of Depression

Deborah J. Welsh

Martha Graham's work nearly spanned the century, but the decade of the 1930's was of utmost importance both personally and socio- politically. This was the time of the Great Depression in America and Graham's dancing served her country well to artistically move beyond it in the heroic journey of separation, initiation, and return. Her dance was far more than entertainment in relation to the difficult times. In a Jungian theoretical framework, it was compensatory in a powerfully symbolic way. Included here is a brief description of the social climate of the decade and a presentation of C.G. Jung's concepts of symbolic process and compensatory behavior, followed by explorations of three of Graham's dances of that decade "Lamentation," "Frontier," and "Every Soul Is a Circus." She helped the culture move "beyond depression" with these dances. The conclusion is an elabora- tion of the metaphorical relationship between Graham and her dances and the treatment of clinical depression by dance/movement therapists.

n an interview in the NY Times (Oct. 2, 1988), Nan Robertson encour- I aged Martha Graham to discuss the dark times in her life-the late '60s/early '70s after she had stopped dancing at the age of 75. With great

In memory, MARTHA GRAHAM, 1894-1991, with gratitude and respect for the dancer, choreographer, healer and woman that Martha Graham was. May we, as dance/movement therapists, continue that which she so boldly began, and may we do this with fierce commitment to the power which movement has to express the truest self.

reluctance, and gentle urging from her associate artistic director and important friend, Ronald Protas, Miss Graham disclosed this anecdote: Anthony Tudor asked her a long time ago how she wanted to be remembered-as a dancer or as a choreographer. She said that she told him, ~'As a dancer." Tudor responded, ~'I pity you." The memory of this took Graham to a psychic place of emptiness and loss- of her dancer self- and reminded her of a close friend, a painter, who could not paint after her husband died. She told Miss Graham, "There is nothing to paint." She would just stare at the big, blank canvas in an empty room. Then one day she made a dot on the canvas. Miss Graham says, '~Because she could make that dot on the space, she knew that she would paint again." The comparison to her own process remained unspoken in the interview, but it is important for us to realize the analogy to our own lives and our work with depressed patients. The impact that Martha Graham's dance had on the Great Depression of the 1930's can be viewed as a socio-political metaphor for psychological depression and as a creative transformation through that depression to the other side. Therapists who work with the arts help people to mobilize Martha Graham: The Other Side of Depression 119 and utilize their creative energy to heal, and Martha Graham was in- volved in such a process throughout her long life. Her role was that of a major American artist and a woman who had, like all of us, been through her own struggles. Creative arts therapists can learn from her life, her work, and her human process. The treatment of depression involves encouragement to face that blank canvas, that immobilized body, and create a dot. Martha Graham was able to do that for American culture. Graham came of age artistically during the 1930's, a decade in which the world, especially the United States, suffered the shock and hardship of the Great Depression. She passionately enacted the essence of life, creating with others a new dance theater that represented, in her words, %he deep matters of the heart" CDancers' World," film). She was crit- icized. Her movements were angular, her dances stark, some said ugly, even violent. This was a time when audiences craved respite from their worried lives. Instead of entertaining, Graham confronted-and in this confrontation lay her magic. Audiences returned to Graham's theater because she challenged them to be alive-to face head on life's struggles, and to join her in a ritual that affirmed meaning without repressing pain. She faced and explored relationship with the unknown which is, so far as we know, one of the most important origins of dance. Graham's dance during the years of the Depression can effectively be viewed and understood from a Jungian perspective as compensatory. Her dances served to counterbalance or complement the tendency to escape from the depressive doom into mindless, entertaining activity or remain stuck in the mire of the frightening times. Dancers who, like Graham, are guided by what Jung called the %ollective unconscious," use symbols derived from explorations deep into their own inner lives. In her dances Graham balanced, or compensated for the depressive times by becoming full of life in symbolic opposition to what was consciously experienced as life-threatening. Other dance during this decade, such as that of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers, was also full of life. Their dancing, however, was not so much compensatory as it was fantasy, in that it depicted life as glamorous, when, for the most part, life was just the opposite. Graham helped us to learn to appreciate the exploration of who we really are without denial and avoidance. Through impassioned dedication and refined creative process, Martha Graham emerged as a significant American artist during the Great Depression. Her dance ancestors had paved an expressive way, but she embodied energy that was perfectly suited to the times, not only in relation to herself, but in a larger sense, to the society. She served, in an artistically psychic capacity, to help balance an imbalanced world. Mar- tha Graham dared to affirm the challenge of life's crises. In a press interview during the decade she said, 120 Welsh

My dancing is just dancing. It is not an attempt to interpret life in a literary sense. It is the affirmation of life through movement. Its only aim is to impart the sensation of living, to energize the spectator into keener awareness of the vigor, of the mystery, the humor, the variety and the wonder of life; to send the spectator away with a fuller sense of his own potentialities and the power of realizing them, whatever the medium of his activity. (Armitage, 1978, pp. 102-103)

Graham successfully portrayed motifs such as those in ~Lamentation" and "Frontier" in an expression of her personal symbolic journey. Her first encounter was in the depths of despair, after which she emerged in a pioneering spirit of discovery. By the end of the decade, in ~'Every Soul Is a Circus," she expanded her symbolic focus to include human relationship. Graham's greatness was in her ability to express human experience that is personal and emotional, yet has universal symbolic significance. She was one of the most important American dancers to personify this powerful social impact. C. G. Jung himself helps us understand Graham's significance in these words:

The widened consciousness is no longer that touchy, egotistical bun- dle of personal wishes, fears, hopes, ambitions which always has to be compensated and corrected by unconscious counter-tendencies: instead it is a function of relationship to the world of objects, bringing the individual into absolute, binding, and dissoluble communion with the world at large. The complications arising at this stage are no longer egotistical wish-conflicts, but difficulties that concern others as much as oneself. At this stage it is fundamentally a question of collective problems, which have activated the collective unconscious because they require collective rather than personal compensation. We can now see that the unconscious produces contents which are valid not only for the person concerned, but for others as well, in fact, for a great many people and possibly for all. (Jung, 1966)

Throughout her life Graham's work showed that she was a dance creator in the symbolic sense. She validated the products of the unconscious and, without doubt, was a dancer of "widened consciousness" important to America as woman, artist, and healer of the collective psyche. In order to explore the compensatory nature of Graham's dance during the Great Depression, I will first briefly discuss the social climate and where dance fits into the general social response to the Depression. Then I will present C. G. Jung's concepts of symbolic process and compensatory behavior. In the third section I will cite examples of Graham's dance to show how she helped symbolically to move the culture '~beyond depression." To conclude, I will relate this metaphorically to the practice of dance therapy. Martha Graham: The Other Side of Depression 121

The Great Depression

The economic explosion of 1929 occurred because of weaknesses that economists and historians could only clearly define in retrospect. Faulty economic theory, an unstable international monetary structure due in part to World War I, and an atmosphere which encouraged unintelligent speculation all contributed to the crash (Leuchtenburg, 1973). By "Black Friday," October 29, 1929, there were no buyers, every trader lost money, and panic affected the entire nation. The American sense of self-worth was intricately related to earning power. Many were too proud to ask for federal help even in the face of malnutrition. They wanted work, not dole, and Franklin Roosevelt's ~'New Deal" of 1932 gave them hope. He replaced Herbert Hoover's con- servatism regarding federal aid with enthusiastic crisis action: expansion of public control. To enable more direct federal employment, Roosevelt first underwrote a temporary agency, and by 1935, he announced a permanent relief program that provided jobs created by the Works Pro- gress Administration (WPA) and the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC). Other help was available through the Social Security Act. America suffered from a loss of spirit as well as money in the Depres- sion. The Federal Theatre Project was a function of the WPA, established not for altruistic governmental support of art, but because it was an attempt to promote the belief that "low priced entertainment of some degree of intelligence might improve the morale of the public at large in time of stress" (Whitman, 1937, p. 9). The creation of the Federal Theatre Project helped maintain appreciation of the artist as an important person in society. An upsurge of social introspection and realism occurred as a response to the Depression. Literature and theater depicted the lives and struggles of the poor. These were the years of Faulkner and Steinbeck's novels, plays such as Tobacco Road, that addressed the hardships of rural life, and films like Charlie Chaplan's Modern Times, that questioned industrialism. Histo- rian Otis Graham says that the Depression stimulated inquiries into the darker corners of American life and that this is a gain "not only on the grounds that all increases in self-knowledge are desirable but because factual and artistic probings of the society's economic and ethical failures help stimulate remedial action" (Leuchtenburg, 1973, p. 426).

Jung°s Concept of Compensation

The ~darker corners" that Otis Graham refers to are the parts of the individual psyche that are unconscious-the unknown that must ulti- 122 Welsh mately be faced in order to live a full life. The essential struggle of life, according to Jung, is between the ego and the Self-a concept of the total psyche (including the ego). The Self includes both consciousness and the unconscious. The unconscious, however, is only available to us in the form of symbols, or representations of the as yet unknown, most commonly experienced in dreams, but also in the arts and imagination. When these personal symbols relate not only to the individual psyche, but to universal images and motifs throughout time they are called archetypes, which are culturally as well as personally powerful. Archetypes are symbolic representations of what Jung termed the collective unconscious, or that which is beyond the individual psyche, such as the great mother, trickster, divine child, and so forth. Compensation is a concept that Jung derived from Gerhard Adler. Jung expanded Adler's idea which was based on biological self-regulation and a theory of inferior feelings, to include general psychological adjustment. Jung says, "In this sense, I regard the activity of the unconscious as a balancing of the one-sidedness of the general attitude produced by the function of consciousness" (Jung, 1971). Compensation means balancing, adjusting, or supplementing the conscious orientation by using contents (dreams for example) derived from the unconscious. When the ego is very full of itself but unified in little or no way with the Self, we may feel on top of the world; however, we are destined to fall. Jung calls this state of ego dominance ~'inflation." During the Roaring Twenties and the early Industrial Age it was as if the social ego became maximally inflated. The social persona was all gleam and glitter: new cars, houses, fancy clothes and furs. Post World War I industries provided not only work but self-esteem. Everyone thought things were fine. How- ever, it was not healthy. It was ego inflated and the Crash was inevitable, not only on an economic level, but a psychic one. The dark side of the psyche, what Jung calls the shadow, would rear its head to remind society of the hardship of living. When the shadow presents itself, humans respond in a variety of compensatory ways, basically by either confront- ing or attempting to flee from the state of imbalance. If we look at compensation in terms of art and entertainment, we can begin to understand Martha Graham's dance theater in relation to other dance forms as well as to the social climate of the decade. During the 1930's, there was an artistic response to the Depression. Artists at- tempted to compensate for the imbalance of the shadow by seeking unifying symbolism through their art. The entertainment response re- pressed the Crash, attempting to compensate for the shadow by consciously pretending the hard times simply did not exist, and denied the contents of the unconscious as much as possible. Both patterns, con- fronting or denying, serve to compensate, but only the former ultimately serves the psyche in Jung's symbolic process. This is because Martha Graham: The Other Side of Depression 123 confrontation of the shadow promotes psychological growth and healthy consciousness.

Martha Graham-Beyond Depression

By 1930, Graham was a thirty-six year old woman ready, as she said, to '~dance significantly." ~Through the medium of discipline and by means of a sensitive strong instrument," she said she danced %o bring into focus.., a human being" (Rogers, 1980, p. 78). The life of a great artist is one form of the heroic life. Joseph Campbell says that, %he standard path of the mythological adventure [of the hero].., is a magnification of the formula represented in the rites of passage: separation-initiation-return..." (Campbell, 1956, p. 30). Dur- ing the 1930's Martha Graham participated in this adventure in a way that moved her out of Denishawn, her parental dance home, and into the realms of herself, while playing a key social role in moving America beyond the Great Depression. By examining representative dances of the decade, we can see how she accomplished her dance version of the rites of passage. The three dances I have chosen are: '~Lamentation" (1930); ~Frontier" (1935); and '~Every Soul Is a Circus" (1939)• These dances were chosen, in part, because they neatly represent the span of the decade, but more importantly, because they illustrate the balancing, life-affirming nature of her work so vital both personally and socially in those years. Compensation is a function of the unconscious, a process of regaining psychic balance that works through us, not by the will of the ego. Artists open themselves to the greater forces of the collective unconscious, which carry the archetypal symbols needed to restore the balance of society, just as personal dreams do for the individual• (See Jung, 1966, vol. 15.) In Merle Armitage's (1978) collection of writings about Graham's early years, one writer, George Anthiel, suggests that the scope of the symbolic meaning of her dances may have at times been beyond even Graham's own intellectual understanding (p. 74). Her process was guided less by intellect than by intuition-by necessity more than escape. To become the redeemer/heroine of modern dance she had to learn to submit her will to the power of her inner life, which is nothing less than symbolic death. Campbell says that in his extensive study of the rise and disintegration of civilizations, Arnold J. Toynbee indicates:

•.. schism in the soul, schism in the body social, will not be resolved by any scheme of return to the good old days (archaism), or by programs guaranteed to render an ideal projected future (futurism), or even by the most realistic, hardheaded work to weld together again 124 Welsh

the deteriorating elements. Only birth can conquer death-the birth, not of the old thing again, but of something new. Within the soul, within the body social, there must be-if we are to experience long survival-a continuous ~'recurrence of birth" (palingensia) to nul- lify the unremitting recurrences of death. (Campbell, pp. 16-17)

"Lamentation" (1930)

In this first of her major solo dances, Graham descended. Wrapped in a jersey tube, she went deep within to the archaic darkness and brought us a dance of lamentation. For what or whom did she lament? Innocence. Poverty. Death. Unemployment. We cannot say. The lamentation was not for some one thing, but an expression of the difficult ~night sea journey" to the depths in order to gain knowledge and experience of life's mysteries. Only from the archetypal ritual of death and dismemberment can rebirth come. The member of archaic society responsible for answering life's mysteries is the shaman, whose role is that of medical, psychic, and spiritual healer. Shamanic techniques for gathering psychic information are strikingly similar through the ages and the world: a ritual of death and rebirth in order to mediate between spiritual and human existence. The shamanic experience separates the individual from the societal norm, yet bonds him/her to the people as a figure of great significance. The shaman's suffering is for social purposes, but the power to perform a social healing function is only possible through the act of healing oneself through actively struggling with the contents of the unconscious. Martha Graham was a dancing shaman of our time and ~%amentation" was her wounding. Perhaps she never thought of the dance in relation to the Depression, but her expression of suffering could not have affirmed more powerfully the despair of life after the Crash. Her role was to express the universal experience of spirit bound by the matter of our material world: she in her tube, the rest of us in our economic and other crises. At the end of ~%amentation," Martha remained in the %elly of the whale." Between 1930 and 1935, Graham developed her strong, unornamented movement vocabulary, and lived through the Depression years by believ- ing so deeply in her art that financial worries, though constant, were simply unrelated to what she was doing. In 1932, she received the first Guggenheim fellowship to be awarded to a dancer, and in the summer of 1934 the dance program at Bennington College began, which helped immensely to stabilize the rise of modern dance during the Depression. Martha Graham: The Other Side of Depression 125

By 1935, Graham was recognized in the dance world, and she was en- gaged to stage the movement in a theater documentary about the effects of the Crash in Archibald MacLeish's "Panic." Although this work di- rectly addressed the Depression, it was not a symbolically compensatory work for her so much as a piece in which she gained theatrical recogni- tion. It was in April of that year that her rebirth was manifested in another brilliant solo.

"Frontier" (1935)

Now Graham was equipped psychically, spiritually, and physically to deliver to her own America a dance of social significance that embodied adventuresomeness without foolhardiness. Instead of depicting the inflated social scenario of the pre-crash age, that is, being reborn to the old ineffective social scenario, Graham chose the pioneering spirit of the frontier. She costumed herself in a prairie dress, and Isamu Noguchi designed a striking set: a short fence with two infinite ropes extending up and backstage. The effect is expansive-a universe in which this woman is to live the symbol. The fence is home, the center of her world. She leaves it three times in the dance and returns to rest, stabilize, and prepare herself for further explorations. In myths and fairy tales the number three is commonly used in representing tasks or processes with a fourth event culminating the story in symbolic wholeness. The first section delineates a space in front of the fence that she seems to consider her own. In the second section her movement becomes prayer- like. She kneels, then sits clasping her hands in front of her. Then she dances a playful variation until the music (composed by her long-time associate Louis Horst) interrupts with a single note signifying an end to the lightheartedness. She returns to the fence. Her third excursion is a bold, calm, and pious combination of the first two movement patterns. The final return to the fence seems to express satisfaction in her explorations. She sits to rest, firmly clasps her knee with folded arm, and gazes into the distance. We know full well Martha Graham will not sit on that fence for long, but for now her three movements away from it give us hope. ~'Frontier" is Martha Graham's New Deal. In it she stated artistically what Roosevelt stated politically with his public assistance programs: we're going to be all right. In this dance she let it be known that she (in a statement for all of us) welcomed the challenge of rebuilding and free- dom. In ~%amentation" she descended and in ~Frontier" she emerged to show us the strength and knowledge she gained. In a 1936 press interview she said, 126 Welsh

Our creative dance has too often suffered because of our unwillingness to dig deep into our own experience. The dance can be and must be a powerful influence. Sometimes the audience reaction will be cold antagonism, sometimes unbelievable response. In either case the American dancer owes a duty to the American audience. We must look to America to bring forth an art as powerful as the country itself. We look to the dance to evoke and offer life. (Armitage, 1978, p. 106)

By 1938, the world was growing more confident. Money was still scarce, but Graham's artistic impact was solid. That spring, she began one of her best loved dances, "American Document," that explored the conflict between Puritanism and lusty abandon. In June, a man she had seen dance ballet under the direction of George Balanchine a year earlier appeared at her studio to study her form of dance. She had admired Erick Hawkins from the start. He seemed to have a passion, similar to her own, for inquiry into the expressive and technical power of the dance. This marked the beginning of a new symbolic drama in her dances: the eternal conflict of male and female. Her all-women company was not pleased with the new dancer, who assumed more power in relation to Miss Graham than they ever would. In spite of the clash of personalities, her dances continued to develop from symbolic content.

"Every Soul Is a Circus" (1939)

Before she choreographed ~Circus," Graham made an important transi- tion, not only in her connection with Erick Hawkins, but in her focus and style. Now that her movement vocabulary was formed, she could afford to refine it to include a lyrical softness. The dances that followed "American Document" were emotionally derived and more dramatically realized. The change in style was much more appealing to the audience, especially in her ability to intertwine her passion for history and political cause with archetypal motifs. By the summer of 1939, Graham's company was recognized as a powerful artistic force in America. The Depression was drawing to an end due to spending that would soon, but not yet, be related to World War II. While the American government assumed the role of broker, arranging compromises between capitalists and workers/consumers, Martha de- cided it was time for some fun! Instead of relying on repressive fantasy that could not finally serve to move the human spirit toward wholeness, Martha created a fantasy full of symbols presented as comedy. Psychic compensation took a new form and she took everyone by surprise in creating her own version of Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers. Critic Walter Terry called Martha the '~Bea- Martha Graham: The Other Side of Depression 127 trice Lillie of the dance," remarking that, "she's been hiding it from us all these years" (McDonagh, 1973, p. 143). "Every Soul Is a Circus" is an enactment of the classic lover's triangle. Young Merce Cunningham entered Graham's dance life. He and Hawkins were both excellent dancers, with very different male movement styles. Hawkins was direct, grounded, and strong in opposition to Cunningham's quick, elevated elusiveness. Graham cast them brilliantly as the domineering ring master and the circus acrobat. The title of the dance came from four lines of a Vachel Lindsay poem:

Every soul is a Circus Every mind is a tent Every heart is a sawdust ring Where the circling race is spent.

Martha played a flighty woman called the "Empress of the Arena," who had to choose between the "Ringmaster," a figure who could keep her mindlessness under control, and the "Acrobat," whose spirit, like her own, was bounding and free. The fourth important character in the dance was the '~Ideal Spectator," a compensatory, alter-ego character in relation to the Empress, who observed the silly goings on of the others. There was also a chorus of other female performers to contribute to the circus. Her biographer Don McDonagh (1973) suggests that the creation of this 'tAr- enic World," as Graham named it, was a revealing self-portrait. Yet she clearly transcended the personal to reach the archetypal. Ultimately, the ringmaster saves the Empress in a lighthearted dic- tatorship of the circus world. At this point in her career, the compensatory function of American shaman was refined so that she could focus on representations and relationships of psychic parts in the form of cultural images. She could deal with a complicated motif-compare "Circus" to the Electra myth-in good-natured fun. This ability seemed to come from a sense of security and flexibility. She completed the quaternary here by creating a three ring circus of her psyche, but with a fourth, completing element, the "ideal spectator" that unifies the ego with the archetypal aspects of the unconscious. In this dance, Graham was clearly beyond the Depression and ready for a smile.

Conclusion: Martha Graham's Dance as a Model for Therapists

Clinical depression has been called the "common cold of mental health." Theories about the derivation of depression range from genetics and heredity to psychodynamic, behavioral and cognitive. Psychological 128 Welsh

treatments vary just as much. In addition to the above theories as treatment strategies, approaches may also include the interpersonal, and all may involve pharmacological intervention or not (Karasu, 1990). Most commonly, depression is associated with adversity, particularly related to loss or threat of loss. This adversity can be consciously experienced, such as death, divorce, etc. or it can be unconscious and thus much more difficult to identify. Weiner and White (1982), building on the psychodynamic theory of depression as "anger turned inward," postulate that depression is a search for the "lost self." They suggest that depression is a narcissistic disturbance in which a healthy form of self-love is missing and the ego expects itself to accomplish grandiose feats. The Martha Graham: The Other Side of Depression 129 shadow is present, and since an image of the powerful self is lost, people consider themselves to be dismal failures. Martha Graham found a way to address issues of loss, death and triumph (as in Campbell's rite of passage: separation-initiation-return) symbolically through her dances. The healing, compensatory process as it relates to socio-economic collapse is evident to us now in the dances. Similarly, we can move with our patients to the other side of depression by engaging in the symbolic and creative process as we work with the individual collapse of depression. Depression is often viewed as a coping strategy in response to loss. It is rooted in the experience of inadequacy, unworthiness, and emptiness, not healthy compensation. This is especially true when people have mea- sured their worth by particular skills or perceive themselves to lack any skill at all. The loss of self-reinforcers and the inability to invest the value of skill and productivity somewhere in life contributes to an experience of uselessness. This is the separation part of the passage. The psychic turn is inward. Lamentation. The dance/movement therapist can help the depressed person be in the emptiness and regain a sense of self through a creative act. By modeling and sharing our own sense of self-as Graham did so publicly in her dances-we provide guidance and support for compensatory action. Noth- ing may happen. The patient may, in fact, need to lament and remain in the ~%elly of the whale" for quite sometime before making a move into the frontier of a healthy life. We must trust, as any artist does, in the stillness. That stillness is the place within the %ube" of our darker self, the unconscious, out of which symbolic experiences may arise which will lead us into life. If we can stay patiently with the depressed mood, if we can encourage our patients to lament, without pressure to move too soon, and if we can understand and believe enough in the possibility of a pioneering exploration, then we are dancing significantly in our therapy sessions. At this point we might encourage our patients to explore beyond the frontiers of their depression, to move out and return, as many times as necessary, gradually building confidence that a more satisfactory life is possible '%eyond depression." As we do so, and as our patients respond, the various parts of the psyche may begin to emerge and interact, the various characters in our psychic circus appear and can be played with and related to in symbolically meaningful ways. These figures then may be projected outwardly into group therapy or family sessions. At this point the patient can move on to issues of representations and relationships not only within the psyche, but interpersonally. The circus begins and depressed souls are ready to move into lives of relationship and value. 130 Welsh

Photographs of Martha Graham in Lamentations are by Barbara Morgan.

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