sign in sign up
<<
Home , Daniel Kleppner, Federico Capasso, Vitaly Ginzburg

A FORUM OF THE AMERICAN PHYSICALof SOCIETY • V O L U M E X I • N O . 1 • F A L L 2 0 0 9 Report from the Chair

By Gloria B. Lubkin, Forum Chair

I have served the Forum on The Abraham Pais Prize for the History of (and its prede- , jointly spon- cessor, the Division of History of sored by APS and AIP, was first Physics) in many capacities over awarded in 2005. The first winner its lifetime. However, when I was of the Pais Prize, Martin Klein, elected Vice Chair, I discovered died in March. His death was a that I still had a lot of learning to great loss to all who knew him do. and to all who knew his research. Our most visible activity is The 2010 Pais Prize Selection Com- organizing sessions for the APS mittee, chaired by Laurie Brown, March and April meetings. FHP has selected another outstanding sessions sometimes draw very winner, Russell McCormmach (see large audiences, and those sessions the story on page 2 in this issue), appear to be widely appreciated by who will give an invited talk in meeting attendees. We are typically March at the meeting in Portland, allocated three invited sessions at Oregon. The 2009 Prizewinner, each of those meetings; by cospon- Stephen Brush, will give an invited soring sessions with other APS talk at the Washington meeting in units we’ve generally been able February. to offer a larger number of them. The FHP website has become In addition, in recent years we’ve a valuable resource, thanks to been holding contributed sessions Forum Chair, Gloria Lubkin George Zimmerman’s efforts. Last at both meetings. It doesn’t appear to be widely known that the Forum Continued on page 2 offers the possibility of $600 awards for partial support to students who have submitted an abstract for contributed FHP sessions. (For further information, see the FHP web- site, http://www.aps.org/units/fhp/.) Inside This Issue Next year is the 50th anniversary of the first laser. To commemorate that anniversary, Dan Kleppner, Chair of the General Forum Affairs 2 program committee, and Marty Blume, Vice Chair of the program committee, have organized sessions on the laser at both the March and “April” 2010 APS meetings. I put April Forum Elections 2 in quotes because the meeting will actually be held 13-16 February (in Washington D.C.) so that it can be held jointly Pais Prize Winner 2 with the Winter meeting of the American Association of Physics Teachers. (See the article by Kleppner on p. 11.) Because the regular meeting of the FHP will be held March Meeting Reports 3 February 2010, the election of new officers must be held about two months earlier than has been customary. The “April” Meeting Reports 6 Nominating Committee, headed by Past Chair David Cas- sidy, has chosen a slate of candidates. (See the announce- ment of candidates on page 2.) I hope you will all exercise New Books of Note 10 your privilege of voting. Future FHP Sessions 11 Report from the Chair: McCormmach is Forum Elections Continued from page 1 the 2010 Winner of The Nominating Committee of the the Pais Prize Forum on History of Physics has cho- year he posted the invited talks given sen a slate of candidates for the 2010 at the March and April 2008 meet- elections, which are being held at the ings on our website, where you can Russell McCormmach has been cho- end of 2009 because the Forum’s 2010 find both the audio recordings and sen as the winner of the 2010 Abraham Regular Meeting comes so early – the PowerPoint presentations. This year’s Pais Prize for the History of Physics APS “April” meeting is being held two invited talks have not yet been posted “for the study of German science in months earlier in 2010, in February. because of APS concerns about intel- the 19th and 20th centuries and a major The election will begin on November 15 lectual property rights, particularly for biography of Henry Cavendish (with and end on December 13. the PowerPoint presentations. How- Christa Jungnickel, his late wife), and You will be asked to vote for Forum ever, George has posted a slide show for founding the journal Historical Stud- Vice Chair and two at-large members of photos he took at the sessions. (See ies in the Physical Sciences.” of the Executive Committee. The per- session reports for web addresses.) The Spring 2010 Newsletter will son elected to be Vice Chair normally Of the 3775 FHP members, 1017 are carry a more complete account of becomes the new Chair-Elect in 2011 student members of APS. With that in McCormmach’s work. n and Chair of the Forum in 2012. The mind, FHP bylaws were changed and primary responsibilities of the Vice in the 2008 election a student member Chair and Chair-Elect are to decide was elected to the FHP executive com- upon timely topics for invited and mittee. He is Paul Cadden-Zimansky Congratulations contributed sessions at APS and divi- from Columbia University. n sional meetings, often in collaboration and Thanks... with other APS units, and to arrange these along with sessions of contrib- uted papers. The incumbent Secretary- Congratulations to Michael Riordan Treasurer was renominated to run of the University of California, Santa unopposed. Cruz, who was elected to represent In alphabetical order the candidates The Forum on History of Phys- the Forum on History of Physics on are: ics of the American Physical the APS Council. Riordan will serve a Vice Chair: Peter Pesic, George Society publishes this Newsletter 4-year term as Forum Councilor begin- Zimmerman. semiannually. Nonmembers who ning 1 January 2010. Members at Large: Elizabeth wish to receive the Newsletter Thanks to Roger Stuewer, who Garber, Clayton Gearhart, Danian Hu, should make a donation to the served as the Forum Councilor for the Daniel Kennefick. Forum of $5 per year (+ $3 addi- past four years. n Secretary-Treasurer: Thomas Miller. tional for airmail). Each 3-year The candidate’s statements and volume consists of six issues. resumes are available at http://www.aps. org/units/fhp/governance/elections/index. The articles in this issue repre- History of Physics cfm. Those elected will take office in sent the views of their authors February 2010. and are not necessarily those of If you have an email address reg- the Forum or APS. Newsletter Back istered with APS, you will receive a message inviting you to vote elec- Editor Issues Now tronically. If you do not have such an Dwight E. Neuenschwander Available address, you should receive a paper Department of Physics ballot by mail. If you want a paper Southern Nazarene University ballot but have not yet received one, Bethany, OK 73008 Thomas Miller has scanned all the please either email your request to the Secretary-Treasurer, Tom Miller (mil- [email protected] past History of Physics Newsletters, [email protected]) or contact him postally beginning with the August 1982 issue. (405) 491-6361 They are now available on the FHP Boston College Institute for Associate Editor website at http://www.aps.org/units/fhp/ Scientific Research Michael Riordan newsletters/index.cfm. Tom writes, “The Air Force Research Laboratory/RVBXT, Institute of Particle Physics first one gives a summary of the origin Hanscom AFB, MA 01731-3010 University of California of the FHP (originally installed as a Santa Cruz, CA 95064 “division” of APS), and notes that the or by telephone (781-377-5031). The [email protected] first editor was [the 2009] Pais Prize closing date of the election is 13 Decem- (831) 459-5687 winner, Stephen Brush.” n ber 2009. An additional week will be allowed for receipt of paper ballots. n

2 Volume XI, No. 1 • Fall 2009 • History of Physics Newsletter The (New) Editor’s Meeting Reports from Forum-Sponsored Corner Sessions: 2009 March Meeting* As your new editor of the FHP Newsletter, I find myself surrounded The Origins of Silicon Valley by people who have a passion for the history of physics and are authentic By Gloria B. Lubkin, Forum Chair experts. My own attempts at physics historical scholarship are modest by On Monday afternoon, March 16, Microwave Physics, and Silicon Val- comparison, but those experiences the Forum sponsored an invited ses- ley.” Known as the father of micro- have taught me how difficult it can be sion on “The Origins of Silicon Valley.” wave electronics, Hansen and his to get it right—and how rewarding it The three speakers traced its origins collaborators laid the foundations of is to try. Therefore I appreciate the dif- back to 1910, covering the major sci- Silicon Valley’s postwar microwave ficulties, depth, and value of the work entific, technological, educational, phase, when numerous companies done by historians of physics. It is an military, and business developments flourished around Stanford, Leeson honor to be associated with the Forum that culminated half a century later in said. These firms furthered the regional on History of Physics. the production of the first commercial entrepreneurial culture and prepared Your previous editor Michael Rior- silicon integrated circuits. At the ses- the ground for the semiconductor dan, and his predecessors Benjamin sion’s end they participated in a panel and computer developments that fol- Bederson, William Evenson, William A. discussion chaired by Gloria Lubkin, lowed. After getting his Ph.D. from Blanpied, Albert Wattenberg, and Ste- fielding questions from an audience of Stanford in 1932, Hansen spent two phen G. Brush have set high standards nearly 200. years as an MIT postdoc and then indeed. I therefore am glad Michael Stewart Gillmor of Wesleyan Uni- returned to Stanford “as a whiz in Riordan saw fit to remain through this versity covered the prehistory of the electromagnetism.” He invented and issue as Associate Editor, to help me valley, from 1910 to 1965. By the time patented the cavity resonator. From learn my way around. the term “Silicon Valley” was coined 1935 to 1937, he applied the cavity When I decided to major in phys- in 1971, he said, the San Francisco Bay resonator to his concept of the radio- ics, I knew the ride would be interest- Area had already become a thriving frequency linear accelerator and, with ing. But I had little idea how wide the center of instrumentation, electron- the Varian brothers, to the klystron perspective would be. Physics is not ics, avionics, and particle physics. He invention. The Varians first set up a lab just about black holes and Lagrang- attributed this rise to its location with in their house; then in May 1937 they ians—it’s a community that cuts across respect to continental and Pacific trans- came to Stanford and asked Hansen cultures and centuries. Having for our portation and communication needs; to help them. After the invention was intellectual companions the likes of the growth of West Coast population, demonstrated in August 1937, Sperry and Emmy Noether— markets and universities; the recruit- Gyroscope licensed the rights to use and our colleagues down the hall and ment of talented people from the East; the klystron for radar. It made airborne those we see at meetings—offers one and innovative industrial and business radar possible, according to Leeson, the joy of being engaged in a work methods. and contributed to the Allied victory larger than one’s self. Like you, I have Gillmor cited many examples of in World War II. held in my hands the original letters scientists and engineers who contrib- During the War, Hansen’s group exchanged between individuals I knew uted new ideas over that period, espe- relocated to Sperry’s Long Island plant. only as names in textbooks—and they cially at Stanford. He discussed life in He also gave a series of lectures to the came to life. Like you, I have stood ’s electrical engineer- scientists and engineers recruited to with my students at the Trinity site ing lab there during the 1930s and its work on radar at the MIT Radiation monument and at Fermilab—and relationship with the physics depart- Lab. In Leeson’s opinion, the notes remote events became real. Like you, ment. It was Terman who encouraged were never published because of rival- my students and I have engaged Isaac his students William Hewlett and ry between MIT and Stanford, Han- Newton and James Clerk Maxwell David Packard to build the lab in a sen’s failing health, and his postwar and in conversation—and local garage that grew into a great work. But they had a major impact on have learned more than physics. As a corporation. Gillmor also discussed subsequent works, including the Rad teacher, very quickly I found, as you Sigurd and Russell Varian’s invention Lab series on radar. have, that the history of a physics topic of the klystron in 1937-38, followed by After the War, Hansen founded is essential to its pedagogy. Thank you William Hansen and Edward Ginz- Stanford’s Microwave Lab to develop for this opportunity to share a role in ton’s improvement of its performance, high-power klystrons and linear accel- the community of physics history prac- which enabled construction of the erators. He collaborated with Felix titioners and appreciators. Stanford Linear Accelerator Center. Bloch in the discovery of nuclear David Leeson (Stanford Univer- —Dwight E. Neuenschwander, Editor sity) talked about “W. W. Hansen, Continued on page 9

*Note: 2009 March Meeting FHP session pictures taken by George Zimmerman are available at http://www.aps.org/units/fhp/gallery/march09.cfm. Volume XI, No. 1 • Fall 2009 • History of Physics Newsletter 3 Centenary of

By Gloria B. Lubkin, Forum Chair

The Forum commemo- The second plea led to his rated the “Centenary of Lev release. Landau later told Landau” in an invited ses- Pitaevskii that just before sion on Wednesday morn- he was released, he had ing, March 19. Four of the felt that he would die in five speakers had worked another week or two. with him. They discussed In his theory of super- his achievements and their fluidity, Landau assumed personal interactions with that the observable prop- him. All five emphasized erties of a macroscopic Landau’s impact on theo- body at low temperature retical physics over much can be described in terms of the 20 th century. An of elementary excitations, enthusiastic audience over- and that liquid helium is flowed a lecture hall with a “mixture” of a super- 300 seats. Many listeners fluid liquid with no viscos- stood in the back of the Lev Davidovich Landau. Credit: AIP Emilio Segré Visual ity and a normal liquid. room for three hours, while Archives, Physics Today Collection. An elementary excitation others waited outside the would not exist at abso- doors until they could slip in. can be viewed as “elaborations, lute zero. He knew the spectrum of The first speaker, Pierre Hohenberg advances and, yes, corrections to the excitations was -like at low (NYU), was the only one who had not foundational theories and points of momentum. Experiments pointed to worked with Landau. His talk, “Lev view” that Landau had initiated. One the existence of excitations at energies Landau: A View from the West,” gave example is the theory of of 8-9 K, so Landau assumed that the an overview of Landau’s main scien- in Bose liquids, in which he resisted spectrum had a second branch with tific achievements. For Landau’s 50th the explanation in terms of Bose con- a gap, known as “rotons.” From the birthday, he was presented tablets densation that had been introduced theory, Landau predicted the existence with the “Ten Commandments” to by Fritz London and László Tisza. of the “second-sound” mode of wave represent his ten greatest papers: These Another example is the theory of sec- propagation in liquid helium II. When were: density matrix (1927); Landau ond-order phase transitions, which laid Landau received a preprint from Harry (1930); dynamics of fer- the foundation of the study of critical Palevsky of the latter’s 1955 paper romagnets (1935, written with Evgenii phenomena using the renormalization reporting the direct observation of the Lifshitz); theory of phase transitions group. phonon-roton spectrum, Pitaevskii was (1937); intermediate state of super- (University of Trento in Landau’s office. “Landau was very conductors (1937); statistical theory and Kapitsa Institute for Physical Prob- excited,” he recalled. “I believe it was of nuclei (1937); theory of superfluid- lems) spoke on “Landau and Theory of one of the happiest days of his life.” ity (1941); renormalization of electron Quantum Liquids.” He concentrated Valery Pokrovsky (Texas A&M Uni- charge in quantum electrodynamics on Landau’s most famous contribu- versity and Landau Institute) spoke (1954, with Alexei Abrikosov and Isaac tions—the theory of superfluidity about “Landau and the Theory of Khalatnikov); theory of Fermi Liquid and the theory of quantum liquids. Phase Transitions.” When Pokrovsky (1956); and two-component “Superfluidity literally saved his life,” first met Landau, he observed that he theory (1957). Members of the famed Pitaevskii said. After Landau’s arrest “was very tall, almost one-dimensional, “Landau school” of physics extended in 1938, Peter Kapitsa wrote to Stalin with a very bright and penetrating his influence. He also had a great asking for his release, but to no avail. gaze. He was extremely fast with a impact on 20th century physics through A year later he wrote to Vyacheslav deep understanding.” Landau was the ten volumes of The Course of Theo- Molotov, then the nominal head of the very influential but not a revolution- retical Physics, by Landau and Lifshitz government, telling him that “during ary like or Albert Einstein. (after 1962, with Lev Pitaevskii and V. work on liquid helium, at tempera- To evaluate his influence, Pokrovsky B. Berestetsky). tures near absolute zero, I have been used the Scirus 2008 database of sci- Even more significant, Hohenberg able to discover a number of new phe- entific citations. His work on Fermi said, is Landau’s pervasive influence nomena which can clear up one of the liquids had 45,000 citations, phase on many major theoretical advances in most puzzling areas in modern phys- transitions 30,000, Landau levels 75,500, condensed matter and statistical phys- ics.” To understand the phenomena and the Landau-Lifshitz equation ics during the second half of the 20th he would need Landau’s help, “but 23,000. Five Nobel prizes derived from century. Some of these developments he has been under arrest a year now.” Continued on page 5

4 Volume XI, No. 1 • Fall 2009 • History of Physics Newsletter Centenary of Lev Landau

Continued from page 4

Landau’s work, awarded to Kenneth statements, the government gave Wilson; ; Pierre- credit to Sedov. Years later Zel’dovich Gilles de Gennes; Daniel Tsui, Horst was asked why he hadn’t worked on Störmer, and Robert Laughlin; and Sputnik. In his reply Zel’dovich finally Alexei Abrikosov, , and retaliated, saying, “When you eat a Anthony Leggett. And the Landau- nice dinner in a restaurant, you thank Lifshitz Course has had unprecedented the waiter, not the cook.” longevity, from 1940 until today. Sagdeev remarked that the hydro- According to Pokrovsky, Landau’s dynamics volume of Landau and Lif- approach to theory was characterized shitz introduced the special language by three features: (1) extremely general, of . In areas such as simple notions, such as the density turbulence you can’t get much from matrix, spontaneous symmetry break- first principles, so Landau used a semi- ing, Fermi liquids, and quasiparticles; Igor Dzyaloshinskii at the Landau empirical approach for concepts such (2) a simple, effective formalism, e.g., Centenary session. Photo by George as mixing length, viscosity, and heat in phase transitions, Landau levels, Zimmerman. conductivity (especially in boundary and neutron stars; and (3) a compre- layers). Landau’s first major contribu- hensive view of all of physics. Lan- between bare charge and renormal- tion to plasma physics came before dau formulated his theory of phase ized charge and between bare mass the war. He simplified the collision transitions in three 1937 articles. They and renormalized electron mass; the integral in the Boltzmann equation as introduced the order parameter as a application by Arkady Migdal and applied to plasmas. And in 1956 he measure of symmetry violation and others of Feynman diagrams to Fermi introduced the idea of Landau damp- showed how it appears spontaneously and Bose gases; Landau’s development ing in collisionless plasma. within the framework of the mean-field of the theory of Fermi liquids; and a When Sagdeev was still a student approximation. In the early 1940s, Lars Feynman diagram approach to the BCS at , Landau Onsager published his solution of the theory of developed wanted to see the recently built sky- two-dimensional Ising model, disagree- by Led P. Gorkov. scraper that was the university’s new ing with Landau, who then doubted The last speaker was Roald Sag- home. During the visit, Sagdeev met his own theory was applicable at all deev (University of Maryland), who Landau and asked if he could become until A. P. Levanyuk and Ginzburg spoke on “Landau’s Contributions his student. “If you pass my exams, showed the mean-field approximation to Applied Physics.” He quoted from you can be my student, even if you’re to be invalid near phase transitions. Lifshitz’s preface to their volume on a criminal,” Landau replied. After he Igor Dzyaloshinskii (University of hydrodynamics: “Here Landau has passed the theoretical minimum, he California, Irvine) discussed “Landau brought part of his soul. He was fasci- was faced with a Soviet government and Feynman Diagrams.” In the lat- nated by this area of theoretical phys- decree that all theoretical physics grad- ter part of the 20th century, these dia- ics. He started to derive and rethink uates of Moscow University were to be grams dominated theoretical physics. all of its key results.” During World sent to a new nuclear weapons lab in “Feynman introduced an alternative War II, Landau worked on a strong the Urals. But Landau persuaded Igor to symbols and used a visual presen- shock wave spherically imploding Kurchatov to bring Sagdeev to his own tation instead,” said Dzyaloshinskii. and converging to the center. In the atomic energy institute in Moscow. In Landau regarded Feynman diagrams paper, Landau noted that he wasn’t that way, Sagdeev worked at Kurcha- and ’s concept of their considering what caused the shock tov’s institute 80 percent of the time visual summation as breakthroughs in wave, just what happens next. Later he and could attend Landau’s seminar the the physics of particles. In his intuitive introduced the concept of evolutionary rest of the time. n way, Landau introduced the concept behavior and what behaviors need to of partial-summation, which led to be excluded as unphysical. He gave An article on Anderson Local- major results in particle physics and credit to others who had contributed ization, the topic of the third FHP condensed-matter theory. to the field, including Leonid Sedov, invited session of the 2009 March Dzyaloshinskii traced some major who had organized a campaign against Meeting, will appear in the Spring developments in condensed-matter one of Landau’s adopted pupils, Yakov 2010 Newsletter. theory by members of the Landau Zel’dovich. When the school, growing out of Landau’s par- launched the first artificial satellite in tial summation ideas. These included: 1957, the program was highly classified, the discovery by Landau, Abrikosov, so nobody knew who was responsible and Khalatnikov of the connections for the satellite’s success. In public

Volume XI, No. 1 • Fall 2009 • History of Physics Newsletter 5 APS Meeting Reports on Forum-Sponsored Sessions: 2009 April Meeting* Science Policy: Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow

By Michael Riordan

On Sunday morning, May 3, the through the influence of his fellow- originated with Franklin. Forum co-sponsored with the Forum Tennesseean Al Gore. Originally Rounding out the thought- on Physics and Society an invited focused on scientific issues related to provoking session, Branscomb, for- session bearing the title “Science Pol- national defense, OSTP became merly Chair of the National Science icy: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow.” increasingly involved in health, the Board and now at Harvard’s Kennedy Chaired by , it featured environment, and industrial School of Government, spoke about the two President’s Science Advisors competitiveness during the 1980s. “Science as a Model for Rational, from the Clinton Administration, Jack With the Cold War’s end, such issues Legitimate Government Capable of Gibbons and Neal Lane; and former became the primary focus during Meeting Society’s Grand Challenges” Director of the National Bureau of Gibbons’s tenure. (Branscomb’s talk appears in the Octo- Standards, Lewis Branscomb. An over- Lane, currently a University Pro- ber 2009 issue of the Forum on Physics flow crowd of more than 100 filled the fessor at Rice and Senior Fellow at its and Society Newsletter, http://www.aps. small room to take part in the lively James A. Baker III Institute for Public org/units/fps/newsletters/index.cfm). He session. Policy, spoke next about “The Civic began by noting that both democracy Gibbons, now retired to his home Scientist Era,” sounding a theme he and modern science are products of state of Tennessee, led off with his talk has spoken and written about frequent- the 18th-century Enlightenment, with on “Lessons from Skating on Thin Ice: ly since serving as Clinton’s second a common emphasis “on reason and the Office of Energy Conservation, Science Advisor. Physics has provided openness rather than religious and OTA, and OSTP.” He recalled how he a great number of civic scientists, political authority.” In a democracy, made the move to Washington from he said, following in the tradition of he observed, the government must be doing astrophysics research at Oak Benjamin Franklin, the first scientist to responsive to a well-informed public. Ridge after witnessing the nearby serve the nation in such a role. A civic The only way our elected leaders can mountaintops coming down and rivers scientist, Lane said, engages the public be seen as legitimate is by the public silting up from the mining of coal— in forums from schools to political becoming aware of and endorsing their and seeing the snows being blackened circles. Among other things, it involves opinions and activities. But how well by soot emitted by the TVA power using one’s scientific expertise for the informed can the public be regarding plants burning it. At the OEC, Gibbons greater benefit of the country, whether the challenges that involve modern sci- was one of the earliest to recognize in defense, the environment, health, ence and technology? Branscomb cited the potential of energy efficiency, but or other national concerns. He noted recent polls indicating how poorly recognized that there were “enormous that we have lived through a “golden informed people actually are about impediments” to its adoption in the age of science,” lasting from roughly science and technology. For example, marketplace. He found a piddling 1950 to 2000, which witnessed Cold- according to a 2008 poll by The Public $50,000 to fund the landmark 1974 APS War-driven initiatives in basic research Agenda, people recognize the energy Summer Study on Energy Efficiency, as well as unprecedented—and prob- challenge is here to stay, but are largely whose roster included Arthur Rosen- ably never-to-be-repeated—success unwilling to make any major changes feld of Lawrence Berkeley Lab and in industrial research. Following the or sacrifices in their personal lives to Robert Socolow of Princeton among abrupt decline in scientists’ influence deal with it. They support efforts to its far-sighted participants. From there during the Bush years, said Lane, he reduce global warming—but only if Gibbons became the second Director of looked forward to its revival under these measures don’t increase their the Office of Technology Assessement President Obama. But he cautioned his costs of driving. Over half of all the (OTA), set up by Congress to provide audience not to take this resurgence Americans polled could not identify brief but knowledgeable assessments for granted, saying current Science a specific renewable energy source, of almost anything technological— Advisor John Holdren needs “all the and about a third could not come up from solar energy to the effects of help he can get” from other scientists. with a fossil fuel. In closing, Brans- nuclear war. It was at OTA that he Here can take the lead, but comb argued, somewhat idealistically, learned a crucial political lesson, that they will be most effective if they for a return to “Jeffersonian science” “appearance counts for a lot in Wash- recognize the interdisciplinary nature (a phrase he attributed to Gerald ington.” After Clinton was elected, of science and collaborate with col- Holton)—creative, long-term research Gibbons was named Science Advisor leagues in other fields. “We must hang relevant to society’s most difficult and Director of the Office of Science together, or we will hang separately,” challenges, such as climate change and and Technology Policy (OSTP), largely quipped Lane, a quote he thought had energy consumption. n *Note: 2009 April Meeting FHP session pictures taken by George Zimmerman are available at http://www.aps.org/units/fhp/gallery/april09.cfm.

6 Volume XI, No. 1 • Fall 2009 • History of Physics Newsletter History of MURA, Fermilab, and the SSC

By Michael Riordan

On Sunday afternoon, May 4, the Kolb said, “bringing people together the Supercollider: A Personal Recollec- Forum co-sponsored with the Division to worship at the altar of Nature.” She tion.” He had played central roles in of Physics of Beams a session on the laced her lecture with a discussion of this abortive project, serving as Chair “History of MURA, Fermilab and the how “the frontier” became part of the of a 1983 subpanel of the High-Energy SSC.” Ably chaired by Gloria Lubkin, rhetoric of high-energy physics during Physics Advisory Panel (HEPAP) that it emphasized proton accelerators the 1960s and 1970s. In response to a recommended pursuing it, next as and colliders in the central portions question before the Joint Committee Associate Director of the SSC Central of the United States. Over 100 people on Atomic Energy, about what the Design Group (CDG) at Lawrence attended, participating in the question- proposed National Accelerator Labora- Berkeley Lab, and finally as the Chair and-answer sessions after each talk. tory had to do with national defense, of HEPAP during the SSC construc- Larry Jones of the University of Wilson made his famous remark that tion phase. Few, if any, can speak with Michigan led off with “Innovation it had “only to do with the respect such authority on the subject (see his Was Not Enough,” a history of the with which we regard one another, the article “The Supercollider: The Pre- fixed-field alternating-gradient (FFAG) dignity of men, our love of culture . . Texas Days—A Personal Recolletion of proton accelerator proposed by the . . It has nothing to do directly with Its Birth and Berkeley Years, ” Reviews Midwestern Universities Research defending our country, except to make of Accelerator Science and Technology 1, Association (MURA) in the mid-1950s. it worth defending.” Wilson succeeded 259 (2008)). Wojcicki emphasized the This project originated in reaction to in building NAL’s Main Ring in 1972, “remarkable speed of the conceptual the AEC’s lavish funding of particle under budget and ahead of schedule, design process” at CDG, which took accelerators on both US coasts, which but serious problems with its dipole less than three years, and the highly overlooked the Midwest. MURA even magnets, many of which shorted out effective management of that effort by began to consider proton-proton col- and had to be replaced, delayed the Maury Tigner. But the selection of the liding beams in 1956. But the project startup of its physics program for over SSC Director was rushed and poorly never got beyond the planning and a year. Kolb described those trying executed. As Wojcicki noted, “It is curi- prototyping stages, largely because times in graphic detail, as “bundled- ous that no member of CDG was ever of political pressures. The decision to up teams worked in the cold and rain, consulted during the Director choice build the Zero-Gradient Synchrotron sharing space with raccoons, spiders process.” The new SSC management at Argonne “really took the wind and snakes.” Fermilab began to hit under SSCL Director Roy Schwitters out of MURA’s sails,” recalled Jones. stride in the mid-1970s after the proton had a more conservative design phi- Nevertheless, MURA physicists made energy reached 400 GeV and an experi- losophy that led to major cost increases significant contributions to the under- mental team led by Leon Lederman of when the site-specific design for Texas standing of particle dynamics in high- Columbia University discovered the was developed. At that juncture, a intensity proton beams, which have upsilon particles in 1977—the earliest key question arose about whether to influenced accelerator physics ever evidence for a predicted fifth quark descope the project to hold costs down; since. known as the bottom quark. Wilson but the decision was made not to do Fermilab Archivist Adrienne Kolb resigned as Director in 1978, in part to so, and the total project cost ballooned spoke next on “Fermilab: The Ring of protest the restrictive Department of nearly 40 percent to $8.25 billion. As the Frontier, 1965-1978.” A co-author Energy funding of Fermilab. Lederman the session ended, the audience joined of the recent book Fermilab (see review replaced him, ushering the laboratory a spirited discussion of reasons for the in the Spring 2009 issue of the News- into its second era, when the Main SSC’s 1993 termination—among them letter, p. 10), she confined her remarks Ring was upgraded with supercon- the continuing cost increases and lack to the laboratory’s first decade— ducting magnets and converted into of any major foreign participation. including its construction—under Rob- the highly productive Tevatron proton This debate will doubtless continue for ert R. Wilson. A visionary collider. years to come. n from Frontier, WY, by way of Berkeley Stan Wojcicki of Stanford Univer- and Cornell, he viewed accelerators as sity wrapped up the session with a the “cathedrals of the modern age,” riveting account on the “History of

Volume XI, No. 1 • Fall 2009 • History of Physics Newsletter 7 The Scientific Legacy of John Wheeler

On Saturday morning, 2 and Rosen” (Rev. Mod. Phys. May 2009, about 200 rapt lis- 29, 509). And of course there teners attended a Forum ses- is the famous textbook Gravi- sion, chaired by James Hartle tation, first published in 1973, of UC Santa Barbara, devoted that Wheeler co-authored with to the legacy of John Wheeler. Thorne and Charles Misner. All three speakers—Kenneth This book and other works by W. Ford (former chief executive Wheeler pioneered the study officer of the American Insti- of what he dubbed “geome- tute of Physics), Kip S. Thorne trodynamics”—the dynamics of Caltech, and Wojciech H. of curved space-time. Zurek of Los Alamos—worked Zurek, who was Wheeler’s with Wheeler as graduate stu- graduate student and post- dents and/or postdocs dur- doc during the late 1970s and ing three major phases of his early 1980s at the University career: nuclear and particle of Texas, closed the session physics; black holes and gravi- Albert Einstein, , and John Wheeler outdoors with his presentation “John tation; and information theory. in Marquand Park, Princeton (1954). Photo by Wallace Wheeler, 1976-1996: Law With- (See the special issue of Physics Litwin and Josef Kringold, courtesy AIP Emilio Segré Visual out Law and Quantum Infor- Today on Wheeler, April 2009, Archives, Wheeler Collection. mation.” During his Texas featuring extensive articles by period, Wheeler turned his these authors.) Princeton to perform computer simula- attention to the quantum measurement Ford launched the session with a tions of nuclear fusion, on which Ford problem—the role of the observer in talk titled “John Wheeler, 1933-1959: worked as his graduate student (the defining what “is.” In this research, Particles and Weapons.” Ford men- other branch of Matterhorn grew into said Zurek, Wheeler followed what he tioned Wheeler’s postdoctoral work, the Princeton Plasma Physics Labora- called the principle of “radical conser- under Bohr at Copenhagen, on the tory; see Ford’s article “Working (and vatism,” adhering to well-established liquid-drop model of the nucleus. That Not Working) on Weapons,” Radiations physical principles while pushing them work was followed by their famous Spring 2005, http://www.sigmapisigma. into extreme situations—an intellectual 1939 paper on nuclear fission, which org/radiations/2005/spring_05.htm). tendency Wheeler attributed to Bohr. was written during Bohr’s visit to spoke next on “John As described in Quantum Theory and Princeton that year (“The Mechanism Archibald Wheeler, 1952-1976: Black Measurement (edited by Wheeler and of Nuclear Fission,” Phys. Rev. 56, 426). Holes and Geometrodynamics.” In Zurek, Princeton Univ. Press,1983), During the 1940s, Wheeler worked on 1952, Wheeler decided to strike out Zurek said that the observer confers the theory of positronium and served in a completely new direction and “reality” on the past by observing it, as Feynman’s thesis adviser. Later that took up the study of general relativ- and offered the Big Bang as an exam- decade Wheeler originated the idea ity, teaching a course on the subject at ple. “What do we mean by ‘reality’ of a universal Fermi interaction, with Princeton as one way to learn about except the results of observations?” he a single weak-interaction coupling it. Strange new concepts such at the asked. constant, and foreshadowed the pos- “geon,” a gravitationally bound elec- The session ended with a segment sibility of a distinctive muon-type tromagnetically interacting particle, the of a videotaped interview with Wheel- neutrino. In the last part of his talk, “black hole,” and the “wormhole” con- er, in which he stated, “Philosophy is Ford noted Wheeler’s defense work, vinced him of the richness that nonlin- too important to be left to the philoso- first at the Hanford Lab during the earities can produce in curved space- phers.” It was obvious to all attendees Manhattan Project, where he helped time. According to Thorne, Wheeler that the three speakers were sharing to diagnose and solve the problem also was the first to recognize the not only the work of a great physicist. of Xe-135 poisoning of the nuclear Planck length of 10-33 cm as the scale They were also paying homage to their pile. Following the War, at Edward where quantum effects would become friend. Even those who did not know Teller’s urging Wheeler joined the important in general relativity. In 1957 personally hydrogen bomb effort in 1950, and he coauthored a paper with Joseph came away uplifted. n in the mid-1950s co-founded (with Weber titled, “Reality of the Cylindri- Lyman Spitzer) Project Matterhorn at cal Gravitational Waves of Einstein

8 Volume XI, No. 1 • Fall 2009 • History of Physics Newsletter The Scientific Legacy of John Wheeler History of Telescopes

By Daniel Kleppner

In honor of the 400th anniversary 1949 by Herbert Friedman of the Naval telescope—all tracing back to the of the telescope, FHP sponsored an Research Lab, but it was Riccardo 1950s. But it was a small horn receiver invited session on the history of the Giacconi, then at American Science at Holmdel, NJ, originally built by Bell telescope on Saturday, May 2nd, 2009. and Engineering, who really pioneered Labs for satellite communications, that The session opened with a presentation X-ray astronomy during the 1960s. In allowed Arno Penzias and Robert Wil- by Neville Woolf of the Steward Obser- 1962 he noticed X-rays reflected from son to make what he called “the big- vatory on “The Bionic Telescope.” He the surface of the moon, and three gest discovery in radio astronomy”—of noted that the essential elements of years later, using an X-ray telescope the cosmic background radiation. A Galileo’s telescope live on, but that fixed to a rocket, observed hot spots few years later another astounding they have been totally transformed. in the Sun. The first observations of discovery was made with a low tech- The lens was long ago replaced by a non-solar X-rays came in 1978-81, nology receiver. This was the discovery mirror, and the observer’s eye replaced by the Einstein Observatory and the of pulsars by Jocelyn Bell and Anthony by the photographic plate, which Roentgen Satellite, or ROSAT. But it Hewish, who worked with a large was itself replaced by CCD arrays of was the Chandra X-ray Observatory wire-array receiver. More recently, fantastic sensitivity. The housing—a launched in 1999 that really broke the highly sophisticated radio receivers in simple tube—has been transformed field open, said Jones. Using the glanc- the COBE and WMAP satellites have into dynamical structures that hold ing reflections of X-rays from hyper- revolutionized our understanding of massive mirrors in alignment to sub- bolic cylindrical mirrors, Chandra has the early universe by discerning ever- wavelength precision. He described the achieved a resolution of 1 arc-sec and so-subtle ripples in the otherwise uni- modern era of telescopes as beginning has been able to resolve the heretofore form cosmic background radiation. n in 1979 with the advent of mirrors cast “diffuse” X-ray background into a in rotating ovens and the creation of profusion of point sources. Perhaps multiple-mirror telescopes. A major its most telling discovery is the Bullet Silicon Valley advance in resolution followed the Cluster, a bullet-shaped region of hot discovery that the limiting factor was gas due to a collision of galaxies. By Continued from page 4 often thermal accommodation. Thermal comparing X-ray images (which trace problems are ameliorated by using only baryonic matter) with maps of the magnetic resonance, but died in 1949, lightweight mirrors that allow tight same region made using gravitational at age 39, of berylliosis. To celebrate thermal coupling to the atmosphere, lensing (which traces all matter, bary- the centenary of Hansen’s birth, Lee- and by carefully controlling the ther- onic or not), researchers have produced son will publish Hansen’s lecture notes mal environment so that the tempera- a stunning visual image that demon- with a biography of him. Leeson was ture does not change when the mirrors strates the existence of dark matter a founder of a Silicon Valley company, are exposed to the night sky. A second beyond reasonable doubt. California Microwaves; after 25 years advance in resolution was enabled by Paul Vanden Bout of the Nation- as its CEO, he retired to become a the development of ground-layer adap- al Radio Astronomy Observatory Stanford professor. tive optics. Towards this end, up to (NRAO) ended the session with an “From to Silicon Val- five laser beams are employed. These excellent talk on the history of radio ley: A Saga of Technology Transfer, advances have made the diffraction astronomy. It began with Karl Jansky 1954-1961” was the title of the talk by limit achievable for large mirrors. Such of Bell Labs, who, while searching Michael Riordan (Stanford and UC adaptive optics enabled the first imag- for sources of static in 1933, discov- Santa Cruz), the Lec- ing of exoplanets. Woolf concluded ered 14.6-m radiation moving across turer. “Although Bell Labs invented with a description of the Giant Magel- the sky at the sidereal rate—coming the transistor and developed most of lan telescope in which seven 8.4-m largely from the Milky Way. In 1937, the underlying semiconductor tech- mirrors, their size limited only by the Grote Reber began observations using nology,” Riordan said, the integrated problem of transporting them to the a 31-foot reflector built in his back circuit emerged elsewhere—at Texas observatory, will be joined to form a yard; he eventually worked his way Instruments and Fairchild Semiconduc- parent surface with a diameter of 25 m. down to 160 MHz and published tor. In 1947 the point-contact transistor In Europe, plans are being developed maps of the radio sky in 1944. After was invented by Bardeen and Walter for such a telescope with 40 mirrors. the War, with surplus radar reflec- Brattain. A month later William Shock- Christine Jones of the Harvard/ tors becoming available from military ley conceived the junction transistor, Smithsonian Center for Astrophys- sources, the field of radio astronomy which used three layers of either ics followed up with a talk on “Black exploded. Van den Bout briefly noted silicon or germanium. The first silicon Holes, Dark Matter, and Dark Ener- the structural details and major contri- transistors were fabricated in 1954, by gy: Measuring the Invisible through butions of the Areceibo radio telescope Morris Tanenbaum at Bell Labs and by X-rays.” The first observations of in Puerto Rico, the Mark I at Jodrell Gordon Teal, who had left Bell Labs X-rays from the Sun were made in Bank in Britain, and the 300-ft NRAO Continued on page 11 Volume XI, No. 1 • Fall 2009 • History of Physics Newsletter 9 New Books of Note Einstein for the 21st Century His Legacy in Science, Art, and Modern Culture by Peter L. Galison, Gerald Holton, Silvan S. Schweber, Editors Princeton University Press, 2008, 400 pp., illustrated, $35.00

Reviewed by Michael Riordan enmity of the nascent Nazism in Wei- mar Germany. Relativity began to be reviled as “Jewish physics” by the We all recognize Albert Einstein Nazis, including two Nobel laureates, for his unparalleled contributions to and Einstein eventually emigrated to 20th-century physics, in which he America and Princeton in 1933, just established a radically new style of sci- steps ahead of Hitler. Curiously, his entific thought founded in the simplic- 1920s emergence as a cultural figure ity, rationality and symmetry of Nature. also marked the end of his major con- But few of us know much about his tributions to theoretical physics. broader impact on philosophy, art, Art historian Henderson remarks and modern culture. This book, based that Einstein’s impact on modern art on contributions to the Berlin Einstein began in that decade. She debunks Symposium of 2005, helps fill this gap the “myth” that his ideas of special in our appreciation of the man and his relativity spawned the cubism of works. Edited by three physicists with Braque and Picasso, which had deeper distinguished careers in the history of roots in the multi-dimensional, non- our field, it gathers in one volume the Euclidean geometries of 19th century observations of twenty scholars about mathematicians. But Einstein’s theo- the many dimensions of Einstein and ries of relativity did influence Dada- his impacts on science and culture. In ism, German Expressionism and the addition to the editors themselves, the Bauhaus, Russian Constructivism, and authors include leading historians and the Surrealism of Salvador Dali. To philosophers of science such as Lor- these avante-garde artists, the fourth raine Daston and Michael Friedman, with such turn-of-the-century physi- dimension was not one of space but art historians Linda Dalrymple Hen- cists as and Henri Poin- of time, which they tried to invoke or derson and Caroline A. Jones, novelist caré. The transcendence they sought evoke in their work. For Caroline Jones, E. L. Doctorow, and Nobel laureates was more than just a replacement “Einstein is the unspoken fulcrum” (p. and Dudley Herschbach. for Judaism or Christianity; it was “a 131) of an important shift in spatio- As Holton remarks in his introduc- genuinely new ideal of how to be and temporal visualization by artists of the tory article, “Not since Isaac Newton’s know in the world” (p. 16). These theo- late 19th and early 20th centuries. She Principia can one imagine an analogous rists helped redefine what it meant to discusses how distinctly differently the symposium to mark a physical scien- be a scientist, or more exactly a theo- French Impressionist Claude Monet tist’s legacy in such a wide spectrum retical physicist — just then beginning and today’s “explicit Einsteinian” Mat- of fields” (p. 3). He identifies Einstein to emerge as a distinct avocation. Their thew Ritchie—whose artwork graces as a German Kulturträger, or culture community of like-minded thinkers the book’s dust jacket—have rendered carrier, one who “not only imbues is recognized more broadly today as the ideas of time and motion. and represents the culture of his time a “scientific community,” a term first Although interesting, the contribu- and place, but also stimulates others, coined by Charles Saunders Peirce in tions of Galison and Schweber did widens their horizon, imagination, and the late 19th century. little to expand my understanding of vocabulary” (p. 13). Kant and Goethe, Despite his vast contributions to Einstein. In “The Assassin of Relativ- for example, prodded European cul- physics, Einstein was largely unknown ity,” Galison writes principally about ture into completely new realms of to the public until 1919, when observa- Friedrich Adler, a theorist and contem- thought. The other contributors then tions of the bending of light rays by porary of Einstein’s at Zurich, whose help to flesh out Holton’s vision of the Sun gave stunning confirmation leftist leanings led him to murder the Einstein’s “meaning” for the 20th cen- of his theory of general relativity. He Austrian Prime Minister in 1916. We tury and beyond. subsequently became a cultural hero glimpse their correspondence while Daston writes eloquently about in part because of his wartime pacifism Adler languished in jail awaiting trial, Einstein’s search for a paradise beyond and opposition to German militarism. and watch as a dispute about relativity the merely personal, a longing shared But this fame earned him the undying Continued on page 11

10 Volume XI, No. 1 • Fall 2009 • History of Physics Newsletter New Books of Note “April 2010” Forum Sessions Continued from page 10 By Daniel Kleppner erupts between them. All I learned The Forum on History of Phys- In support of the Laserfest celebra- here about Einstein was his compas- ics has planned four invited sessions tion to mark the 50th anniversary of sion for and loyalty to an old friend, and a contributed session for the the laser, Joseph A. Giordmaine has however guilty of a heinous crime. 2010 “April” meeting in Washington organized a session “The Laser: its Schweber writes about “Einstein and D.C. The meeting is being held in History and Impact on Precision Mea- Nuclear Weapons,” retelling the well- conjunction with the of the American surements,” which is co-sponsored by worn story of his famous August 1939 Association of Physics Teachers annual the Topical Group on Precision Mea- letter to President Roosevelt warn- meeting. surements and Fundamental Constants. ing of the possibility of a uranium James W. Cronin has organized a The session will take place on Tuesday, bomb. But later in the piece, he offers session “Remembering ,” Feb. 16. Giordmaine will present the numerous details I’d previously been to take place on Sunday, Feb. 14. The opening talk, “The Kickoff Years: from unaware of about Einstein’s reactions speakers, all former students of Fermi, Ruby Laser to Nonlinear Optics,” to to Hiroshima and Nagasaki and his and their presentation titles are: T. D. be followed by Federico Capasso, postwar efforts to promote interna- Lee, Columbia University, “Fermi at , “Freedom from tional control of nuclear weapons. Columbia and Reminiscences of Chi- Bandgap Slavery: from Diode Lasers to This volume ends with an article cago Days”; Richard L. Garwin, IBM T. Quantum Cascade Lasers,” and John L. by Harvard string theorist and author J. Watson Research Center, “Working Hall, JILA, “The Whirlwind from the Lisa Randall on “Energy in Einstein’s with Fermi at Chicago and Los Ala- Speed of Light and the Meter on to the Universe” focusing naturally enough mos”; and Jerome I. Friedman, M.I.T., Optical Comb.” on E=mc2 and dark energy. That space “A Student’s View of Fermi”. The ses- Finally, a session entitled “Secrecy itself, even without any particles or sion is co-sponsored by the AAPT. and Physics” has been organized by radiation present, contains energy is Another session co-sponsored by Peter Galison and Charles Holbrow. the most astonishing scientific rev- AAPT has been organized by Ron- This session is co-sponsored by AAPT elation of recent decades. And the fact ald E. Mickens. Entitled “Origins of and the Forum on Physics and Society. that this dark energy dominates the Research and Teaching at Selected It will be held on Saturday, Feb. 13. mass-energy density of the Universe, Physics Departments,” the speakers Speakers and titles are Steven After- accelerating its rate of expansion, is and titles are: Hans C. von Baeyer, good, Federation of American Scien- equally amazing. But as measurements College of William and Mary, “His- tists, “Secrecy and Physicists: Intersec- of dark energy improve, it increasingly tory of the William and Mary Physics tions of Science and National Security”; appears that Uncle Albert got there Department from 1757 to 2009”; War- William Happer, Princeton University, first—and got it correct, although for ren Eugene Collins; Fisk University, “How Much Secrecy?” and Peter Gali- the wrong reason—by postulating the “Physics Research and Education at son, Harvard University, “Physics and cosmological constant. What has been Fisk University”; and Jerry P. Gollub, Modern Secrecy.” In conjunction with called his “biggest blunder” is doing Haverford College, “Research and this session, screenings of a new docu- an awfully good job recently of fitting Education in Physics and Astronomy mentary, “Secrecy”, will be shown at the growing data on dark energy. As at Haverford College.” The session is both the APS and AAPT meetings. n Randall observes, Einstein’s blunder scheduled for Monday, Feb. 16. was not in adding the cosmological constant to his equations of general Silicon Valley relativity, but in assuming that the Continued from page 9 Universe was static as his reason for doing so. for Texas Instruments. The following Because Shockley had licensed rights In summary, Einstein for the 21st year Tanenbaum and his technician to the transistor patents from AT&T, he Century is an excellent account, written made the first diffused-base transistor wound up getting a lot of handholding from diverse perspectives, of the many in silicon. through his personal contacts at Bell and varied influences that Einstein When Shockley learned about the Labs. But two years later eight of the has had upon modernity and the way diffused-base silicon transistor, he original hires, including Gordon Moore we have come to grasp our world. I almost immediately recognized its and , resigned together to heartily recommend it for readers who commercial potential. In 1955, with the start Fairchild Semiconductor in 1957. want to understand his impact in this backing of Arnold Beckman (founder That event, observed Riordan, “marked broader sense. of Beckman Instruments), Shockley the birth of Silicon Valley, both tech- Semiconductor Laboratory opened nologically and culturally.” In 1961 Associate Editor Michael Riordan for business in Mountain View, Cali- the company marketed the first com- teaches the history of physics and technol- fornia. Shockley hired a promising mercial silicon integrated circuits, the ogy at Stanford University and the Uni- team of engineers and scientists to Micrologic series. “Seven years later versity of California, Santa Cruz. n develop and manufacture transistors Noyce and Moore left to form Intel,” and related semiconductor devices. he said, “and the rest is history.” n

Volume XI, No. 1 • Fall 2009 • History of Physics Newsletter 11 Forum on History of Physics American Physical Society One Physics Ellipse College Park, MD 20740

OFFICERS & COMMITTEES 2009–2010

Chair: Gloria B. Lubkin Chair-Elect: Daniel Kleppner Vice Chair: Martin Blume Secretary-Treasurer: Thomas M. Miller

Forum Councilor Roger H. Stuewer

Other Executive Committee Members Robert G. Arns, Paul Cadden-Zimansky, Cathryn L. Carson, David C. Cassidy, C.W. Francis Everitt, Gordon L. Kane, George O. Zimmerman, Gregory Good (non-voting), Dwight E. Neuenschwander (non-voting)

Program Committee Chair: Daniel Kleppner Vice Chair: Martin Blume William Blanpied, C.W. Francis Everitt, Charles Holbrow, George O. Zimmerman, Gloria B. Lubkin (ex officio), Thomas M. Miller (ex officio)

Nominating Committee Chair: David C. Cassidy Robert G. Arns, Allan Franklin, Paul Halpern, Gordon L. Kane, Catherine Westfall

Fellowship Committee Chair: Martin Blume William E. Evenson, Elizabeth Garber, Paul Halpern, Lillian Hoddeson

Editorial Board/Publications Committee Chair: Michael Riordan Ben Bederson, William E. Evenson, Dwight E. Neuenschwander

Pais Prize Selection Committee Chair: Laurie M. Brown Stephen Brush, Robert Crease, Elizabeth Garber, Gregory Good

Forum Webmaster George O. Zimmerman